IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-S) 


y 


1.0 


1.1 


125 


IIS 
lis 


14.0 


2.0 


11.25  H  1.4 


11.6 


■♦ 


PhotDgraphic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WeST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  KS80 

(71«)  872-4503 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  institut*  for  Historical  IMicroraproductions  /  Institut  canaoian  da  microraproductions  hiatorlquas 


Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notos/Notaa  taehniquaa  at  bibliographiquaa 


Tha  Inatituta  haa  attamptad  to  obtain  tha  boat 
original  copy  avaliabla  for  filming.  Paaturaa  of  thia 
copy  which  may  ba  Mbllographicaliy  uniqua. 
which  may  altar  any  of  tha  imagaa  in  tha 
raproduction.  or  which  may  aignifieantly  changa 
tha  uaual  mathod  of  filming,  ara  chackad  balow. 


□   Cdourad  covara/ 
Couvartura  da  coulaur 


D 
D 
D 

n 

D 
D 
D 
(3 


D 


Covara  damagad/ 
Couvartura  andommagAa 

Covara  raatorad  and/or  laminatad/ 
Couvartura  raataurAa  at/ou  pallicul^ 

Covar  titia  miaaing/ 

La  titra  d^  couvartura  manqua 

Colourad  mapa/ 

Cartaa  gAographiquaa  an  coulaur 

Colourad  ink  (i.a.  othar  than  blua  or  black)/ 
Encra  da  coulaur  (i.a.  autra  qua  blaua  ou  noira) 

Colourad  plataa  and/or  illuatrationa/ 
Planchaa  at/ou  illuatrationa  an  coukiur 

Bound  witiri  9thar  matarial/ 
RalM  avac  d'autraa  documanta 

Tight  binding  may  cauaa  ahadowa  or  diatortion 
along  intarior  margin/ 

Larcliura  aarria  paut  cauaar  da  I'ombra  ou  da  la 
diatoraion  la  long  da  la  marga  intiriaura 

Blank  laavaa  addad  during  raatoration  may 
appaar  within  tha  taxt.  Whanavar  poaaibla.  thaaa 
hava  baan  omittad  from  filming/ 
II  aa  paut  qua  cartainaa  pagaa  Manchaa  ajoutiaa 
iora  d'una  raatauration  apparaiaaant  dana  la  taxta. 
maia,  loraqua  cala  Atait  poaaibla,  caa  pagaa  n'ont 
paa  *t4  filmAaa. 


L'Inatltut  a  microfilm*  la  maillaur  axamplaira 
qu'il  lui  a  it*  poaaibla  da  aa  procurer.  Laa  d*taii« 
da  cat  axamplaira  qui  sont  paut-*tra  uniquaj  du 
point  da  vua  bibliographiqua,  qui  pauvant  modif  iar 
una  imaga  raproduita,  ou  qui  pauvant  axigar  una 
modification  dana  la  m4thoda  normala  da  filmaca 
aont  indiquia  ci-daaaoua. 


D 


m 


D 
D 

D 


Colourad  pagaa/ 
Pagaa  da  coulaur 


r~1   Pagaa  dumagad/ 


r~~|   Pagaa  raatorad  and/or  laminatad/ 


Pagafc  andommagAaa 

Pagaa  raatorad  and/oi 

Pagaa  raatauriat  at/ou  paliiculiaa 

Pagaa  diacolourad.  atainad  or  foxad/ 
Pagaa  d*color*aa,  tachattes  ou  piqu*aa 

Pagaa  datachad/ 
Pagaa  ditachiaa 

Showthroughy 
Tranaparanca 


rn   Pagaa  datachad/ 
fyl   Showthrough/ 


/ 1   Quality  of  print  variaa/ 
"^  I   Qualit*  inAgaia  da  I'impraaaion 


Inciudaa  auppiamantary  matarial/ 
Comprand  du  matiriai  aupplimantaira 

Only  adition  availabia/ 
Saula  Mition  diaponibia 

Pagaa  wholly  or  partially  obacurad  by  errata 
aiipa,  tiaauaa,  etc..  hava  been  refilmed  to 
enaure  tha  beat  poaaibla  image/ 
Lea  pagaa  totalement  ou  partiellement 
obacurciea  par  un  fauillet  d'errata.  una  pelure. 
etc.,  ont  *t*  film*aa  *  nouveau  da  fapon  A 
obtanir  la  mailleure  imaga  poaaibla. 


Th< 
tol 


Thi 
poi 
ofi 
filn 


Ori{ 
bai 
the 
aioi 
oth 
fira 
aioi 
or! 


Thi 
aha 
TIW 
wh 

Ma 
difl 
ant 
bee 
rigl 
req 
me 


0 


Additional  commanta:/ 
Commantairea  suppl*mantairaa: 


Wrinkled  pages  may  film  slightly  out  of  focus. 


Thia  item  is  filmed  at  tha  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ce  document  eat  film*  au  taux  da  rdduction  indiqu*  ci-deaaoua. 


1QX 

i4y 

mv 

22X                                  2BX                                 aOX 

*»—  ■- 

1 

y 

12X 

lex 

20X 

24X 

28X 

32X 

Th«  copy  filmed  h«r«  hat  b««n  raproducad  thanks 
to  tha  ganaroaity  of: 

Ralph  Pidurd  Ml  Library 
Moant  AiiiMn  Univaraity 


L'axampiaira  f  ilmA  f  ut  raproduit  grica  i  la 
g4nAroait*  da: 

Ralph  Pidurd  Ml  Library 
Mount  AiiiMn  Univtnity 


Tha  imagaa  appearing  hara  ara  tha  baat  quality 
poasibia  conaidaring  tha  condition  and  lagibility 
of  tha  original  copy  and  in  icaaping  with  tha 
filming  contract  apacificatlona. 


Laa  Imagaa  auivantaa  ont  4t*  raproduitaa  avac  la 
plua  grand  aoin,  compta  tanu  da  la  condition  at 
da  la  nattat*  da  l'axampiaira  f  limA,  at  an 
conformity  avac  laa  conditiona  du  contrat  da 
filmaga. 


Original  copiaa  in  printad  papar  covara  ara  filmad 
baginning  with  tha  front  covar  and  anding  on 
tha  laat  paga  with  a  printad  or  iiiuatratad  impraa- 
aion,  or  tha  back  covar  whan  appropriata.  Ail 
othar  original  copiaa  ara  filmad  baginning  on  tha 
first  paga  wKh  a  printad  or  iiiuatratad  impraa- 
aion,  and  anding  on  tha  laat  paga  with  a  printad 
or  iiiuatratad  impraaaion. 


Tha  last  racordad  frama  on  aach  microficha 
ahaii  contain  tha  symbol  —^^t  moaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  tha  aymboi  ▼  (moaning  "END"), 
whichavar  appiiaa. 

IMaps,  piatas,  charts,  ate  may  ba  filmad  at 
diffarant  reduction  ratios.  Thosa  too  iarga  to  ba 
antiraiy  included  in  ona  axpoaura  ara  filmed 
beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  aa  many  framea  aa 
required.  The  following  diagrama  illustrate  the 
method: 


Lee  exemplalrea  origlnaux  dont  la  couvarture  en 
papier  eat  ImprimAa  aont  film^a  an  comman^ent 
par  le  premier  plat  at  en  termlnant  aoit  par  la 
darnlAre  paga  qui  comporta  une  emprelnte 
d'impreaaion  ou  d'iiluatration,  aoit  par  la  second 
plat,  aelon  ie  caa.  Toua  lea  autrea  axemplairaa 
origlnaux  aont  fllmto  en  commenpant  par  la 
pramlAre  paga  qui  comporte  une  emprelnte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration  at  an  termlnant  par 
la  darnidre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
emprelnte. 

Un  dea  symboiaa  suivants  apparattra  aur  la 
darnlAre  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  aelon  le 
caa:  le  symbols  —►  signifie  "A  SUIVRE",  le 
symbols  ▼  signifie  "FIN". 

Les  cartas,  pianchea,  tableaux,  etc.,  peuvent  Atre 
filmte  A  dea  tau.x  de  rMuction  diffArents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  Atre 
reproduit  en  un  aeul  clichA,  il  eat  film*  A  partir 
de  I'angie  aupAriaur  gauche,  de  geuche  h  droite, 
et  de  haut  an  baa,  an  prenant  ie  nombre 
d'images  nAcessaire.  Les  diagrammea  auivanta 
iiluatrant  la  mAthoda. 


1 

2 

3 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

•T"  ■  ■    ■  7''."--Tv 


:« 


-> 


0 


THE 


ENCYCLOPiEDIA 


#, 


GEOGRAPHY: 

COMPRISINQ   A 

^    COMPLETE   DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  EARTH, 

^i'  PHYSICAL,  STATISTICAL,  CIVIL,  AND  POLITICAL; 

EXHIBITING   ITS  RELATION    TO   THE   HEAVENLY   BODIES, 

ITS   PHYSICAL   STRUCTURE,  | 

to  *'  THE    NATURAL   HISTORY   OF   EAOH   COUNTRY, 

^  AND   THE   INDUSTRY,   COMMERCE,   POLITICAL   INSTITUTIONS, 

AND   CIVIL   AND   SOCIAL   STATE 
Of 

ALL  NATIONS. 


BY  HUGH  MURRAY,  F.R.S.E. 


ASSISTED  IN 


ASTRONOMY,  &c.  BY  PROF.  V^ALLACE.  I  BOTANY,  &c.  BY  PROFESSOR  HOOKER 
GEOLOGY.    &c    BY    PROF.    JAMESON,  I  ZOOLOGY,  &c.  BY  W.  SVVJ»  NSON.  ESQ 


ILLUSTRATED  BY  EIGHTY-TWO  MAPS, 
AND  ABOUT   ELEVEN  HUNDRED  OTHER   ENGRAVINGS  ON  WOOD 

REPRESENTING  THE  MOST  REMARKABLE  OBJECTS  OF  NATURE  AND  ART 
IN  EVERY  REGION  OF  THE  GLOBE, 

TOOKTHER  WITH  A 

NEW  MAP  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


REVISED,     WITH     ADDITIONS, 

BY  THOMAS  G.  BRADFORD. 


IN   THREE   VOLUMES. 
VOL.   I. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
BLANC  HARD    AND    LEA. 

18  52. 


V' 


jihiiii;«?<i1fi>'iii>»««iSifei-'.-a"'>»-wa«fr.^.M.«.' 


'fn  iiinniiNffiniiwiiitt 


■ai 


m 


'ij  *■ 


WW' 


Entered  according  to  the  act  of  Congress  in  the  year  eighteen  hundred  and  thirty-six,  by 

UAREf,  LEA,  AND  BLANCHARD, 

In  the  clerk's  office  of  the  district  court  for  the  eastern  district  of  Pennsylvania. 


STEKEOTVrEI)   BY  J.  FAOAN PHILADKLI  HIA. 

PRINTED   BV  C.   SHEllMAN    AtVI)  CO. 


r 


rr 


.-;('i' 


PREFACE  TO  THE  ENGUSH  EDITION.  >  ^ 


•Airi.>-.i 


The  value  and  importance  of  the  study  of  Geography  are  so  obvious,  and  indeed 
so  universally  aclcnowledged,  as  to  require  little  illustration.  Nothing  can  be  more 
mteresting  to  man,  or  more  gratify  his  thirst  for  knowledge,  than  a  survey  of  the 
earth  which  he  inhabits,  peopled  as  it  is  by  beings  of  the  same  nature  with  himself. 
To  visit  and  observe  foreign  climes  and  regions  is  an  object  of  general  desire,  and 
forms  one  of  the  most  effectual  means  of  enlarging  and  enlightening  the  human 
mind.  This  wish,  however,  unless  in  the  case  of  a  few  individuals,  can  be  gratified 
only  to  a  very  limited  extent,  and  in  none  can  embrace  more  than  a  small  portion 
of  the  vast  variety  of  interesting  objects  which  the  earth  comprises.  This  necessary 
defect  of  personal  observation  may,  however,  be  in  a  great  measure  supplied,  by 
collecting  the  reports  and  narratives  of  those  intelligent  individuals  who  have 
explored  and  described  its  various  regions,  and  forming  out  of  these  a  genera] 
description  of  the  world  and  its  inhabitants. 

Works  of  this  class  have  always  possessed  a  peculiar  attraction.  Even  in  ancient 
times,  when  the  extent  of  the  known  world,  and  the  information  with  respect  to 
tne  inhabitants  and  productions  of  its  remoter  regions,  were  comparatively  limited, 
the  geographical  descriptions  of  Herodotus,.  Strabo,  Pomponius  Mela,  and  Pliny, 
rank  among  the  most  valuable  productions'  of  the  classic  ages.  But  in  modern 
times,  and  particularly  in  the  present  age.  Geography  has  acquired  a  much  more 
prominent  place  among  the  departments  of  human  knowledge.  The  discovery  of 
America  in  the  lifleenth  century  awakened  a  spirit  of  enterprise,  and  a  desire  to 
explore  unknown  regions,  that  have  continued  to  gain  new  strength.  During  the 
last  half  century  more  especially,  the  most  civilised  nations  of  Europe  have  been 
contending  with  each  other  for  the  glory  of  discovery ;  and  there  is  now  scarcely  a 
shore  however  remote,  or  the  interior  of  a  continent  however  barbarous  or  difficult 
of  access,  which  has  not  been  surveyed  and  described.  Materials  have  thus  been 
provided  for  a  much  more  complete,  interesting,  and  authentic  description  of  the 
earth,  than  could  have  been  drawn  up  at  any  former  period. 

The  extensive  discoveries  thus  recently  made  have  thrown  a  wonderful  light  on 
the  structure  and  productions  of  the  earth,  and  afforded  large  contributions  to  all 
the  departments  of  natural  history  They  have  also  displayed  man  in  every  varied 
condition,  from  the  highest  refinement  of  civilised  society,  to  the  rudest  and  most 
abject  condition  of  savage  life.  These  representations  are  not  only  interesting  in 
themselves,  but  throw  light  on  the  history  of  past  ages.  Communities  are  still 
found  exactly  similar  to  some  of  those  described  in  the  earliest  records  of  antiquity. 
The  tent  of  the  Arab  sheik  differs  little  from  that  which  Abraham  pitched  on  the 
plains  of  Mamre ;  many  of  the  Tartar  tribes  are  a  people  exactly  similar  to  those 
who  roamed  in  early  ages  over  the  plains  of  Scythia ;  and  the  splendid  courts  of 
Babylon  and  Persepolis  have  their  representatives  in  the  existing  world.  We  may 
thus,  in  fact,  trace  back  man  to  an  earlier  and  ruder  stage  than  any  represented  in 
the  ancient  records ;  for  these  convey  only  faint  and  fabulous  notions  of  what 
mankind  had  been  at  a  very  early  period.  But  the  wilds  of  America,  and  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific,  exhibit  the  state  of  savage  simplicity,  which  doubtless  existed 
in  Europe  before  the  light  of  authentic  history  had  begun  to  dawn.  Hence  it  is 
that  Geography,  in  its  present  extended  range,  not  only  shows  man  as  he  actually 
exists,  but  delineates,  as  it  were,  the  progressive  history  of  the  species. 

Besides  the  gratification  thus  afforded  to  a  liberal  curiosity,  the  knowledge  of 
even  the  remotest  regions  has,  through  recent  events,  become  an  object  of  the 
utmost  practical  importance.  In  many  of  these,  colonies  have  been  founded, 
political  relations  formed,  and  a  commercial  intercourse  with  them  opened,  by  the 
civilised  nations  of  Europe,  and  particularly  by  Britain.  Regions  the  most  distant 
to  which  a  ship  can  sail  form  integral  portions  of  her  dominion,  and  have  their 
ports  crowded  with  her  vessels.  There  are  thousands  in  this  country  who  have  a 
more  intimate  connection  with  Calcutta  or  Sydney,  than  with  towns  in  their 
immediate  vicinity.  The  manufacturer  labours  ^o  supply  the  rharkets  of  countries, 
the  very  existence  of  which,  fifty  years  ago,  was  nknown ;  the  circumnavigation 
of  the  globe  is  now  an  ordinary  trading  voyage.  The  knowledge  of  Geography 
has  thus  become  a  necessary  qualification  for  the  pursuits  of  commerce  and  indus- 
try, and  for  much  of  the  ordinary  and  current  business  of  life.  A  great  proportion 
of  the  youth  of  Britain  are  trained  for  employments  in  countries  which  lie  fiur 
bejond  the  limits  of  Europa 

3 


IV 


PRRPACE    TO    THE    RNGLIBH    EDITION. 


The  same  causes  have,  moreover,  plven  to  the  knowledge  of  distant  countries  a 
peculiar  hold  on  the  domestic  and  social  affections.  There  are  few  nmon^^st  us 
who  have  not  a  near  relation,  perhaps  a  brotiier  or  a  child,  residiufr  in  anntlier 
nemispnere.  Oceans  now  separate  us  from  those  to  whom  wo  are  iiniti'd  hy  the 
tenderest  ties ;  the  objects  of  our  affection  have  their  abode  on  tlio  i)aiil{s  of  the 
Ganges,  or  the  shores  of  the  Pacific;  and  many,  whoae  hearts  are  l<iiit  in  the  closest 
friendship,  are  divided  from  each  other  by  half  the  earth.  In  tlis  situation,  a 
description  of  the  place  in  which  our  friend  or  relative  dwells,  the  dlijects  which 
meet  his  eye,  the  society  in  which  he  mingles,  must  afford  peculiar  gratification, 
and  sootlie  the  mind  under  this  painful  separation. 

Deeply  impressed  with  a  sense  of  the  great  extent  and  difficult  execution  of  a 
complete  geographical  work,  the  Editor,  during  nearly  ten  years  in  which  he  haa 
been  engaged  upon  it,  has  used  the  utmost  exertion  to  procure  from  every  quarter 
information  and  aid.  He  has  studiously  collected  the  most  recent,  authentic,  and 
accurate  accounts  of  the  extent,  natural  features,  population,  productions,  industry, 
political  constitution,  literature,  religion,  and  social  state  of  the  various  regions  of 
the  globe,  with  the  leading  details  as  to  their  districts  and  cities.  The  sciences 
connected  with  the  natural  history  of  the  earth  have,  however,  attained  to  such  an 
extent  and  importance,  that  a  thorough  knowledge  of  them  can  only  be  possessed 
by  individuals  who  have  specially  devoted  themselves  to  one  particular  branch. 
The  Editor,  therefore,  considered  it  essential  to  procure  the  co-operation  of  writers 
who  had  risen  to  acknowledged  eminence  in  the  departments  of  Geology  and 
Mineralogy,  Zoology  and  Botany.  He  considered  that  he  had  fully  succeeded, 
when  Professor  Jameson  undertook  to  delineate  the  peological  structure  of  the 
globe,  and  the  distribution  of  minerals  over  its  surfaci-,  ?  Ir.  Swainson  to  explain 
the  distribution  of  animals,  and  the  most  remarkable  of  t.cvse  found  in  each  particu- 
lar region ;  and  Dr.  Hooker  to  perform  the  same  task  in  regard  to  the?  vegetable 
kingdom.  Professor  Wallace  has  illustrated  the  relations  of  the  earth  as  a  planet, 
the  trigonometrical  surveys,  the  construction  of  maps,  and  other  subjects  connected 
with  mathematical  science.  These  tasks  have  been  executed  in  a  manner  which, 
it  is  hoped,  will  fully  support  the  high  reputation  of  their  respective  authors.  In 
preparing  the  sections  relating  to  commerce,  the  editor  derived  much  assistance 
from  Mr.  M'Oulloch's  Dictionary  of  Commerce,  and  he  is  also  indebted  to  that 
gentleman  for  many  valuable  communications.  Various  parts  relating  to  remote 
countries  have  been  revised  by  gentlemen  recently  returned  from  them. 

The  Maps,  which  are  so  numerous  as  to  form  a  complete  Atlas,  have  been 
executed  from  drawings  by  Hall ;  and  having  been  carefully  revised  by  the  Editor, 
they  will,  it  is  hoped,  be  found  to  be  accurate,  and  to  include  all  the  most  recent  dis- 
coveries. Notwithstanding  the  smallness  of  the  scale,  they  are  illustrated  by  the 
letter-press  in  a  manner  which  enables  them  to  comprise  equal  information  with 
others  of  much  larger  dimensions. 

The  other  Wood  Engravings  are  mostly  original,  or  have  been  carefully  selected 
from  the  most  faithful  representations  of  the  objects  described ;  and  they  are  exe- 
cuted in  the  best  style  by  the  eminent  artists  whose  names  appear  on  the  title-page. 
They  exhibit  the  most  remarkable  plants  and  animals,  the  chief  cities,  public  build- 
ings, natural  curiosities,  and  picturesque  scenery,  with  the  characteristic  figures 
and  costumes  of  the  natives,  in  the  countries  described.  It  is  not  believed  that  any 
work  of  thi.",  kind  i:^  similarly  embellished,  at  least  to  nearly  the  same  extent. 
These  representations  •■-re  by  no  means  introduced  for  the  sake  of  mere  ornament; 
they  will  be  found  of  the  greatest  utility,  conveying  an  infinitely  better  i  lea  of  the 
objects  than  could  be  derived  from  the  most  laboured  description. 

Notwithstanding  all  these  efforts,  it  is  impossible  to  lay  this  volume  before  the 
Public  without  the  painful  reflection,  that,  in  a  subject  Involving  such  nn  Infinite 
number  and  variety  of  details,  many  of  which  are  often  very  difficult  to  procure, 
not  a  few  imperfections  and  even  errors  must  inevitably  occur.  M.  Balbi,  whose 
exertions  to  collect  the  most  recent  geographical  information  are  well  known,  and 
to  whose  labours  the  present  volume  is  much  indebted,  candidly  observes : — "  One 
of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  be  surmounted  in  the  composition  of  an  elementary 
treatise  of  Geography  is  the  want  of  contemporary  documents.  Geography  is 
almost  necessarily  a' compound  of  things  which  are,  with  things  which  have  ceased 
to  be.  How  can  one  be  informed  of  all  the  changes  that  take  place  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years,  even  in  the  capitals  of  Europe,  still  more  in  those  of  Asia,  Africa, 
and  America  1  To  compose  a  Geography  which  should  exhibit  a  complete  picture 
of  the  globe  at  a  particular  period,  it  would  be  necessary  to  have  authentic  docu- 
ments, all  of  the  same  date  and  that  a  recent  one ;  which  never  has  been,  and 
never  can  be." 


1/ 


fore  tlie 
infinite 
rocure, 
wliose 
wn,  and 
'One 
nentary 
phy  Is 
ceased 
course 
Africa, 
picture 
docu- 
!n,  and 


ADVERTISEMENT 

TO  TUB 

AMERICAN    EDITION. 


'Ci  n.i 


■.  ■.••  '1 


The  object  and  plan  of  the  E^NCYCLOPiEDiA  op  Geography  have 
been  very  fully  set  forth  in  the  Preface  to  the  English  Edition,  and 
the  names  of  the  editor  and  his  collaborators  are  sufficient  vouch- 
ers for  its  value.  It  is  due,  however,  to  the  American  reader,  to 
inform  him  in  what  respects  these  volumes  differ  from  the  original. 
The  whole  of  the  English  work  is  here  given,  with  the  single  ex- 
ception, that  the  description  of  Great  Britain,  which  occupied 
more  than  one-third  of  the  Book  devoted  to  Europe,  and  con- 
siderably more  than  the  space  given  to  the  whole  of  America,  has 
been  somewhat  abridged ;  but,  it  is  believed,  without  the  omission 
of  any  thing  of  importance.  The  text  has  been  carefully  revised 
and  corrected  throughout,  and  in  most  cases  more  recent  statis- 
tical details  have  been  substituted  for  those  of  the  original.  The 
additions  to  the  first  volumes  are  not  considerable  in  amount,  but 
are  generally  such  as  have  been  required  by  ci:a;i.ges  in  our  know- 
ledge (y  in  the  condition  of  things.  The  Book  relating  to  America 
has  been  enlarged  as  far  as  the  limits  of  the  work  would  allow, 
principally  by  the  addition  of  local  details ;  the  condition  of  the 
new  American  states  is  too  unsettled  to  render  it  worth  while  to 
fill  much  space  with  accounts  of  their  political  relations,  which 
might  be  entirely  changed  before  these  pages  met  the  eye  of  the 
reader.  The  Chapter  which  treats  of  the  United  States  has  been 
written  anew,  the  original  being  extremely  imperfect  and  incorrect, 
as  all  European  treatises  on  the  subject  are. — Our  growth  is  so 
rapid,  the  increase  of  our  population,  wealth,  commerce,  manufac- 
tures, and  other  industrial  resources,  so  amazing,  the  creation  of 

new  towns,  cities,  nay,  states,  is  continually  making  such  a  change 

1*  5 


Tl  ADTBRTMEMENT  TO  THE  AMERICAN  EDITION. 

hi  the  face  of  things,  public  works  are  conceived,  planned,  and 

executed  on  so  great  a  scale  dnd  with  such  promptitude,  that  it  is 

not  at  all  surprising  that  a  distant  writer  should  be  entirely  baffled 

in  his  attempts  to  describe  the  country  as  it  is.    The  Zoological 

section  has  alone  been  retained,  but  it  has  been  much  enlarged, 

chiefly  from  a  later  work  of  Mr.  Swainsou's ;  and  some  general 

remarks  upon  the  shells  of  the  United  States  have  been  add/ed. 

For  the  account  of  the  Geology  of  our  country,  the  reader  is 

indebted  to  Prof.  Rogers,  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.    The 

Botanical  section  has  also  been  prepared  by  a  gentleman  of  high 

reputation  in  the  scientific  world.    The  Editor  is  painfully  sensible 

of  the  imperfection  of  the  other  parts  of  this  Chapter,  but  he  trusts 

that  the  difficulties  of  the  subject  will  obtain  for  him  the  indulgence 

of  the  reader. 

Philadblfhia,  October  1«(,  1886.  -    .    ' 


V    ^>m*' 


%• 


'.■lUV..  !'!#> 


u.. 


'\   MJ-» 


•   CONTENTS  OF  VOL.  I.  " 


/^l,fA  ■,'  t  inaiuttiagO 


M 


•lEFACB  TO  THE  ENQUBH  EDITIOV IM         ^  •  .w*!u<i 

fRErACB  OY  THE  AMERICAN  GUiruR v 

INTRODUCTION •        ■<■  .^Aviiw'4 


1 


PART   I. 
HISTORY  or  GBoaRArmr. 


•Art  'II 


BOOK  I. 

ANOIBNT  QKOaRArUV 

CHAP.  I. 

a«b"-iv  Biid  ?^«^nlclan  Qeograpiiy Page  10 

..  Pa''..irrh«'  Agoi 10 

P.  Kiii(r<l^roPf  I«r»el 11 

■,    III.  Ciimmerce  of  Tyre 11 

!V.  Till!  World  according  to  tha  Hebrew! 19 

1.  Tnrehlih W 

8.  Oiihir..: 14 

,     3.  Till!  Islet W 

4.  Sliclm  and  Deilan 18 

5.  <;iiiiiilri«i  nil  thi!  Riiphratei 17 

0.  Ung,  Magog,  and  tlia  North 17 

CHAP.  U. 
Ancinnt  Vnyageiof  DiMovory 18 

I.  Circuniiiavicaiion  of  Africa  under  Necho 18 

II.  V>iyui;e  of  Biitanpci 10 

III.  ViiynKe  of  Hunno 10 

IV.  Vovaiie  nf  Eiidoxui 33 

V.  VnyuBe  of  Pytheaa 83 

VI.  VrivoKe  of  Nearcliui S4 

VII.  Pvriplui  of  the  Erythrean  Sea 37 

CHAP.  III. 
Orenk  Genfjraphy  before  Alexander • 90 

I.  Cli-oirrnpliy  of  Homer 30 

II.  fni'ticiil  Gunftraphy 31 

III.  SclmnI  nf  MilotiiK 33 

IV.  Geography  of  llerodotua 33 

1.  Europe  nf  Hr-rodntus 34 

3.  Axln  of  HoroilotiiB 34 

3.  Africa  of  Herodotua 36 

CHAP.  IV. 

Firut  AInxniidrian  School.   Eratoithenei  and  Strabo  37 

I.  ExpiHlition  of  Alexander 37 

II.  K.vpoililion  of  Beleucua 38 

III.  Krnti wt lisnes 38 

IV.  Hi  iipnrchus 30 

V.  Tlii<  Wnrld  accordingtoEratoithenea  and  Sirabo  30 

1.  Europe • 40 

a.  .A"io 43 

3.  Africa 43 


CHAP.  V. 


Roinn  II  Geography 

I.  Mela 

II.  Pliuy 

III.  Iiiiieruriea—Peutingerian  Table  < 


.43 
.  4S 

.48 
40 


CHAP.  VI. 
Second  Alexandrian  School SI 

I.  MariniiB  of  Tvre 51 

II.  I'tnlemy S3 

1.  Europe 53 

3.  AKin SO 

3.  Africa SO 


BOOK  II. 


oiooiiAPHT  or  TBI  MioDUi  lam 


CHAP.  I. 


Arabian  OAography 

I.  General  Dyitom 

II.  Alia 

III.  Aflrlca 


.01 

.a 


CHAP.  II. 

European  Geography  during  th«  Dark  Agea a 

CHAP.  III. 
Geographical  Knowledge  derived  fVoin  the  OruaadM.  IM 


CHAP.  IV. 


Tartar  Geography. 

CHAP.  V. 
Venetian  Geography 0| 


BOOK  III. 

MODXIIN  OKOOltAraT. 
CHAP.  I. 

DiMovcry  of  America  and  the  Eait  IndiM 00 

CHAP.  11. 
Early  Byitem  of  Modern  Geography 10 

CHAP.  III. 
Modern  Aitronomical  Geography 71 

CHAP.  IV. 
Modern  Critical  Geography 19 

CHAP.  V. 
Modern  Deacrlptlve  and  Statiitical  Geography 73 

CHAP.  VI. 
Modern  Geography  of  Aria 74 

CHAP.  VIL 
Modern  Geography  of  AfVica f  I 

CHAP.  VIII. 
Modern  Geography  of  America 76 

CHAP.  IX. 
Modern  Geography  of  the  Auatral  Seu  and  Uanda.  77 


PART   II. 

PRINCIPLES    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

BOOK   I. 

ABTRONOMICAIi  PRINCIPLES. 


CHAP.  I. 

Qeneral  View  of  the  Phenomena  of  the  Reavena, 
apparent  Motions,  Oxcd  Stara,  Flaneta,  ftc 80 


CHAP.  II.  '     ^ 

The  Heaveni,  as  seen  through  the  Teleaeop« SI 

CHAP.  III. 
A><pro*!t!ss!!cn  to  the  Figurs  aniS  Migniiuds  of  iha 
Earth S3 


<riii 


CHAP.  I> 

fhwtrlna  of  ih«  Bpher* < 

CHAP.  V. 

Rtiutlon  n(  th«  Hull,  Moon,  and  Planoli  on  Ihalr 

Ate*  "tliuir  Plfura 88 

CHAP.  VI. 
ntitaiicd  and  Mafnlludo  of  tlia  Heavenly  Dodlta.  •    87 

CHAP.  VII. 

Eolation  of  the  Earth 80 

CHAP.   VIII. 
Apparent  Annual  Motion  of  tho  Bun.    Vlrlialluda 
ofBaaMinii 00 

OHAP.  IX. 

INvliion  and  Meaiure  of  Time 04 

CHAP.  X. 

Proper  Motion  of  the  Mocki.    Her  Phaiei.    Eellpaci 
or  the  Bun  iiml  Moon 07 

CHAP.  XI. 

Motion  of  thu  Planeti  round  the  Sun 108 

CHAP.  XII. 
Motion  of  the  Karth  round  Iho  Hun 110 

CHAP.   XIII. 
OrbiU  of  the  PUnnta 113 

CHAP.  XIV. 
Oomati 114 

CHAP.  XV. 

Lair  of  Unlvoriol  Gravitation 110 

CHAP.  XVI. 

Flirure  and  Constitution  of  the  Earth  deduced  IVoni 
the  Theory  of  Qrbvltailon 134 


OONTENTB^ 
..   04 


CHAP.  XVII. 

TiMTIdat M 

CHAP.  XVIII. 
Ganaral  View  of  the  Bolar  Byitvn M 

CHAP.  XIX. 
Figure  and  Mafnltudoof  the  Earth 131 

CHAP.  XX. 
Oelvrmlnatlon  of  Latitude  and  Lonfltuda. . . .  •         1<T 

CHAP.  XXL 
Rapreaantatlon  of  tho  Earth  -~.  ■ Iti 


BOOK  II. 

OKOLOaiCAL  TKINCITLXM. 
CHAP.  1. 

Meteoroloijr 168 

CHAP.  IL 

Hydrology lu 

CHAP.  IIL 

Geognoay , Mr 


DOOK  III. 

OCNKRAI.     PRINCIPLKS    OF    OEOOIIAPIIV    UNDKR    ITt 

RELATION  TO  OnOANISKD  AND  MVINO  BEINOS. 

CHAP.  I. 

Gcoarnphyronildnreil  in  riilation  to  the  Dlitrlbutton 
of  Plaiiti 33r 

CHAP.  II. 
Qeosraphy  con* Idered  In  relation  to  the  Dlitrlbutton 

of  Man  and  Animnia 354 

CHAP.  in. 
Geography  eoniiderod  in  relation  to  Man  In  Society  97«- 


PART  III. 

OEOORAPHY  CONSIDERED  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  VARIOUS  REGIONS  OF  THE  GLOBE. 


BOOK  I.— EUROPE. 

CHAP.  L 

GiNaiiAL  Srnv«v  or  Europb S80 

I.  Naturol  Fodturei 3<10 

II.  Iiihaliitnutu SOI 

IIL  Botany 304 

IV.  Zoolnpy 308 

V.  Languagci 306 

CHAP.  IL 
Enoland 313 

I.  Geoitraphir.iil  Outline 317 

II.  Natural  r}i'ni;rapliy 3111 

III.  Iliatoriciil  (>uni!raphy 341 

IV.  Politinil  tli'OKrnphy 343 

V.  Prniluctive  Iiiduatry 351 

VI.  Civil  1.11,1  Socinl  State 3.'{7 

VII.  LornI  OcM);,rnphy      'Mi-i 

1.  Southurn  Countiei     3tVt 

3.  EaHturn  Cniintiog MS 

3.  Ceiilral  Countiea 371 

4.  Northt'rn  Counties       3^3 

3.  Weatcrn  Countie 301 

n.  Walea    306 

CHAP.  III. 
lk0T|.A1«D 401 

I.  (xiogrnphirnl  Outline ••••.  401 

II.  Natural  Ocosr.tphy 403 

III.  Ilintorii-al  i^urviiy 408 

IV.  Political  Conatitution 409 

V.  Productive  Iinluatry 410 

VI.  Civil  anil  Social  State 413 

VII.  Locjil  Gniitfrnpliy 415 

1.  Tho  liOH'Innd  Counties 415 

5.  The  Hiclilnnd  Counties 433 

3.  The  Scottish  lalands 438 

CHAP.  IV. 
IttiLAltP 433 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aspect 4;^i 

II.  NnttirnI  Geocraiihy 433 

III.  Historical  Geography : . .  440 

IV.  Political  Conatitution 441 

V.  Productive  Industry 443 

VI.  Civil  and  Social  State 440 


VIL 


4S0 


Local  Geography 

CHAP.  V. 

DkN.V  ARK 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aspect 
IT.  Nntnriil  Oeocraphy 

III.  Historical  OeoRraptiy 

IV.  Productive  Industry 

V.  Political  Geoffrophv 472 

VI.  Civil  and  Social  State •  473 

VM    J.(i/n!  rv..,..iv!- 47:t 


4fi3 
i4ti5 
471 
471 
471 


CHAP.  VL 

Sweden  and  Norway 47S 

I.  General  Oiillinu  and  Aspect 470 

II.  Natural  Geoitrapliy 476 

III.  IIi8toricMKiiK>(!raphy 4^1 

IV.  Piiliticnl  Geii^jrapliy 481 

V.  Productive  Industry 489 

VI.  Civil  anil  Social  State 484 

VII.  Local  Geography ^..480 

1.  Sweden 486 

3.  Norway 401 

3.  Lapland 493 

CHAP.  VIL 

Holland  and  nEr.oitiM 4OS 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aspect 405 

IT.  Natural  GeoKraphy 4O8 

III.  HiHtoriral  Geocraphy 4O8 

IV.  Political  Geoiiruphy 509 

V.  Proiluctive  Industry 303 

VI.  Civil  anil  Social  State 505 

VII.  Local  Geography S08 

1.  neluium 500 

3.  Holland 511 

CHAP.  VIIL 

France 518 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aspect 510 

IT.  Natural  Geography 530 

IIL  Historical  Geography 530 

IV.  Political  Geography 333 

V.  Productivo  Industry s.14 

VI.  Civil  and  Social  State 540 

VIL  Local  Geography 543 

CHAP.  IX. 

Spain 558 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aspect S58 

IT.  Natural  Genernphy 5,50 

III.  Ilistorlcul  Geography 5ii8 

IV.  Political  Geography 570 

V.  Productive  Industrv .571 

VT.  Civil  and  Social  State 573 

VII.  Local  Oeo^rnphv ,'>75 

VIM.  Republic  of  Andorra ...  580 

CHAP.  X. 

Poutiioai, 300 

I.  General  Outline  and  Aspect S!H) 

II.  NntiirnI  Geosmphv SilO 

ITL  Historical  Oeosrriphy 501 

IV.  Political  Geopraphy 501 

V.  Productive  Industry 500 

VI.  Civil  arid  S«cini  State S03 

VII.  I.i.-nl  Of".,,  M,hv son 


M 


ENCYCLOPAEDIA  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Dlttri  button 


Distribution 


.  "*  INTRODUCTION. 

GKOoR\rHY  cnttBiiiU  in  tho  dcocription  and  dolinoation  of  the  I^rth.  It  consideni  thtil 
plaiii't  III  ronpocl  to  ilx  toriii,  ilM  cunncxion  with  otlicr  bodiuH  in  thu  univcnio,  the  vurioui 
purtM  into  which  it  Ih  divided,  thoir  rclutioiiti  to  each  other,  and  the  ohjccta  with  which 
each  in  n'spoctively  tiUed.  (ino|{mpliy  indeed  couhl  not  attempt  a  itcicntiflc  anulysia  of 
all  tlinHc  uliji^cts,  without  Heeititi);  to  Loiiiprehrnd  within  itHelf  a  complete  circle  of  Hcience. 
It  vinwH  only  their  obviouti  and  viniblo  choracters,  and  chiefly  Uioho  features  which  are 
pt''  uliiir  lo  oach  n-Hiwctivo  country  and  region  on  tho  face  of  tlie  globe.  • 

Tho  great  im|)ortaiice  of  tluH  branch  of  knowled(]fo  must  be  sufficiently  obvious  ft 
cmbrncifi  a  vuut  variety  of  thowo  objects  which  are  most  interesting  in  themBclvcs,  and 
witli  which  it  mostconcoms  man  to  be  conversant.  It  enables  the  navigator,  tho  merchant, 
the  military  commuiulor,  to  carry  on  their  respective  operations.  Oeograpiiy  is  moreover 
essential  to  tho  clear  understanding  of  cvi-ry  branch  of  the  history  both  of  man  and  nature. 
'J'ho  transactions  of  tordcring  states  are  unintelligible  without  a  knowledge  of  their  relv 
tivo  cxtnnt  and  position,  and  of  tho  theatre  on  wiiich  tho  great  events  of  their  history  are 
acted.  Every  form,  l)oth  of  animal  and  vegetabio  nature,  is  modified  in  tlio  most  striking 
manner  by  the  climate  or  tlio  country  in  which  it  is  placed.  Still  more  intimst"  is  its  re- 
lation with  geology  and  other  sciences,  which  investigate  the  materials  composing  the 
substance  and  crust  of  the  earth.  None  of  these  branched  of  knowledge  can  be  distinctly 
undersiood,  or  viewed  under  its  proper  relation  and  arrangement,  without  a  previous  know 
lodge  of  gooirmphy. 

ThJH  important  and  extensive  subjact  seems  to  divide  itself  naturally  into  three  parts. 

Tlie  First  Part  treats  of  tho  "History  of  Geography;"  tho  origin  and  progress  of  the 
Science ;  and  the  steps  by  which  man,  who  seemed  fixed  by  nature  in  a  local  and  limited 
position,  has  made  himself  acquainted  with  the  immense  circuit  of  the  globe.  This  Pwrt 
is  divided  into — I.  Ancient  Geography ; — II.  Geography  of  tlie  Middle  Ages ; — III.  Modem 
Geography. 

The  Second  Part  comprises  the  Principles  of  tJie  Science.  These  are — I.  Mathemati- 
cal :  those  wliich  relate  to  the  form  of  tlie  cartli,  its  movements,  its  place  in  the  Solar 
System,  the  great  circles  by  which  it  is  divided,  the  operations  by  which  it  is  surveyed, 
and  the  modes  in  which  its  spherical  outline  can  bo  represented  on  the  plane  surface  of  a 
map.  11.  Physical:  those  which  treat  of  the  substances  which  cover  tho  earth's  suriiKe, 
tlie  elements  which  compose  and  eurround  it ;  rock,  earth,  water,  air,  as  they  appear  under 
the  various  Hums  of  mountain,  plain,  river,  sea,  and  present  all  tho  changing  phenomena 
of  the  atinospliorc.  III.  Geography  may  bo  considered  in  its  relation  to  other  objects  and 
sciences.  1.  To  Z(X)logy,  or  tho  distribution  of  animals  over  the  globe.  2.  To  Botany,  or 
the  dilllision  of  vegetable  productions.  3.  To  tlie  human  race,  and  tlie  various  branches 
into  wiiich  it  Ima  been  formed,  considered  in  relation  to  numbers,  wealth,  political  union, 
social,  intollprtiml,  and  moral  condition. 

The  Third  Part  considers  Geogriii)Iiy  in  detail,  as  it  applies  to  the  various  quarters  and 
countries  into  which  llie  world  is  divided,  the  outline  and  extent  of  each,  its  natural  fea- 
tures, the  revolutions  tinough  which  it  has  passed,  its  political  constitution,  the  industry 
and  Wealth,  the  civil  and  social  condition  of  its  inhabitants.  The  description  of  each 
country  will  conclude  with  a  local  and  topographical  survey  of  its  districts,  cities,  and 
toA'ns. 

This  Part  will  divide  itself  into  fi,-e  general  heads: — I.  Europe,  II.  Asia.  III.  Africa. 
IV.  Aiislrnlia.     V.  America. 

An  Index  will  bo  added,  which,  lieing  extremely  copious,  and  containing  references  to 
all  the  placpi!  mentioned  in  the  work,  will  answer  in  a  great  degree  tlie  purposes  of  a  Geo- 
griipliical  Gazetteer. 

V.u.  I  R 


I 


PART    I.  ^ 

•I 

HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  History  of  Geopfraphy  may  be  divided  into  three  books : — I.  Ancient  Geoffrapliy. 
'  Geography  of  tiie  middle  ages.    III.  Modem  Geography. 


BOOK    I. 

ANCIENT   GEOGRAPHY. 


The  Geograplw  of  the  Ancients  may  be  considered  under  the  heads  of,  I.  Hebrew 
and  Phoenician  Geography ;  the  principal  features  of  which  may  be  found  in  the  Jewish 
Scriptures.  II.  Greek  Geography,  in  its  early  state,  before  the  expedition  of  Alexander. 
HI.  The  first  Alexandrian  school  formed  by  Eratosthenes.  IV.  The  Roman  school,  formed 
chiefly  by  Mela  and  Pliny.    V.  The  second  Alexandrian  school,  formed  by  Ptolemy. 


CHAPTER  I. 


HEBREW  AND  PHCENICIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  Sacred  Records,  in  addition  to  their  higher  claims  on  the  attention  of  mankind, 
possess  the  important  secondary  advantage,  that  they  enable  us  to  trace  human  existence, 
and  the  forms  of  society,  back  to  a  much  earlier  period  than  the  information  derived  from 
any  other  source.  They  were  long  anterior  in  this  respect  to  the  classic  story  of  Greece 
and  Rome ;  the  faintest  light  even  of  whose  fabulous  history  cannot  be  traced  back  to  the 
period  when  Abraham  was  driving  his  flocks  over  the  seats  offuiure  empire  on  the  Euphrates. 
Among  Abraham's  contemporaries  we  discern  the  germ  of  the  great  monarchies  which 
first  changed  the  face  of  human  affairs.  Nimrod,  the  founder  of  Babylon,  almost  like  aii 
Iroquois  chief,  is  mainly  celebrated  for  his  activity  and  success  in  the  chase.  Modern  din- 
covery  has  indeed  made  us  acquainted  with  tribes  existing  in  a  still  ruder  form ;  but  there 
is  no  narrative  in  which  we  can  trace  so  distinctly  the  gradual,  yet  somewhat  rapid,  transi- 
tion made  in  these  favoured  regions,  from  tlie  hunting  and  pastoral,  to  the  commercial  and 
agricultural  states  of  society. 

Sect.  I. — The  Patriarchal  Ages. 

In  the  early  patriarchal  records  we  discover  first  the  rich  Mesopotamian  plain,  not  yet 
covered  with  cities  and  harvests,  but  standing  as  an  open  common,  over  which  the  sons  of 
Terah  drove  unmolested  their  flocks  and  herds.  In  these  favourable  circumstances,  and 
surrounded  by  simple  and  rural  plenty,  the  flocks  and  the  shepherds  multiplied  in  an  extra- 
ordinary manner.  The  heads  of  the  families  became  petty  prmces,  and  were  as  such  at 
once  respected  and  feared.  As  they  went  on  increasing,  the  land  became  "not  able  to 
bear  them ;"  and  the  most  intimate  friends  were  able  to  prevent  dissension  among  their 
adherents  only  by  an  entire  tiioujrb  painful  separation ;  nay,  even  by  striking  into  routes  so 
opposite,  as  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  a  future  union.  This,  however,  was  rather  a 
palliation  than  a  cure  for  the  evil ;  for,  in  whatever  quarter  each  directed  his  course,  ho 
came  into  contact  with  other  families.  The  difficulty  was  still  augmented,  when  all  the 
more  fortile  tracts  began  to  be  cultivated  by  a  fixed  population,  subject  to  regular  govem- 
mciu.  The  first  regions  which  came  under  these  circumstances  appear  to  have  been  Lower 
Egypt  and  Gerar,  on  the  coast  of  Philistia,  along  the  Mediterranean.  In  the  latter  we  find 
Isaac  attempting  to  settle  and  cultivate  the  ground ;  but  tlie  king,  though  evidently  afraid 
to  OiTi^nd  so  potent  a  tribe,  insisted,  in  a  determined  though  courteous  manner,  upon  their 
quittinir  his  territory.  The  family  were  therefore  obliged  finally  to  establish  themselvea 
in  the  vicinity  of  Hebron,  collecting  the  somewhat  scanty  herbage  which  grew  amid  the 
rugged  mountains  to  the  west  of  the  Dead  Sea,  It  was,  therefore,  an  auspicious  change 
when  tliey  were  transported  into  the  Land  of  Goshen,  a  rich'  pastoral  district  of  Egypt. 
The  circumstances  attending  the  captivity  of  Joseph  enable  us  alre9,dy  to  observe  the 
f.ctivity  of  that  interior  caravan-trade,  which  afterwards   on  so  great  a  scale,  traversed 

10 


^ 


i 


a 


Book  I. 


HEBREW  AND  PH(ENICIAN  GEOGRAPHY 


11 


nt  Geogfrapliy. 


jf,  I.  Hebrew 
in  the  Jewish 
of  Alexander, 
school,  formed 
)leniy. 


of  mankind, 
nan  existence, 
derived  from 
Dry  of  Greece 
d  back  to  the 
he  Euphrates, 
rchies  which 
Imost  like  ait 
Modern  diu- 
.  but  there 
rapid,  transi- 
nmercial  and 


ain,  not  yet 

tlie  sons  of 

stances,  and 

in  an  extra- 

as  such  at 

not  able  to 

imong  their 

ito  routes  so 

as  rather  a 

course,  ho 

len  all  the 

liar  govern- 

been  Lower 

;ter  we  find 

ently  afraid 

upon  their 

themselves 

V  amid  the 

Dus  clianffe 

of  Egypt. 

bserve   the 

,  traversed 

10 


Arabia.  Two  caravans,  destined  for  the  supply  of  Ej^ypt,  appear  meeting  /ach  other  in 
opposite  directions;  and  that  cruel  trade,  of  which  men  were  the  object,  is  already  cu-rie«i 
on  in  the  same  remorseless  manner,  and  by  the  same  unjust  means,  by  which  it  hua  ever 
since  been  conducted. 

Sect.  II. — The  Kingdom  of  Israel, 

The  Israelites,  after  being  established  in  Egypt  for  more  than  two  centuries,  were 
led  bucl;  into  the  fomised  land,  so  long  the  seat  of  their  ancestors.  Every  thing  tliere, 
siiico  the  patriarchal  age,  had  assumed  quite  a  different  aspect:  it  presented  walled  cities, 
and  high  cultivation,  accompanied  with  that  gross  superstition  and  dissolute  voluptuousness 
which  are  the  too  common  attendants  of  early  wealth.  The  guilty  'inhabitants  of  Canaan 
with  their  country  were  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  Israelites ;  and  the  territory  being 
divided  among  the  ten  tribes,  gave  occasion  to  a  very  careful  topographical  survey ;  but 
nothing  yet  occurred  to  attract  the  views  of  the  nation  beyond  these  limits,  or  towards  the 
world  in  general.  Still  less  could  this  take  place  during  the  subsequent  period,  when  they 
were  forsaken  of  heaven,  and  reduced  to  servitude  under  the  neighbouring  nations.  It 
was  under  the  favoured  reign  of  David  that  Israel  finally  triumphed  over  all  her  ene- 
mies. That  great  prince  lefl  to  Solomon,  either  as  subject  or  tributary,  a  territory  extend- 
ing from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Mediterranean  and  the  borders  of  Egypt,  forming  the  mosi 
powerful  state  then  in  western  Asia.  Solomon,  by  the  terror  of  his  father's  name,  and  of 
the  powerful  army  transmitted  to  him,  was  enabled  to  preserve  the  whole  of  this  king- 
dom, during  a  long  reign,  in  peaceful  submission.  This  accomplished  prince  devoted  him- 
self to  the  arts  of  peace,  to  the  extension  of  commerce,  to  the  culture  of  science,  and  to 
the  improvement  and  embellishment  of  his  dominions  in  every  direction.  By  tiie  alliance 
witfi  Ilirain,  he  was  enabled  to  accomplish  voyages  more  remote  than  had,  perhaps,  been 
ever  undertaken  under  any  forncr  sovereign.  His  alliance,  and  even  his  society,  were 
courted  by  distant  princes ;  and  Um  observation  of  the  Jews  began  to  extend  over  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  globe. 

T!ie  separation  of  the  kingdoms  after  the  death  of  Solomon,  was  a  fatal  blow  to  the 
greatness  of  the  house  of  Israel.  Their  divided  power  could  no  longer  maintain  numer- 
ous tributaries  in  submission,  nor  was  it  adequate  to  distant  and  extensive  enterprises.  All 
the  states  beyond  the  Jordan  shook  off  the  yoke ;  tlie  attempts  to  navigate  the  Red  Sea 
were  abandoned ;  and  all  distant  regions  in  a  great  measure  lost  sight  of.  Their  view, 
however,  was  enlarged  by  unexpected  and  unwelcome  events  from  another  quarter. 

The  successive  invasions  of  Assyria  and  Babylon,  which  terminated  in  the  downfall  of 
both  the  kingdoms,  forced  upon  the  Israelites  a  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  these  proud 
and  powerful  empires.  At  the  same  time,  the  colossal  grandeur  of  Egypt,  the  only  power 
capable  of  contending  with  thorn,  was  brought  into  prominent  notice.  Ample  materials 
were  thus  afforded  for  those  lofty  and  awful  images,  those  pictures  of  the  shaking  of  the 
world  and  the  downiull  of  nations,  which  abound  in  tlie  writings  of  the  prophets  during 
'  the  rngal  times.  Another  and  nearer  object  attracted  wonder,  and  afforded  the  means  of 
knowledge  respecting  regions  still  more  distant.  This  was  Tyre,  the  earliest  seat  of 
commerce,  ui  whose  markets  were  found  collected  the  tin  of  Britain,  the  gold  of  Africa, 
the  cotton  of  India,  and,  perhaps,  the  silks  of  China.  This  forms  so  grand  a  feature,  and 
tiie  descriptions  of  it  tend  so  much  to  illustrate  early  geography,  that  it  must  claim  some 
separate  notice. 

Sect.  III. — Commerce  of  Tyre. 

Tyre,  which  under  Solomon  was  already  great  and  flourishing,  continued  to  increase 
till,  witli  the  exception  of  one  of  its  own  colonics,  it  became  the  most  splendid  emporium 
of  tlie  ancient  world.  It  appears,  indeed,  truly  wonderful  that,  at  this  early  period  of  arts 
and  Iiistory,  when  Rome  yet  consisted  only  of  a  few  straw-tliatched  cottages,  merchants  in 
Tyre  sliould  vie  witli  the  pomp  of  kings.  So  magnificent  was  the  scene,  that  the  prophet, 
in  antiouncing  the  divine  intention  to  destroy  Tyre,  considers  it  as  implying  a  purpose  "  fo 
stn  in  the  pride  of  all  glory,  and  to  bring  into  contempt  all  the  honourable  of  the  earth." 
(Tsai.  xxiii.  9.)  Perhaps,  however,  commerce  in  its  earlier  efforts  has  a  particular  ten- 
dency to  concentrate  itself  in  one  point,  where  alone  it  finds  protection,  information,  and 
roGfiilar  cliannels ;  while  in  the  advance  of  society  its  streams  begin  to  be  more  widely 
dilfused. 

In  the  interesting  picture  of  Tyriai^  commerce  drawn  by  Ezekiel,  the  foundation  of  the 
intercourse  with  Damascus  and  other  contiguous  districts,  is  stated  to  be  "the  multitude 
of  tlie  wares  of  her  making;"  that  is,  it  consisted  in  the  exchange  of  her  manufactured 
produce  for  the  raw  produce  of  these  rich  agricultural  districts.  There  is  little  specifica- 
tion of  the  Tyrian  mnniifactures,  but  tlie  returns  were  all  made  in  natural  products,  of  the 
first  quality  which  the  soils  of  Judea  and  of  Syria  afforded ;  from  Judea,  the  finest  wheat, 
honey,  oils,  and  balsam ;  from  Syria,  white  wool,  and  the  wine  of  Helbon.  No  situatior 
nuk'  be  more  fortunate  than  that  of  Tyre  for  the  formation  of  a  navy,  with  the  magnifi- 


19 


mSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  I 


f 


cent  forests  of  Ijcbanon,  Senir,  and  Bashan,  rising  immediately  behind.  The  timbers,  it 
appears,  were  constructed  of  hr ;  the  cedar  supplied  masts ;  while  the  oak  was  used  for 
tliose  lonj^  and  powerful  oars,  which  were  then  the  chief  instruments  of  navigation.  The 
vessels  ai)pear  to  have  been  fitted  up  witii  a  luxury  unknown  to  modem  times.  The 
bciiciii's  wore  of  the  finest  cypress  wood,  inlaid  with  ivory;  the  fine  lirten  of  Egypt, 
udorn(»d  even  with  embroidery,  w.ia  spread  out  in  sails.  Tyre,  like  Carthage,  appears  to 
have  adoptod  the  jwlicy  of  employinif  mercenary  troops,  which  she  drew  even  from  the 
iiuiuutiiiiKiiis  districts  of  Persia  and  the  upjrcr  Euphrates.  The  immediate  guard  of  the 
ciiy,  liottcvor,  was  intrusted  to  its  neighbours  of  Arvad  imd  Gammadin,  who,  standing 
•"■HHid  the  walls  in  brilliant  annour,  arc  said  to  have  "made  its  beauty  perfect." 

With  ron-ard  to  the  distn.nt  commerce  of  Tjtc,  the  quarters  to  which  it  was  carried  on 
must  boconiG  the  subject  of  some  discussion,  in  the  course  of  which  we  shall  introduce  the 
inloresting  particulars  given  by  the  prophet. 

Six?i".  IV. — The  World  accordinff  to  the  Hebrews. 

No  system  of  Geography  can  be  tmced  in  the  sacred  writers,  who,  occupied  with  higher 
objects,  do  not  even  allude  to  any  sucii  as  existing  among  the  Hebrews.  The  ideas  of  tliat 
pc'iiph'  with  regard  to  tiie  stnicture  and  boundaries  of  tlie  earth  may,  however,  be  inferred 
from  the  genealogical  chapters  {Gen.  x.,  repeated  1  Chrou.  i.),  which  contain,  in  iiict,  a 
view  of  the  known  divisions  of  the  earth,  agreeing  in  some  striking  particulars  with  the 
records  of  profane  history ;  also  from  the  accounts  of  the  commerce  of  Tyre,  and  from 
various  detached  notices  in  the  historians  and  prophets. 

The  Hebrews  obviously  never  attempted  to  form  any  scientific  theory  respecting  the 
structure  of  the  earth.  The  natural  impression,  wiiich  represents  it  as  a  flat  surface,  with 
the  heaven  as  a  Hrmamcnt  or  curtain  spread  over  it,  is  Ibund  universally  prevalent.  Be- 
neath was  conceived  to  be  a  deep  pit,  the  abotle  of  darkness  and  the  shadow  of  death.  In 
ou(>  place  we  find  the  grand  image  of  tlie  earth  being  hung  upon  nothing;  but,  elsewhere, 
tl!(!  piUiir.s  of  the  earth  are  repeatedly  mentioned ;  and  sometimes  the  pillars  of  heaven. 
In  short,  ii  is  evident,  that  every  writer  caught  the  idea  impressed  on  his  senses  and  im- 
agination by  the  view  of  these  grand  objects,  without  endeavouring  to  arrange  them  into 
any  regular  system.  Althouglj,  however,  the  Jews  never  indulged  in  speculative  geogra- 
phy, yet  there  are  copious  examples  of  njinuto  and  careful  topography  for  practical  pur- 
poses. Our  object,  however,  is  not  to  mark  the  divisions  of  Judea,  but  to  trace  the  ideas 
of  tlie  Jews  respecting  the  extent  and  boundaries  of  the  known  world.  We  shall  at  the 
same  time  be  able  to  collect  all  tliat  is  now  to  be  known  of  the  Phoenician  Geography ;  for 
it  IS  evident  that  Ezekiel  visitotl  Tyre,  as  Herodotus  did  Babylon,  with  the  eye  of  an  in- 
telligent observer;  and  he  would  doubtless  hold  intercourse  with  the  best  informed  men  in 
tli'it  great  school  of  commerce  and  navigation.  The  objects  always  alluded  to,  as  placed 
at  the  fiirthest  limits  of  tlunr  knowledge,  are  Tarshish;  Ophir;  The  Isles;  Shel»  and 
Dt'.lan ;  The  River ;  Gog,  Magog,  and  the  north.   {Fig.  1.) 

SunsECT.  1. — Tarshish. 

Tarsiiisli  is  the  name  whicli,  in  the  annals  of  Jewish  and  Phcenician  navigation,  occurs 
n)iK-t  fre(|U('ntly,  anl  nnilcs  ni'xt  to  Tyre;  yet  nothing  has  been  found  more  difficult  than 
to  tix  tiiat  name  to  any  ])n'cise  place.  The  peculiar  difficulty  is  this;  that  there  are  two 
voyijres  from  Tarshish :  one  uj)  the  Mediterranean,  bringing  iron,  silver,  lead,  and  tin,  the 
pniluce  of  Sjivin  and  Britain  {Ezi'h;  xxvii.  12.);  the  otlier  up  the  Red  Sea,  bringing  gold, 
ivoi-y,  and  iijies,  the  produce  of  tropical  Africa  (1  Kinp[s,  x.  22.).  IIow  these  two  voyages 
ran  be  from  the  same  place,  appears  at  first  sight  to  baffle  research. 

Various  places  have  been  suggested,  among  which  I  should  not  think  it  necessary  to 
mention  Tarsus,  in  Cilicia,  wore  it  not  supported  by  such  names  as  Volney  and  Malte 
Hrun.  Except  the  resemblance  of  name,  it  has  not  a  single  feature  which  can  be  recon- 
ciled to  the  '''arshish  of  Scripture.  Besides,  the  name  Tarsus  is  evidently  of  Greek  origin 
(Sro  Stcph.  Byzant.  in  v.  Sirabo,  1.  14.  Bochart's  Phalcfr.,  and  Wetstein's  Nov.  Test 
vol.  ii.  p.  iill.  and  608.),  whereas  Tarshish  is  manifestly  of  oriental  derivation,  and  is 
do'.ditless  of  Phamician  origin.  Indeed,  Malte  Brun  admits  it  to  be  tenable  only  on  the 
clumsy  and  improbable  supposition  of  there  being  two  places  of  the  name  of  Tarshish. 
T.'irtessus  or  Cadiz  is  certainly  more  plausible,  and  agrees  with  the  Mediterranean  voyage; 
but  the  distance  is  too  groat,  and  notice  miglit  have  been  expected  to  be  taken  of  not  a 
few  intermediate  objects,  particularly  of  the  Strait^  of  Gibralt.'ir.  It  is  altogether  foreign 
to  the  voyage  by  the  Rod  »Soa.  Tliis  last  objection  appears  also  to  holil  against  Carthage, 
which,  in  every  other  respect,  seems  preferable  to  Tartes.sns,  and  of  which  more  will  be 
said  in  the  sequel. 

To  solve  the  problem  of  the  two  voynires,  the  only  attempt,  so  far  as  I  know,  has 
been  in  the  inireiiioiH  hypothesis  of  (losselin:  Tarshish,  according  to  him,  signifies  tht 
great  or  open  sen.  as  ilisti!i;,",!!shed  rvrn  from  the  lartjest  of  its  inclosed  gulfs.  The  name 
may  then  be  applied  equally  to  the  .Atlantic  and  the  Indian  Ocean;  and  the  voyage  to  and 


B-M>K  L 


HEBRKW  AND  PHCENICIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


la 


10  - 


Pig.  1.— UEOuRAPillCAL  SYSTKM  OF  THE  HEBREWS. 

20  30  40  0  80 


f"    .         Hoiiieof 


■^ 
^ 

■^ 


..|f. 


» 


from  Tarshish  may  equally  be  by  the  Red  Sea  or  the  Mediterranean.  But  though  this 
hypotliesis  be  supported  by  the  signification  of  an  old  Hebrew  term,  and  thouo-h  it  polve 
the  great  problem,  I  think  any  one,  who  attentively  traces  the  various  occasions  on  which 
Tarshish  is  mentioned  in  Scripture,  will  be  satisfied  that  it  has  a  sense  quite  different  I'roin 
the  loose  and  vague  one  here  ascribed  to  it.  Let  us  only  read  the  following  verse : — "  But 
Jonah  rose  up  to  flee  into  Tarshish  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  and  went  down  to  Joppa, 
and  ho  found  a  ship  going  to  Tarsiiish ;  so  ho  paid  the  fare  thereof,  and  went  down  into  it, 
to  go  with  them  into  Tarsiiish  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord."  Do  not  these  words  una- 
voidably suggest  a  precise  port,  to  which  there  was  a  regular  packet,  with  a  fixed  rate  of 
fare] — not  a  mere  vague  setting  out  into  the  wide  and  open  sea.  If  the  following  expres- 
sions can  be  reconciled  to  M.  Gosselin'a  hypothesis,  it  is  only  by  very  strained  interpreta- 
tions : — "  The  kings  of  Tarsiiish ; — the  merchants  of  Tarshish ; — puss  ye  over  to  Tarshish ; — 
Tarshish  was  thy  merchant: — with  silver,  &c.  they  traded  in  the  fairs; — silver  hi  plates 
is  brouglit  from  Tarshish,  and  gold  from  Opliir ; — the  daughter  of  Tarshish,"  ifcc.  In  tlie 
genealogical  chapters,  Tarshish  is  introduced  as  one  of  the  sons  of  Javan.  But  the  other 
three  sons,  and  every  other  name  mentioned  in  these  chapters,  arc  the  fatiiers  of  a  country 
and  nation ;  and  it  would  be  quite  singular  if  Tarshish  alone  should  have  had  only  Ihr  sea 
for  his  oifspring.  What  a  strange  idea  to  call  tlie  sea  one  of  the  sons  of  Javan !  Indeed, 
this  is  so  glaringly  improbable,  tiuit  M.  Gosselin  lins  recourse  to  tlie  liypothesis  of  inter- 
polation— a  supposition  very  unlikely  in  regard  to  books  held  so  sacred,  and  in  rosjiect  to 
these  cliapters  among  a  poojile  so  fond  of  genealogy,  and  altogether  a  most  unsound  prin- 
ciple, as  applied  to  the  sacred  volume.  Finally,  I  think  it  very  evident,  from  the  general 
teiiour  of  Hebrew  writers,  that  they  had  no  distinct  notion  of  the  Mediterranean  as  an 
inclosed  sea,  and  of  an  ocean  beyond  it.  The  expression,  "  the  sea,"  used  in  that  vague 
and  wide  sense,  will,  I  apprehend,  be  always  found  to  signify  the  Mediterranean,  the  Red 
Sea  being  designat.e<l  by  that  particular  term.  Thus,  there  appears  to  be  no  motive  for 
adopting  M.  Gosselin's  hypotliesis,  except  tiic  want  of  any  other  by  wliicli  the  problem  of 
the  two  voyages  can  possibly  be  siilved.  But  if  another  can  be  stated,  which  sliall  solve 
that  problem,  and  at  the  snmo  time  make  Tarsiiish  tiie  very  place  it  might  i)e  expected  to 
be,  this  great  question  may,  perhaps,  bo  considered  as  settled  in  a  more  satisfactory  manner 
than  heretofore. 

That  Tarshish  must  be,  fimdamentally,  Carthage,  cannot,  I  think,  admit  of  a  moment's 
doubt.  The  strongest  argument  is,  that  if  it  be  not,  then  tiiat  grand  emporium  of  Medi- 
terranean trade,  the  colony  of  Tyre,  the  place  of  all  others  with  wliich  Tyre  held  always 
tlie  closest  intercourso,  must  never  have  been  named  by  the  prouhets,  who  give  such  copioua 

Vou  12 


u 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  I. 


und  detailed  accounts  of  Tyrian  commerce.  When  Ezekiel  was  enumerating  every  place, 
oven  the  meet  obscure,  with  which  Tyre  held  intercourse,  can  it  be  eupposed  that  this,  thn 
chief  of  all  others,  would  have  been  totally  omitted  ]  But  if  Tarshish  be  Carthage,  then 
(hat  celebrated  city  holds  exactly  the  prominent  place  which,  according  to  everj'  circum- 
stance, it  ought  to  have  held  in  relation  to  Tyre.  This  general  negative  argument  does 
appear  to  me  quite  irresistible.  The  details  are  equally  contbrmable.  Carthage  in  her 
glory  monopolized,  almost  entirely,  the  commerce  of  Spain  and  Britain.  She  even  took 
the  most  violent  measures  to  prevent  any  maritime  power  from  penetrating  to  the  west  of 
Sicily.  There  appears  no  trace  of  the  Tyrians  ever  proceedmg  fiirther.  Tkey  found, 
apparently,  in  Carthage,  a  complete  assortment  of  the  commodities  of  all  the  countries  to 
the  west,  and  on  the  ocean — silver,  iron,  lead,  and  tin,  which  were  thus  naturally  viewed 
by  the  Jews,  and  perhaps  by  the  Tyiians  themselves,  as  Carthaginian  commodities.  With 
regard  to  the  name,  considering  that  both  Tarshish  and  Carthage  are  corruptions  of  the 
original  Pha>nician  term,  they  have  that  rude  resemblance  which  might  be  expected.  The 
connexion  is  rendered  stronger  by  Carchedon,  the  Greek  name  o^  Carthage,  which  tbrms 
a  sort  of  middle  term  between  them. 

The  voyage  from  Tarshish  by  the  Red  Sea,  however,  which  forms  the  grand  difficulty, 
remains  yet  unaccounted  for ;  and  it  can  only,  I  think,  be  solved  in  the  following  manner : 
I  conceive  the  name  of  this  great  African  metropolis  must  have  been  generally  extended 
to  the  whole  of  the  continent  of  Africa.  All  the  namesof  the  continents,  we  may  observe, 
were  originally  derived  from  one  of  their  remarkable  and  frequented  districts.  The  name 
of  Asia  was  extended  by  the  Greeks  from  a  tract  of  that  name  immediately  opposite  to 
their  shore,  including  Troas,  Ionia,  and  some  other  of  the  more  eastern  districts  of  Asia 
Minor.  With  the  Romans,  Africa  derived  its  name  from  the  very  district  now  in  question, 
called  always  Africa  Propria,  being  the  finest  on  that  coast,  and  including  Carthage.  It 
appears,  then,  quite  natural  that  a  place  so  very  prominent,  with  which  Tyre  held  euch 
close  and  constant  intercourse,  apparently  the  only  place  much  frequented  by  her  on  tlie 
coast  of  Africa,  should  be  associated  in  her  conception  with  the  whole  continent  in  wMch 
it  was  situated.  On  any  other  supposition,  tlie  Jews  and  Phoenicians  must  have  had  no 
name  for  Africa,  which  is  not  very  probable.  It  is  observable  that  Tarshish  evidently  does 
not  comprehend  either  Egypt  or  Upper  Ethiopia,  which  countries,  in  fact,  were  never  by 
the  ancients  considered  as  decidedly  African,  that  continent,  according  to  their  conception, 
having  the  Nile  fbr  its  eastern  boundary.  If  we  admit  Tarshish  to  be  Africa,  the  whole 
difficulty  respecting  the  two  voyages  at  once  disappears.  As  the  voyage  to  the  nortiiem 
coast  was  by  the  Mediterranean,  so  that  to  the  eastern  coast  was  of  course  by  the  Red  Sea. 
It  is  in  favour  of  this  solution  that  Jerome,  in  fact,  calls  the  voyage  to  Tarshish  "an  Afri- 
can voyage."  The  Jews,  unacquainted  with  intermediate  countries,  had  probably  a  very 
inadequate  conception  of  Ujo  distance  between  these  coasts ;  at  all  events,  they  justly  con- 
sidered them  as  parts  of  the  same  vast  expanse  of  continent 

SuBSECT.  2. — Opkir. 

The  name  of  Ophir,  combined,  as  it  always  is,  with  the  most  precious  of  metals,  and 
the  most  coveted  of  all  commodities,  ranks  among  the  distant  countries  known  to  the 
Jews,  almost  superior  in  splendour  to  Tarshish,  though  not  equal  m  greatness  and  com- 
mercial importance.  The  voyages  of  Solomon  to  Ophir  for  gold,  form  the  greatest  naval 
enterprise  in  which  the  kingdom  of  Judca  was  ever  engaged.  Yet  this  name  has  been 
attended  with  little  less  difficulty,  and  produced  scarcely  less  controversy,  than  that  of 
Tarshish. 

The  belief  that  Ophir  was  in  Arabia  has  certainly  not  a  little  to  urge  in  its  favour.  In 
the  genealogical  chapters  it  is  always  combined  with  Sheba,  or  Sabea,  which  was  undoubt- 
edly situated  at  the  south-west  angle  of  Arabia.  It  was  from  Sheba  that  gold  (doubtless, 
the  gold  of  Ophir,)  was  regularly  brought  to  Judea  and  Phoenicia.  Even  Bochart,  who 
thinks  himself  obliged  to  seek  in  India  a  more  distant  Ophir,  clumsily  compounds  the 
matter  by  making  another  Ophir  in  Arabia.  He  is  followed  by  M.  Malte  Brun.  M.  Gos- 
selin,  with  his  usual  zeal  to  restrict  ancient  knowledge,  insists,  that  there  never  was  any 
Ophir  except  the  Arabian,  and  places  it  in  the  modem  interior  district  of  Dofar.  There 
appear  to  me,  I  confess,  vast  improbabilities  in  this  Arabian  Ophir.  As  an  interior  district, 
it  must  have  been  nearer,  or  certainly  as  near,  to  Judea  as  Sheba ;  and  it  appears  stran^re, 
that  no  direct  land  communication  should  ever  have  been  opened  with  it.  Let  us  consider 
tlie  mighty  operations  of  Solomon;  his  utmost  efTorts  combined  with  those  of  Hiram ;  tlie 
materials  of  shipbuilding  conveyed  by  land  over  a  vast  desert;  the  most  skilfiil  workmen 
transported  to  Ezion  Gober ;  a  fleet  composed  of  large  vessels,  called  ships  of  Tarsliish,  at 
last  formed,  and  undertaking  a  series  of  voyages,  in  each  of  which  three  years  were 
employed.  What  a  waste  of  labour  and  expenditure  to  obtain  a  commodity  which  could 
have  b^en  conveyed  across  Arabia  in  two  months  on  the  backs  of  camels !  Yet  the  repe- 
tit'on  of  the  voyage  shows  that  the  article  was,  in  fact,  procured  on  better  terms  than  by 
the  usual  channel.    In  tiic  voyage  from  Ophir,  also,  we  find  new  articles  never  mentioned 


Book  L 


HEBREW  AND  PHCBNICIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


in  relation  to  Sheba  or  Arabia,  but  characteristic  of  equatorial  Africa — ivoiy,  a]*e8,  and 
peacocks.  With  regard  to  the  close  combination  in  which  Sheba  and  Ophir  are  alwaya 
found,  it  will  appear  natural  enough,  when  we  consider  that,  unless  during  the  short 
expedition  of  Solomon,  ^heba  appears  to  have  been  the  channel  by  which  the  gold  of 
Ophir  was  transmitted  to  Judea  and  Phoenicia.  This  circumstance  might  readily  lead  thtt 
inhabitants  of  those  countries  to  consider  the  two  as  closely  connected,  thoti^fh  Ophir 
might  be  beyond  Sheba,  and  even  be  separated  from  it  by  seas  and  territories  of  consider* 
able  extent 
The  hypothesis  which  places  Ophir  in  India,  though  supported  by  great  names,  appean 

?uite  untenable.  The  trade  of  Ophir  bears  not  tlie  least  resemblance  to  an  Indian  trade, 
t  does  not  include  tlie  fine  manufactures  and  rich  spices  which  India  has  always  furnished; 
and  its  staple  is  gold,  which  never,  at  any  time,  was  an  article  of  export  from  that  quarter 
of  Asia.  India  has,  on  the  contrary,  always  demanded  a  large  balance  of  specie,  and  ha* 
formed  a  gulf  ija  which  the  gold  of  the  west  has  been  absorbed.  If  we  reject  India,  we 
shall  not  certainly,  with  some  savant,  travel  as  far  as  Peru  in  quest  of  our  object,  notwith- 
standing the  slight  resemblance  of  name,  and  tlie  attempt  to  eke  it  out  by  the  expression 
"  gold  of  Parvaun,"  which  has  some  appearance  of  being  synonymous. 

The  eastern  coast  of  Africa  is  the  quarter  to  which  all  the  indications  appear  very  clearly 
to  point.  In  the  voyage  to  Tarshish  by  the  Red  Sea,  its  name  and  that  of  Ophir  are  al- 
^ays  combined;  nay,  the  voyage,  which  in  the  Boisk  of  Kuigs  is  called  the  voyage  to 
Tarshish,  in  the  Chronicles  is  called  the  voyage  to  Ophir ;  so  that  it  is  evident  the  two  are 
one  and  the  same  voyage ;  and,  if  Tarshish  was  Africa,  Ophir  must  clearly  be  in  Africa. 
There  is,  however,  on  this  coast  no  abundant  supply  of  gold  till  we  reach  as  far  south  aa 
Sofala ;  thus  implying  an  extent  of  navigation  which  is  certainly  somewhat  startling.  M. 
Gosselin  particularly  urges,  that  in  the  time  of  Alexander  there  was  no  longer  any  know- 
ledge of  eastern  Africa ;  and  that  even  the  Romans  never  appear  to  have  penetrated  beyond 
Cope  Delgado,  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  to  be  considered  that  the  alliance  of  Hiram  and 
Solomon  united  advantages  which  never  existed  again  in  an  equal  degree.  The  wealth, 
naval  skill,  and  ample  materials  which  those  great  princes  could  command  were  scarcely 
equalled,  even  by  the  Ptolemies.  Afler  the  death  of  Solomon,  the  kingdom,  split  into  two^ 
and  weakened  by  continued  dissention,  abandoned  entirely  these  distiuit  commercial  enters 
prises.  A  solitary  attempt  to  renew  the  trade  was  made  by  Jehoshaphat,  but  the  vessels 
prepared  fbr  that  purpose  were  wrecked  in  the  very  mouth  of  the  port  of  Ezion  Geber ; 
after  which  the  undertaking  was  entirely  given  up.  In  the  calamities  which  afterwards 
beffel  Israel  and  Judah,  and  the  revolutions  which  subverted  the  whole  political  system  of 
western  Asia,  it  is  not  wonderful  that  every  trace  of  this  distant  intercourse  should  have 
been  obliterated ;  and  that  the  successors  of  Alexander  should  have  had  to  enter  on  a  new 
field  of  discovery.  In  support  of  the  supposition  of  Sofala,  there  may  also  be  noticed  a 
certain  resemblance  of  name ;  and  the  duration  of  the  voyage,  stated  at  three  years,  would 
afford  very  ample  time  to  reach  the  Zambese,  even  under  all  the  imperfections  of  ancient 

navigation. 

■'"'--   -      -"'  •.  •-.  •         -^,J.^..  ,  (■  -.,■>••'—-.. 

SuBSECT.  3. — The  Itles. 

The  Isles,  a  term  which  occurs  much  in  Scripture,  might  be  supposed  to  describe  gene- 
rally those  portions  of  the  globe  which  come  under  this  description ;  yet  a  careful  compa- 
rison of  the  different  passages  in  which  tlie  word  occurs  will  probably  show,  that  it  is  used 
in  a  much  more  precise  and  determinate  sense,  and  is  applied  to  a  wide  and  connected 
range  of  territory.  The  whole  of  the  southern  coasts  of  Europe,  consisting  either  of  real 
islands  or  of  peninsular  tracts,  appears  by  the  Jews  and  Phoenicians  to  have  been  viewed 
as  a  long  range  of  islands.  Besides,  the  terms  wyaoj  and  insula  were,  in  periods  of  remote 
antiquity,  applied  loosely  to  peninsulas  as  well  as  islands  proper.  Among  many  examples 
which  might  be  adduced,  one  will  suffice — Peloponnesus.  The  isles,  relative  to  Tyre, 
appear  to  have  ranked  only  second  to  Tarshish  as  a  source  of  wealth,  and  in  respect  of 
close  and  intimate  intercourse.  Tjrre  is  called  expressly,  "  a  merchant  of  many  isles :" 
and  the  consternation  which  shook  the  isles  at  the  sound  of  her  fall ;  the  dismay  of  their 
kinjrs,  who  are  said  to  have  then  cast  off  their  robes,  and  sat  on  the  ground, — all  point  out 
the  extent  and  importance  of  this  commerce.  Tarshish,  Elisha,  Chittim,  and  Dodanim 
are  named  in  the  genealogical  chapter  as  the  four  who  divided  among  them  the  isles  of 
tlie  Gentiles;  but,  though  Tarshish  is  so  often  named  in  combination  with  "the  isles" 
among  the  most  distant  maritime  territories,  there  is  never  any  indication  as  if  it  were 
itself  an  island.  The  combination  is  probably  produced  by  the  extensive  possessions  and 
commerce  of  the  Carthaginians  in  the  western  islands  and  coasts  of  Europe.  These,  iir 
chiding  the  southern  point  of  Italy,  v/crs,  as  already  observed,  probably  considered  as  insu- 
lar, and  were  distinguished  by  the  appellations  of  the  "  isles  afar  off,"  and  "  the  distant 
isles  of  the  sea."  The  "  isle"  in  particular,  which  Isaiah  mentions  in  such  close  connex- 
ion with  Tarshish,  and  which  the  merchants  of  Sidon,  "by  passing  over  the  sea,  had 
replenished,"  can  scarcely  be  any  other  than  Sicilv,  an  island  almost  Garthaffinian.  and 


fflSTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY.      '  • '" 


Paiit  I. 


containinff  ao  many  flourishing  cities.  With  regard  to  the  isles  of  Elisha,  they  ore  evidently 
Hellas,  ute  Greek  name  of  Greece.  The  only  distinctive  characteristic,  indeed,  that 
of  furnishing  Tyre  with  the  blue  and  purple  dye,  docs  not  recall  to  us  any  of  tlie  features 
under  which  we  have  been  accustomed  to  recognize  thst  celebrated  region.  But  Greece 
was  not  yet  tiie  seat  of  arts  and  arms ;  and,  had  she  been  so,  the  Tyrian  merchants  might 
■till  have  viewed  her  only  as  she  served  their  purpose.  Bochart  has  collected  ample  teoti- 
monies  to  show  that  the  murex,  the  shell  which  yielded  tliose  celebrated  dyes,  was  found 
in  peculiar  abundance  on  the  coast  of  Laconia.  Chittim  appears  very  evidently  Cypruf, 
and  its  early  capital  of  Citiirii  The  alarm  being  given  thence  of  the  approach  of  the 
king  of  Babylon,  and  its  beinp  '.onsidered  as  the  natural  place  of  reftige  lor  the  inhabitants 
of  Tyre,  where  yet  they  would  not  be  fully  secure,  mark  a  proximity  which  belongs  to  no 
other  island.  The  name,  indeed,  is  in  one  instance  given  to  Greece,  and  in  anotlier  to 
Italy ;  but  this  seems  merely  to  be,  that,  as  tlie  nearest  known  island,  itH  name  is  some- 
times thus  vaguely  extended  to  the  whole  of  that  territory  considered  by  the  Jews  as  in.su- 
lar.  The  attempts  of  Bochart  to  find  the  name  of  Chittim  in  Italy  have  been  wholly  abor- 
tive ;  for  we  cannot  consider  as  worthy  of  notice  the  observation  that  it  and  Latium,  in  the 
respective  Greek  and  Latin  languages,  both  signify  "to  hide."  In  regard  to  Dodunini, 
convertible  into  Rodanim(l  and  1  being  perpetualfy  interchanged  and  confounded),  though 
it  is  mentioned  only  once,  we  seem  justified  in  fixing  on  Rhodes,  already  flourishing  und 
commercial,  though  not  yet  become  tlie  rival  of  kings.  Bochart  seems  to  go  much  too  tiir, 
when  he  seeks  ibr  it  on  the  Rhone  or  the  Ebro. 

SuBSECT.  4. — Sheba  and  Dedan. 

Of  the  internal  trade  of  western  Asia  during  the  early  ages,  the  most  extensive  and 
important  was  that  carried  on  across  Arabia.  It  consisted,  not  so  much  in  the  productions 
of  the  region  itself,  as  in  those  of  India  and  Afirics,  which  found  their  way  by  tliis  channel 
to  Judea  and  Phcenicia. 

Sheba,  among  the  Arabian  states,  holds  the  most  prominent  place,  being  undoubtedly 
the  same  with  the  Sabeea  or  Arabia  FelLx  of  the  classic  writers.  Its  imports  were  tlie 
precious  commodities  of  gold  and  incense :  the  latter  anciently  in  most  extensive  demand 
for  the  purpose  of  sacrifice.  These  artiqles  appear  to  have  been  brought  to  Judea,  not  by 
any  maritime  channel,  but  in  crowded  caravans.  The  "  companies  of  Sheba"  are  mentioned 
even  in  Job.  Isaiah  speaks  of  the  "multitude  of  camels;"  and  of  "all  they  fi-om  Sheba." 
Yet  the  incense,  it  is  now  certain,  must  have  come  chiefly  fi'om  the  opposite.Aft'ican  coast  of 
Berbera ;  and  the  gold,  we  have  some  reason  to  think,  must  have  been  derived  from  a  still 
more  remote  part  of  that  continent 

The  commerce  of  Dedan  rivalled  that  of  Sheba,  being  carried  on  from  the  opposite  or 
eastern  coast  The  mention  of  "  many  isles"  in  combination  with  Dedan,  seems  to  fix  it 
to  that  point  at  the  entrance  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  which  is,  in  fact  bordered  by  numerous 
islands.  One  of  these,  Ormuz,  became  afterwards  the  seat  of  a  kingdom,  which,  fit)m  a 
situation  and  commerce  similar  to  that  of  Dedan,  derived  a  splendour  which  made  it  the 
pride  of  the  East,  The  imports  fi-om  Dedan — "  ivory  and  precious  cloths" — point  out  the 
source  of  this  prosperity.  These  were  the  commodities  of  India,  brought  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Persian  Gulf,  and  thence  transported  across  the  desert  to  the  western  regions.  The 
caravan  trade  of  Dedan  appears  to  have  been  most  extensive ;  insomuch  that  the  prophet,  in 
denouncing  the  judgment  upon  Arabia,  mentions  the  "  travelling  companies  of  Dednnim"  as 
its  most  conspicuous  feature.  In  the  prophets,  Edom  and  Dedan  are  almost  universally  named 
together,  and  the  same  judgments  represented  as  affecting  both.  Hence  they  are  usually 
considered  as  parts  of  the  same  country,  and  the  ordinary  maps  include  Dedan  as  a  district 
of  Edom.  Even  Bochart  whose  learning  showed  him  that  there  must  be  a  more  distant 
Dedan,  adopts  the  hackneyed  scheme  of  supposing  that  there  were  two  Dedans.  Tliero  is 
no  occasion  for  so  unskilfial  a  theory  to  explain  the  intimate  connexion  between  these  two 
states.  When  caravans  came  across  Arabia  from  tlie  Persian  Gulf,  it  was  at  Edom  or  Idumea 
that  they  first  touched  on  the  civilized  world.  A  depdt  was  thus  naturally  formed  there,  of 
the  commodities  in  which  they  traded.  This  traffic  raised  Idumea  and  its  capital,  Petra,  to 
a  high  pitch  of  wealth  and  importance.  So  close  a  connexion  necessarily  caused  Dedan  to 
be  deeply  aflTected  by  any  calamity  which  desolated  Edom,  and  rendered  her  no  longer  the 
channel  through  which  this  commerce  could  flow.  But  these  disasters  are  by  no  means 
represented  as  touching  her  so  closely  or  so  deeply ;  and  while  Edom  is  represented  as  utterly 
spoiled,  and  converted  into  a  waste  and  reproach,  the  inhabitants  of  Dedan  are  merely  warned 
to  "  turn  back  and  dwell  deep ;"  (Jer.  xlix.  8.)  and  the  expression,  "  they  of  Dedan  shall  fall 
by  the  sword,"  is  more  correctly  interpreted  in  the  margin,  "  they  shall  fall  by  the  sword 
unto  Dedan."  These  circumstances  appear  to  mark,  along  with  an  intimate  connexion,  a 
complete  distance  and  separation  between  these  two  great  Arabian  stfltes. 

Raam.ah  is  mentioned  amoiig  otiier  nations  of  Arabia,  along  with  Sheba,  as  producing  the 
same  articles,  but  as  a  much  less  remarkable  country.  It  appears  to  be  the  modem  Had 
nunuth,  neither  situated  so  commodiously  as  Sheba  for  the  A&ican.  nor  as  Dedan  for  the 


DooE  I. 


HEBREW  AND  PHCENICTAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


connexion,  a 


Indian,  trade.  Some  of  the  best-watered  districts  probably  of  the  Nedsjed,  appear  to  have 
composed  the  kingdom  of  Kedar,  enriched  by  the  breeding  of  numeroiiH  sheep  and  goiita, 
with  which  it  supplied  even  Tvre,  and  rose  to  such  prosperity,  as  to  make  it  be  consulered 
a  mighty  cata«trophe  "when  all  the  glory  of  Kedar  should  fail."  ^^_^, ,,  ^  j,  „,  .,  ? :„^i,.,j 


SuBSBOT.  5. — Countries  on  the  Euphrate$. 


The  river  (for  such  is  the  import  of  the  term)  presents  itself  as  a  grand  feature  of  the 
landscape  ailer  possinpr  across  the  wide  Syrian  desert,  towards  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
known  world.  This  name,  in  preference  even  over  the  Nile  and  the  Jordan,  was  always 
applied  to  the  Euphrates,  which,  holding  so  immense  a  course  throiigh  kin^oma  the  moHt 
celebrated  in  history,  was  considered  as  one  of  the  grand  boundaries  of  the  earth.  The  prrcut 
empires  and  capitals  of  Assyria  and  Babylon  gave  to  it  a  lustre,  which  was  scarcely  divided 
by  the  Tigris,  whose  name  was  little  known  to  the  Jews  before  the  captivity.  Along  this 
1  ne  of  territory  Ezekiel  enumerates  a  number  of  cities,  Haran,  Canneh,  Eden,  Ashur,  &c., 
from  which  great  caravans  proceeded  to  Tyre  with  cloths  and  other  articles  of  the  most 
valuable  description.  In  such  early  accounts,  however,  the  country  from  which  commodities 
last  came  is  seldom  distinguished  from  their  original  seat.  I  therefore  entirely  agree  with 
Dr.  Vincent,  that  they  must  have  been  brought  by  a  long  overland  voyage  across  Asia ; 
that  these  chests  of  rich  apparel,  so  carefully  bound  with  cords,  came,  probably,  by  interior 
caravans  from  Hindostan,  and,  perhaps,  already  frcpri  the  frontier  of  China. 

Of  the  countries  beyond  the  Euphrates,  only  some  broken  fragments  of  knowledge  appear 
to  have  reached  Judea  before  the  captivity.  Elam  is  particularly  noticed ;  the  residence  of 
a  warlike  people,  occupying  the  long  mountainous  tract  east  of  the  Tigris.  Media  and 
Persia  are  also  named  on  a  few  occasions,  but  so  as  to  prove  that  they  were  only  contem- 
plated in  dim  and  obscure  distance.  At  a  vague  and  indefinite  distance  beyond,  the  ends 
of  the  earth  were  imagined  to  exist.  The  early  Greeks  and,  after  them,  tlie  Arabians,  viewed 
the  habitable  earth  as  an  island,  surrounded  on  every  side  by  water.  Ptolemy,  on  the  con- 
trary, places  at  every  extremity  of  his  map  a  vague  expanse  of  unknown  land.  The  He- 
brews combined  in  some  measure  these  two  views  of  the  subject.  To  the  west,  the  remotest 
object  for  them  was  the  sea,  studded  with  numerous  and  distant  isles ;  but  to  the  east,  where 
land  was  seen  indefinitely  extending,  they  formed  the  idea  of  an  inland  termination,  without 
being  able  to  attach  to  it  any  precise  limits.  Such  a  boundary  was  apparently  supposed  to 
exist  in  various  directions,  since  "  all  the  ends  of  the  eartli"  is  an  expression  frequently 
occurring.  It  was  to  the  east,  however,  that  this  idea  peculiarly  attached  itself;  and  "  from 
the  river  to  the  ends  of  the  earth,"  is  the  farthest  point  to  which  the  figurative  kingdom 
)f  the  Messiah  is  made  to  extend.  .,    .ti  ■>    .,,,-,  . , ,, 

SuBSBCT.  6. — Oog,  Magog,  and  the  North. 

The  north  quarter  is  the  only  part  of  the  circuit  of  the  geographical  knowledge  of  the 
Jews  which  remains  to  be  surveyed.  It  presented  features  of  peculiarly  rude  and  fonni- 
dflble  aspect.  Ezekiel,  in  anticipating  an  approaching  inroad,  draws  tlie  most  gloomy  feature 
of  the  hordes  which  it  poured  forth :  Gog,  with  all  his  bands,  coming  like  a  storm  or  a 
cloud  to  cover  the  land ;  Gomer  with  all  his  bands ;  the  house  of  Togarmah,  from  the  north 
quarter :  "  a  great  company  and  a  mighty  army,"  directing  their  course  against  those  nations 
which  "  were  at  rest,  dwelt  safely,  and  had  gotten  cattle  and  goods ;"  and  w  ith  the  eajjer 
purpose  "  to  take  a  prey,  to  carry  away  their  silver  and  gold,  to  cake  a  great  spoil."  This 
picture,  these  hostile  and  tumultuous  crowds,  "all  riding  upon  horses,"  with  their  wide- 
roaming  and  predatory  habits,  has  always  suggested  the  idea  of  Scythian  invasion ;  and 
the  Arabian  geographers  have  placed  the  castle  of  Gog  and  Magog  at  the  remotest  extremity 
of  Tartary.  On  looking  narrowly  Into  the  matter,  however,  we  shall  find  it  difficult  to 
suppose  this  inroad  to  have  proceeded  from  any  part  of  those  unbounded  plains.  The  fact 
is,  we  have  no  occasion  to  look  so  far ;  for  the  high  table-lands  in  the  interior  and  north  of 
Asia  Minor,  Phrygia,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  and  Paphlagonia,  have  always  presented  the 
snme  rude  pastoral  aspect,  and  have  bred  tribes  of  migratory  shepherds  and  warriors,  very 
similar  to  those  of  Scythia  itself  These  tracts,  in  fact,  continue  still  to  pour  forth  vast  botlles 
of  irregular  cavalry,  which  form  the  main  strength  of  the  Turkish  armies.  This  view  of 
the  subject  appears  completely  fixed  by  the  account  of  the  commercial  intercourse  main- 
tained by  these  nations  with  Tyre.  The  prophet  mentions  Meshech  and  Tubal,  elsewhere 
completely  identified  with  Gog,  who  is  called  their  "  chief  prince."  There  never  has  been 
the  least  doubt  as  to  the  positior  of  these  countries  in  Upper  Armenia,  and  on  the  southern 
border  of  Caucasus.  There  the  classical  writers  mention  in  the  Moschi  and  the  Tibareni, 
which  are,  perhaps,  the  same  names.  The  imports  into  Tyre  are  stated  to  be  "  vessels  of 
brass,  and  persons  of  men."  This  somewhat  curious  combination  is,  however,  altogether 
chafucierii=tic  of  the  region  in  question,  which  was,  in  ancient  time,  highly  distinguished 
fof  the  copiousness  and  excellence  of  its  copper  and  iron,  which  last  is  not  wholly  excluded 
by  the  term  used  in  the  original.  The  skill  with  which  it  was  worked  into  steel  by  the 
whalybes,  a  people  of  this  region,  caused  their  name  to  be  generally  given  to  this  product 

Vol,.  1.  o*  r 


m 


IS 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartL 


Even  in  tho  proeent  state  of  neglect,  Uie  neighbourhood  of  Trebit»nd  supplies  witti  excel* 
lent  copper  all  the  Ijcsser  Asia.  The  otlicr  article,  also,  is  but  too  descriptive.  The 
exprension,  "persons  of  men,"  marks  the  trade  in  slaves,  with  which  it  has  always  been 
the  flite  of  Caucasian  countries  to  supply  Uie  East.  Horses  and  mules  are  reported  ita 
brought  by  the  "  house  of  Togarinah."  Ilorses  have  always  been  a  boost  of  Tartary ;  and 
an  alliance  has  been  imagined  between  tliis  name  and  tliat  of  the  Turcomans,  who  still 
Hirnihh  the  finest  horses.  But  there  was  a  race  called  Trograi,  in  the  upland  tracts  of 
['iiphlagonin,  a  region  celebrated  for  its  horses,  and  also  for  its  mules,  in  which  last  respect 
It  liiis  a  dccif'.ed  advantage  over  Tartary,  to  which  this  loi(t  breed  is  a  stranger.  Thus  %ve 
Bonm  justified  in  finding  Gog,  with  all  his  rude  and  terrible  appendages,  in  the  northern 
extremity  indeed  of  the  civilized  and  classical  world  of  Asia,  but  still  f&  distant  ttom  those 
bouiuUoss  wastes  which  composed  the  apciont  Scythia  and  the  modem  Tartary. 

Jiivnn,  which  is  described  as  fiirnishing  the  same  objects  of  trade  with  Meshech  and 
TuImU,  but  not  as  having  any  concern  in  the  doKoIating  invasion  of  Gog,  is,  in  fact,  the 
same  word  with  Ion,  or  Ionia,  an  extensive  apj)cllation,  which  comprehended  all  the  western 
p;irt  of  the  liCsser  Asia.  The  Jews  and  Phoenicians,  overlooking  the  long  range  of  narrow 
straits  which  separated  it  from  Europe,  not  yet  recognised  as  a  separate  continent,  appear 
to  have  extended  tlie  name  to  Thrace,  and  the  interior  of  continental  Greece.  Alexander 
tlip  Great  is  in  one  nlnce  called  king  of  Javon.  That  a  similar  extension  was  recognised 
in  the  early  ages  of^  Greece  itself,  appears  by  the  relebrated  ancient  inscription  at  the 
Isthmus  of  Corinth.  "This  is  Peloponnesus,  not  Ionia."  The  Javan  slaves  were  probably 
drawn  from  Thrace,  whose  barbarous  regions  amply  supplied  the  ancient  markets  with  tliia 
cruel  species  of  commodity.  ..;,,....         ■  ../♦ 


CHAPTER  II. 

ANCIENT  VOYAGES  OP  DISCOVERY. 


I'v-wj  Ai'^v  V: 


The  early  voyages  of  discovery  formed  the  most  important  materials  fbr  those  delineations 
of  the  globe  which  were  made  by  the  geographical  schools  of  Greece  and  Rome  in  their 
more  advanced  and  perfected  state.  Before  proceeding,  therefore,  to  consider  the  systems 
of  these  schools,  it  may  be  proper  to  tike  a  survey  of  the  exploratory  voyages  performed 
oy  ancient  navigators.  These  do  not  appear  very  considerable  in  the  eyes  of  a  modem 
moriner.  There  is  not  one  of  them,  perhaps,  which  the  captain  of  a  tolerably  appointed 
mercliant-vessel  would  not,  in  the  course  of  his  ordinary  business,  be  ready  to  undertake 
But  in  steering  along  an  unexplored  coast,  in  vessels  which  could  scarcely  rank  above  boats 
without  the  use  of  the  compass,  or  any  correct  means  of  astronomical  observation,  eve» 
these  limited  voyages  were  fraught  with  peril  and  adventure.  The  record  of  them  is 
however,  involved  in  much  mystery  and  controversy.  They  were  not  reported  to  tlie  work 
in  those  regular  narratives  witii  which  the  mo<lem  press  teems.  The  ancient  narrative! 
are  always  meagre,  and  in  many  cases  we  have  only  ftagments  of  hearsay  testimony,  coi 
Iccted  by  careless  or  prejudiced  writers.  A  learned  investigation,  therefore,  is  usuallj 
necessary,  to  discover  along  what  coast  the  navigator  sailed,  to  what  point  of  it  he  reached 
and  sometimes  whether  he  ever  sailed  along  any  coast.  In  several  cases  tlie  most  skilfii 
disputants  are  still  divided  on  questions,  which,  sunk  in  the  deep  abyss  of  time,  must  probablj 
remain  for  ever  undecided.  Faint  and  dubious,  however,  as  are  these  records,  they  will 
lead  us  over  some  of  the  most  interesting  problems  of  antiquity,  and  will  enable  us  to  trace, 
in  some  degree,  the  infant  steps  of  maritime  enterprise.  ,   -,  n    ,  ., 

Sect.  I. — drcumnaviffation  of  Africa  under  Necho. 

To  perform  the  circuit  of  the  coast  of  Africa  was  the  favourite  object  of  ancient  maritime 
enterprise,  as  it  continued  to  be  of  that  of  modern  times,  till  the  era  of  its  final  happy 
accomplishment.  The  manner  in  which  its  coasts,  beyond  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Rod 
Sea,  begin  to  converge,  suggested  the  idea  of  a  peninsula,  tlie  circumnavigation  of  which 
might  be  effected,  even  by  the  limited  resources  of  ancient  navigation.  The  wide  sphere, 
both  of  knowledge  and  trade,  which  such  a  discovery  would  open  to  the  enterprising  mari- 
time nations  round  the  Mediterranean,  was  sufficiently  obvious.  The  first  attempt  of  tliis 
description  originated  in  a  quarter  which  had  usually  been  accustomed  to  keep  aloof  from 
every  species  of  naval  enteri)rise. 

Epypt  had  long  held  itelf  as  a  country  strictly  agricultural ;  but  Necho,  who,  next  to 
Sesostris,  raised  its  military  glory  to  the  greatest  height,  appears,  liice  other  conquerors, 
to  have  been  animated  by  an  active  spirit,  wliich  exerted  itself  in  every  direction.  Not 
possessing  fit  instrqments  among  his  own  subjects,  he  engaged  some  Phoenician  navigators 
to  descend  the  Red  Sea,  and  endeavour  to  find  their  way  back  to  the  Mediterranean,  by 
the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  The  narrative  is  so  very  short,  that  wc  may  easily  give  it  in  tiie 
words  of  Herodotus:  "The  Phoenicians,  setting  sail  from  tlic  Red  Sea,  made  their  way  mto 
the  southern  sea ;   when  autumn  approached,  they  drew  their  vessels  to  land,  sowed  a 


PartL 

plies  with  excel- 
escriptive.  Th« 
[108  always  been 
uro  reported  iis 
of  Tiirtnry ;  and 
lomans,  wiio  Btill 
upland  t'acta  of 
vnich  last  respect 
inger.  Thus  we 
,  in  the  northern 
listant  fVom  those 
nry. 

ith  Meshech  and 
T,  is,  in  fact,  the 
d  all  the  western 
Tango  of  narrow 
continent,  appear 
jcce.  Alexander 
n  was  recognised 
nscription  at  the 
■es  were  probably 
markets  with  tliia 

■    .-         ,      >   _'f  ■< 


» noK  I. 


VOYAGES  OP  SATA8PES  AND  HANNO. 


19 


,..,  .^•, 


..i.it 


those  delineation* 

id  Rome  in  their 

isider  the  systems 

oyages  performed 

eyes  of  a  modem 

alerably  appointed 

ady  to  undertake 

rank  above  boata 

observation,  eve» 

:cord  of  them  is 

irted  to  tlie  work 

ncient  narrative» 

testimony,  coi 

•efore,  is  usuallj 

of  it  he  reached 

the  most  skilfii 

le,  must  probabU 

irds,  they  will 

lable  us  to  trace, 


lancient  maritime 

its  final  ha])py 

Ban  and  the  Rod 

tion  of  which 

!'he  wide  sphere, 

iterprising  mari- 

attempt  of  tiiis 

keep  aloof  from 

to,  who,  next  to 
Ither  conquerors, 
■  direction.  Not 
iician  navigators 
tediterranean,  by 
lly  give  it  in  tJie 
|e  their  way  mto 
land,  sowed  a 


':'op,  and  waited  till  it  waa  grown,  when  they  reaped  it,  and  again  put  to  ma.  Having 
spent  two  years  in  this  manner,  in  the  third  year  they  reached  the  Pillars  of  Hercules, 
and  returned  to  Egypt,  reporting  what  does  not  find  belief  with  me,  b4it  may,  perhaps, 
with  some  other  person;  tor  they  said  that  in  passing  Africa  they  had  the  sun  on  their 
riglit  hand  (i.  e.  the  north).    In  Uiia  manner  Libya  was  first  known." 

The  autlionticity  of  this  narrative  has  been  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  object  of  learned 
curiosity,  and  has  produced  a  maas  of  controversy,  greater,  perhapa,  tlian  ita  short  and 
vague  nature  is  well  able  to  admit  The  arguinenta  appear  to  have  been  exhausted  on 
the  believing  aide  by  Renncll,  on  the  sceptical  by  Goeselin  and  Vincent  Formidable  aa 
the  achievement  was,  it  docs  not  seem  to  involve  any  absolute  impoaaibility,  since  the 
whole  voyage  might  be  performed  without  losing  sight  of  the  shore,  or  launching  into  the 
open  SCO,  through  which  the  ancients  had  no  means  of  guiding  tlieir  course;  and  their 
smaller  vessels,  keeping  close  to  the  shore,  might  even  poasess  some  advantage  over  our 
larger  ones,  obliged  to  stand  out  to  sea,  and  encounter  the  stormy  waves  of  the  Atlantia 
Herodotus  seems  inclined  to  credit  tlie  information,  unless,  on  the  ground  of  one  general 
statement,  which,  being  the  very  thing  that  should  have  happened,  and  diabelieved  only 
through  iua  ignorance,  strongly  fortifies  our  inclination  to  credit  the  story. 


l-iM 


■■■tllHH  III    I'  I-! 
•rr 


Sect.  11— The  Voyage  of  Sataspet. 

The  Persian  monarchs,  after  their  sway  waa  established  over  the  eastern  coasts  of  the 
Mediterranean,  found  the  exploration  of  Afirica  in  some  degree  their  peculiar  province. 
This  nation,  however,  laboured  under  an  aversion  and  dread  of  tiie  sea,  greater,  perhapa, 
than  that  of  the  other  orientals.  The  only  effort  of  theirs  on  record  was  one  which  aroae 
in  a  singular  and  rather  casual  manner. 

Sataspes,  a  Persian  nobleman,  having  committed  a  heinoua  offence,  waa  condemned  by 
Xerxes  to  a  cruel  death.  His  friends,  however,  persuaded  the  monarch,  that  by  com- 
muting this  sentence  into  that  of  a  voyage  round  Africa,  he  would  inflict  sufferings  scarce- 
ly less  s3vere,  and  might  render  a  national  benefit  They  prevailed,  and  Sataspes,  having 
procured  in  Egypt  a  vessel  and  crew,  passed  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  bent  hia  course 
soutliwarda.  He  is  represented  as  having  beat  about  for  several  montlis,  at  the  end  of 
which  he  probably  reached  the  coasts  of  the  Sahara.  The  view  of  those  frightful  and 
desolate  shores,  and  of  the  tempestuous  ocean  which  dashed  against  them,  might  well 
intimidate  a  navigator  bred  in  the  luxurious  indolence  of  the  Persian  court  Sataspes  was 
struck  with  a  panic,  and  measured  back  his  course  to  the  straits.  Yet  hoping  that 
time  and  the  degree  in  which  he  hod  accomplished  his  mission  might  efiace  tlie  im- 
pression, both  of  former  offence  and  of  present  failure,  he  again  presented  himself  before 
Xerxes.  In  giving  an  account  of  his  voyage,  he  merely  related,  that  wherever  he  landed 
he  had  seen  little  men  wearing  a  Phoenician  dress,  who  immediately  fled  into  the  moun- 
tains ;  but  his  people  had  done  tliem  no  injury,  bevond  carrying  off  the  cattle  of  which 
they  stood  in  need.  The  failure  of  the  ultimate  object  of  the  expedition  he  imputed  V) 
the  occurrence  of  an  insurmountable  obstacle,  the  nature  of  which  has  not  been  satisfac- 
torily explained.  Xerxes,  however,  accustomed  to  expect  tliat  all  nature  should  be  sub- 
servient to  his  will,  would  listen  to  no  excuse,  and  ordered  the  original  sentence  to  be  im- 
mediately executed. 

-  -'^^v  yi^  v.H'^i  .^h-'  Sbct.  la.— Voyage  of  Hanno.   -i'i*"^  '«■- ^'  ■■  '■'^T^h-  ?  ^v 

The  Carthaginians,  as  the  greatest  maritime  and  commercial  people  of  antiquity,  might 
have  been  expected  to  make  earlier  and  further  progress  in  tlie  discovery  of  Africa  than 
'Uiy  other  nation.  In  general,  however,  a  veil  of  deep  mystery  shrouded  all  the  proceed- 
iniTs  of  that  powerfiil  and  aspiring  people.  It  is  even  asserted  that  they  considered  as  ex« 
clusively  theirs  the  whole  Mediterranean  west  of  a  line  drawn  across  to  Sicily,  and  that 
they  captured  all  the  vessels,  and  put  to  death  the  crews,  that  were  found  navigating 
within  these  forbidden  precincts.  The  Romans,  on  the  other  side,  animated  by  inex- 
tinguishable enmity,  are  said  to  have  industriously  degbpyed  all  the  records  of  the 
literature  and  history  of  their  fallen  rivals.  The  oo^j^^agment  that  escaped  is  the 
Periplus  of  Hanno,  which,  notwithstanding  the  scepticism  of  Dodwell,  its  editor,  the 
learned  world  are  now  generally  agreed  in  considering  as  ancient  and  authentic.  This 
celebrated  document  is  so  short  that  we  may  find  space  here  for  a  complete  translation 
of  it. 

"  It  pleased  the  Carthagmians  that  Hanno  should  sail  beyond  the  Pillars  of  Hercules, 
and  should  found  cities  of  the  Liby-Phoenicians.  He  set  sail,  therefore,  with  a  fleet  of 
sixty  vessels,  each  of  which  was  impelled  by  fifty  oars.  Tliey  carried  with  them  men  and 
women  to  the  number  of  thirty  thousand,  with  provisions  and  supplies  of  various  kmds. 
We  sailed  two  days  beyond  the  straits,  and  founded  a  city  overlooking  an  ample  plain,  and 
which  we  called  Thymiaterium.  Thence  we  proceeded  westward  to  Soloe,  a  promontory 
of  Libya,  thickly  shaded  with  trees,  where  we  founded  a  temple  to  Neptune ;  then  turning 
vostward  for  half  a  day's  sail,  we  came  into  a  lake  not  fiu:  from  tue  sea,  overgrown  with 


so 


^'^      HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY.     '^^ 


Pa«tI 


numermu  and  high  reeds,  and  on  whose  banks  olophants  and  a  number  of  wild  aninml* 
were  feedinif.     Having  ptuMXHi  this  lake  in  the  cnurHO  of  a  day's  sail,  we  founded  citien  on 
the  sea  coast,  Caricuiii>Teichos,  Gytte,  Acre,  Melissa,  and  Aramhys.    Then  setting  nail, 
we  made  our  way  to  the  great  river  LixuS,  which  flows  from  Libya.     On  its  banks  the 
Lixito),  a  pastoral  race,  Vad  their  flocks ;  with  whom  we  formed  ties  of  friendship,  and  spent 
t  short  interval.     The  couctry  above  them  won  inhabited  by  inhospitable  Ethiopians,  n)lt>d 
with  wild  beasts,  and  traversed  by  very  high  mountains,  whence  the  Lixus  is  said  to  descend ; 
and  it  was  added,  that  these  mountains  were  inhabited  by  men  dwelling  in  caves,  of  a 
■trange  appearance,  who  outran  even  horses  in  the  chase.  Having  received  interpreters  from 
the  Laits,  we  proceeded  along  a  desert  coast  till  the  middle  of  the  second  day;  when  we 
■ailed  one  day  to  the  eastward,  and  in  the  recess  of  a  little  bay  found  a  small  island,  Ave 
•tadia  in  circuit    We  left  inhabitants  there,  and  named  it  Ceme.    This  island,  on  taking  an 
account  of  our  course,  we  conjectured  to  be  opposite  to  Carthage ;  for  the  navigation  from 
Carthage  to  the  Pillars,  and  from  the  Pillars  to  Ceme,  corresponded.     Then  we  come  to  a 
lake  through  which  flows  a  great  river  called  Chretes.     That  lake  contained  three  islands 
greater  than  Ceme ;  by  these,  in  the  course  of  a  day's  navigation,  we  reached  the  interior 
shore  of  the  lake,  where  very  great  mountains  impended  over  it,  inhabited  by  a  rough  people 
dressed  in  skins  of  wild  beasts,  who  by  throwing  stones  repelled  us,  and  prevented  us  from 
landing.     We  then  sailed  into  another  river.  Targe  and  broad,  full  of  crocodiL^s  and  river 
horses.    We  then  returned  to  Ceme.    From  Ceme,  renewing  our  course  to  the  south,  wo 
passed  for  twelve  days  along  a  shore,  the  whole  of  which  was  m  the  possession  of  the  Ethi- 
opians, who  showed  a  trembling  dread  of  our  aspect,  and  spoke  a  language  unknown  to  our 
Lixite  interpreters.    On  tlie  lost  day,  <ve  came  to  high  mountains  covered  with  trees,  the 
wood  of  which  was  odoriferous  and  variously  tinted.     Passing  round  these  mountainH  by  a 
navigation  of  two  days,  we  came  to  an  immense  opening  of  tlie  sea,  bordered  by  plains  in 
which  we  saw  fires  of  different  magnitude  glittering  at  mtervals  fVom  every  spot.     Having 
watered  there,  we  proceeded  five  days  along  tlie  shore,  till  we  came  to  an  immense  bny, 
which  the  interpreters  called  the  Western  Horn.  In  it  was  a  large  island,  and  in  that  island 
a  salt  water  lake,  in  which  agam  there  was  another  island.    Entering  this  lake,  we  saw  in 
the  day  noting  but  fbrest ;  but  in  the  night  there  were  many  fires  buming ;  and  we  heard 
various  sounds  of  musical  instruments,  and  the  cries  of  numberless  human  beings.     Boing 
terrified  by  these  objects,  and  the  prophets  also  exhorting  us  to  quit  the  island,  we  made  on, 
and  reached  next  the  fiery  region  of  Thymiamata,  whence  torrents  of  flame  poured  down 
into  the  sea.    Here  the  heat  of  the  earth  was  such,  that  the  foot  could  not  tread  upon  it 
We  therefore  took  our  speedy  departure  fVom  this  place,  and  after  four  days'  further  sail,  saw 
the  earth  in  the  night  full  of  flames.    There  appeared  also  in  the  mifl;  t  of  them  one  lofty 
fire  greater  than  the  rest,  which  seemed  to  reach  to  the  very  stars ;  this,  when  seen  by  day- 
light proved  to  be  a  very  lofly  mountain,  called  the  chariot  of  the  gods.    Thence  by  a  navi- 
gation  of  three  days,  having  passed  these  fiery  torrents,  we  came  upon  another  bay,  called 
tiie  Southern  Horn.    In  its  inmost  recess  was  an  island  similar  to  that  formerly  described, 
which  contained  in  like  manner  a  lake  with  another  island,  inhabited  by  a  rude  description 
of  people.    The  females  were  much  more  numerous  than  the  males,  and  had  rough  skins : 
our  interpreters  called  them  Oorilla.    We  pursued  but  could  take  none  of  the  males ;  they 
all  escaped  to  the  top  of  precipices,  which  they  mounted  with  ease,  and  threw  down  stones ; 
we  took  three  of  the  females,  but  they  made  such  violent  stniggles,  biting  and  tearing  their 
captors,  that  we  killed  them,  and  stripped  off  the  skins,  which  we  carried  to  Carthage:  being 
out  of  provisions,  we  could  go  no  furtiier." 

Such  is  the  entire  narrative  of  this  most  celebrated  of  the  ancient  voyages ;  but  it  would 
be  impossible  to  comprise  within  the  some  limits  even  a  sketch  of  the  commentaries  to  which 
it  has  given  rise  among  the  learned. 

Three  leading  hypotheses  have  been  formed ;  one,  that  of  Bougainville,  who  conceives 
Hanno  to  have  reached  the  Gulf  of  Benin;  another,  of  Major  Rennell,  who  carries  his 
course  only  to  Sherbro  Sound,  a  little  beyond  Sierra  Leone;  while  M.  Grosselin  insists 
upon  termmating  it  about  the  river  of  Nun.  (_Pig.  2.)  When  we  reflect  that  the  first 
of  these  courses  is  upwards  of  three  thousand  miles,  and  the  last  under  seven  hundred,  an 
idea  may  be  formed  of  the  extremely  vague  nature  of  these  data,  where  all  the  names  are 
changed,  and  no  one  point  fixed  with  such  certainty  that  the  others  can  rest  upon  it 

Bougainville  contends  that  his  assigned  limits  do  not  exceed  what  may  reasonably  be 
supposed  to  have  been  passed  over  by  the  most  skilful  navigator  of  antiquity;  in  fact 
the  period  of  thirty-eight  days  is  precisely  the  time  employed  by  the  squadron  sent  in 
1641  to  found  the  Portuguese  fort  of  Elmina.  All  the  grand  features  of  man  and  nature 
described  by  Hanno  are  to  be  found  in  tropical  Africa  only;  Ethiopians  or  Negroes, 
Gorillffi,  who  are  evidently  apes  or  orang-outangs ;  rivers  so  large  as  to  contain  croco- 
diles and  hippopotami.  The  great  conflagrations  of  the  grass,  and  the  music  and  dancing 
prolonged  through  the  night,  are  phenomena  which  have  been  observed  only  in  the 
negro  territories. 

Major  Rennell's  system  retains  all  the  arguments  by  whicn  that  of  Bougainville  is  sup 


ri 
•4 


Part  I 

'  wild  aninmlf 
inded  citict*  on 
in  sottinff  sail, 
ita  banks  thn 
ihip,  and  HW'nt 
thiopians,  nllcd 
aid  to  descend ; 
in  cavoH,  ^f  a 
iterpretere  from 
day ;  when  we 
lall  inland,  five 
d,  on  taking  an 
lavigation  nrom 
we  came  to  a 
ed  three  islands 
led  the  interior 
r  a  rough  people 
vented  us  from 
odibs  and  river 
to  the  south,  wo 
lion  of  the  Etlii- 
unknown  to  our 
I  with  trees,  the 
!  mountains  by  a 
ired  by  plain."  in 
y  spot.     Having 
in  immense  bny, 
ltd  in  that  island 
lake,  we  saw  in 
T  •  and  we  heard 
1  beings.    Being 
,nd,  we  made  on, 
me  poured  down 
lot  tread  upon  it 
fiirther  sail,  saw 
if  them  one  lofty 
len  seen  by  da^r- 
[hence  by  a  navi- 
ither  bay,  called 
lerly  described, 
rude  description 
lad  rough  shins : 
the  males;  they 
!W  down  stones ; 
ind  tearing  their 
!arthagc :  being 

but  it  would 
Intaries  to  whiph 

L  who  conceives 
Iwho  carries  his 
iGosselin  insists 
tt  that  the  first 
yen  hundred,  an 
|l  the  names  are 
;  upon  it. 
ly  reasonably  be 
pquity;  in  fact, 
nuadron  sent  in 
nan  and  nature 
|is  or  Negroes, 
contain  crot.o- 
sic  and  dancing 
\i  only  in  the 

linville  is  say 


Book  1.  VOYAGE  OP  HANNO.    y 

Fig.  O-MAP  ILLUSTRATING  THE  VOYAGE  OT  HANNtt 


ported,  at  the  same  time  that  it  avoids  the  extravagant  supposition  of  ancient  vessels  hay- 
mg  made  a  course  of  seventy  geographical  miles  in  the  day.  The  Gulfs  of  Bissago  and 
Sherbro  present  those  numerous  islands  described  by  Hanno,  and  not  found  on  any  other 
part  of  the  coast ;  and  even  their  form  seems  to  correspond  to  the  appellation  of  Horn, 
applied  by  him  to  these  great  gulfs.  If,  then,  Hanno's  career  reached  central  Africa,  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  Major  Rennell's  hypothesis,  or  something  near  it,  exhibits  his  real 
projjress. 

M.  Goaselin  restricts  the  voyage  within  much  narrower  limits.  It  was  impoonible.  1)6 
ur<Lrc8,  that  the  course  could  be  otherwise  than  slow  in  a  voyage  of  discovery  .^n  an  un- 
known sea,  where  the  mariner  could  sail  only  by  daylight,  with  constant  precautions,  and 
minutely  examining  every  part  of  the  coast.  The  motions  of  Hanno  were  clogged  also  by 
tiie  large  and  incumbered  fleet  of  which  he  was  the  escort  Destitute  of  the  compass,  and 
without  the  power  of  standing  out  to  sea,  he  could  never,  it  is  alleged,  have  doubled  Cape 
Bojador,  which  so  long  baffled  the  efforts  of  the  Portuguese.  With  regard  to  the  features 
suppftsed  to  be  exclusively  characteristic  of  tropical  Africa,  M.  Gosselin  conceives  that 
Morocco,  yet  in  no  degree  civilized  or  subdued,  but  in  the  full  possession  of  rude  native 
tribes,  would  bear  a  much  more  similar  aspect  than  now  to  the  interior  portions  of  the  con- 
tinent The  ape  tribe  and  the  wild  river  amphibia  might  probably  fill  a  region  unoccupied 
by  man,  though  now,  it  is  supposed,  expelled  by  culture  and  a,  more  crowded  population. 
The  term  Ethiopians  has  been  applied,  not  to  negroes  only,  but  to  all  nations  of  a  dark 
colour.  He  conceives,  thnrefore,  that  Hanno's  course  could  never  pass  much  beyond  the 
frontier  of  Morocco,  and  could  have  reached  only  a  very  little  further  than  the  estuary  of 
the  river  of  Nun. 

To  decide  a  point  on  which  such  learned  men  so  widely  disagree,  is  what  we  do  not 
feci  very  forward  to  undertake ;  and  really  the  difiiculties  appear  very  great  in  any  view  of 
tlic  subjec*.    The  detail  of  tlie  positions  would,  on  the  whole,  lead  us  to  prefer  the  most 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PAtT  I. 


\ 


limited  spao      Of  theM  inaitlon*  th«  iitlnnd  of  Cnme  tbnnii  tlin  k«y ;  and  the  idpntityini;  \A 
it  wiUi  Arffiiiii  ,        Hfiitial  to  Uin  Mupixirt  ut'  tlio  two  nnnotti  liyiNitlicKCii.     but  though  it  is 
vidci)  '  ')"••  ths  whole     '  II  r  milinif  nmriai  to  C'emo  ii  not  (fivnn,  thn  timo  h«in|f  onnlliHi 
u.      ij;  the  five  ciii'"  ■••re  fiiiiimoil,  yitt  thn  ;,'f'noriil  tcnour  kopiiw  hariliv  coiiMiHteiit 

with  ID  ^  way  lioini;  iiiiitl:   nl<jii  '  Huch  a  ditticiilt  aiiil  unknown  ithoro.     'Ihoth-I'ct  la 

in  Home  d«K''<'<''  »uppli''<i  hy  an  lui'Mi'iit  n'mtirul  guidu  ot'  hoiiio  authority,  callod  ttio  I'nri- 
piua  of  Hcylax,  in  wliii  li  the  auil  tVoin  tli  'puits  to  (-'orno  In  f(iv«'n  at  twelvu  tiiyM,  a  [xirioil 
which  Major  Rennell  admitn  to  ho  wiiolly  ni-HuHi'-ipnt  for  rciaciiinjf  Arf^nin.  I'^lfiny,  IndofHl, 
carries  Come  to  aliti"!^  a  tropical  latitiidn;  but  att  ho  kee|M  it  Htill  nortii  of  thi-  <  'niiiiru'.s  his 
gra<luation  here  is  nmn  *'"<4tlv  crroncoun,  and  tiis  autliority,  on  thn  whole,  iit  in  favour  of  ro* 
tainiiiff  Ceme  within  Ihf  llinitH  of  Morocco,  Tho  dctnila  of  Ilanno  do  not  upiK>ur  to  be 
always  vi  ry  satintkctory ;  hut  pcrhnp  tlmy  mif^ht  prove  more  ho,  did  wo  |K)hm<'hh  a  more 
act  ito  Burvisy  of  thin  coast  than  hiw  yet  been  taken.  On  tho  whole,  then,  the  (.rrout  ((Uch- 
tion  iH,  whether  M.  Gomclin'H  HolutionH  can  account  for  tho  aspect  of  nature  and  lite  bciiif; 
■o  diftl'ront  from  that  of  Morocco,  and  ho  like  that  of  a  negro  co<wt:  jwrhaiM  here,  too,  womo 
light  might  bo  obtaiiiod  firom  a  caruful  observation  of  the  ruder  borders  of  the  former  empire. 

Sect.  IV. —  Voyagca  of  Eudoxut. 

The  ambition  of  perfbrminsf  the  circuit  of  Africa,  the  grand  maritime  pmblem  of  an 
tiquity,  was  not  Holely  confined  to  princcH  and  ntntcH.  Kvcn  private  adventurers,  uniinat«>«i 
by  tlio  ambition  of  achieving  so  great  an  cnterpriHo,  and  hoping,  perhaps,  to  combine  v,  ''i 
it  opiwrtunities  of  lucrative  commerce,  are  found  in  the  lint  of  tho  explorers  oi'  Af'^  i:i. 
EiMlnxiiH  was  the  moat  memorable  of  these  odvtMiturorH,  whowe  story,  however,  hua  comu 
down  to  U8  through  a  very  clouded  medium.  In  ancient,  still  more  than  in  ricHlcm  times, 
there  existed  men  whoso  habit  it  was  to  treat  witii  doubt  and  derision  all  narrativcH  of  d'lth 
covery  that  extende<l  beyond  tho  ordinary  limits.  At  the  head  of  this  sccp^ioil  band  stands 
Strabo,  one  of  the  greatest  geographers  whoso  works  survive,  and  who  fijrins  the  chief 
medium  by  which  these  narratives  have  reached  our  time;  a  most  unfortunate  circumstiinco 
to  the  fame  of  these  early  discoverers.  However,  in  many  instances,  nature  herself  has 
stood  forth  as  their  vindicator;  and  our  more  extended  knowledge  has  enabled  us  to  di.'tcct 
tfie  fallacy  of  tho  arguments  by  which  Strabo  has  endeavoured  to  refute  them.  This  is  not 
particularly  tho  case  with  regard  to  Eudoxus ;  but  really,  in  Strabo's  notices  respecting  tho 
adventurous  life  of  tho  bold  navigator,  wo  cannot  see  any  thing  which  tends  to  controvert 
the  general  belief  of  anti(|uity,  that  ho  had  made  repeated  and  spirited  attempts  to  explore 
the  unknown  coasts  of  the  African  contiin't. 

According  to  tiic  narratives  of  Strait .  Ludoxus  was  a  nafive  of  Cyzicus,  sent  on  a  mission 
to  Alexandria,  then  the  great  sent  oi'  maritime  enterprise  and  geographical  knowle<lge. 
His  ardent  mind  was  8tron<r|y  imlijd  with  the  spirit  which  reigned  there;  and  he  otiercd 
himself  to  Ptolemy  Evergetes,  the  reigning  king,  ns  a  zealous  instrument  to  bo  employed  in 
any  expedition  having  these  objects  in  view.  There  was,  at  first,  some  talk  of  ascending 
the  Nile,  and  endeavouring  to  reach  its  unknown  sources ;  but  their  views  received  a  new 
direction  from  the  arrival  of  a  person  who  was,  or  professed  to  be,  a  native  of  India, 
escaped  alone  from  the  wreck  of  his  vessel  near  the  foot  of  tho  Arabian  Gulf  Ptolemy  im- 
mediately fitted  out  a  naval  armament,  with  which  Eudoxus  proceeded  on  this  dcstiniition. 
He  appears  to  have  made  a  prosperous  voyage,  and  to  have  returned  with  a  cargo  of  aroma' 
tics  and  precious  stones,  which  last  had  either  l)eon  washed  down  by  the  rivers,  or  dug  out  in 

concrete  state.  It  is  scarcely  probable,  however,  that  Eudoxus  ever  reached  the  real  shores 
of  India,  or  went  beyond  the  soutiiern  shore  of  Arabia,  and,  at  fixrthest,  the  Persian  (Julf, 
Of  this  wealth,  Evergetes  appears  to  have  pluiuion^d  him;  whi'  tr-  "„  in'lnuntos  was  in 
resentment  of  some  dishonest  conduct  on  his  own  part.  We  canuu.  <■.  *' .  n  days,  attc""-* 
to  judge  between  the  two  parties.  Houcver,  Evergetes  dyin  ■  's  ,  •,  '  leopatra  . ., 
Eudoxus  again  into  favour,  and  sent  him  on  a  fresh  voyage.  '       jio\.    Iriven  by  unfii- 

viurable  winds  to  tho  coast  of  Ethiopia,  where  he  was  waU  received  by  the  inhabitants,  and 
carried  on  some  advantageous  trade.  His  return  to  Alexandria  was  again  unfortunate. 
Cleopatra  was  dead ;  and  her  son,  who  succeeded,  treated  him  as  ill  as  Evergetes  had  done. 
Eu'lcxv's  brought  with  him,  however,  one  trophy  from  the  extremity  of  his  voyage — the 
prow  "  I  vessel,  said  to  have  come  from  the  westwanl  as  a  portion  of  a  wreck,  and  on 
whic;*  ■  f  culptr.red  the  figtire  of  a  horse.  This  prow  being  exhibited  by  Eudoxus  on  the 
harlwur,  le  narinr i  j  from  Cndiz  declared  it  to  be  the  very  form  peculiar  to  a  species  of 
largt  h'/i:  i"hi"h  w«nt  from  that  port  for  purposes  partly  of  trade,  and  partly  of  fishing 
to  tht  «'iia;*  f  .iv'itritania.  F.doxus  listened  with  enthusiastic  credulity,  and  determined 
now  '.<^  rtfu'i;  ce  the  deceitftii  atronage  of  courts,  and  to  fit  out  a  now  expedition  from  the 
commercial  c\lj  of  Cadiz,  He  proceeded  thither  by  way  of  Massilia  and  otiier  maritime- 
stations,  where  he  loudly  proclaimed  his  hopes,  and  invited  all  who  were  animated  with  nny 
spirit  of  enterprise  to  accompany  him.  He  accordingly  succeeded  in  equipping  an  expeditioii 
on  a  considerable,  and  even  magnificent  scale.  He  had  one  ship  and  two  large  boiifn,  a<i 
board  of  which  he  carried,  not  only  goods  and  provisions,  but  artisans,  medical  men,  and  even 


Pa«t  I. 

he  idpntityiii^f  of 
but  thdu^'h  It  ii 
mo  Iwin^  oniitlfd 
lianllv  coiiHiitteiit 
J.  Tho  (Itl'ct  ia 
cal)«!tl  tlio  l'"ri- 
Ivo  (invH,  a  p«iriocl 
I'iolpiny,  iii(le»Ml, 
the  <.'niiHrii'.^  Ilia 
H  in  favour  of  rn- 
not  u|)|R>ur  to  Im 
[)  |M>Mi(!HH  a  more 
n,  tins  iimii  (|uc»- 
iro  iiiui  lilt!  lioiii^ 
|)H  hero,  t(x),  noiiio 
iio  former  empire. 


B  problem  of  an 
nturors,  uiiiiiiati"* 
,  to  coml'iiio  wjt-'i 
plorors  III'  Af'-'ci. 
wevrr,  lii.ii  lu  lu 
in  nii'lern  timoti, 
narratives  of  tlis- 
ptli'iil  band  utundt) 
)  tonus  till!  chief 
late  circurnstanco 
laturo  herself  linH 
lablcd  UB  to  di'fi'ct 
lem.  This  Ih  not 
ces  rcsjiectinp  tho 
bnds  to  controvert 
tempts  to  explore 

sent  on  a  miwion 
ihiciil  knowledge, 
and  he  ollered 

be  employed  in 
talk  of  agconding 

received  a  new 
native  of  India, 
ilf     Ptolemy  im- 

this  destination. 

cargo  of  aroma- 

era,  or  dii<?  out  in 

d  the  real  sliores 

18  Persian  CJiilf. 

in^iniintes  was  in 

0  days,  attt"T"'* 
■  ieopatra  .  ., 
Iriven  by  untii- 

inhabitants,  luid 
-ain  unfortiiniite. 
rgetes  had  done, 

lis  voyage — tho 
a  wreck,  and  on 

Eudoxus  on  the 

to  a  species  of 
partly  of  iishiiig 

and  determined 
(edition  from  the 

otiier  maritime 
imated  with  n.'iy 
tig  an  expeditioii 

large  boiiti^,  on 

1  men,  and  eveii 


Burnt  f. 


VOYAGE  OP  PYT1IEA8. 


3» 


\  crew  w  gov,  and  fille«l,  probably,  with  nxtrnvnpnt  hope*, 
hrirdwhipMot  Africim  diMcovory.  They  took  ft-ight  nt  t^ie 
iiicli  MudoxuH  woH  anxious  to  conduct  the' i,  and  insih  i-<l, 
•III,  on  ir  iiifr  brought  near  to  the  nthi"  ,  This  led  ir  ;)ie 
'  •  the  shn>»  \v''r'>  Mlranded,  and  '.le  cargo  wilii  ilifTiculty 
»  vv.  re  then  put  un  Iniird  one  vc««Kd  of  a  light  r  i     iMtriic- 


plnyera  on  miwical  inrtruinentfi 
were  ill  fitted  to  eiicoiiiitfr  Uie 
•well  of  tho  open  aen,  through  v^ 
according  to  the  usiml  timid  HyMi  > 
distwler  wiiich  Kudoxus  had  ton- 
aavod.     Tho  mo«t  valuable  a rtu 

tioii,  and  he  prosecuted  tin-  .  '<  !,'e  till  he  cimie  to  a  raco  of  |)Co|)!e  wlm  npiH'ii'-od  tn  him  to 
Hoeuk  the  same  language  willi  -a  whom  ho  liad  met  on  the  opiitwil''  Hhore  of  tin  conti- 
iifut.  (Joucuiving  liitiwdf  to  have  tlnw  ascertained  tlie  "J)j«H5t  of  his  voyage,  he  r.-tiiriied, 
uiid  i'udeiivdured  to  procure  the  hirbaric  iijd  of  Bocchus,  king  of  ^f aunUiniii ;  but,  Bm|)ectiiig 
that  inonurch  of  a  treucheroiiM  design  agaii  I  him,  he  ngiiiii  W>t«)k  hurf'tdf  to  i^\mi\.  Here 
he  succeeded  in  equipping  a  tVesh  expedition,  ooiiHistiiig  of  onu  larire  vati'tt-l  lifted  for  the 
open  sea,  and  unotlier  of  smaller  dimensions  for  exploring  the  coast.  Here,  untortunnti  iy, 
the  narrative  breaks  oftl  referring  to  the  Spiuiiards  and  llinlitMiiii.ns,  ns  likcK  U>  know  mure; 
bu  la  nothing  more  is  stated  on  any  authority,  we  fear  that  this  last  ex|u  ditioti  must  have 
tttii  in  unfortunate  issue.  Such  is  tho  narrative  given  by  Slrabo,  ujion  intbrmation  wiiicii 
I'e  to  have  been  originally  obtained  from  Eudoxus  hiiiiHflf;  and  we  -.ec  nothing  in  it  iin- 
Woji  ly  of  belief,  or  which  might  not  very  well  bo  accomplished  hv  n  umuof  Itold  and  ontliu- 
siastic  character,  possessed  of  science  and  tulent,  and  devoted  with^  ucli  ardent  zeal  to  tho 
cause  of  discovery.     Eudoxus  cannot  be  made  res|xjnsible  li)r  the  fuliles  w  hloli  aiitit[^iiity  bus 

Eet  into  his  mouth.  He  ia  represented  by  some  as  having  actually  iiiadc  the  circuit  ot  Anicii ; 
y  otliera  as  having  come  to  one  nation  that  was  dumb,  and  anotiicr  whone  mouth  was  entirely 
closed,  and  which  received  food  tlirough  an  orifice  in  the  nose,  Ibit  none  of  these  h'tldea 
are  found  in  Uie  report  of  Eudoxus  himself,  as  coming  tlirough  tliu  .imdiiuu  of  Strabo  hia 
enemy. 

■'"',"  Sect.  V. —  Voijaffe  of  Pytheas.  "' 

The  voyage  of  Pythcaa,  tho  Massilian  navigator,  is  of  peculiar  iMtrati  as  it  ia  the  only 
one  diiscrilied  in  any  detail,  having  Europe,  and  particularly  tJio  Uritieh  Isles,  tor  its  ohjert. 
It  comes  to  us,  however,  still  more  deeply  tiiujed  by  tho  same  dim  and  (  coloured  medium 
through  which  that  of  Eudoxus  has  passed.  It  is  known  almost  solely  i  tlio  hostile  euo- 
Uitions  of  the  sceptical  Strabo,  adduced  for  tho  purpcxse  of  proving  Pyfi  ■•«  to  be  "a  liar 
of  tlie  tirst  magnitude."  Yet,  tho  nature  of  tho  grounds  on  which  this  c(.^  elusion  is  made 
to  rest,  is  such  as  to  place  in  tho  clearest  light  Strabo's  own  ignorance,  u  nd  the  8U|)er;or 
information  of  Pytheas.  This  last  will  become  more  conspicuous,  if  wo  si  upose,  as  seemi 
proluible,  that  the  errors  of  the  geographer  were  transmitted  to  him  ti*om  Mussilia  itself;  in 
which  cose,  Pytheaa  being  found  possessed  of  knowledge  of  which  his  coi  itrymen  were 
destitute,  there  appears  no  mode  in  which  he  could  have  obtained  it,  except  t  >o  actual  per- 
formance of  the  voyages. 

The  following  are  statements  on  which  Strabo  rests  his  refutation  of  Pytlien,-.  That  navi- 
gator stated,  that  the  Calhium  Promonlorium,  the  extremity  of  Bretagne,  |)<)inted  to  the 
west,  while  Strabo  affirms  it  to  be  perfectly  notorious  that  its  direction  was  >  the  vorth. 
This  last  strange  idea  was  connected  with  what  we  shall  find  to  be  tlie  general  -rror  of  this 
school,  which  allowed  to  France  a  southern  coast  only,  and  not  a  western  c  o.  Atrain, 
Pytheas  represented  Britain  as  having  one  of  its  sides  much  longer  than  live  liiii  '.red  miles, 
wliereas,  his  adversary  maintains  this  to  bo  the  dimensions  of  its  longest  side,  whi  h,  accord- 
ing to  him,  is  iiat  opposite  to  and  seen  from  the  shores  of  Gaul,  Finall},  Pytl  as  asserts 
that  his  Ultima  !/%Mie  was  farther  north  than  Irelimd;  whereas,  all  well-iiitbrnn  persons, 
knowing  Irehmd  to  be  four  hundred  miles  north  from  Britain,  and  scarcely  habitii  ie  on  ac- 
count of  the  cold,  considered  it  as  forming  on  that  side  the  extreme  boiindiiry  ■  the  in- 
hiiliitnd  earth.  Thus  far  it  is  necessary  only  to  name  the  charges  against  Pytheas.  to  make 
hiin  shine  conspicuous  alK)ve  his  enemies. 

There  ftre  ottier  statements,  it  must  be  confessed,  which  appear  at  first  sight  a  lifle  start- 
ling, Pyrheas  describes  the  longest  side  of  Britain  not  only  as  more  than  five  hundred  miles 
in  lenulii,  but  as  exceeding  two  tliousand.  It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  while  Strabo 
described  Britain  as  a  triangle,  having  its  longest  side  ojiposite  to  Gaul,  Pytheas  coi  reived 
it  to  have  rmly  two  sides,  one  of  whieli,  consequently,  reached  from  the  land's  End,  or  tlie 
Lizard  Point,  to  the  extremity  of  Scotland,  If  we  consider  this  vast  extent  of  coaK.,  with 
80  iivinv  wind  iiig  shores  and  deep  bays,  all  the  sinuosities  of  which  an  ancient  navigate  r  waa 
obli'jrtd  1  follow,  the  estimate  will  appe;  r  not  very  extravagant.  Again  Pytheas  desnil)ed 
the  coast  of  Kent  as  several  days'  sail  fn  n  that  of  Gaul.  But  tlie  term  by  which  Strabo 
designates  Gaul,  is  Krxtwri  (C<>ltic(i) ;  and  it  appears  from  Cffisar,  that  Celtica  formed  only 
one  of  tho  three  parts  into  whieh  Gaul  was  divided,  and  was  bounded  on  the  cast  by  tho 
Seine.  Pytheaa  probably  uned  the  term  in  this  restricted  and  more  proper  sense ;  when  the 
distance  assigned  became  strictly  correct.  He  moreover  described  the  coast  of  Si)ain  as 
inhabited  by  Gallic  nations ;  it  would  even  seem,  that  he  considered  the  Calbium  Promoa- 
»orium  as  Spanish.    Here  he  was  clearly  in  the  wrong ;  but  tlie  error  will  probably  be 


24 


raSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PahtL 


found  to  have  rested  not  in  his  observations  and  facts,  but  in  mixing  thero  with  an  errone* 
ous  theory  prevalent  at  Massilia,  accord "ngf  to  which,  France  had  not  a  western  coast,  nor 
one  facing  the  Atlantic ;  such  a  coast  belonged  to  Spain  only.  Under  this  impression, 
Pytheas,  so  long  as  he  sailed  along  the  western  coast  of  Gaul,  and  till  he  came  to  that 
opposite  to  Britain,  would  naturally  imagine  that  he  was  sailing  along  tii"  coast  r  f  Spain. 

Strabo  at  last  traces  Pytheas  to  Thule,  and  "  her  utmost  isles,"  when  he  docc,  certainly, 
present  a  narrative  assuming  somewhat  of  a  fabulous  aspect.  The  most  daring  navi|rator, 
as  lie  approaclicd  the  dreary  boundaries  of  earth  and  ocean,  and  saw  only  the  high  billows 
of  tlie  North  Sea  dashing  against  a  rocky  and  misty  shore,  might  become  liable  to  some 
sinister  impressions.  Pytheas,  it  seems,  said,  that  beyond  Thule  there  commenced  what 
was  neither  earth,  sea,  nor  air,  but  a  confused  blending  of  all  the  three,  similar  to  the  sub- 
stance called  pulmo  Tnarititis  (a  species  of  medusa  common  on  our  shores).  He  added,  that 
this  substance  was  the  basis  of  the  universe,  and  that  in  it,  air,  earth,  and  sky  hung  as  it 
were  suspended.  If  we  place  ourselves  in  the  situation  of  Pytheas,  seeing  before  him  the 
northern  sea,  overhung  by  thick  and  gloomy  mists,  shrouded  in  twilight,  and  darkened  by 
tempest,  we  may  suppose  him  very  easily  persuaded,  that  what  he  beheld  was  a  confused 
blending  of  all  the  elements,  not  very  dissimilar  even  to  that  thick  viscid  animal  substance 
to  which  it  was  compared.  Nor  can  we  feel  much  wonder,  if,  after  this  long  and  difficult 
nn  vigtttion  through  so  many  perils,  he  should  lend  somewhat  of  a  ready  ear  to  a  report 
which  represented  him  to  have  reached  that  farthest  boundary  of  nature,  beyond  which  it 
was  no  longer  possible  for  mortal  sail  to  penetrate.  Another  report  of  Pytiieas  was,  that 
at  Thule  the  phenomenon  took  place  which  belongs  only  to  the  polar  circle, — a  summer  of 
one  long  day,  and  a  winter  of  one  long  night.  Antiquity  is  somewhat  full  of  rumours  of 
this  phenomenon,  which  science  had  pointed  out  as  likely  to  take  place  at  a  certain  latitude ; 
and  there  was  a  general  disposition  in  those  who  had  made  any  progress  northwards  to  an- 
ticipate the  term.  Considering  the  loose  way  in  which  rumour  then  spread,  it  may  easily 
be  supposed,  that  the  partisans  of  this  idea  might  support  it  by  an  exaggerated  representa- 
tion of  the  real  statements  of  Pytheas.  One  of  these  (Geminius)  merely  reports  iiim  as 
saying  that  the  nights  appeared  to  him  to  last  only  for  two  or  three  hours,  a  statement 
whicii  at  midsummer  would  be  quite  correct.  Indeed,  we  have  been  assured  by  persons 
who  have  resided  in  the  Shetland  islands,  that  at  that  season  there  was  scarcely  any  sen- 
sible term  of  darkness.  A  foreigner,  then,  visiting  the  islands,  might  very  readily  imagine 
he  had  arrived  at  that  point  on  the  globe  where  the  summer  was  one  uninterrupted  day. 

The  theories,  which  would  make  Thule  any  other  place  than  Shetland,  seem  not  to 
rocinire  much  discussion,  though  there  are  not  wanting  learned  partisans  in  favour  of  each. 
Iceland  would  imply  too  great  an  extent  of  open  sea  tor  an  ancient  navigator ;  and  tiie 
period  of  five  days'  sail  from  the  continent  would  be  very  inadequate.  Some  Scandinavian 
writers  have  claimed  Thule  as  belonging  to  their  own  region ;  Rudbeck  for  Sweden ;  Saxo 
Graiiimaticus,  and  Schoenning  for  the  Norwegian  Tcllcmach;  Malte  Brun  for  Jutland. 
Tiiese  theories  seem  sufficiently  reflited  by  the  single  consideration,  that  Pytheas  invariably 
considered  Thule  as  British,  and  expressly  calls  it  the  "  farthest  of  the  Britains."  But 
•Tntland  or  the  Baltic  lie  could  have  only  reached  by  a  long  navigation  along  the  coasts  of 
Germany,  which  could  never  have  been  performed  without  the  clear  perception  of  having 
left  far  behind  him  every  thing  belonging  to  Britain. 

Sect.  VI. — The  Voyage  of  Nearchus, 

Alexander  the  Great  was  animated  beyond,  perhaps,  any  other  ancient  monarch  or  sage, 
Vvith  an  ardent  zeal  for  discovery  His  expedition  became  almost  as  much  one  of  explora- 
tion as  of  conquest.  Its  course  was  in  general  by  land,  and  through  the  interior  of  tho 
continent ;  but  his  mind  was  not  less  deeply  fixed  upon  commerce  and  maritime  discovery. 
On  reaching,  therefore,  the  banks  of  the  Indus,  and  being  obliged  by  the  mu'Jiiy  of  his 
troops  to  fix  there  the  termination  of  his  career,  he  was  seized  with  a  desire  to  explore  the 
lower  course  of  that  river,  and  afterwards  the  southern  coasts  of  Asia ;  a  long  range  com- 
pl'^tely  unknown  to  the  Gioeks.  The  prospects  of  this  voyage,  however,  were  such  ?'s  to 
appal  the  most  enterprising  of  his  naval  officers.  The  perils  of  tempest  and  shipvvref-k  on 
this  wide  and  unknown  ocean,  with  those  of  being  driven  upon  a  barbarous  and  desert 
coast,  appeared  almost  to  preclude  the  hope  of  reaching  by  this  long  circuit  the  destinnd 
stntion  of  the  army  op  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates.  The  inferior  officers  variously  excused 
tlxMnselves  from  so  heavy  a  task ;  and  the  enterprise  appeared  ready  to  fail  for  lack  of  instru- 
ments, when  Nearchus,  the  admiral  of  tho  fleet,  came  forward  and  proffijred  his  own  ser- 
vices. Alexander  unwillingly  committed  this  task  to  an  officer  so  high  in  rank,  and  hia 
intimate  friend ;  but  the  earnestness  of  Nearchus,  and  the  backwardness  of  all  the  others, 
letl  him  at  length  no  alternative. 

The  voyage  down  t\w  Indus  was  brilliant.  Alexander  conveyed  his  nrmy  in  a  crowded 
Bret  of  tvvTi  thousiuid  vessels.  Tfie  sound  of  the  numberless  oars,  echoed  by  the  surround- 
ing woods,  MS  fr^v  flouted  down  this  majestic  stream,  excited  the  admiring  gaze  of  the 
natives.     Alexander  even  accompanied  his  admiral  down  the  Delta  of  the  Indus,  and  took 


PartL 

m  with  an  errone* 
western  coast,  nor 
'  this  impression, 
1  he  came  to  that 
■^  coast  rf  Spain, 
lie  docf,  certainly, 
daring  navijjator, 
f  the  high  billows 
ne  liable  to  some 
commenced  what 
similar  to  the  sub- 
).  He  added,  that 
nd  sky  hung  as  it 
ng  before  him  the 
and  darkened  by 
Id  was  a  confused 
animal  substance 
long  and  difficult 
iy  ear  to  a  report 
!,  beyond  which  it 
Pytheas  was,  that 
lie, — a  summer  of 
iill  of  rumours  of 
a  certain  latitude ; 
northwards  to  an- 
ead,  it  may  easily 
Brated  representa- 
jly  reports  him  as 
lours,  a  statement 
ssured  by  persons 
scarcely  any  sen- 
■y  readily  imagine 
iiterrupted  day. 
land,  seem  not  to 
in  favour  of  each, 
ttvigator ;  and  the 
)me  Scandinavian 
"IT  Sweden ;  Saxo 
Brun  for  Jutland. 
vtheas  invariably 
'  Britains."  But 
ong  the  coasts  of 
3pption  of  having 


monarch  or  sa^e, 
one  of  explora- 
interior  of  tho 
ritime  discovery. 
mu'Jiiy  of  liis 
re  to  explore  the 
ong  ranjTO  corn- 
were  such  ?'s  to 
id  shipwrwk  nn 
trous  and  dosort 
uit  the  dectinnd 
ariously  exciispd 
rir  luck  of  instrii. 
ed  his  own  sor. 
in  rank,  and  his 
if  all  the  others, 


Book  I. 


VOYAGE  OF  NEARCHUS. 


JR 


le 


ny  in  a  crov.'ded 
jy  the  surround- 
ing gaze  of  the 
Indus,  and  took 


a  view  of  the  ocean,  after  which  he  returned,  to  lead  his  army  by  a  moat  perilous  and  diffi- 
cult mute  tiirough  Gedrosia  and  Karamania  to  Babylon. 
Nearchus  now  began  his  arduous  naval  route  (  Fig.  3.),after  the  usual  antique  preparation 

Fig.  a— MAP  OF  THE  VOYAGE  OF  NEARCHUS. 

60  Si  Rl  e 

I I 


»- 


»- 


of  sacrifices  and  games.  At  the  mouth  of  the  river  appeared  a  most  formidable  obstacle ,  a 
rock  barring  the  passage,  and  against  which  the  waves  broke  with  fury.  This  was  sur- 
mounted by  cutting  a  canal  across  the  soflest  part  of  the  rock,  through  which  the  vessels 
were  able  to  pass  at  fiill  tide.  He  then  passed  the  sandy  island  of  Krokali  (Corachie,) 
and  Mount  Eirus  (Cape  Monze,)  when,  being  now  in  the  open  ocean,  a  series  of  gales 
began,  so  heavy  and  continued,  as  obliged  him  to  seek  the  shelter  of  an  excellent  harbour 
formed  by  an  island  called  Bibacta.  The  crews  here  landed,  threw  up  an  entrenchment 
to  defend  themselves  against  the  natives,  and  remained  for  twenty-threo  days,  subsisting 
chiefly  on  shell-fish.  The  wind  having  abated,  they  set  sail,  and  came  to  a  coast  where 
water,  of  which  they  appear  to  have  needed  almost  daily  supplies,  was  only  to  be  got  by 
going  several  miles  up  into  the  country.  They  then  passed  between  a  range  of  rocks,  so 
close  to  each  other,  that  the  oars  struck  against  them  on  each  side.  After  sailing  a  con- 
siderable space,  partly  in  a  narrow  channel  between  a  wooded  island  and  the  shore,  they 
came  to  the  river  Arabius  (the  modem  Pooralee).  It  gave  name  to  a  numerous  people, 
inhabiting  all  the  territory  between  this  river  and  the  Indus.  On  the  other  side  was  the 
coast  of  the  Oritffi.  In  proceeding,  however,  Nearchus  met  with  a  dreadful  tempest,  in 
which  three  of  his  vessels  perished,  though  the  crews  were  saved  by  swimming,  and  he 
with  difficulty  brought  his  shattered  vessels  to  the  coast.  Here  he  found  Leonatus,  whom 
Alexander  had  detached  to  open  a  communication  with  him,  which  he  obtained  only  by 
very  hard  fighting.  Nearchus  here  spent  some  time  in  refitting  his  shattered  vessels,  and 
exchanged  those  of  his  crew  who  had  proved  themselves  less  efficient,  for  fresh  men  out 
of  the  Greek  army.  Having  laid  in  com  for  ten  days,  they  sailed  with  a  prosperous  wind, 
and  reached  the  rapid  stream  of  Tomerus  (the  modem  Wudd).  Here  the  natives,  six 
hundred  strong,  were  drawn  up  to  oppose  their  landing;  a  barbarous  race,  armed  with 
lances  six  cubits  long,  pointed  not  with  iron,  but  with  wood  hardened  iii  the  fire.  Near- 
chus caused  a  band  of  his  light  troops  to  swim  on  shore,  and  to  make  no  movement  till 
they  were  drawn  up  in  a  triple  line,  then  suddenly  to  raise  a  general  shout,  and  pour  in 
clouds  of  darts  and  missiles.  This  sudden  attack,  tlieir  shouts,  and  the  glitter  of  their 
armour,  produced  instant  and  total  rout  on  the  part  of  the  natives.  They  are  described  as 
presenting  an  aspect  almost  incredibly  savage,  being  covered  in  a  great  measure  with  hair, 
and  having  long  nails  like  the  claws  of  wild  beasts.  Their  dress  consisted  in  the  skins  of 
animals  and  of  large  fishes. 

The  expedition  now  steering  out  to  sea,  and  taking  a  southerly  course,  obscrvetl  phen(v 
mena  belonging  to  the  midsummer  of  the  tropic,  the  novelty  of  which  struck  them  with 
surprise.  When  the  sun  was  in  the  meridian  no  shadow  was  projected,  and  when  there 
cnme  to  be  a  little  shadow,  it  declined  to  the  southward.  Stars,  which  were  wont  to  be  seen 
hijrti  in  the  heavens,  were  now  little  above  the  horizon.  At  Bagaziri  (Cape  Arrubah)  they 
left  the  coast  of  uie  Oritte,  and  entered  that  of  the  Ichthyophagi,  or  fish-eaters,  a  food  which 
is  said  to  have  so  remarkably  abounded,  that  even  the  flesh  of  the  cattle  savoured  of  fish, 
from  their  making  it,  like  sea-birds,  their  daily  food.  The  people  were  hospitable,  but  could 
give  only  fishes  and  goats.  It  was  not  till  the  Greeks  had  sailed  a  considerable  distance  that 
at  IJarna  they  found  some  palms,  gardens,  and  verdure.     After  passing  Cophantje  (Guadel,) 

Vol.  I.  3  D 


90 


fflSTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHV. 


Part  I 


I  tif 


1  ! 


where  they  obtained  a  supply  of  fine  water,  and  Cyzia  (Gwutter)  on  a  desert  and  rocky 
shore,  they  came  to  a  small  town  on  a  hill  a  little  inland  (probably  Churbar,)  where  it 
appeared  probable  that  a  supply  of  jjrain  might  be  obtained.  To  possess  himself  of  this, 
Nearchus  had  recourse  to  measures  that  harmonized  much  more  with  the  cliaracter  of  a  buc- 
caneering freebooter,  than  with  that  of  an  officer  of  tlie  first  prince  in  the  world.  The 
people  met  him  in  the  most  kindly  manner,  and  presented  to  him  roasted  fish  and  other  vic- 
tuals. Meeting  their  friendly  advances,  he  expressed  a  wish  to  visit  their  city,  and  being 
cordially  admitted,  his  first  stop  was  to  take  military  occupatioa  of  it,  and  command  tlie 
natives  to  lay  open  to  him  all  their  stores  of  grain.  The  poor  citizens  ut  first  flew  to  anns, 
but  having  no  means  of  efl'ectual  resistance,  were  obliged  to  yield.  It  proved,  however, 
that  they  had  little  except  dried  fish  reduced  to  powder,  and  Nearchus  could  get  only  a  very 
small  stock  of  grain.  In  sailing  now  along  an  almost  desert  coast,  the  stock  of  provisions 
became  excessively  scanty ;  and  they  obtained  only  a  poor  supply  by  landing  and  cutting  off 
the  leaves  of  wild  palm-trees.  The  pressure  became  so  extreme,  and  was  so  impatiently 
borne  by  the  crews,  that  Nearchus  did  not  think  it  safe  to  land  at  night,  lest  they  should  all 
take  flight  into  the  interior.  In  one  place  he  found  a  paltry  village,  all  the  inhabitants  of 
which  fled ;  but  the  Greek^^  found  seven  camels,  which  they  killed  and  eagerly  devoured. 
The  same  distress  continued  to  press  upon  them  so  long  as  they  sailed  along  the  coast  of  the 
"  fish-eaters."  Notwithstanding  this  name,  few  of  them  were  fishers,  or  had  even  boats. 
They -procured  this  food  by  immense  nets,  sometimes  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  formed  out 
of  the  fibrous  bark  of  the  palm  tree.  These  they  placed  at  high  tide  across  tlie  mouth  of 
little  bays,  so  that  when  the  waters  receded,  the  nets  retained  all  the  fish  which  had  been 
carried  up  with  the  tide.  The  houses  of  the  rich  were  built  with  the  bones  of  whales  cast 
ashore,  those  of  the  poor  witli  the  back-bones  of  smaller  fishes,  Nearchus  descried  a  number 
of  whales,  whose  presence  was  a.t  first  made  sensible  only  by  the  quantity  of  water  tlirown 
up  into  the  air,  and  tossed  as  in  a  whirlpool,  a  spectacle  which  struck  the  sailors  with  terror, 
and  made  the  oars  drop  fh)m  their  hands.  The  commander,  however,  on  being  informed  of 
the  cause,  made  his  crews  raise  the  loudest  possible  sound  by  shouts,  trumpets,  and  dashing 
of  oars,  which  at  once  kept  up  their  own  spirits,  and  was  supposed  to  induce  tliese  monsters 
of  the  deep  to  replunge  into  their  abysses. 

The  coast  of  Caramania  was  next  reached  by  Nearchus,  after  passing  the  fiibulous  abode 
of  a  Persian  Circe,  who,  according  to  report,  was  accustomed  to  seduce  the  navigator  by 
voluptuous  pleasures,  and  then  convert  him  inte  a  fish,  Nearchus  now  found  his  distresses 
nearly  at  an  end,  as  the  soil  was  tolerably  productive  in  grain  and  firuits,  and  there  was  plenty 
of  good  water.  Afler  passing  Capes  Jask  and  Bombareek,  they  came  in  view  of  a  huge  pro- 
montory, stretching  fiir  into  the  sea,  called  Cape  Maceta  (Mussendoon),  and  forming  the 
entrance  of  the  Persian  Gulf  The  great  body  of  the  sailors,  and  even  Onesicrotus,  an  officer 
high  in  command,  weary  of  this  long  navigation,  earnestly  proposed  to  land,  and  march  on  foot 
to  Babylon.  Nearchus  justly  and  strongly  insisted  that  this  was  in  no  degree  to  fulfil  the 
intention  of  Alexander,  whose  injunction  it  was,  to  survey  every  coast,  every  harbour,  and 
every  bay,  between  India  and  the  Euphrates ;  and  that  besides  they  incurred  great  hazard  of 
being  involved  in  those  arid  and  burning  deserts,  of  which  Arabia  in  a  great  measuro  con- 
sists. This  wise  opinion  prevailed,  and  in  ascending  the  Persian  Gulf  they  found,  for  the 
most  part,  a  fertile  and  beautifiil  coast.  In  the  delightful  country  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Anamis  (the  modem  Minab)  they  landed,  and  began  to  refresh  themselves  after  so  innny 
hardships.  Nay,  a  party  having  proceeded  to  some  distance  into  the  interior,  met,  with  tonrs 
of  surprise  and  joy,  a  man  in  a  Greek  dres.s,  and  speaking  the  Greek  language.  This  proved 
to  bo  a  soldier  who  had  straggled  from  the  army  of  Alexander,  which  he  reported  to  l)o  at  a 
distance  of  only  five  days'  jouniey.  On  receiving  this  intelligence,  Nearchus  cnusod  the 
ships  to  be  drawn  on  shore,  a  rampart  to  be  formed  round  them,  and  the  crews  to  tnko  rest 
and  refreshment,  while  he  and  Archias  set  out  alone  for  the  camp.  On  their  arrival  they 
presented  an  aspect  so  haggard,  pale,  and  squalid,  that  the  persons  they  met  did  not  know 
them,  but  on  being  told  their  name,  hastened  to  carry  the  first  tidings  to  Alexander.  Tlicy 
odded  (a  hasty  conclusion  formed  tVom  appearances.)  that  the  fleet  and  the  army  hod  por- 
jshed.  Alexander  received  Nearchus  with  a  kindness  mingled  with  sorrow,  and  nf^cr  tlie 
first  salutations,  began  to  ask  particulars  of  the  catastrophe  of  his  favourite  ariu'imonf  :  I  ut 
when  Nenrchus  replied,  "O  king!  tliy  ships  and  men  are  snfc,"  the  conqueror  burst  into  a 
flood  of  tears,  and  swore  by  .Tupiter  Animon,  that  he  derived  more  pleasure  from  this  event 
thnn  from  the  entire  conquest  of  Asia. 

'f'he  rest  nf  the  navigation  of  Nearchus,  when  he  had  with  some  difficulty  rejoined  the  fleet, 
wns  piisy,  ciire  being  taken  that  he  should  find  on  llw  coast  every  kind  of  supply.  'I'liey 
pa.=sed  the  barren  and  desert  rock  of  Orjrann,  afterwards  so  celelirnted  under  the  nimr  n' 
Ormnz,  the  larrje  and  fertile  Oaricti,  Cthe  modern  Kishme).  Soon  ofler  thou  (^'litt; ■•!  tlie 
coast  of  Carmmnia  and  enterod  tb?)t  of  PF-rsia  proper  (the  modern  Fnrs.)  which  they  foUisw- 
ed  till  its  l.enninotion  at  the  riv^r  Aro^is  Ctlie  modern  Endinn  Tab,)  which  appeared  to  tlmm 
tlie  hinrest  thoy  had  seen  sincf  t'lf'v  had  left  the  Indus.  They  were  now  in  Susiaiiii,  and 
Boon  renclieil  the  mouth  of  thf  Tinris.  where  the  vovago  terminated. 


Part  f 

a  desert  wid  rocky 
|r  Churbar,)  where  it 
sess  himself  of  this, 
e  character  of  a  buc- 
in  the  world.  The 
i  fish  and  other  vic- 
their  city,  and  beinw 
t,  and  command  the 
it  first  flew  to  anns, 
It  proved,  however, 
ould  get  only  a  very 

stock  of  provisions 
ding  and  cutting  off 

was  so  impatiently 
lest  they  should  all 

the  inhabitants  of 
d  eagerly  devoured, 
ong  the  coast  of  the 
or  had  even  boats, 
ile  long,  formed  out 
cross  the  mouth  of 
ish  which  had  been 
mes  of  whales  cast 
i  descried  a  number 
ty  of  water  thrown 

sailors  with  terror, 
being  informed  of 
npets,  and  dashing 
uce  these  monsters 

the  febulous  abode 

e  the  navigjitor  by 

)und  his  distresses 

id  there  was  plenty 

iew  of  a  huge  f)ro. 

,  and  forming  the 

isicrotus,  an  officer 

and  march  on  toot 

legree  to  fulfil  the 

'ery  harbour,  and 

'  great  hazard  of 

eat  measure  con- 

hey  found,  for  the 

outh  of  the  river 

es  aflcr  so  immy 

r,  met,  with  te-irs 

ge.    This  proved 

ported  to  be  ;it  a 

rchus  cnupod  the 

ews  to  tnke  rest 

heir  arrival  fhoy 

et  did  not  know 

exnndor.     They 

army  find  por- 

w,  nnd  n!)(<r  (he 

(inn^'mput :  I  ut 

rnr  Iniri-t  into  a 

from  this  event 

ffained  tlie  ftrp.t, 
supply,  'riiey 
^r  the  n'irrir  n 

Uny  niiif)..-!  fijg 
i'*h  tlipy  ffillinv- 
penrrd  fo  titom 
n  Susiana,  and 


Book  I. 


PERIPLUS  OP  THE  ERYTHREAN  SEA. 


27 


.ja^ 


The  circumnavigation  of  Arabia,  and  the  opening  of  a  communication  between  the  Red 
Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  formed  to  Alexander  on  object  of  almost  equal  ambition.  He 
SA'cordingly  appears  to  have  sent  expeditions  down  both  seas,  in  the  hope  of  accomplishing 
this  object.  Those,  however,  who  went  fVom  Persia  were  never  able  to  double  that  formidable 
promontory  (the  Mussendoon)  which  Nearchus  had  passe*!  at  the  entrance  of  the  gulf;  while 
those  who  went  from  Egypt,  after  making  a  certain  progress,  were  always  obliged  to  return 
for  want  of  water.  The  narrator  chose  to  conclude  with  inferring,  that  such  an  achieve- 
ment must  be  beyond  human  skill  or  power,  otherwise  the  daring  curiosity  of  Alexander 
would  certainly  have  accomplished  it.  He  reinforces  this  argument  by  observing,  that  as 
caravans  which  crossed  Arabia  were  able  to  travel  only  during  the  night  and  in  the  day 
were  unable  to  bear  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun,  it  was  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  a  region 
Btill  farther  to  the  south  should  be  at  all  habitable. 

Sect.  VII. — Periplua  of  the  Erythrean  Sea. 

The  complete  establishment  of  the  dominion  of  Rome  produced  a  long  period  of  compara- 
tive peace.  The  encouragement  of  industry  and  commerce  never  formed  part  of  the  pol  icy 
of  tiiat  powerful  empire ;  but  the  demand  for  luxuries  of  every  description  in  its  overgrown 
capital,  where  the  wealth  of  the  world  was  collected,  and  to  procure  which  the  remotest 
extremities  of  the  earth  and  sea  were  ransacked,  powerfully  stimulated  mercantile  enterprise. 
Alexandria  continued  still  the  great  nautical  school,  by  whose  mariners  the  obstacles  which 
in  the  time  of  Alexander  had  been  deemed  insurmountable  were  completely  overcome. 
Regular  voyages  were  established  across  to  India,  and  for  a  considerable  extent  along  the 
eastern  coast  of  Africa.  The  course  of  this  commercial  voyage  is  related  by  Arrian,  not 
the  historian  of  Alexander,  but  a  merchant  of  Alexandria ;  and  though  not  so  much  a  voyage 
of  discovery  as  a  coasting  guide,  it  is  founded,  probably,  upon  personal  observation,  and  will 
enable  us  to  complete  the  survey  of  the  great  naval  routes  of  the  ancient  world. 

The  voyage  down  the  west  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  began  with  Berenice,  founded  by  the 
Ptolemies,  and  the  site  of  which,  after  being  long  sought  for  in  vain,  seems  to  have  been 
nearly  fixed  by  Belzoni.  The  coast  on  the  African  side  wr.?  wild,  and  occupied  only  by  a 
few  rude  huts  of  barbarous  Nubians.  The  small  port  called  Ptolemais  Theron  was  the 
only  place  where  refreshments  could  be  obtained.  At  length,  the  navigator  came  to  AduH, 
a  great  emporium,  whose  site  Mr.  Salt  seems  to  have  ascertained  in  the  vicinity  of  Arkeeko. 
Here  was  a  profusion  of  excellent  ivory,  collected  and  sent  down  from  Axum,  the  metropo- 
lis, about  eigiit  days'  journey  in  the  interior.  In  return  for  this  single  staple  of  Etliiopia 
was  exchanged  that  variety  of  showy  colours,  suited  to  a  rude  taste ;  pottery  and  glass 
vessels,  the  manufacture  of  Diospolis ;  brass  for  vessels  and  ornaments,  iron  for  pointing 
lances,  arms,  and  cutting  instruments.  Some  fine  cloths,  and  ornaments  of  gold  and  silver, 
were  brought  as  presents  or  tribute  to  the  king.  Fartlier  down,  apparently  in  the  Gulf  of 
Zeyla,  was  the  kingdom  of  Zoskales,  a  prince  who  is  described  in  glowing  terms  as  adorned 
witii  every  virtue,  and  eminently  skilled  in  Grecian  literature;  but  these  seeds  of  civiliza- 
tion, if  they  ever  existed,  did  not  ripen  in  so  imgenial  a  climate.  The  coast  now  turns 
eastward  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 

A  view  of  the  passage  down  the  opposite  or  eastern  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  must  now  be 
taken.  Navigatore  do  ngt  seem  to  have  ventured  across  the  breadth  of  that  sea  from  Berenice, 
but  went  by  Myos  Hormus,  along  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  touching  at  Leuke  Knme, 
the  fair  village,  which  formed  the  port  of  the  great  commercial  capitfil  of  Petra.  The  co(i.st 
downwards  was  most  unfavourable  to  navigation,  "  full  of*  danger,  without  harbours,  be^-et 
with  rocks,  everywhere  full  of  horror ;"  and  such  the  whole  of  the  Red  Sea  is  described  to 
be  by  modern  navigators.  If  a  vessel  was  driven  too  near  the  shore,  it  was  immediately 
plundered  by  the  barbarous  inhabitants,  and  all  who  survived  caiTied  into  slavery.  At  Icni'th 
they  came  to  the  Burnt  Island,  which  seems  to  be  Gebel  Tor,  on  the  coast  of  Yemen,  where 
they  found  a  fine  country  and  a  friendly  people.  The  emporium  of  this  coast  was  Moosa, 
near  the  modern  Mocha,  said  to  be  inhabited  by  a  race  skilled  in  maritime  afliiirs.  The 
imports  were  of  the  same  description  as  at  Aduli,  but  of  finer  quality,  including  a 
considerable  quantity  of  dye-stufTs.  The  exports  were  myrrh,  gum,  alabaster  (no  mcntidn 
yet  of  coffee).  They  then  proceeded  downwards,  and  passed  the  straits  now  called  Bab  el 
Maiidel. 

Tiio  southern  coast  of  Arabia  formed  the  next  object  of  navigation.  Ocelis  (the  modern 
Gliolla)  was  a  good  harbour,  though  with  little  trade ;  but  Arabia  Felix,  which  seems  to 
have  been  near  the  site  of  Aden,  had  been  a  most  flourishing  port,  forming  a  depot  in  whirh 
the  merchants  of  Alexandria  found  all  the  commodities  of  India.  It  had  lately,  however, 
been  destroyed  bv  the  Romans.  In  coasting  along  Arabia,  tiiey  found  Kane  (the  modern 
Macculla) ;  the  Gulf  of  Sachalites,  in  which  is  found  the  modern  Sahar ;  and  Syajrros,  de- 
Bcribed  as  the  Inrgest  promontory  in  the  world,  usually  supposed  to  be  Ras  el  Had,  but 
which  Vincent  appears  clearly  to  fix  in  the  much  more  westerly  position  of  Cape  FiirtJtsh, 
This  rejrion  is  described  as  yielding  a  considerable  quantity  of  incense,  but  as  extrnncly 
moist  and  unhealtliv.     They  now  passed  Mosca  (Morebat),  Asichone  (Hasec),  the  islanda 


2B 


mSTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  I. 


r 


I  ! 


I 


of  Zenobius  (Curia  Muria),  and  came  to  Ras  el  Had,  where  the  coast  turns  northward  to 
the  Persian  Gulf.  The  writer  observes,  and  truly,  that  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  is  bordered 
by  very  lolly  and  rugged  mountains;  he  mentions  the  celebrated  pearl  fishery  on  its 
western  shore,  and  Apologos,  otherwise  called  Oboleh,  then  the  emporium  of  the  Euphrates 
He  does  not  dwell,  however,  on  these  details,  and  passes  also,  with  very  slight  notice,  the 
southern  coast  of  Persia,  which  the  observations  of  Nearchua  had  shown  to  oe  destitute  of 
any  materials  for  commerce. 
The  coast  of  India  {Jig.  4.)  now  commences,  and  forms  the  most  important  era  in  the 


FtjT- 4.— PcRirLUB— Coast  of  India. 

eS  70  7!  74 


76 


••» 


•^ 


- 


.11 


•  I 


Moouru' 


voyage.    He  reaches  the  mouth  of  the 
great  river  Sinthus,  by  which  name  he 
designates  the  Indus.    It  is  represented 
as  entering  the  sea  b^  seven  mouths,  onlv 
one  of  which  is  navigable,  and  on  which 
is  situated  a  place  culed  Emporium  Bar- 
baricum,  subject  to  the  interior  metropolis^  - 
of  Minnagara,  which  last  is  described  as  a 
Scythian  city.    The  idea  of  Scvthia  at- 
tached to  this  part  of  India  could  only  begj. 
Buwjrested  by  the  rude  pastoral  manners 
of  tlie  people,  and,  combmed  with  the  cir* 
cumstance  of  its  being  included  in  the 
Parthian  empire,  points  out  Minnagara  asio 
belonging  to  what  is  now  called  the  king- 
dom of  Caubiil,  to  which,  in  fact,  the  Del- 
ta of  the  Indus  is  still  subject    The  mer- 
chants were  obliged  to  go  up  to  Minna- "  '' 
gara,  and  to  negotiate  with  the  prince 
himself.    After  passing  the  Indus,  navi- 
gators found  successively  the  gulfs  ofi«- 
Eirin(Cutch)  and  of  Barygaza  (Riroach). 
The  narrator  here  remarks  the  dangers 
of  every  kind  with  which  these  gulfs  are^^ 
beset,  shallows,  concealed  rocks,  narrow 
and  difRcult  entrances,  but  above  all,  the 

extraordinary  occasional  violence  of  the      |  „j, i.%o  Uu 

tide ;  in  consequence  of  which,  unexpe-,, 
rienced  navigators  often  saw  their  vessels 
either  sunk  or  driven  on  shore.  Frequent- 
ly, when  they  were  sailing  in  perfectly 
smooth  water,  a  sound  was  heard  as  of  an 
advancing  army ;  and  soon  the  tide  rr.shed 
on  with  such  force,  that  no  anchor  could  secure'  the  vessels,  Barygaza  was  a  very  great 
emporium,  at  which  were  found  the  same  commodities  as  at  Emporium  Barbaricum,  with 
much  finer  cloths,  and  a  quantity  of  long  pepper.  Ozene  (Ougein)  was  a  great  interior 
capital,  the  prince  of  which  it  was  necessary  to  propitiate,  by  sending  up  handsome  presents 
of  the  very  best  wine,  rich  unguents,  cloth,  and  beautiful  female  slaves. 

The  region  of  Dachinabades  "(the  Decan,  i.  e.  the  South,  for  Arrian  remarks,  Aaj:aw)j 
*oA.fir(u  6  votoj  t*i  avfuf  -flMaatj)  extended  to  the  south  of  Barygaza,  and  is  described  as 
combining  "  many  regions,  deserts,  huge  mountains,  wild  beasts  of  every  kind,  and  finally, 
many  great  and  populous  nations."  It  had  two  large  interior  capitals,  Plithana  and  Tagara ; 
the  one  twenty  days'  journey  south  from  Barygaza,  the  other  ten  days  farther.  The  gran- 
deur of  both  has  sunk  under  the  changes  to  which  eastern  cities  are  subject ;  but  the  site 
of  the  former  seems  recognised  in  Piltanah  on  the  Godavery,  tliat  of  the  latter  in  Deogiiir, 
now  Dowlatabad,  in  whose  vicinity  are  the  magnificent  sculptured  temples  of  Ellora.  A 
number  of  ports  are  now  described,  which  cannot  be  very  precisely  determined ;  but  Kal- 
liena,  mentioned  as  the  seat,  though  with  some  interruptions,  of  a  very  great  commerce,  is 
pretty  clearly  recognised  at  or  near  the  modem  Bombay.  Afterwards  we  may  know  the 
Concan  by  the  mention  of  pirates.  At  length  the  Greeks  reached  Limyrike,  a  fine  port, 
and  the  seat  of  a  great  trade.  The  three  chief  emporia  were  Tyndis  (Barcelore),  Moosiria 
(JManfralore),  and  Nelkunda  (Nelisuram).  This  last,  which  has  sunk  into  a  place  of  very 
socondary  importance,  was  then  tlie  chief  southern,  as  Barygaza  was  the  chief  nortiiern, 
emporium  of  western  India.  The  larger  Greek  vessels  had  even,  by  availing  themsolvea 
of  the  monsoon,  been  enabled,  with  a  daring  course  very  foreign  to  the  usual  habits  of 
ancient  navigation,  to  steer  directly  across  from  the  mouth  of  the  Red  Sea  tu  Nelkunda. 
riic  grand  stnple  then,  as  now,  was  pepper ;  tcj  which  were  added  pearls,  and  precious 
stones  of  various  descriptions,  among  wliicii  were  diamonds  and  hyacinths,  cotton  cloths, 
turtoiije-shell,  and  betel-leaf,  from  tlie  interior.    Among  tlie  imports,  according  to  the  usual 


68 


-r- 

72 


74 


76 


Part  I. 

t  turns  northwud  to 
'  the  Gulf  is  bordered 
pearl  fishery  on  its 
jm  of  the  Euphrates, 
ry  slight  notice,  the 
vn  to  be  destitute  of 

mportant  era  in  the 
BT  OF  India. 


Hook  I. 


PERIPLUS  OF  THE  ERYTHREAN  SEA. 


Vi 


H 


78 


TkfU* 


KlIlitM 


-u 


-a 


30 


.18 


.  was  a  very  great 
Barbaricum,  with 
a  great  interior 
landsome  presents 

remarks,  ^axavof 
i  is  described  as 
kind,  and  finally, 
lana  and  Tagara ; 
her.  The  gran- 
ict;  but  the  site 
itter  in  Deogliir, 
es  of  Ellora.  A 
nined;  but  Kal- 
lat  commerce,  is 

may  know  the 
ike,  a  fine  port, 
:elore),  Moosiris 
a  place  of  very 
chief  northern, 
ling  themtielves 
usual  habits  of 
:a  to  Nelkunda. 
3,  and  precious 

cotton  cloths, 
ng  to  the  usual 


course  of  Indian  trade,  stood  foremost  "  much  money,"  a  little  cloth,  and  a  little  wine ;  but 
a  considerable  quantity  of  metals  and  toys,  brass,  lead,  tin,  glass,  coral,  stibium  for  painting 
the  eyes,  orpiment,  and  cinnabar.  There  is  much  appearance  that  Nelkunda  was  the  tar- 
thest  point  to  which  the  Greek  navi^tors  actually  penetrated,  and  that  they  found  there  a 
supply  of  the  commodities  produced  in  the  more  eastern  regions. 

All  beyond  Nelkunda  is  faint  and  tinctured  with  fable.  We  recognise,  however,  Comar 
(Cape  Comorin),  Taprobane  (Ceylon),  and  its  great  pearl-fishery.  The  Coromandel  coast 
is  nearly  a  blank,  till  we  arrive  at  Masalin,  which,  with  the  great  abundance  of  its  cotton 
cloths,  speaks  clearly  Masulipatan.  In  proceedinp  northwards,  navigators  came  to  a  strange 
and  barbarous  people,  with  visages  sometimes  of  enopnous  length,  at  others  resembling 
those  of  horses,  and  some  eating  human  flesh :  an  exaggerated  picture  of  the  fierce  preda- 
tory races  who  occupy  the  mountain  and  jungle  tracts  of  Orissa.  Arrian  describes  accurately, 
however,  the  direction  to  the  east  which  the  coast  of  the  ocean  takes,  before  it  receives  the 
mighty  flood  of  the  Ganges.  At  its  niouth  there  was  then,  it  seems,  a  great  emporium 
bearing  the  name,  which  no  city  now  does,  of  the  river  itself.  The  staple  was  "  superla- 
tively fine  cotton  cloths,  called  Gangetic,"  and  which  still  exist  in  the  superb  fabrics  of 
Dacca  and  Moorshedabad. 

In  the  regions  beyond  Ganges  the  author  of  the  Periplus  gropes  almost  in  total  darkness. 
Mention  is  made  of  an  island,  the  farthest  part  of  the  world  to  the  east,  and  which  is  richly 
stored  with  the  most  precious  productions  of  the  countries  that  lie  on  the  shore  of  the  Red 
Sea.  This  cannot  seemingly  he  anj'  other  than  Sumatra,  though  erroneously  placed  near 
the  Ganges.  The  only  ulterior  position  is  Thinm,  a  great  interior  city,  situated  opposite  to 
Pontus  and  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  near  to  where  the  Pains  McBotis  flows  into  the  ocean.  This 
strange  site  we  shall  aflerwards  find  reason  to  consider  as  a  combination  of  some  actual 
rumours  with  the  tlieory  formed  by  the  first  Alexandrian  school  respecting  the  form  and 
dimensions  of  the  continent  of  Asia.  There  seems  some  reason,  however,  to  conclude  with 
Dr.  Vincent,  that  this  ThineB,  whence  caravans  came  by  way  of  Bactria  to  Barygaza,  must 
have  obscurely  indicated  the  capital  of  China.  Nor  can  we  be  easily  persuaded  that  in 
the  malabathrum,  though  most  usually  applied  to  betel-leaf,  some  confused  idea  of  tea  is  not 
involved.    Its  being  so  strictly  characteristic  of  China,  and  being  brought  by  persons  of  a 


Fig.  5^— Periplus — African  Coast. 


M- 


8* 


broad  forehead,  short  body,  and  flat  nose, 
features  decidedly  Mongol  and  Chinese, 
seem  all  in  favour  of  this  supposition,  and 
inconsistent  with  that  which  would  make 
it  merely  betel-leaf,  a  product  of  Indostan ; 
though  there  is  doubtless  a  great  and  mani- 
fest confusion  between  the  two  sulistances. 
We  must  now  look  back  to  the  Straits 
of  Bab-el-Mandel,  and  follow  our  author 
along  the  African  coast.  (Fig.  5.)  From 
those  straits  vessels  proceeded  eastward 
along  the  shore  opposite  to  Arabia,  the 
modem  Berbera.  Its  ports,  Avalites,  Mo- 
syllum,  Mundos,  Daphnon,  and  others, 
cannot  be  easily  identified  on  a  coast,  with 
respect  to  which  we  have  scarcely  any 
modern  data.  The  imports  were  nearly 
the  same  as  at  Adulis ;  the  exports  were 
myrrh,  frankincense,  a  species  of  ciima- 
mon  called  casia,  some  other  aromatics, 
slaves,  and  a  little  ivory.  At  length  they 
doubled  the  promontory  of  Aromata  (Guar- 
dafui),  when  they  came  to  a  coast  stretch- 
ing to  the  southward  and  facing  the  Indian 
-10  Ocean.  Here  was  a  port,  the  seat  of  a 
considerable  trade,  but  by  no  means  secure ; 
however,  when  the  north  wind  began  to 
blow  with  dangerous  violence,  the  ves.sela 
found  shelter  in  the  neiglibouring  promon- 
tory and  port  of  Tabai.  Proceeding  on- 
wards, they  found  Opone,  Apokapa  the 
less  and  greater,  Nicon,  Serapion,  seven 
successive  rivers,  with  anchorages  at  the 
mouth  of  each.  Soon  after,  at  the  distance 
of  about  three  hundred  stadia  from  the 
continent,  there  occurred  a  low  wooded  is- 
land, bearing  the  very  expanded  name  of 


m 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  I. 


M 


IH 


1 


♦^   'l 


Eitnnediom-menoutheBias,  which  other  writerB  wisely  contract  into  Monuthias.  It  contained 
nn  wild  animals,  but  abounded  in  fish,  particularly  tortoises,  which  the  inhabitants  were  very 
dili};ent  in  catching.  Two  days'  voyage  farther  brought  them  to  Rhapta,  a  promontory  and 
pore,  and  the  seat  of  a  great  trade.  Beyond  this  point,  the  ocean  was  not  yet  explored ;  but 
It  turned  to  the  west  and  south,  and  was  supposed  to  continue  in  that  direction  till  it  joined 
the  Atlantic.  The  exports  from  this  coast  were  ivory  in  great  abundance,  but  not  equal  in 
quality  to  that  of  Aduli ;  tortoise-shell,  superior  to  every  other  except  that  of  India ;  and  a 
number  of  valuable  slaves,  chiefly  destined  for  the  Egyptian  market.  The  territory  was 
governed  by  a  number  of  petty  kings,  all  owning  the  supremacy  of  Mopharites,  who  was 
himself  tributary  to  Moosa,  by  the  vessels  of  which  great  commercial  state  the  trade  of  this 
coast  was  almost  entirely  carried  on. 

Tlie  extent  of  coast  tlms  described  by  the  author  of  the  Periplus  has  been  the  subject  of 
considerable  controversy.  Dr.  Vincent  fixes  Rhapta,  its  farthest  point,  at  Quiloa,  tlins 
allowing  a  navigation  of  upwards  of  fifteen  hundred  miles;  while  the  rigid  scepticism  of 
M.  Gosselin,  placuig  it  at  Brava  near  the  mouth  of  tiie  Doara,  allows  a  good  deal  less  than 
half  that  distance.  Dr.  Vincent  here,  however,  appears  to  carry  tiie  question  triumphantly, 
by  means  of  his  seven  mouths  of  rivers,  of  which  M.  Gosselin  admits  that  no  trace  can  be 
found  within  his  limits.  They  are  clearly  prcs'^nted  by  the  estuaries  of  the  Quillimanci, 
on  which  are  the  important  harbours  of  Patte,  Melinda,  and  Mombaza.  But  we  cannot,  with 
Dr.  Vincent,  pass  by  Pemba  and  Zanzibar,  to  find  in  the  little  island  of  Monfia  the  Menu- 
thiaa  of  Airian.  Zanzibar,  from  its  size  and  its  proximity  to  the  coast,  appears  a  feature 
wiiich  it  was  impossible  to  overlook,  and  its  position  is  in  much  better  bearing  with  the 
seven  estuaries  previously  passed.  The  next  cape  mast  then  be  Rhapta,  and  this  will  be 
tliat  opposite  to  which  is  situated  the  bmall  group  of  tiic  Ilinagie  Islands.  Beyond  it  for 
a  considerable  distance  the  coast  runs  in  the  direction  of  south-west,  which  docs  not  at  all 
admit  the  placing  Rhapta  beyond  Quiloa,  nor,  indeed,  on  any  other  part  of  the  coast  till 
after  we  pass  Mosambiquc. 


CHAPTER  III. 

GREEK  GEOGRAPHY  BEFORE  ALEXANDER. 


Greece  is  regarded  by  all  civilized  nations  as  their  instructress  in  the  sciences,  many  of 
the  most  brilliant  of  which  she  carried  to  the  utmost  perfection.  In  that  of  geograpliy, 
however,  little  progress  was  made  until  the  fbrmation  of  the  Greek  kingdom  in  Egypt 
under  the  Ptolemies.  Neither  extensive  commerce  nor  distant  conquest  ciiaractcrised  the 
Grecian  states,  otherwise  so  illustrious  for  all  the  arts  of  peace  and  war.  It  was  not  till 
the  conquering  career  of  Alexander,  that  the  survey  of  the  Greeks  was  extended  over  the 
wide  circuit  of  the  ancient  world.  Engaged  before  that  era  in  tlie  glorious  defensive  war 
against  Persia,  and  the  contests  with  each  other  for  pre-eminence,  they  confined  their  views 
very  much  within  the  limits  of  Greece  and  its  neighbouring  coasts  and  islands. 

The  first  traces  of  Greek  geography  are  found  among  its  poets,  whose  brilliant  fiincy  has 
spread  its  lustre  over  all  the  regions  with  which  Greece  ever  held  mtercourse.  Homer 
took  the  lead,  and  his  liigh  authority  gave  to  the  geography  of  the  Greeks  a  poetical  cast, 
wliich  they  transmitted  to  the  nations  whom  they  taught,  and  of  which  tlie  traces  are  not 
entirely  obliterated. 

Sect.  I. — Geography  of  Homer. 

It  is  in  Homer  that  we  find  the  first  tra.  e  of  the  widely-prevalent  idea,  that  the  earth  is  a 
flat  circle,  begirt  on  every  side  by  the  oce^  n.  This  was  indeed  a  natural  idea  in  a  region  so 
entirely  insular  and  peninsular,  nowhere  presenting,  like  Judea,  a  vast  tract  stretching  so 
far  as  to  give  the  idea  of  immeasurable  distance.  The  circular  shape  was  suggested  by  that 
of  the  visible  horizon ;  and  until  science  demonstrated  the  globular  form  of  our  planet,  the 
very  natural  opinion  prevailed  that  the  earth  was  a  flat  circle,  with  tiie  vault  of  heaven  above, 
darkness,  and  the  abode  of  departed  souls  beneath. 

Homer,  like  Hesiod  and  the  ancient  poets  generally,  delights  in  topographical  detail,  and 
ecnrcely  allows  a  city  or  natural  object  to  pass  without  applying  to  it  some  chaructoristic 
epithet.  It  was  only,  however,  within  a  very  limited  range  that  he  could  give  these  distinct 
and  animated  notices.  The  Greek  islands,  beautiful  and  fertile  sjwts,  which  seem  to  Iiave 
been  the  first  cradle  of  European  civilization,  were  the  central  point  from  which  his  know- 
ledge emanatofl.  Ho  knew  well,  and  had  probably  visited,  on  one  side  Peloponnesus,  Attica, 
and  the  regions  immediately  adjoining;  on  the  other,  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
the  banks  of  the  beautiful  rivers  by  which  it  is  watered.  Perhaps  scarcely  any  other  tract 
on  the  globe  presents  within  the  same  compass  such  a  variety  of  grand  and  bcautifiil  objects 
to  rouse  the  imagination.  Beyond  this  circuit  the  world  of  Homer  was  soon  involved  in 
mysterious  obscurity.  Some  grnnd  and  distant  ffaturos.  discernibie  through  the  gloom,  were 
exaggerated  and  distorted  by  ignorance  and  superstition.    Thebes,  the  mighty  capital  ol* 


Part  1. 

luthias.  It  contained 
[ihabitttnts  were  very 
ta,  a  promontory  and 
lot  yet  explored ;  but 
lirection  till  it  joined 
nee,  but  not  equal  in 
that  of  India ;  and  a 
The  territory  was 
Mopharites,  who  was 
tato  the  trade  of  this 

!  been  the  subject  of 
int,  at  Qtiiloa,  tiiua 
rigid  scepticism  of 
I  gfood  deal  loss  than 
estion  triumphantly, 
that  no  trace  can  be 
I  of  the  Quillimanci, 
But  we  cannot,  with 
)f  Monfia  the  Menu- 
st,  appears  a  feature 
er  bearing  witii  the 
>ta,  and  this  will  be 
ands.  Beyond  it  for 
/hicii  does  not  at  all 
Mirt  of  the  coast  till 


Book  I 


GEOGRAPHY  OP  HOMER. 


81 

and 


le  sciences,  many  of 

I  that  of  geography, 

kingdom   in  Egypt 

st  ciianictcrised  tlie 

,'ar.     It  was  not  till 

extended  over  the 

rious  defensive  war 

onfined  their  views 

lands. 

brilliant  fancy  has 
iitercourse.  Homer 
eks  a  poetical  cast, 
tlie  traces  are  not 


that  the  earth  is  a 

I  idea  in  a  region  so 

pact  stretching  so 

suggested  by  that 

of  our  planet,  the 

\\t  of  heaven  above, 

iphical  detail,  and 

|ome  charactoristic 

yive  these  distinct 

Ihich  seem  to  liave 

which  his  know- 

|oponncsus,  Attica, 

'  Asia  Minor,  and 

|y  any  other  tract 

bcautifiil  objects 

[soon  involved  in 

pi  the  gloom,  were 

ligiity  capital  of 


EL'VPt,  when  that  kingdom  was  in  ita  greatest  glory,  is  celebrated  for  it«  hundred  g 
tlu-  iiosts  of  warriors  which  tliey  sent  forth  to  battle.  Beyond  lay  tlie  Ethiopians,  deemed 
the  remotest  of  men,  dwelling  on  the  farthest  verge  of  the  earth,  and  to  whose  distant 
coil  lines  Jupiter  repaired  to  hold  an  annual  festival.  In  the  western  part  of  the  same  conti. 
nciit  the  stupendous  ridges  of  Atlas  had  excited  in  Grecian  fancy  the  image  of  a  gigantic 
deitied  being,  to  whom  was  intrusted  the  support  of  the  heavens.  Even  farther  to  the  west, 
the  exploits  and  wanderings  of  the  great  Grecian  demigod  bad  conveyed  a  tradition  of  the 
strait  leiwling  into  the  ocean,  and  of  uie  rocks  on  each  side,  pelebrated  under  the  denomination 
of  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  On  the  east,  Colchos  was  distinguished  by  its  early  wealth  and 
commerce ;  it  was  considered  a  city  on  the  ocean,  with  which,  therefore,  the  Black  Sea 
must  have  been  confounded ;  and  being  supposed  to  contain  the  palace  of  the  Sun,  where 
during  tiie  night  he  gave  rest  to  his  coursers,  and  whence  in  the  morning  he  drove  his 
chariot  to  its  diurnal  career,  Colchos  must  have  been  regarded  by  Homer  as  placed  on  the 
most  eastern  verge  of  the  earth.  On  the  north,  Rhodope,  under  the  name  ot  theRiphcean 
Muiintains,  was  considered  a  chain  of  indefinite  extent,  closing  in  the  northern  limits  of  the 
world.  Tlie  poet,  however,  had  heard  a  vague  report  of  the  Scythians,  under  the  description 
of  a  people  subsisting  on  mares'  milk.  The  vessels  which  conveyed  the  Grecian  army  to 
Troy  were  evidently  little  better  than  krge  boats;  and  all  distant  voyages,  or  those  in  which 
land  was  lost  sight  of,  were  considered  as  fraught  with  the  extremest  peril.  A  navigation 
to  Africa  or  to  Sicily  took  place  only  through  tempest,  terminating  usually  in  sliipwreck ; 
and  a  return  from  these  shores  was  esteemed  almost  miraculous.  In  regard  to  Sicily,  indeed. 
Homer  has  largely  communicated  his  ideas,  having  made  it  the  theatre  of  the  woes  and 
wanderings  of  the  hero  of  the  Odyssey.  Making  every  allowance  for  poetical  license,  we  see 
evident  traces  of  the  terrified  and  excited  state  of  mind  in  tlie  navigators  who  returned  from 
these  shores.  Monsters  of  strange  form  and  magnitude,  who  watched  for  the  destruction  of 
the  mariner,  and  even  fed  upon  his  quivering  limbs ;  delusive  syrens,  who  lured  but  to  destroy ; 
imprisonment  under  tlie  transformed  shape  of  wild  beasts ;  these,  probably,  are  only  a  highly- 
coloured  repetition  of  tlie  terrific  rumours  brought  by  the  few  whose  bark  had  been  wafted 
to  those  as  yet  savage  coasts. 

Sect.  U. — Poetical  Oeography. 

An  ideal  and  poetical  character  was  communicated  to  the  science  of  geography  itself  by 
tlie  fables  with  wliich  Homer  thus  tinged  his  narrative.    This  tendency  indeed  did  not  rest 
solely  upon  Homeric  influence,  but  proceeded  from  certain  secret  workings  of  the  human 
heart.  There  exist  in  man  ideas  and  wishes  for  which,  in  the  sphere  of  his  actual  existence, 
he  can  find  no  corresiwnding  objects ;  these  he  creates  for  himself  in  that  dim  boundary 
whicii  separates  the  known  from  the  unknown  world.     There  involuntarily  arises  in  hifl 
breast  a  longing  after  a  more  exalted  state  of  existence  than  the  world  before  him  presents— 
briglit  scenes,  whicii  he  seeksbut  never  finds  in  the  circuit  of  realities.  In  a  newly-discovered 
region,  hov/ever,  whicii  possesses  any  share  of  beauty,  imagination  soon  heightens  the  colours 
of  nature,  till  they  appear  to  fulfil  its  fond  anticipations.     Such  were  those  brilliant  spot* 
celebrated  by  tlie  poets  under  the  title  of  the  Gardens  of  the  Hesperides — the  Fortunatfc 
Islands — the  Isles  of  the  Blest — for  which,  when  knowledge  had  dispelled  the  first  illusion, 
and  biouglit  them  down  to  the  ordinary  level,  a  place  was  still  found  in  some  more  distaa' 
extremity  of  the  globe.     Northern  Africa,  as  it  stretched  westward,  was  peculiarly  adaptedf 
by  its  i-triking  and  brilliant  contrasts,  to  excite  these  illusions.     The  first  site  of  the  Hesperian 
gardens  was  at  tlie  frontier  of  Cyrene,  where  they  are  described  by  Scylax  as  forming  a 
luxuriant  grove,  in  which  the  lotus  and  the  palm  were  mingled  with  tlie  finest  trees  of 
Europe.     Other  and  more  western  sites  were  successively  found,  both  for  them  and  the 
Fortimate  Islands,  which  last  were  finally  fixed,  probably  on  very  imperfect  observation,  at 
the  Canaries.     These  islands  have  not  altogether  lost  the  appellation ;  and  they  are  painted 
by  Ilo'ace  in  glowing  colours  as  a  refuge  still  left  for  mortals  from  that  troubled  and  imper- 
fect existence  whicii  they  experience  in  every  other  quarter  of  the  globe.     Independent, 
however,  of  this  bright  and  romantic  enjoyment,  there  are  other  objects  of  fond  desire  to  the 
human  lieart.  In  this  agitated  world  it  sighs  after  peace — a  scene  of  profound  repose,  exempt 
■  from  tlie  tumults  of  pfission  and  the  corrosion  of  care.     Such  a  scene,  indeed,  would  never 
fulfil  the  liopes  thus  formed;  yet  these  hopes  spring  from  a  natural  illusion,  to  flatter  which 
Grecian  poetry  conjured  up  a  fhbled  race,  the  Hyperboreans,  seated  in  tlie  recet-ses  of  the 
North,  and  sheltered  by  vast  mountains  fironi  the  rage  of  the  elements.     They  were  repre- 
sented as  exempted  from  all  ills,  physical  and  moral,  the  change  of  seasons,  sickness,  and 
even  from  death.     Tlie  original  seat  assigned  to  them  was  heliind  the  Riphoean  Mountains, 
wiiicli  seem  to  have  been  originally  Rhodope,  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Homeric  world. 
The  Greeks  having  soon  actjuired  knowledge  sufficient  to  ascertain  that  no  such  people  was 
there  to  bo  found,  souffht  them  nevt.  nn  tb.c  banlis  of  the  Danube ;  but  every  thing  there  was 
remote  from  that  tramiuil  aspect  under  which  the  poets  had  painted  the  Hyperborean  world. 
Some  traditions  carry  tliem  westward;  but  tlieir  seat  was  finally  fixed  in  that  northern 
extremity  of  Asiatic  Russia  whicii  tlie  ancients  never  explored.    They  even  curried  with 


mSTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  1. 


I 


I! 


thntn  the  Ripliran  Mountains,  which  became  thus  an  ideal  chain,  delineuted  in  modem  maps 
as  extending  along  tho  extreme  frontier  of  Europe.  ImpresBions  of  gloomy  darknesH,  tiiui 
even  of  the  termination  of  cxintence,  are,  in  other  moods  of  the  human  mind,  associated  with 
images  of  distance  and  obscurity.  These  influences  gave  birth  to  the  Cimmerians,  a  pro|)le 
who  dwelt  in  perpetual  darkness,  and  were  never  illumined  by  the  cheerfiil  rays  of  tho  Hun. 
Their  favourite  seat  was  on  the  straits  at  th?  mouth  of  the  peninsula  of  Taurida,  the  farthest 
point,  probably,  of  which  rumour  had  spoken  in  the  poetical  ages,  and  which  was  called  the 
Cimmerian  Bosphorus.  It  was  probably  from  similitude  of  name  that  they  were  afWwards 
confounded  wit^  the  people  called  Cimbri.  The  learnetl,  however,  have  found  traces  of 
Cimmerians  in  the  extremities  both  of  the  east  and  the  west ;  and  the  idea  of  the  earth  as 
terminated  by  a  boundary  of  darkness,  being  founded  on  natural  impressions,  has  very  jjfene- 
rally  prevailed.  Park  mentions  it  as  the  reigning  belief  among  the  Mandingos  a(  this  day ; 
and  the  world,  in  the  system  of  the  Arabian  geographers,  was  enclosed  by  a  sea  of  darknosH. 
Other  fabulous  creations,  springing  from  those  of  Homer,  continued  lon^  to  hold  a  plnco  in 
geography.  The  one-eyed  Cyclops  appears  under  the  name  of  Arimaspian  on  the  frontier 
of  India,  and  in  the  remotest  extremity  of  Africa.  The  Pigmies  multiplied  still  more  exton- 
aively ;  they  had  seats  on  the  Strymon,  the  Hobrus,  in  India,  and  the  north  of  Europe. 
According  to  Strabo  they  were  spread  over  the  whole  southern  border  of  the  earth ;  and  this 
representation  even  induced  Banier  to  suspect  that,  on  that  side,  they  have  been  confounded 
with  the  monkeys. 

Sect.  in. — School  of  Milettu 

The  astronomical  schools  of  Miletus  and  Samos  appear,  so  fiir  at  least  as  there  is  anj 
precise  record,  to  have  made  the  first  attempts  to  form  geography  into  a  system,  and  to  apply 
to  it  the  lights  derived  from  astronomy.  These  and  other  cities  of  Asia  Minor  rank  high 
'vinong  the  early  seats  of  commerce,  and  t'ley  established  colonies  in  various  quarters  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Euxine.  While  they  continued  independent  they  were  very  wealthy 
and  prosperous,  and  the  sciences  were  cultivated  with  ardour  and  success.  To  a  commercial' 
people  practical  mathematics,  and  especially  those  branches  subservient  \o  geography  and 
navigation,  must  have  peculiarly  recommended  themselves.  Thales,  Anaximander,  Aimxi- 
menes,  and  Pythagoras,  are  celebrated  by  their  countrymen  as  the  inventors  of  all  the  pro- 
cesses by  which  the  phenomena  of  the  globe  are  calculated.  The  gnomon  or  sundial,  fhr 
ascertaining  the  progress  of  the  sun  from  tropic  to  tropic,  and  finally  the  latitude  of  particu- 
lar places,  the  division  of  the  year  into  365  days,  and  into  four  seasons,  are  represented  as 
having  originated  in  this  school.  It  appears  doubtfiil,  however,  whether  these  discoveries 
were  due  to  their  own  exertions  or  borrowed  from  the  Egyptians  and  Chaldeans,  whose  fkme, 
amid  the  dim  traditions  of  antiquity,  stands  pre-eminent  for  astronomical  observation. 

The  first  rude  mode  of  forming  a  division  of  the  earth  was  into  climates,  determined 
by  the  species  of  animals  and  plants  produced  in  each.  Thus  the  negro,  the  rhinoceros,  the 
elephant,  were  considered  as  characteristic  of  the  torrid  zone.  This  very  loose  method  gave 
place  to  another,  formed  by  observing  at  each  place  the  length  of  the  longest  and  shortest 
days.  This  could  only  be  done  with  accuracy  by  a  gnomon  or  dial,  erected  on  a  horizontal 
plane,  and  showing,  by  the  length  or  shortness  of  its  shadow,  the  elevation  of  the  sun  above 
the  horizon.  There  is  much  reason  to  think  that  this  simple  instrument  was  employed  by 
the  Egyptians,  especially  in  the  operation,  which  they  undoubtedly  performed,  of  adding  five 
days  and  a  quarter  to  360,  the  number  originally  supposed  to  form  a  complete  year.  It  has 
even  been  imagined  by  some,  that  the  pyramids,  those  enormous  structures  by  which  this 
people  excited  the  astonishment  of  the  world,  were  only  huge  sundials;  and  though  it  might 
doubtless  be  extravagant  to  conclude  this  to  have  been  their  sole  object,  yet  it  really  apjjenrs 
that,  being  placed  in  the  direct  position  of  the  cardinal  points,  they  are  perfectly  fitted  for 
being  thus  employed.  But,  though  it  is  clear  that  Thales  and  his  disciples  had  largely  drawn 
from  these  early  sources,  they  probably  made  considerable  additions  to  the  information  thence 
derived.  Two  books,  one  on  the  tropic,  and  the  other  on  the  equinoxes,  are  rejKirtpd  to 
have  been  written  by  Thales  himself.  The  degree  of  knowledge  thus  attained  enabled  liini 
to  discover  the  error  of  the  vulgar  in  supposing  the  earth  to  be  a  plane  surface ;  but  he  could 
not  reach  the  precise  idea  of  its  globular  form.  Anaximander  viewed  it  as  a  cylinder ;  some 
compared  its  form  to  that  of  a  boat;  others  to  that  of  a  lofty  mountain.  The  details  of  tlie 
Pythagorean  cosmography  have  not  reached  us ;  but  the  fact  that  they  placed  the  sun  in  fhe 
centre  of  the  system,  with  the  earth  moving  round  it,  indicates  at  that  infent  era  attainments 
which  were  lost  during  many  ages,  and  only  recovered  at  a  far  more  advanced  stage  of 
modern  science. 

The  map  must,  as  soon  as  geography  was  cultivated,  have  occurred  as  the  best  and 
most  perspicuous  form  of  embodying  its  results.  Anaximander  is  the  first  who  is  reprted  to 
have  constructed  a  map  of  the  world,  embracing  that  limited  sphere  of  objects  which  were 
then  comprehended  under  that  term.  But  the  most  celebrated  productioti  of  this  nature  was 
that  employed  by  Aristagoras,  the  prince  of  Miletus,  to  induce  Cleomenes,  the  Spartan  king 
to  undertake  the  conquest  of  Persia.     He  entered,  it  is  said,  the  presence  of  that  monarch, 


Part  1. 

iited  in  modem  maps 
loomy  (liirknesH,  uiul 
nind,  associated  with 
/irnmerians,  a  people 
Tfiil  rays  of  the  sun. 
Faurida,  the  farthest 
irhich  was  called  the 
fiey  were  aftorwarda 
ivo  found  traces  of 
idea  of  the  earth  as 
lions,  has  very  jrene- 
indingos  at  this  day ; 
by  a  sea  of  darkness. 
1^  to  hold  a  place  in 
pian  on  the  frontier 
led  still  more  exten- 
lie  north  of  Europe. 
'  the  earth ;  and  this 
ive  been  confounded 


least  as  there  is  an> 

system,  and  to  apply 

sia  Minor  rank  hitjh 

rious  quarters  of  the 

f  were  very  wealthy 

s.    To  a  commercial- 

it  \o  geography  and 

inaximander,  Anaxi- 

itors  of  all  the  pro 

lomon  or  sundial,  fiir 

)  latitude  of  particu- 

are  represented  as 

er  these  discoveries 

Idcans,  whose  fkme, 

ibservation. 

imntes,  determined 

the  rhinoceros,  tlie 

loose  method  jjave 

ongest  and  shortest 

ted  on  a  horizontal 

in  of  the  sun  above 

t  was  employed  by 

ed,  of  arldinsT  five 

lete  year.     It  has 

res  by  which  this 

id  thoujjh  it  mif^ht 

t  it  really  appears 

erfectly  fitted  for 

[had  larfrely  drawn 

nformation  thence 

ps,  are  reiiortwl  to 

ined  enabled  him 

ce ;  but  he  could 

a  cylinder ;  some 

he  details  of  the 

ed  the  sun  in  tlie 

t  era  attainments 

|dvanced  staj^e  of 

as  the  best  and 
Ivho  is  reported  to 
Tjects  which  were 
If  this  nature  was 
Ihe  Spartan  kinor 
lof  that  monarch, 


Book  I. 


GEOGRAPHY  OP  HERODOTUS. 


33 


holding  in  his  hand  a  tablet  of  brass,  on  which  weie  inscribed  "  the  whole  circuit  of  the  earth, 
the  sea,  and  all  the  rivers."  Under  tliis  pompous  description,  however,  wua  probably  includui. 
little  more  than  a  route  from  the  Ionian  sea  to  Susa,  which  was  Bpecially  •  'ited  to  as  Uiut 
by  which  the  Spartan  prince  might  lead  his  victorious  troops  to  tlie  Porsi  apitai.  Even 
of  this  line,  respecting  which  ho  was  so  deeply  interested,  the  short  detu.i  of  Horodotus 
shows  him  to  possess  by  no  means  complete  intbrmation.  licyond  Cilicia  his  descriptions  are 
very  indistinct   Ho  has  omitted  Media  altogetlier,  and  has  given  to  Armenia  quite  an  undue 

extension.  „    ,    .  ,., 

The  continental  Greeks,  during  the  era  of  theur  greatest  power,  did  not  cultivate 
systematic  geography,  nor  indeed  any  sciences  dependent  upon  mathematical  princi|ile8, 
with  much  activity ;  indeed,  they  did  not  oven  keep  them  up  to  the  state  in  which  they  had 
been  received  from  tlie  Ionian  cities.  One  solitary  observation  of  latitude  is  recorded  as 
having  been  mode  at  Athens,  by  Moton  and  Eudemon,  432  years  A.  C.  The  different  states, 
in  the  course  of  their  extensive  wars,  must  have  acquired  a  great  portion  of  that  topographi- 
cal knowledge  which  is  indispensable  for  military  operations.  Engrosa»d  by  these  internal 
objects,  their  attention  was  little  directed  to  the  general  system  of  the  world.  One  individual 
alone,  by  extensive  travels  and  diligent  enquiries,  procurea  an  ample  accession  to  the  science 
of  history  and  of  historical  geography. 

Sect.  IV.— Geography  of  Herodotus. 

The  system  of  geography  included  in  the  great  historical  work  of  Herodotus  is  as 
complete  as  could  be  formed  from  the  materials  within  his  reach.  It  comprises  a  general 
summary  of  all  that  he  could  learn  respecting  the  human  race,  and  the  regions  which  tliey 
mhabited.  His  information  was  obtained  not  solely  or  chiefly  from  books,  but  mostly  by 
travelling,  the  only  mode  in  which  at  that  era  geographical  knowledge  could  be  effectually 
collected.  He  assures  us  that  he  had  visited  Persia,  Assyria,  Egypt,  Thrace,  Scythia,  and 
all  the  distant  regions  which  he  describes.  He  viewed  tliem,  however,  only  as  tracts  of  ter- 
ritory, the  abode  of  men,  and  did  not  attempt  to  combine  them  into  any  system  of  the  eartli ; 
nor  did  he  possess,  or,  at  least  apply  any  of  the  mathematical  or  astronomical  principles  of 
the  Milesian  school.  He  even  derides  some  of  its  conclusions ;  as  that  of  the  eartli  being 
round  and  encompassed  by  the  ocean.  His  strajige  statement  that  the  sun  in  India  was  ver- 
tical in  the  morning  instead  of  at  midday,  is  evidently  a  misunderstood  report  of  what  he  had 
been  informed  respecting  the  difference  of  time  in  the  different  parts  of  the  earth's  circum- 
ference. His  knowledge,  however,  such  as  it  is,  consisting  of  plain  ^cts,  untinctured  with 
theory,  is  both  solid  and  extensive. 

The  division  of  the  earth  into  three  quarters,  or  continents,  was  by  this  time  completely 
formed.  Sea,  or  at  least  water,  seems  to  have  been  the  principle  of  separation,  though  not 
required  to  be  altogether  complete.  Setting  out  from  Europe,  for  the  origin  of  which  appel- 
lation we  have  nothing  but  the  fable  of  Europo,  the  Greeks  seem  to  have  named  the  other 
continents  from  the  districts  immediately  beyond  the  intervening  sea.  Homer  already  men- 
tions the  name  of  Asia  as  applied  to  a  large  and  fine  tract  on  the  coast  of  Ionia.  Thence  it 
spread  through  the  spacious  peninsula  of  which  it  forms  part,  and  which  Europeans  con- 
tinue to  call  Asia  Minor ;  but  soon  passing  these  limits,  it  was  vaguely  extended  through  the 
boundless  regions  of  the  East  till  it  finally  embraced  entirely  the  largest  of  the  three  conti- 
nents. On  the  other  side,  directly  to  the  south,  the  Greeks  first  landed  on  the  coast  of  Libya ; 
and  the  name  of  Libya  was  by  them  applied  to  the  entjre  continent  With  the  Romans,  on 
the  contrary,  whose  position  and  political  relations  attached  them  entirely  to  the  district 
of  Africa  proper,  in  which  Carthage  is  situated,  tlie  name  of  Africa  soon  prevailed  over 
every  other. 

These  grand  divisions  of  the  ancient  world  were  already  known  to  Herodotus ;  but  he 
has  astonished  European  readers  in  an  extraordinary  degree  by  the  assertion,  that  Europe  is 
longer  and  of  greater  extent  than  Asia  and  Africa  united.  The  severe  judgment  of  M. 
Gosselin  pronounces  such  an  assertion,  made  in  the  midst  of  the  nations  which  carried  on 
the  most  extensive  navigation,  to  be  a  proof  that  they  had  not  formed  the  least  idea  of  the 
distance  which  their  vessels  sailed  along  the  Mediterranean.  Before  pronouncing  so  severe 
a  sentence,  we  must  consider  attentively  what  in  the  conception  of  Herodotus,  was  Europe, 
and  what  was  Asia.  He  mentions  two  boundaries :  one  formed  by  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Don,  which,  though  it  does  not  form  a  very  appropriate  boundary  of  a  continent  continues 
still  to  prevail,  being  connected  with  the  Northern  Ocean  by  the  mountain  chain  of  the 
Urals.  But  in  the  other,  which  is  that  preferred  by  Herodotus,  the  Black  Sea  is  continued 
by  the  Caspian ;  the  boundary  line  being  carried  along  the  north  of  that  sea,  and  thence 
indefinitely  eastward.  Taking  Europe  in  this  sense,  we  find  it  in  the  west  co-extended  with 
the  opposite  coast  of  Africa,  which  the  ancients  necessarily  considered  as  marking  the  length 
of  that  continent  while,  in  the  east,  however  far  Asia  might  be  prolonged,  fJurope  was  stil/ 
regarded  as  co-extensive.  With  regard  to  the  boundaries  of  Africa,  too,  there  was  an 
extreme  want  of  precision.    Our  limit  of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  is  certainly  the  most  accurate ; 

Vol.  I  E 


M 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  L 


i  11 


Ixit  the  anciGntii,  who  could  not  rendily  admit  the  notion  of  a  continent  bounded  by  any  thing 
but  water  atuichcd  tht>in8elvea  more  to  tlie  Nile,  and  did  not  well  know  whettier  to  coniiider 
Rgypt  as  Asiatic  or  African. 

SvmRCT.  1. — Tiike  Europe  of  HerodotUM. 

Scythia  wa^  the  extremity  of  Europe,  beyond  Greece,  with  which  Herodotus  appear* 
•n  Imvo  been  most  fiiniiliar,  and  which,  in  fact,  ho  knew  bettor  than  almost  any  other  ancient 
writtT.  This  name,  which  became  ultimately  Auintic,  was  restricted  by  him  to  the  tracts 
tliat  now  form  the  southern  provinces  of  the  Russian  empire.  These  regions  were  then, 
and  in  a  great  measure  still  are,  possessed  by  the  same  description  of  rude  Nomadic  and 

fistoral  people,  who  have  always  occupied  tlie  central  plains  of  Asia.  The  attention  of  the 
istorian  was  specially  called  to  them  oy  the  ranh  and  daring  expedition  of  Darius  into  a 
region  secured  by  its  natural  barriers,  and  the  wandering  and  untamed  character  of  its 
ptMiple,  against  every  form  of  regular  subjection.  Darius,  crossing  the  Hellespont,  marched 
alniijr  the  southern  liiore  of  tlio  Euxino,  reached  the  banks  of  the  Volga,  and  afler  the  fruit- 
less Ittlwur  of  erecting  there  several  fbrtresscs,  returned  by  a  more  inland  route,  in  which 
Major  Rcimell  even  supposes  him  to  have  pitsned  tiie  site  of  Little  Novogorod.  The  know- 
ledge acquired  by  this  exiwdition,  however,  did  not  enable  Herodotus  to  avoid  great  errors 
in  the  delineation  of  European  Scythia.  He  imbibed  a  most  exaggerated  idea  of  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  Pttlufl  Ma-otis,  which  he  calls  the  "  mother  of  the  Luxino."  This  appears  to 
have  arisen  chiefly  from  the  false  orienling  of  tlie  side  which  faces  Russia,  and  which  is 
made  to  stretch  almost  due  north,  instead  of  west,  while  the  sea  itself  is  represented  as 
forming  the  eastern  boundary  of  that  great  space  of  four  hundred  miles  sqnaro,  within  which 
Herodotus  comprises  Scythia.  The  southern  boimdarj'  was  formed  by  the  Euxine,  and  the 
other  two  by  the  land,  so  that  he  does  not  coanect  it  in  any  shape  v.'ilh  the  Northern 
Ocean. 

The  details  of  this  extensive  region  are  given  by  Herodotus  with  considerable  accu- 
racy. Of  its  rivers,  after  the  Danube,  which  he  ranks  second  to  the  Nilf,,  he  mentions  the 
Tyres  or  Dniester,  the  Hypanis,  or  Bog  (and  even  «lescribes  the  close  approach  of  these 
rivers  to  each  other  in  tiie  upper  part  of  their  course),  the  great  channel  of^the  Borysthenes. 
or  Dnieper,  and  the  Tana'«  or  Don.  Between  the  last  he  mentions  several  streams,  the 
Panticapes,  Hypacyris,  and  Gerrhus,  which  not  being  recognized  by  modem  geography, 
Major  Rennell  supposes  to  bv'  creeks  or  branches  of  the  greater  rivers. 

Milesian  colonies  had,  by  the  active  enterprise  of  that  commercial  people,  been 
already  formed  even  on  these  rude  shores.  One,  called  the  port  of  the  Borysthenes,  is 
described  as  the  centre  of  the  trade  of  Scythia.  On  tl.o  banks  of  this  great  river  dwelt  a 
people,  bearing  the  rare  character  of  the  ploughing  ScyiJuans,  who  renouncing  the  almost 
universal  habits  of  their  race,  raised  crops  of  grain  m  this  iertile  district,  which  still 
fiirnishes  to  the  ports  of  Toganrog  and  Odessa  those  supplies,  which  render  them  the 
granary  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  Milesians  hatl  also  a  colony  established  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Danube. 

The  northern  interior  countries  of  Europe,  which  lay  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Scythia 
explored  by  the  expedition  of  Darius,  were  covered  for  Iiprodotus  with  a  veil  of  dim  obscu- 
rity. On  the  Scy Uiian  frontier,  along  the  heads  of  the  Dniester  and  Borysthenes,  he  repre- 
sents several  nations ;  the  Melanchleni,  "  men  clothed  in  black ;"  the  Androphagi,  "  men 
eaters ;"  the  Neuri,  "  once  a  year  converted  into  foxes,"  These  Greek  names,  and  partly 
fabulous  attributes,  show  the  very  imperfect  nature  of  the  notices  collected  on  the  subject. 
The  regions  beyond  the  Danube  are  expressly  stated  to  be  occupied  by  nations  to  him 
unknown.  Two  precious  commodities,  the  amber  from  the  coiist  of  Prussia,  and  the  tin  of 
tlie  Cassiterides,  under  which  last  name  a  vague  idea  of  the  British  Islands  seems  to  be 
included,  communicated  the  knowledge,  that  there  was  a  great  ocean  in  the  north,  but 
witlioiit  the  means  of  ascertaining  its  extent  and  limits.  On  the  east,  however,  as  already 
observed,  he  had  attached  to  Europe  a  vast  extent  of  territory  which  has  been  entirely 
severed  from  it  in  subsequent  systems.  The  expanse  of  northern  and  even  middle  Asia, 
which  the  ancients  afterwards  called  Scythia,  and  which  forms  the  modem  Tartary,  inha- 
bited by  races  exactly  similar  to  the  Scytliians  already  described,  appeared  to  H(>ro(lotus 
decidedly  European.  It  was  bounded  by  the  Phasis,  the  Caspian,  the  Aral  (not  distinctly 
recognizeid),  and  the  Jixartes.  The  Mussagetoj,  celebrated  for  their  contest  with  Cyrus, 
gave  name  with  Herodotus  to  all  the  wandering  tribes  in  this  eastern  part  of  Europe ;  but 
they  were  afterwards  merged  into  the  prevailing  appellation  of  Scythians. 

SuBSECT.  2.  Asia  of  Herodotus, 
ABiE^  according  to  the  conception  of  it  formed  by  Herodotus,  will  appear,  from  what  has 
tieen  said,  to  include  only  a  small  portion  of  the  vast  continent  to  which  we  assign  that 
name.  On  the  north  it  had  the  same  seas  and  rivers  just  (jnumrrfited  as  the  boundaries  of 
eastern  Europe ;  to  the  enst  it  terminated  with  India ;  while  even  to  the  south,  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  desert  tracts  of  Arabia  were  not  yet  believed  to  exist.    When  this  great  historian 


Paut  L 

nundod  by  any  thing 
whettier  to  coniiidflr 


1  Herodotus  appeara 
)iit  any  ntlior  ancient 
by  him  to  the  tract* 
3  roffions  were  then, 
r  rude  Nomadic  and 
The  attention  of  the 
an  of  Darius  into  a 
led  character  of  itii 
Hellespont,  marchod 
,  and  after  the  fruit- 
land  route,  in  which 
jgorod.  The  know- 
to  avoid  ffreat  errors 
d  idea  of  the  dimen- 
"  This  appears  to 
ussia,  and  which  is 
If  is  represented  as 
iqtmro,  within  which 
the  Euxinc,  and  the 
s.'iih  the  Northern 

1  considerable  accu- 
ilf.,  he  mentions  the 
5  approach  of  these 
I  of  the  Borysthenes. 
overal  streams,  the 
modem  geography, 

jrcial  people,  been 
the  Borysthenes,  is 
great  river  dwelt  a 
louncing  the  almost 
listrict,  which  still 
render  them  the 
ilished  at  the  mouth 

lits  of  the  Scythia 

veil  of  dim  obscu- 
ifsthenes,  he  repre- 
Indrophagi,  "men 
names,  and  partly 
bted  on  the  subject. 
I  by  nations  to  him 
sia,  and  the  tin  of 
jlands  seems  to  be 

in  the  north,  but 
jwever,  as  already 

has  been  entirely 
jven  middle  Asia, 
|em  Tartary,  inha- 
ired  to  Herodotus 
|ral  (not  distinctly 

itest  with  Cyrus, 
Irt  of  Europe ;  but 


|r,  from  what  has 
ch  we  assign  that 
the  bounuaries  of 
Jouth,  a  large  por- 
liis  great  historian 


Book  L 


ASIA  OP  HERODOTUS. 


wrote,  all  the  various  kingdoms  and  petty  states,  into  which,  in  the  uitiincy  of 
Ania  had  been  partitioned,  were  absorbed  into  one  vast  empire.  The  Persians  claimed  Axia 
as  tlieir  own,  and  had  distributed  it  into  twenty-four  satrapies,  which  have  been  illustratpd 
in  a  very  learned  manner  by  Major  Ronnell.  They  included,  with  the  exception  of  the 
northern  part,  which  he  considered  as  Euronean,  all  of  Asia  that  was  known  to  tlie  Greeks. 
In  collecting  therefore  from  Major  Rennell's  investigation  the  following  table  of  those 
satrapies,  we  exhibit  not  only  the  outline  of  that  groat  empire,  but,  with  the  somewhat 
dubioiiH  exception  of  a  small  part  of  Greece,  the  whole  of  the  civilized  world.  Tho  tribute 
paid  in  talents  of  silver  will  exhibit  their  relative  wealth  and  importance. 

TABLE  OF  THE  DIVISION  OF  ASIA  INTO  8ATRAPIE& 


Innia,  MarnenU,  Cnrin,  JEoUa,  LyciH,  Pamphylia  (the  weit  and  south  coart  of  Aaia  Minor) 

MvBla,  Lv(lin,*n.  (the  wt-Hern  interior) 

Pliryiia,  Pophlaj(i)iiia,  Cappadoi'ia,  Slc.  (tlie  north  coaat  and  the  ureal  Interior  table-lanil  of  Atia  Minor) 

nilnafinrltidliiniiartnr  Syria,  and  riMiclilng  to  the  Eiiph;ntp») 

PiKBnIcIa,  PalcHtiriB,  and  C'ynnin  (wliirh  I'lirnixhtid  alio  a  third  part  of  tlie  naval  force  of  the  empire) 

Egypt,  including  Cyrono  and  Burca  (half  of  the  tribute  paid  in  grain) 

Ilnhylon  and  AMyrla,  including  Syria,  and  furniihing  alio  MO  eunucha 

Huaiana,  or  Southorn  Pcriia 

Media,  (Northern  Periiia) ;••••■.••• 

Tho  C'aaplann,  Pmaira;,  PantlmathI,  and  Darltoi  (the  Cnapinn  prnvineei  of  Penia) 

The  MatienI,  Saipirea,  fcc.  ( Aderbijan  and  the  Armenian  provincea) 


Armnnla. 


The  MnayncDcl,  Tibareni,  Moachi,  he.  (the  Weatern  Cautasua,  Georgia,  Mingrelia,  •§  fhr  aa  Trebl- 

pond) 

TheHagartiana,  Barameana,  ft.c.(Seiiitnn,  Caramania,  Lar,  and  other  territoriea  along  the  Indian 

Ocean,  and  tho  eastern  part  of  the  Peraian  Gulf) 

The  Pnrthiona,  Choaamiana,  Sogdiana,  and  Ariana  (Khoraaan,  Herat,  Candahar) 

The  Gandarii,  the  Dadicv,  ttc.  (Margiana,  tbu  country  on  tho  Murghab,  between  Khoraaan  and  the 


Oxua. 


Hnrtrin  (Balk) 

The  Oncie  and  Caapica!(Kaahgar,  Pamur,  and  other  tracta  of  mounlainoui  country  about  the  head  of 
tho  Oxua) . 


Till!  Paricanii  and  Ethiopians  of  Aaia  (Mekr^n,  including,  perhaps,  Canbul,  and  th<.  Tuiva  of  the 

fndua) 

India,  tho  largest  of  all,  being  360  talents  in  gold,  which  amounta  in  silver  to 


Tldnlkl 

400 
100 

nno 

800 
300 
1400 

lino 

300 
4M 
{200 
SOO 
400 

aoo 

800 
300 

170 
360 

330 

400 
4660 


Some  tracts  of  this  vast  empire,  not  formed  into  regular  satrapies,  wore  privileged  to 
furnish  only  presents,  or  gifts,  under  an  appearance  of  voluntary  homage.  Among  these 
were  ranked  the  Persians  proper,  inhabiting  the  modern  Fars,  who  obtained  this  distinction 
as  the  conquering  people  by  whom  the  empire  was  originally  founded.  The  Southern 
Arabians,  and  the  Ethiopians  above  Bgypt,  derived  the  same  immunity  from  the  difficult 
access  to  those  rude  regions  in  which  they  dwelt.  The  Southern  Arabians  are  said  to  have 
propitiated  the  favour  of  the  great  king  by  the  present  of  a  thousand  talents  of  incense.  The 
Colchians,  and  the  occupants  of  the  neighbouring  heights  of  Caucasus,  were  also  numbered 
among  the  "  givers  of  gifts ;"  while  the  'nhabitants  of  the  northern  parts  of  that  great  range, 
secure  in  their  mountain  fastnesses,  are  said  to  have  cared  very  little  about  the  mighty  ruler 
of  Persia. 

These  delineations  of  Asia  display,  upon  the  whole,  a  surprising  accuracy  and  extent  of 
knowledge ;  yet  several  remarkable  errors  occur  with  regard  to  points  of  which  the  investi- 
gation does  not  uppear  very  difficult.  Thus  the  breadth  of  Asia  Minor  was  reduced  almget 
a  half;  that  between  Babylon  and  the  capital  of  Egypt  was  underrated  at  least  a  fourth ; 
and  the  country  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian  was  placed  in  the  same  meridian 
with  the  Persian  Gulf,  while  it  is  really  four  degrees  to  the  westward.  These  errors  are 
tlie  more  remarkable,  as  the  distances,  instead  of  being  in  excess,  according  to  almost  every 
other  ancient  example,  fall  short  of  the  truth.  The  early  travellers  exaggerated  every  space 
over  which  they  actually  passed;  but  it  sometimes  happened  that  two  points  were  ap- 
proached from  different  quarters,  and  then  united  to  each  other  by  a  hypothetical  line,  which, 
as  men  usually  undervalue  what  they  know  nothing  of,  was  made  generally  too  small.  It 
would  not  appear  that  any  regular  route  had  been  formed  across  the  high  and  rugged  table- 
land in  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor  from  Cilicia  to  Trebisond.  These  two  points,  being 
approached  respectively  along  the  southern  and  northern  coasts  of  the  peninsula,  might  be 
supposed  nearer  to  each  other  than  they  really  were.  Egypt  was  approached  through  Syria 
and  Palestine,  and  Babylon  by  descending  the  Euphrates ;  but  the  direct  line  between  them 
lying  across  tlie  Arabian  desert,  was  scarcely  known  or  frequented,  and  therefore  became 
an  ideal  line  in  the  view  of  Herodotus.  The  line  from  Armenia  to  the  Persian  Gulf  was 
of  course  measured  along  the  Euphrates,  the  general  course  of  which  was  south ;  and  as 
the  ancients  orientetl  all  their  lines  to  a  cardinal  point,  tliey  overlooked  the  gradual  but 
constant  bend  which  that  river  takes  to  the  eastward. 

The  ideas  of  Herodotus  concerning  the  extent  of  Asia,  even  including  all  that  portion 
of  it  which  he  assigned  to  Europe,  could  not  fail  to  be  defective.  He  knew  nothing  of 
India  beyond  the  Ganges,  Thibet,  China,  Eastern  Tartary,  or  Siberia,  more  than  half  the 
superficial  extent  o^  *he  continent.    Even  his  notions  concerning  India  were  most  imper- 


86 


HISTORY  or  OEOORAPinr. 


Paut  I 


feet.  Ho  dcwribM  it  u  tKuiniiod  on  thn  nut.  hy  wuid,  Ntrntchinff  into  an  unknown  iinii 
inriiKurfllnMH  iltwort  From  tliiM  utAtcmoiit  it  rlourly  iipnnarH  that  nin  India  coinpnilH'iided 
invrely  t\\v.  wniitem  part  watered  by  tiie  Induii  and  itit  nve  trihntnrieH;  Im  knew  mithinj^  of 
i*a  widest  and  richest  rrffiona,  the  (ianf(rtic  provinccH,  Delhi,  lienffal,  and  the  Decriin; 
larjtfn  |iortionH  wore  aliw)  nit  off*  tVum  the  southern  eooiitH  of  Ania,  which  were  aupponed  to 
bo  waithcd  h^  nn  ocean  called  the  Red  or  Erythrean  Hea,  without  any  diMtinction  of  tlie 
Pcraian  OuU,  and  very  little  of  that  which  we  now  call  the  Rod  8ea. 

SvMBCT,  3. — ^rica  of  Ikrodntu$, 

In  hia  inquiries  respecting  Africa,  Hcrodotua  appears  to  have  been  equally  di1i;;ent  aa 
concerning  the  other  regions  of  the  globe ;  but  as  ho  never  proceedo<l  beyond  Egypt,  and 
as  the  formidable  barriers  which  nature  opposes  to  him  who  attempts  to  penetrate  the  inte- 
rior had  been  very  imperfectly  overcome,  much  in  what  he  collected  is  omcurcd  with  niy»< 
ten?  or  perplexed  with  conjecture. 

Egypt  is  described  with  great  accuracy,  and  under  some  features  which  no  longer  exii«t; 
for  the  Tanitic  and  Pelusiac  branches  of  the  Nile,  of  which  little  more  than  the  channelit 
can  now  be  traced,  were  then  in  full  flow.  It  appears,  however,  that  considerable  confusion 
prevailed  respecting  the  quarter  of  the  world  to  which  Egypt  was  to  be  adjudged.  As 
water  formed  the  basis  of  the  division  into  continents,  the  sanily  isthmus  of  Suez,  believed 
to  be  brooder  than  it  roully  was,  appeared  very  ill-fltted  to  form  such  a  limit.  The  Nile. 
therefore,  in  the  opinion  of  all  the  Greeks,  was  the  boundary  of  the  continents :  oil  to  tlic 
east  was  Arabia;  all  to  the  west  I.ibyo;  but  o  difficulty  here  oroce  in  fixing  the  lotof  Egy|)t 
itself.  The  Greeks,  it  appeors,  considered  nothing  as  Egypt  beyond  the  Delto ;  but  this 
opinion  is  ridiculed  by  Herodotus,  who  observes,  that  in  that  case  there  must  formerly  have 
been  no  Egypt  at  all,  since  this  its  lower  branch  was  evidently  produced  by  the  graduiil 
alluvial  depositions  of  the  Nile.  He  contends  reasonably,  that  all  the  banks  of  the  Nili*  us 
fiir  up  OS  Elenhanta,  which  was  inhabited  by  i}gy|itians,  was  clearly  Egypt.  He  accuHea 
the  Greeks  of  referring  the  Delta,  or  their  Egypt,  neither  to  Asia  nor  Libya.  If  wo  rightly 
understand  his  own  idea,  it  is  thot  the  middle  or  Sebennytic  branch  was  "the  proper  point 
of  division  between  those  continents. 

In  tracing  the  Nile  above  Egypt,  Herodotus  states  a  line  of  two  months'  journey  pirtly 
along  the  banks,  partly  in  boots  which  were  dragged  by  ropes  along  the  current  through 
the  rocky  channel.  At  the  end  of  this  journey  they  came  to  Meroe,  the  capital  of  Ethiopia 
above  Egypt,  an  ancient  and  celebrated  kingdom,  whose  monuments  were  viewed  wirh 
almost  religious  veneration,  and  whose  monarchs  hod  repeatedly  conquered  Egypt  and 
founded  dynasties.  Two  months'  journey  farther  wm  the  country  of  the  Egyptian  exiles, 
a  numerous  body,  who,  having  revolted  from  Psammeticus,  sought  the  protection  of.tlio 
king  of  Ethiopia,  and  were  cantoned  by  him  in  this  remote  district,  which  may  be  SennaJir, 
or  rather,  pediaps,  the  branch  of  the  Bahr-el-Abiad  opposite  to  it ;  for  Herodotus  shows  iiis 
knowledge  of  this  last  stream  by  observing  that  it  comes  from  the  west. 

The  long  tract  of  desert  to  the  west  of  Egypt  is  also  described  by  Herodotus  in  somo 
detail,  though  apparently  only  from  hearsay.  The  most  conspicuous  objects  here  ore  tiie 
oases,  particularly  that  which  contains  the  ancient  and  venerated  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon, 
and  which  has  been  identified  with  the  modern  Siwah.  To  the  west  he  gives  the  names 
oC  a  succession  of  wandering  and  pastoral  tribes,  such  as  still  roam  over  these  arid  and  sandy 
regions,  deriving  from  the  soil  only  the  produce  of  the  date-tree.  Many  of  them  stiuid 
charged  with  morals  peculiarly  shameless  and  dissolute,  the  females  indulging  openly  in 
the  most  irregular  conduct,  and  making  even  a  boast  of  the  number  of  their  paramours. 
Probably  there  may  be  scandal  mixed  in  these  very  evil  reports  of  the  African  ladies.  An 
exception  to  this  rude  pastoral  character  existed  on  the  coast  of  Cyrenoico,  where  the 
Greeks  established  flourishing  colonies,  which  could  be  approached,  however,  only  by  the 
dangerous  route  of  the  Syrtis  or  quicksand,  proverbial  in  ancient  times  as  the  scene  of  dist- 
astrous  shipwreck. 

The  Nasamones,  the  most  westerly  as  well  as  the  most  numerous  of  the  wandering 
tribes,  in  general  drove  their  herds  along  the  sea-coast,  but  in  summer  repaired  to  the  OaHic 
of  vEgila  (Augila)  to  collect  the  dates  produced  in  that  district.  A  tribe  among  this  peopife 
were  called  the  Psylli,  or  devourers  of  serpents ;  and  in  fact  appear  to  have  had  a  peculiar 
power  of  charming  those  noxious  reptiles  with  which  their  deserts  abound.  Withm  thei* 
borders,  on  the  side  of  Cyrene,  where  verdure  first  began  to  adorn  the  waste,  Herodotuu 
has  fixed  the  fabled  silo  of  the  Hesperian  gardens. 

The  Garamantes,  to  ti\e  south-west  of  Augila,  and  the  Na^mones,  are  represented  by 
our  historian  as  inhabitants  of  a  region  infested  by  wild  beasts,  and  of  a  timid  character 
flying  the  view  and  intercourse  of  other  men,  destitute  of  arms,  and  unacquainted  with  war. 
These  characters  do  not  apply  to  the  people  of  modem  Fezzan,  which,  however,  is  undoubt- 
edly the  tract  pointed  out.  To  the  north-west  were  the  Gindanes  (the  modern  (Jadamis), 
among  whom  the  license  of  public  morals  had  risen  to  a  greater  height  than  among  all  the 
wandering  tribes  of  Libya.   Still  proceeding  north-west,  the  traveller  came  to  the  lake  Tri- 


Book  I. 


TIIK  EXPKDtTION  OF  ALKXANDRR. 


91 


wjimlly  (lilipent  ru 
iK'yonrf  Eijypt,  itiid 

jKinptrntn  Ihn  iiito- 
oMcurcd  with  riiyiH 

ich  no  longer  exint; 
than  the  channflu 
Ksidcruhlo  confuHJon 
I  be  adjudgctl.  As 
18  of  Suuz,  bclii'vod 
,  limit.  The  Nile. 
itinonts:  all  to  the 
ing  the  lot  of  Ef,'ypt 
he  Dnlta;  but  thiii 
must  formerly  have 
iced  by  the  grttduiil 
luikn  of  the  Nili*  as 
Ijjypt.  He  accuses 
ibyu.  If  wo  riffhtly 
as  the  proper  poiut 

Jths'  journey  partly 
tie  curreat  throiifrli 
I  capital  of  Ethiopia 
were  viewed  wirh 
quered  Egypt  and 
e  Egyptian  exiles, 
;  protection  of«tlio 
:h  may  be  Senna-ir, 
erodotus  nhows  iiis 

ierodotus  in  some 
)ject8  here  are  the 
of  Jupiter  Ammon, 

gives  the  names 
lese  arid  and  sandy 
iny  of  them  stand 
dulging  openly  in 
"  their  paramours. 

rican  ladies.     An 

naica,  where  the 
/ever,  only  by  the 

the  scene  of  dis- 

if  the  wandering 
wired  to  the  Oasic 
mong  this  peopifc 
ve  had  a  peculiar 
'  Within  thei- 
waste,  Herodotus 

e  represented  by 
timid  character 
tainted  with  war. 
ever,  is  undoiibt- 

nodern  Gadamis), 

an  among  all  the 

to  the  lake  Tri- 


I 


toniN,  celcbmtf^  in  ancient  fcblo  im  tho  birth-place  of  Minerva,  who,  according  *o  one  legend, 
was  Mprunj?  frotii  Nt-ptum'  and  Iho  nymph  r>f  the  lake.  TIiIk  lak«  IbrniM  thu  wentorn  limit 
of  the  long  rangf  of  nomadic  tril)os.  Ikiyond  it,  llcnxlotUH  gives  uh  tho  Maxyns,  who  ciil- 
tiviitod  the  gronnd.  Ho  iiad  now  reached  that  Hne  range  of  territory  b<dorigiiig  to  ('arthagc, 
Btri'tching  along  the  coant,  watereil  and  enricluHl  by  stroamn  tVom  the  Alia*.  It  in  very 
reiinrkable,  however,  that  he  should  pass  by  entirely  that  mighty  and  celebrated  state, 
which  was  not  only  the  most  powortid  in  Africa,  hut  was  also  the  centre  of  industry  and 
coiniiicrcc  v'  ith  reH|H>ct  to  Uie  ancient  world.  Major  Kennell  has  suspected  that  this  arose 
iVom  a  natioiMil  feeling  of  enmity  on  account  of  their  alliance  with  the  Persians;  but  when 
wi'  consider  ''  I  no  such  feeling  has  prevented  the  tliilest  account  fVom  lieing  given  of  tho 
I'lTsians  tlieiiiHelvps,  it  can  scarcely  be  supiiosofl  that  the  lieing  merely  tVieiids  to  the  Per- 
sians would  exclude  so  great  a  |M;oplt!  from  his  notice.  It  seems  really  very  dilKcult  to 
conjecture  his  motive,  uidess,  according  to  the  suggestion  of  a  learned  tViend,  we  suppoue  that 
HiTiidotuH,  writing  almost  ei\tirely  to  illustrate  what  was  obscure,  or  communicate  know- 
ledge on  points  respecting  which  the  world  wore  in  ignorance,  might  think  it  superfluous  to 
descrilK!  whitt  must  have  been  well  known  to  the  bulk  of  his  readers,  for  tho  same  reason 
tliiit  he  has  given  no  regular  description  of  Greece.  In  reference  to  the  transactions  of  tliis 
p(<n|)le  wit!)  other  nations,  he  takes  repeated  occasion  to  mention  thom,  so  that  the  omission 
could  not  arise  from  ahstdute  ignonince. 

Atl  IS  and  the  desert  Itorder  behind  it  next  engage  tho  attention  of  our  historian;  a  tract 
nvicliing  as 'iir  as  the  straits,  which  he  calls  the  hiffh  forehnail  of  A\Y'\ca.  He  describes 
Atliis  (w  a  long  and  lotly  range,  whoso  highest  pinnacles  are  wrapped  in  perpetual  clouds 
and  he  as»'ril)eH  to  the  natives  the  origin  of  the  belief  adopted  by  tho  Greeks,  which  made 
it  the  pillar  of  heaven.  Even  in  this  extreme  boundary  of  the  continent,  he  mentions  some 
peculiirities  that  really  exist: — the  enormous  size  and  formidable  obaracter  of  the  serpent 
trilw;  oven  ^vith  large  and  crooked  horns;  housesof  salt  which  would  melt  away  ii  a  single 
shower  were  to  interrupt  tho  continued  drought.  When  he  begins,  however,  to  speak  of 
prople  with  horses'  heads,  and  others  without  heads  at  all,  it  is  time  to  take  our  leave; 
th()u;'h  .me  learned  writers  supiM)se  this  to  be  a  mere  exaggerate<l  description  of  some 
an'iiia'^  of  the  desert.  We  miist  still  follow  him,  however,  to  tho  western  const  beyond  tho 
Btrai  t,  where  the  Carthaginians,  he  was  informed,  carried  on  trade  with  the  natives  in  a 

fieniliar  manner.  The  parties  did  not  see  each  other,  but  after  a  signal  made  by  smoke,  one 
aid  down  his  proffer,  went  away,  and  left  room  for  the  other  to  do  the  same ;  when  the  first 
came,  and  either  accepted  or  rejected  the  bargain,  till  the  terms  were  adjusted.  There 
have  been  renorts  in  various  quarters  of'this  mode  of  traffic,  but  all,  we  suspect,  exaggerated 
re  pre-,.  1 1  tat  ions  of  the  timid  manner  in  which  civilized  traders  make  their  approaches  to 
those  savage  people  who  possessed  any  valuable  commodities.  The  product  sought  upon 
this  shore  wiis  gold:  and,  as  it  does  not  exist  in  any  latitude  north  of  the  Senegal,  Major 
Reiinoll  concludes  that  the  trade  of  Carthage  extended  to  that  distflint  river.  A  sceptic 
might  surmise  that  tho  g(dd  was  brought  across  tho  desert  to  the  coast  of  Barbary;  yet, 
considering  the  formidable  character  of  this  desert,  it  seems  doubtful  if  at  so  early  a  period 
a  couunercial  route  across  it  could  have  been  opened. 

The  interior  of  Alrica  could  not  fail  deeply  to  attract  the  curiosity  of  Herodotus.  The 
p;irt  already  noticed  as  described  by  him  forms  only  a  belt  along  its  northern  coast,  and 
intludes  none  of  the  vast  inland  tracts.  On  this  subject,  however,  he  has  only  one  tale  to 
tell.  S(>veral  Nosainonian  youths  of  distinction,  seize.d  with  thot  desire  to  penetrate  the 
continent  which  has  prevailed  throughout  all  age^s,  departed  on  an  expedition  to  the  south- 
W'lnl.  Tlioy  traversed  three  successive  bolts;  first,  the  cultivated,  or  at  least  verdant  and 
inhibited  tract  along  the  sea-shore ;  then,  another  occupied  only  by  wild  boasts;  and,  lastly, 
a  rejrion  arid  and  desolate.  Here,  while  plucking  fruits,  they  were  surprised  by  some 
men  of  small  stature,  who  carried  thom  by  tho  way  of  very  great  lakes,  to  a  city  inhabited 
bv  I'l  i<!k  inhabitants,  and  situated  on  a  large  river  flowing  from  west  to  east.  This  river 
Ilirodotus,  naturally  enou^di,  judges  to  be  the  Nile.  Major  Rennell  conceives  it  to  be  pro- 
biil'ly  the  river  of  Tombuctoo,  which  Europeans  call  the  Niger;  but  we  think,  since  the 
liile  discoveries,  tliere  can  scarcely  be  any  hesitation  in  fixing  it  as  the  Yeou,  the  river 
wh^cli  n  Us  through  Bornou,  while  the  Tchad  may  be  identified  with  tho  great  lakes 
along  which  the  expedition  was  conducted. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

FIRST  ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOL.- ERATOSTHENES  AND  STR'ABO. 
Sect.  I. — The  Exnedition  of  Alexander. 

The  geography  of  the  Greeks  became  little  more  than  a  topographical  delineation  of 
military  routes,  after  the  intestine  wars  in  which  they  were  involved  caused  them  to  lose 
8iL''lit  of  the  more  distant  regions  of  the  earth.     Besides,  as  they  never  cultivated  mathe- 

Vol.  3  4 


fflSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paht  I 


matical  science  with  any  care  or  to  any  extent,  they  had  not  the  power  of  a.Tnng'mf( 
even  these  limited  materials  into  a  systematic  form. 

The  expedition  of  Alexander  gave  a  much  greater  degree  of  expansion  to  the  human  mind. 
That  monarch  transferred  the  seat  of  war  into  the  Persian  empire,  and  carried  his  victorious 
arms  into  the  remotest  regions  of  the  East.  Whatever  might  be  the  faults  and  follies  with 
which  his  career  was  stained,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  an  enlightened  curiosity  animated 
all  his  proceedings.  Wherever  he  went,  he  was  accompanied  by  skilful  surveyors,  Diogne- 
tus  and  Beton,  who  measured  the  length  and  direction  of  every  route  over  which  the 
army  passed.  Alexander  himself  carefully  inspected  these  itineraries,  employed  all  prac- 
ticable means  for  obtaining  the  best  materials,  and  his  letters  are  even  quoted  by  Pliny  as 
authorities  for  many  geographical  statements.  These  itineraries  are  said  to  have  been 
afterwards  published  by  JBteton,  under  the  title  of  "  the  Marches  of  Alexander."  From  the 
'efective  state  of  the  science,  however,  which  that  prince  could  not  remedy,  all  these 
uiaterials  were  necessarily  imperfect.  They  could  include  nothing  beyond  mechanical 
measurement,  nor  is  there  ony  record,  throughout  this  long  career,  of  a  single  attempt  to 
fix  the  position  of  any  spot  by  celestial  observation.  Imperfect  as  they  were,  however, 
these  documents  did  not  the  less  form  a  completely  new  era  in  geographical  science.  After 
the  death  of  Alexander,  they  passed  through  the  hands  of  Seleucus  into  those  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  who  spared  no  efforts  to  render  Alexandria  the  greatest  seat  of  learning  and 
science  in  the  ancient  world;  and  among  the  sciences  there  cultivated,  geography  and 
astronomy  held  the  most  distinguished  plact 

The  progress  of  Alexander  led  hun  at  first  through  Syria,  Egypt  and  Persia,  but  did  not 
bring  the  Greeks  to  the  knowledge  of  any  countries,  of  whose  existence  and  limits  they 
were  not  already  fully  apprised.  But  after  he  began  the  pursuit  of  Bessus,  who  had  carried 
off  Darius  into  Bactriwia,  his  march  became  a  sort  of  exploratory  route.  In  his  vain  pur- 
wit  of  the  Scythian  armies  he  reached  the  banks  of  the  Jaxartes,  though  he  did  not  fully 
trace  the  course  either  of  that  river  or  of  the  Oxus.  On  his  way  thence  to  India,  he  had 
to  penetrate  the  narrow  passes  overhnng  by  the  snowy  ramparts  of  the  Hindoo  Coosh,  and, 
with  much  diflSculty  and  many  hardships  to  his  troops,  learned  t '  appreciate  the  magnitude 
of  that  great  inland  barrier  of  Asia.  In  India,  Alexander  could  not  penetrate  beyond  the 
region  watered  by  the  five  rivers.  Yet  he  did  not  consider  it  as  the  boundary  of  the 
earth ;  he  learned  the  existence  and  beauty  of  the  fine  regions  on  the  Ganges,  whither  he 
in  vain  attempted  to  persuade  his  fatigued  and  refractory  troops  to  follow  him.  He  consoled 
himself  by  conveying  his  army  in  pomp  down  the  Indus,  to  view  the  entrance  of  that  great 
stream  into  the  ocean,  and  with  instructions,  as  we  have  already  seen,  to  trace  the  shores 
of  /sia  round  the  Persian  Gulf.  He  himself,  upon  very  bad  information,  undertook  to  lead 
back  his  army  through  Gedrosia  and  Caramania,  the  greater  part  of  which  he  found,  as 
modern  travellers  have  done,  to  be  a  desert  of  the  most  dreary  and  formidable  character,  in 
which  his  army  was. with  difficulty  saved  from  total  destruction. 

Sect.  II. — Expedition  of  Seleucus. 
Seleucus,  on  the  partition  of  the  empire  of  Alexander,  si'cceeded  to  the  dominion  of 
Syria  and  the  East.  Neither  that  prince  nor  iiis  successors  were  either  learned  or  patrons  of 
learning ;  but  as  the  owner  of  extensive  dominions,  and  aiming  at  farther  conquest,  he 
cherished  the  natural  wish  to  be  acquainted  with  what  he  possessed  or  hoped  to  obtain.  He 
employed  his  admiral,  Patrocles,  to  make  a  survey  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  which  had  not 
entered  into  the  line  of  Alexander's  route ;  but  the  information  gained  by  this  voyage  must, 
as  we  shall  see,  have  been  far  from  complete.  It  would  also  seem  as  if  he  had  employed  the 
same  admiral  in  an  attempt  to  circumnavigate  Asia ;  but  the  assertion  which  obtained  crodii 
in  that  age,  that  he  had  sailed  round  from  India  to  the  Caspian,  sufficiently  attests  the  failure 
of  the  enterprise.  Seleucus,  also,  finding,  probably,  tliat  the  inroad  of  Alexander  into  India 
had  been  of  very  tran.sicnt  result,  undertook  a  military  expedition,  the  details  of  which  are 
little  known,  and  which  enabled  him  to  establish  no  permanent  footing  in  the  country ;  but 
he  collected  some  further  materials  for  the  geographer,  and  the  record  of  his  marches  appears 
to  have  been  of  important  service  to  Pliny.  He  sent  also  an  embassy  under  Megastliones 
to  Palibothra,  capital  of  the  groat  Indian  kingdom  situated  on  the  Ganges,  from  whicii  the 
ancients  derived  a  more  accurate  knowledge  of  these  eastern  parts  of  the  world  than  thej 
had  previously  possessed. 

Sect.  III. — Eratosthenes, 
Eratosthenes  at  length  succeeded  in  reducing  geography  to  p  system  under  the  pntronagt. 
nfthe  Ptolemies,  which  gave  him  access  to  all  the  materials  collected  by  Alexander,  his 
generals,  and  successors,  and  to  the  immense  mass  of  documents  assembled  in  the  Aio.xnn- 
arian  library.  The  astronomical  observations  made  in  this  school  were  now  sufficirnt  tu 
prove  the  jflnijuiar  form  of  the  earth.  Eratcsthenes,  proceeding  upon  this  principle,  made  it 
his  study  to  adjust  to  it  all  the  known  features  of  the  globe.  He  did  not,  however,  attend 
t)  tne  grand  original  divisions  of  the  equator,  the  pole,  or  even  the  tropics.    The  line  which 


Part  I 

power  of  arran^in^ 

m  to  the  human  mind, 
carried  his  victorious 
kults  and  follies  with 
id  curiosity  animated 
i\  surveyors,  Diogne- 
oute  over  which  the 
s,  employed  all  prac- 
m  quoted  by  Pliny  as 
e  said  to  have  been 
exander."  From  the 
ot  remedy,  all  these 
beyond  mechanical 
a  single  attempt  to 
they  were,  however, 
hical  science.  After 
ito  those  of  Ptolemy 
seat  of  learning  and 
ated,  geography  and 

d  Persia,  but  did  not 
ence  and  limits  they 
3SUS,  who  had  carried 
te.  In  his  vain  pur- 
jgh  he  did  not  fully 
3nce  to  India,  he  had 
J  Hindoo  Coosh,  and, 
eciate  the  magnitude 
jenetrate  beyond  the 
the  boundary  of  the 
I  Ganges,  whither  he 
iw  him.  He  consoled 
btrance  of  that  groat 
1,  to  trace  the  shores 
)n,  undertook  to  lead 
which  he  found,  as 
nidable  character,  in 


to  the  dominion  of 
earned  or  patrons  of 
arther  conquest,  he 
loped  to  obtain.  He 
5ea,  which  had  not 
»y  this  voyage  must, 

e  had  employed  the 
hich  obtained  crodii 
jly  attests  the  failure 

lexander  into  India 
etails  of  which  are 
lin  the  country ;  hut 
his  marches  appears 
under  Megastlicnes 

es,  from  whicii  the 
Ihe  world  than  they 


i.der  the  pafrnvoffr. 

by  Alexander,  his 

bled  in  the  Aloxnn- 

re  now  sufficirnt  to 

principle,  made  it 

|t,  howcvrr,  attr-nd 

The  line  which 


Bo<»K  I.     WORLD  ACCORDING  TO  ERATOSTHENES  AND  STRABO. 


30 


formed  the  basis  of  his  geography,  and  generally  of  that  of  the  Alexandrian  school,  was  a 
parallel  drawn  across  the  Mediterranean,  and  thence  prolonged  through  Asia,  It  was 
formed  in  a  very  rough  manner,  upon  no  actual  observation,  and  comprising  all  leading 
positions  which  came  nearly  though  not  strictly  within  its  sphere.  It  was  called  generally,  the 
parallel  of  Rhodes.  The  most  westerly  point  was  the  Sacred  Cape  of  Iberia  (Cape  St  Vin- 
cent), after  which  followed  the  "  Strait  of  the  Pillars"  (of  Hercules).  The  next  point  waa 
the  Strait  of  Sicily,  erroneously  considered  to  be  under  the  same  meridian  with  Rome  and 
Carthage.  Then  came  Rhodes,  the  centre  of  the  line.  Issus,  celebrated  as  the  site  of  the 
victory  of  Alexander,  was  with  little  difficulty  brought  within  the  limit.  Next  followed  the 
somewhat  doubtful  position  of  the  Caspian  gates,  and  the  line  was  extended  along  the  chain 
of  Mount  Taurus,  supposed  to  divide  Asia  into  two  parts,  till  it  terminated  at  the  remote 
city  of  Tiiinffi,  situated  on  the  eastern  ocean.  This  entire  length  of  the  habitable  world,  as 
it  was  called,  amounted  to  about  70,000  stadia,  or,  according  to  his  estimate,  one  hundred 
degrees,  not  quite  a  third  of  the  circuit  of  the  globe. 

In  determining  a  meridian  to  exhibit  his  breadth  of  the  habitable  world,  Eratosthenes 
laboured  imder  still  greater  difficulties.  On  the  extreme  south  was  "  the  limit  of  the  habitable 
earth;"  for,  according  to  this  school,  a  certain  tract  around  the  equator  was,  from  the 
excess  of  heat,  unfit  for  human  habitation.  The  uninhabitable  zone  was  supposed  to  extend 
8,300  stadia,  or  about  twelve  degrees  to  the  north  of  the  equat.ir.  Under  the  next  parallel 
were  included  the  "  Isle  of  the  Exiles,"  in  or  near  Sernaar ;  the  cinnamon-bearing  region, 
which  appears  to  be  Berbera,  and  Taproban,  or  Ceylon.  Next  comes  Meroe,  the  capital  of 
Ethiopia,  which  was  supposed,  though  with  great  error,  to  correspond  as  to  latitude  with 
tlie  southern  extremity  of  India :  thence  descending  the  Nile  the  geographer  marks  the 
celebrated  position  of  Syene,  which  was  concluded  to  be  immediately  under  the  tropic, 
iiince  there  was  a  well,  in  the  depth  of  which  at  noon-day,  at  the  precise  time  of  the  vernal 
equinox,  the  disk  of  the  sun  was  seen  reflected  entire.  The  observation  was  very  nearly 
correct.  Next  came  Alexandria,  of  which,  as  the  centre  of  all  these  observations,  the 
position  as  to  latitude  was  very  closely  approximated.  Then  followed  Rhodes  in  the  centre 
of  tlie  great  parallel  already  described  as  exhibiting  the  length  of  the  habitable  globe. 
Continuing  northward,  though  not  upon  the  same  line,  were  found  the  Hellespont,  Byzan- 
tium, tiie  mouth  of  tlte  Borysthenes,  and  passing  over  the  vast  obscurely-known  tracts  of 
Germany,  Gaul,  and  Britain,  the  fartiiest  Thule,  which,  on  the  report  of  Pytheas,  Eratos- 
thenes regarded  as  t!ie  extreme  northern  boundary  of  the  earth.  As  the  same  authority 
placed  Tliule  under  the  Arctic  circle,  or  at  sixty-six  degrees  of  latitude,  the  interval  be- 
tween that  position  and  the  limit  of  the  habitable  earth  on  the  side  of  the  equator  amounted 
to  about  fifty-four  degrees,  or  according  to  his  estimate  38,000  stadia,  which  formed  thus 
the  supposed  breadth  from  north  to  south  of  the  habitable  earth. 

Sect.  IV. — Hipparchua. 
Hipparchus,  carrying  still  farther  the  system  adopted  by  Eratosthenes,  subjected  the 
whole  science  of  geography  to  astronomical  principles.  His  labours  in  numbering  the  stars, 
and  arranging  them  according  to  their  place  in  the  heavens,  were  such  as  appeared  mar- 
vellous to  the  ancients,  and  are  esteemed  by  Pliny  as  achievements  that  would  have  been 
urduous  even  for  a  god.  In  this  career,  however,  he  had  been  preceded  by  Timocharis  and 
Aristillus,  who,  more  than  a  cputrry  before,  had  made  some  observations  which  paved  the 
way  for  tlie  present  extendet'  discoveries.  Hipparchus  appears  to  have  first  conceived  the 
idea  of  transferring  tlie  observed  latitudes  and  longitudes  of  the  stars  to  their  correspond- 
ing places  on  the  earth's  surface,  thus  fixing  the  latter  with  a  precision  which  no  itinerary 
measurements  could  ever  attain.  He  made  a  considerable  number  of  observations  of  lati- 
tude, in  addition  to  the  very  few  previously  existing,  and  he  pointed  out  the  mode  in  which 
Ihe  longitudes  might  be  ascertained  by  observing  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon.  It  does 
not  appei'r  to  what  extent  he  carried  the  difficult  operations  requisite  for  this  investigation ; 
bw  lie  is  said  to  have  calculated  the  eclipses  for  six  hundred  years,  including  the  moments 
ol  their  appearance  at  different  places ;  a  performance  which  seems  to  indicate  a  know- 
ledge of  their  astronomical  position.  Thus  Hipparchus  distinctly  perceived  all  the  prin- 
>.'ipl»!s  upon  which  an  accurate  system  of  geography  might  be  founded,  and  made  some 
progress  in  their  application ;  but  these  important  principles,  like  others  which  were  beyond 
Jie  coinprelieiision  of  tlie  age  in  which  they  were  made,  remained  for  a  long  time  dormant 
or  misapplied,  and  were  not  brought  into  full  practical  application  until  a  much  more 
advanced  period  in  the  progress  of  science. 


Sect.  V. — The  world  accordiriff  to  Eratosthenes  and  Strabo. 


The  application  to  the  different  parts  of  the  earth's  surface  of  t!ie  pri 


iciplss  acLordiag 


to  whicii  the  globe  was  to  be  delineated,  formed  a  task  still  more  arduous  than  that  of  the 
first  establishment  of  those  principles.  The  longitudes  and  latitudes  of  the  ancients  are 
both  erroneous;  more  especially  the  longitudes,  to  which  astronomical  observation  was 
never  very  extensively  apolied :  hence  it  is  not  wonderful  that  the  errors  should  be  great ; 


10 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  I. 


but  the  regular  and  rapid  manner  in  which  they  accumulate  appears  very  surprisina 
They  begin  from  the  Sacred  Cape  of  Iberia  (Cape  St.  Vincent),  which  the  ancients  mane 
their  first  meridian,  and  continue  regularly  increasing  as  we  proceed  eastward.  To  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules  were  assigned  more  tlian  two  degrees  beyond  the  truth ;  to  Alexandria, 
nparly  seven ;  to  Issus,  ten ;  to  the  Caspian  gates,  fourteen ;  to  Pattalena,  or  the  Delta  of 
the  Indus,  twenty-three ;  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges,  nearly  twenty-seven.  We  have 
already  had  occasion  to  observe,  and  tlie  remark  is  found  in  the  best  ancient  geographers, 
that  merchants  and  travellers  of  that  age  gave  an  exaggerated  report  of  all  tin  distenccs 
ov(!r  which  they  passed.  The  windings  of  the  route,  the  hardships  and  obstacles  encoun- 
tered by  them,  the  desire  to  magnify  their  own  achievements,  all  concurred  in  inducing 
thou-  *o  view  and  present  this  particular  through  an  amplified  medium.  All  the  itinerar^s 
continued  along  tlie  line  upon  which  Eratasthenes  measured  his  length  of  the  habitable 
globe  being  Urns  unduly  extended,  the  degrees  calculated  out  of  them  were  of  course 
etinally  in  excess ;  and  this  excess  became  always  the  greater  in  proportion  to  the  length 
to  which  the  line  was  protracted  beyond  its  commencement  at  tlie  Sacred  Cape.  The  lati- 
tude of  the  principal  places  in  and  round  the  Mediterranean  is  in  general  not  far  from  the 
truth,  probably  because  it  was  determined  by  such  rude  observations  as  were  within  the 
compass  of  Greek  science  at  that  early  period. 

In  tracing  the  outline  of  the  known  world,  and  especially  of  the  continents,  geographers 
still  proceeded  amid  obscurity  and  doubt.  This  school  had  laid  down  the  fimdamental  prin- 
ciple of  a  great  circumambient  ocean,  embracing  the  entire  circuit  of  the  three  continents. 
This  idea,  inherited  from  Homer,  was  doubtless  supported  by  facts  to  a  considerable  extent ; 
but  its  application  to  the  world  in  general,  and  especially  to  the  northern  shores  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  was  manifestly  hypothetical.  Eratosthenes,  in  comparing  the  magnitude  of  his 
known  world,  even  under  its  exaggerated  dimensions,  with  the  general  circumference  of 
the  earth,  became  sensible  that  only  a  third  part  of  this  last  was  filled  up.  He  indulges  in 
conjecture  as  to  the  contents  of  this  vast  unknown  region,  which,  he  observes,  might  either 
be  supposed  to  consist  of  one  great  ocean,  the  whole  of  which  he  denomina,tes  the  Atlantic, 
or  of  lands  and  islands  which  might  be  discovered  in  sailing  to  the  westward.  With  a 
degree  of  caution,  however,  not  very  common  in  that  age,  he  declines  to  give  any  decisive 
opinion  on  this  question. — The  system  of  Eratosthenes  may  now  be  6onsidered  in  regard  to 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 

ScBSECT.  1. — Europe.   {Piff.  6.) 

The  imperfection  of  ancient  geography  is  often  conspicuous  with  respect  to  countries 
which  were  very  near  and  familiar.  In  regard  to  the  very  centre  of  the  Mediterranean, 
Eratosthenes  committed  a  capital  error.  Following  the  propensity  to  include  all  the  lead- 
ing positions  under  some  one  line  to  which  they  approximate,  he  placed  in  the  same  me- 
ridian Rome,  the  Sicilian  strait  (that  of  Messitla),  and  Carthage.  The  mistake  with  regard 
to  the  first  and  last  of  these  points  did  not  much  exceed  a  degree ;  but  the  middle  point  ia 
nearly  tour  degrees  east  from  Rome,  and  five  from  Carthage.  Such  an  error  could  not  fail 
to  produce  others.  M.  Gosselin  shows  that  it  has  led  to  a  signal  mistake  respecting  the 
position  of  Sicily,  as  the  geographer,  in  order  to  retain  its  relative  position  towards  Carthage, 
neces-sarily  represented  its  greatest  length  as  from  north  to  south,  instead  of  from  east  to 
west.  The  promontory  of  Lilybffium,  facing  Carthage,  became  the  southern  instead  of 
the  western  extremity  of  Sicily ;  while  Cape  Paciiynum,  instead  of  the  southern,  became 
the  eastern.  Sicily  being  thus  projected  so  unreasonably  towards  the  south,  Carthage  also 
was  made  to  recede  too  far  in  the  same  direction ;  and  the  coast  leading  thither  from  the 
straits  of  Gibraltar  was  supposed  to  bend  to  the  south  instead  of  the  north.  The  same 
erroneous  process,  placing  Sicily  too  far  west,  enlarged  beyond  measure  the  eastern  basin 
of  tlie  Mediterranean  comprehended  between  it  and  Asia  Minor.  This  deformity  became 
still  more  serious  from  anotiier  application,  to  Alexandria  and  Rhodes,  of  the  system  of 
placing  leading  points  under  the  same  meridian.  As  the  former  error  had  made  Sicily  flo 
far  west,  this  made  Rhodes  too  far  east,  and  rendered  the  sea  between  these  islands  too 
large  by  at  least  a  half. 

Strabo,  ever  alive  Jo  the  fiiults  of  his  predecessors,  detected  the  mistake  of  Eratos- 
thenes with  respect  to  the  relative  positions  of  Rome  and  Carthage.  He  has  been  far, 
however,  from  rectifymg  all  the  wrong  positions  established  by  his  predecessor.     He  has 


Reference*  to  the  Map  of  Europe  according  to  EratoMhene*. 


1.  nnilei 

3.  (;alp« 

H.  Cnrlhngo  Nova 

4.  Nnrlxi 

5.  MR'oUia 

6.  Antiimlit 

7.  Gpniia 
R.  liuna 
H/Pomiloniam 

10.  CoiM 


II.  Rnina 

13.  OsliH 

13.  •"ircnii 

14.  riiioiili 
]%.  Nniipiilif 
16,  P.'sirionia 
!7.  \  '■■-, 

18.  T.Hiia 

19.  Hipiraniun 


SO. 

Hhcfriiitn 

9<l.  Polii 

31 

PcylHcium 

.'10.  Knidnnrus 

3;f 

Tdiirii 

■i\.  Kpiilnmnui 

2:1. 

rnri'ntum 

33.  ApuJIonin 

Si- 

KninduBium 

a.'i. 

2i.-:'i» 

Rivtm 

ao. 

Teiinum 

a  Alhii 

37. 

AitRimii 

b  Rhpnni 

3H. 

Ariminum 

0  8«quana 

d  Liger 
e  naniinnt 
f  Uuviin 

CTHIiua 
Anfi? 
i    Ropiii 
j    IbcMM 
k  Rhndanoi 
1   Vani* 


Pakt  I. 

irs  very  surprising 
I  the  ancients  made 

eastward.  To  the 
uth ;  to  Alexandria, 
jna,  or  the  Delta  of 
y-seven.  We  have 
ncient  geographers, 
of  all  tin  distances 
d  obstacles  encoun- 
icurred  in  inducing 

All  the  itinerari«>8 
■th  of  the  habitable 
em  were  of  course 
«rtion  to  the  length 
ed  Cape.  The  lati- 
ral  not  far  from  the 
as  were  within  the 

inents,  geographers 
B  fundamental  prin- 
he  three  continents, 
onsiderable  extent ; 
•n  shores  of  Europe 
e  magnitude  of  his 
.1  circumference  of 
p.  He  indulges  in 
lerves,  might  either 
inB,tes  the  Atlantic, 
/westward.  With  a 
3  give  any  decisive 
lidered  in  regard  to 


bpect  to  countries 
;he  Mediterranean, 
elude  all  tlie  lead- 
in  the  same  me- 
istake  with  regard 
he  middle  point  is 
!rror  could  not  fail 
ke  respecting  the 
towards  Carthage, 
id  of  from  east  to 
ithern  instead  of 
southern,  became 
ith,  Carthage  also 

thither  from  the 
orth.  The  same 
the  eastern  basin 
leformity  became 
of  the  system  of 

made  Sicily  aq 
;hese  islands  too 

stake  of  Erato^ 
le  has  been  fiir, 
cesser.     He  has 


d  Liter 
e  Oariiinna 
f  JXiriuii 
Thiius 

Bnciia 
I  bonis 
Rhodanui 
I   Varui 


PlO.  6. 


EUROPE  ACC  JRDING  TO  ERATOSTHENES. 


» 


VOL.  1, 


40 


mSTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  I. 


left  untouched  the  false  orienting  of  Sicily,  and  all  the  errora  dependent  upon  it.  Botli  he 
and  Eratosthenes  describe  Italy  as  extending  from  north  to  south.,  which,  allowing  for  the 
early  tendency  to  orient  all  lines  towards  a  cardinal  point,  may  be  taken  as  a  pretty  (nit 
representation.  M.  Crosselin  has  undertaken  to  show  that  such  a  direction  would  be  incon- 
sistent with  the  other  data  given  by  these  geographers,  in  confbnnily  to  which  Italy  must 
stretch  from  east  to  west.  Considermg,  however,  the  imperfect  state  of  geographical  deli- 
neation at  that  period,  it  seems  going  too  far  to  follow  each  error  into  all  its  consequences, 
or  to  suppose  that  all  the  views  given  can  be  brought  into  complete  harmony. 

The  outline  of  the  central  and  northern  countries  of  Europe  drawn  by  these  geogra- 
phers is  excessively  vague.  Strabo  indeed  makes  some  approach  to  accuracy  in  comparing 
the  Spanish  peninsula  to  a  "  hide  spread  out,"  or  to  a  parallelogram.  Various  countries 
were  by  the  ancients  denominated  from  a  fancied  resemblance  to  some  object  in  nature,  nor 
are  examples  wanting  in  modem  times.  But  the  eastern  side  of  this  figure  is  formed  by 
tlie  Pyrenees,  which  are  thus  made  to  extend  from  north  to  south,  to  form  the  western 
boundary  of  Gaul,  and  to  be  parallel  to  the  Rhine.  Hence  arises  the  ^eatest  of  all  these 
errors ;  for  Gaul  is  allowed  to  have  on  the  ocean  only  one  coast,  which  is  that  looking  to 
the  north,  and  every  wher  opposite  to  Britain.  Strabo  treats  with  derision  the  report  of 
Pytheos,  that  the  Calbium  promontorium, 'the  extreme  point  of  Brittany,  looked  to  the  west, 
and  he  represents  vessels  as  sailing  to  Britain  as  readily  from  the  mouth  of  the  Loire  and 
Graronne  as  from  that  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Seine.  Great  as  these  errors  are,  we  shall  easily 
trace  their  origin  in  considering  the  sources  whence  the  Greeks  derived  their  information 
respecting  these  extremities  of  Europe.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  case  with  regard  to 
the  Carthaginians,  it  is  evident  that  neither  Greeks  nor  Romans  ever  navigated  its  exterior 
seas.  Pytheos  alone  performed  that  daring  voyage ;  but  having  no  witnesses  to  bring  in 
support  of  his  relation,  it  was  denounced  as  fabulous,  in  common  with  others  made  by  early 
discoverers.  The  regular  channel  of  communication  was  Marseilles.  The  merchandise  of 
Britain  being  brought  across  the  British  channel  to  the  mouths  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Seine, 
was  conveyed  up  those  rivers,  and  by  land  carriage  to  that  great  emporium  of  Gaul.  Hence 
the  geography  of  Gaul  and  Britain,  in  that  age,  was  ruled  entirely  by  Massilian  ideas. 
Prom  the  causes  stated,  the  Massilians  had  no  communication  with  Britain  unless  by  the 
northern  coast  of  Gaul,  and  by  routes  directed  from  south  to  north  through  that  country. 
Reasoning  only  from  what  they  knew,  they  might  soon  arrive  at  the  conclusion,  that  Gaul 
had  only  a  northern  coast,  and  might  apply  to  it  the  whole  of  the  erroneous  system  now 
described.  The  result  of  this  system  was,  that  the  Cassitorides,  Islands  of  Tin,  in  which 
term  the  Scilly  islands  were  evidently  blended  with  Cornwall,  were  made  to  approach  to 
Spain,  and  came  to  be  considered  as  much  Spanish  as  British.  So  prevalent  was  this  idea, 
that  even  afterwards,  when  the  conquests  of^  Rome  had  made  known  the  wide  separation 
between  the  two  countries,  the  Cassiterides  are  found  in  some  maps  still  attached  to  Spain, 
and  at  a  little  distance  from  Cape  Ortegal. 

Britain,  under  this  system,  was  represented  as  a  triangle,  of  which  the  base,  or 
longest  side,  was  that  along  the  channel  and  opposite  to  Gaul.  As  the  coast,  afler  passing 
the  two  extremities  of  this  line,  bfgins  on  one  side  to  bend  inward  towards  the  Bristol 
Channel,  and  on  the  other  to  the  Thames,  navigators  then  probably  considered  it  as  continu- 
ing in  these  directions  till  it  came  to  a  point,  far  short  of  its  real  termination.  lerne,  or 
Hibeniia,  (Ireland)  appears  in  dim  obscurity.  It  is  said  to  be  situated  four  hundred  miles 
north  from  the  centre  of  Britain,  under  u  climate  so  excessively  cold  that  there  could  not 
possibly  be  any  inhabited  country  nearer  to  the  pole.  If  the  four  hundred  miles  be  measured 
from  the  centre  of  the  southern  coast,  and  allowance  be  made  for  false  orienting,  it  will  not 
be  found  so  very  wide  of  the  truth.  The  rest  of  the  description  was  probably  made  out  by 
confused  ideas  of  Scotland,  and  particularly  the  bleak  mountainous  tracts  in  the  nortli. 
Eratosthenes,  indeed,  has  derived  from  Pytlieas  a  knowledge  of  the  fiir  northern  limit  of 
Thiile,  and  of  its  appendant  islands,  stretching  towards  the  Arctic  sea ;  but,  as  the  proiid 
scepticism  of  Strabo  rejected  this  statement,  he  was  thrown  back  upon  the  more  imperfect 
information  aflbrded  by  the  merchants  of  Marseilles. 

The  ea'^tem  shores  of  northern  Europe  occasioned  still  more  embarrassment  to  the 
Greeks.  They  had,  in  general,  the  idea  of  this  continent  having  the  sea  for  its  boundary ; 
but  this  seems  mainly  to  rest  upon  the  general  vague  belief  of  a  circumambient  ocean,  and 
an  understanding  that  Germany  had  on  the  north  a  maritime  boundary,  indicated  by  the 
Rmber  brought  f^om  the  shores  of  the  Baltic.  Here,  too,  Pytheas,  either  by  pergonal 
itvestigatioii  or  by  careful  inquiry,  had  collected  some  particulars  wliich  if  Strabo  had  not 
disdained,  he  would  not  have  been  left  in  such  total  darkness.  After  proceeding  fiir  along 
the  German  coast,  that  navigator,  it  is  said,  came  to  a  great  gulf  (evidently  the  Baltic)  He 
found  Basilia,  a  very  large  island,  the  same  which  Pliny  calls  Baltia;  being,  in  fact,  llie 
peninsula  of  Scandinavia,  which,  until  it  whs  circumnavigated,  must  have  been  regarded  by 
navigators  as  an  island.  Then,  it  is  said,  lie  came  to  the  Tnnais,  which  appears,  no  doubt, 
a  very  startling  assertion;  but  we  must  remember  that,  in  this  school,  the  circumamhiont 
ocean  was  8uppoii>^  to  have  a  coast  only  a  little  north  of  the  Euxine  and  the  Caspian,  and 


int  upon  il.  Botli  he 
hich,  allowing  for  the 
taken  as  a  pretty  fiiii 
Jction  would  be  incon- 
y  to  which  Italy  must 
of  geographical  deli- 
all  its  consequences, 
imiony. 

Lwn  by  these  geogra- 
ccuracy  in  comparing 
n.     Various  countries 
!  object  in  nature,  nor 
3  figure  is  formed  by 
to  form  the  western 
^eatest  of  all  these 
iich  is  that  looking  to 
erision  the  report  of 
y,  looked  to  the  west, 
ith  of  the  Loire  and 
■s  are,  we  shall  easily 
ved  their  information 
e  case  with  regard  to 
lavigated  its  exterior 
i'itnesses  to  bring  in 
>thers  made  by  early 
The  merchandise  of 
Rhme  and  the  Seine, 
lum  of  Gaul.   Hence 
by  Massilian  ideas. 
Jritain  unless  by  the 
hrough  that  coimtry. 
;onclusion,  that  Gaul 
rroneous  system  now 
ids  of  Tin,  in  which 
bade  to  approach  to 
'^alent  was  this  idea, 
he  wide  separation 
attached  to  Spain, 

i'hich  the  base,   or 

coast,  after  passing 

owards  the  Bristol 

dered  it  as  continu- 

lination.     lerne,  or 

four  hundred  miles 

hat  there  could  not 

miles  be  measured 

ienting,  it  will  not 

)bably  made  out  by 

Kcts  in  the  north. 

northern  limit  of 

but,  as  the  proud 

le  more  imperfect 

irrassment  to  the 
for  its  boundary ; 
mbient  ocean,  and 
indicated  by  the 
ithor  by  porsonal 
if  Strabo  hnd  not 
;eeding  fiir  along 
y  the  Baltic)  He 
!ing,  in  foct,  ihe 
been  regarded  hy 
ppears,  no  doiibf, 
e  circumnmhiont 
the  Caspian,  and 


Book  I. 


ROMAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


4» 


a 


to  communicate  with  these  seas  or  gulfs  (as  they  were  supposed  to  be)  by  narrow  straits, 
one  of  which  was  the  Tanais,  and  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  great  Baltic  rivers  might  very 
easily  be  imagined  to  form  the  termination  of  this  strait. 

SuBSBOT.  2. — Asia.     (,Fig.  7.  page  44.) 

The  limits  assigned  to  Asia,  already  too  small,  were  contracted  by  the  geographers  of  the 
Alexandrian  school,  notwithstanding  the  additional  sources  of  information  which  they  pos- 
sessed respecting  that  continent.  This  error  arose  partly  from  their  theory  of  a  surround- 
ing ocean,  and  partly  from  their  neglect  of  the  important  information  obtained  by  Herodo- 
tus respecting  the  countries  along  the  heads  of  the  Euxine  and  Caspian.  The  expedition 
of  Alexander,  indeed,  and  the  embassy  of  Megasthenes,  made  them  acquainted  with  the 
Ganges,  rolling  eastward  through  the  fine  plain  of  Upper  Hindostan.  Seeing  it  pursue 
this  direction  to  the  utmost  limit  of  the  then  known  world,  they  were  led  to  conclude  that 
its  course  continued  eastward,  and  that  it  fell  into  the  eastern  ocean,  which  formed,  on  that 
side,  the  boundary  of  the  continent.  Connecting  this  with  the  Caspian,  the  only  northern 
Asiatic  sea  known  to  them,  they  drew  a  line  from  one  to  the  other,  by  which  they  excluded 
nearly  two-thirds  the  extent  of  Asia ;  the  Blrman  empire,  China,  the  greater  part  of  Tar- 
tary,  and  the  whole  of  Siberia.  On  the  shore  of  the  eastern  ocean  was  placed  Thinw,  evi- 
dently known  only  by  vague  rumour,  and  which  they  fixed  at  the  extremity  of  tlio  line 
measuring  the  length  of  the  habitable  globe.  What  may  be  the  import  of  this  mysterious 
name,  and  whether  it  be  the  capital  of  Siam  or  of  China,  is  a  discussion  which  will  be  bet- 
ter reserved  until  we  come  to  the  more  precise  notices  of  Ptolemy.  One  other  grand 
feature  was  known  to  this  school ;  the  cape  of  the  Coliaci  or  Cape  Comorin ;  but  conceiving 
the  coast  of  Coromandel  to  follow  the  line  of  the  Ganges,  and,  consequently,  to  verge  to- 
wards the  west,  they  made  it  several  degrees  njore  easterly  than  even  Thinie. 

Asia  within  and  Asia  beyond  Taurus  were  made  the  grand  divisions  of  that  continent. 
That  great  mountain  chain  arising  in  Asia  Minor  was  supposed  to  be  prolonged  by  those 
of  the  Elburz,  of  Khorasan,  and  of  Hindoo  Coosh,  which,  in  fact,  there  is  much  reason  to 
believe,  may  form  a  chain  nowhere  wholly  interrupted.  Within  Taurus  were  all  the  fertile, 
populous,  and  splendid  kingdoms  and  countries  of  Asia ;  Syria,  Assyria,  Babylon,  Persia, 
Susiana,  Ionia,  Cilicia ;  beyond,  were  the  ruder  tracts  of  Scythia,  Bactria,  Sogdiana ;  and 
more  westerly,  the  Caucasian  territory,  and  the  part  of  Asia  Minor  situated  along  the  shore 
of  the  Black  Sea. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Africa. 

In  regard  to  Africa,  the  knowledge  of  these  geographers,  though  accurate  in  some  re- 
spects, was  extremely  limited.  They  believed  its  boundary  to  be  the  sea ;  but  this  correct 
judgment  proceeded  rather  from  a  casual  coincidence  with  their  theory  of  an  encircling 
ocean,  than  from  any  actual  knowledge ;  since  Strabo  rejected  even  the  possibility  of  cir- 
cumnavigation. This  scepticism  was  founded  upon  the  hypothesis  of  an  uninhabitable  tor- 
rid zone,  which  formed  an  essehtial  part  of  the  reigning  system  at  this  period.  It  is  n  be- 
lief manifestly  African,  founded  on  the  observation  of  those  vast  and  burning  deserts,  wiiich 
extend  indefinitely  beyond  the  narrow  inhabited  stripe  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean. 
The  Nile,  then,  being  still  considered  as  the  eastern  boundary,  Africa  became  a  sort  of 
right-angled  triangle,  of  which  the  two  smaller  sides  were  formed  by  that  river  and  the 
Mediterranean,  while  the  hypotenuse,  or  largest  side,  was  the  unexplored  shore.  It  was 
upon  the  Nile  that  Eratosthenes  measured  the  habitable  world  of  Africa ;  yet  he  does  not 
trace  that  river  so  high  as  Herodotus,  his  details  reaching  only  between  three  and  four 
hundred  miles  above  Meroe.  In  these  details,  however,  he  is  very  accurate :  on  the  east- 
ern side,  he  represents  it  as  receiving  two  great  rivers,  the  Astapus  and  the  Astaboras,  tlie 
former  of  which  flows  from  lakes  in  the  south,  and,  when  swelled  by  the  summer  rains, 
forms  almost  the  main  body  of  the  Nile.  He  describes  also  the  bend  which  the  river  makes 
in  its  passage  through  Nubia.  The  source,  being  imagined  to  exist  in  regions  rendered  in- 
accessible by  extreme  heat,  could  not  be  considesed  as  within  the  reach  of  discovery.  The 
idea,  however,  still  prevailed,  that  it  came  from  the  west,  and  Strabo  even  mentions  a  re- 
port, that  its  source  was  in  the  remote  region  of  Mauritania,  south  of  the  Atlas.  This  is 
the  only  statement  made  by  geographers  of  this  school,  which  can  be  considered  as  indi- 
cating any  idea  of  the  existence  of  the  Niger. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ROMAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


The  Roman  geographers  attained  no  proficiency  in  the  mathematical  branch  of  the 
science.  M.  Gosselin  does  not  even  hesitate  to  assert,  that  they  remained  always  stransrt'rs 
to  its  very  first  elements.  They  made  no  attempt,  therefore,  to  combine  their  materials  into 
one  harmonious  system,  or  to  fix  their  positions  with  that  strict  accuracy,  which  astronomi- 


THE  WORLD  ACCORDING  TO  ERATOSTHENES. 


Fio.  7 


NES. 


Pw.  7 


Book  I. 


ROMAN  GEOGRAPHY.— MELA. 


4ft 


■^ 


I 

-  i' 


"Ji 


^ 


cal  observation  alone  can  reach.  Yet  no  nation  employed  greater  diligence  in  the  opera< 
lions  of  practical  survey.  This  was,  indeed,  absclutely  requisite,  with  a  view  to  that  in- 
cessant warfare  in  which  they  were  engaged ;  they  could  not  conquer  the  world  without 
oreviously  surveying  it.  Their  geographical  researches  were,  however,  held  strictly  aub- 
servient  to  this  ambitious  design. 

Itineraries  were  thus  the  only  form  in  which  the  results  of  Roman  investigation 
were  presented.  Vegetius  informs  us  that  when  war  was  to  be  carried  into  any  country, 
the  first  care  waa  to  procure  a  complete  set  of  routes,  and  place  them  in  the  hands  of  the 
general.  These  itineraries,  it  is  observed,  ought,  if  possible,  to  contain,  not  merely  the  inter- 
vals, in  paces  and  Roman  miles,  between  one  place  and  another,  but  the  quality  of  the  roads, 
the  surrounding  objects,  mountains  and  rivers,  delineated  with  the  utmost  possible  precision. 
They  were  not  only  to  be  noted,  but  painted,  that  the  commanders  niight  npt  know  merely, 
but  see  before  their  eyes,  the  route  by  which  they  were  to  proceed.  The  Romans  beca:ne 
thus  the  surveyors  as  well  as  the  conquerors  of  the  world ;  and  every  new  war  in  wliich 
they  engaged,  every  new  conquest  which  their  arms  achieved,  produced  a  f^esh  accumula- 
tion of  m  iterials  for  the  use  of  the  geographer.  Even  after  a  counti^  was  subdued,  the 
necessity  of  accurate  survey  did  not  cease.  The  empire  was  long  held  in  a  state  of  mere 
military  occupation ;  camps  formed  at  proper  distances  were  connected  by  those  excellent 
and  durable  roads,  many  of  which  remain  to  this  day.  An  accurate  acquaintance  with  the 
position  and  intervals  of  th.^  i  camps,  and  the  nature  of  the  intervening  territory,  was  essen- 
tial to  the  maintenance  of  tiiriir  dominion  over  the  vast  extent  of  their  conquered  countries. 
No  sooner,  therefore,  had  Julius  Ctesar  seated  himself  on  the  undisputed  throne  of  tlie  empire, 
than  he  caused  a  senatils  contndtum  to  be  passed  for  a  general  measurement  of  the  Roman 
world.  This  task,  it  is  said,  wos  intrusted  to  "  the  most  prudent  men,  adorned  with  every 
endowment  of  philosophy."  The  east  was  assigned  to  Zenodoxus,  the  west  to  Theodotus, 
and  the  south  to  Polycletus.  In  the  course  of  twenty-five  years,  as  we  are  infonned  by 
.^thicus,  the  whole  was  completed.  Julius  Csesar,  however,  did  not  long  survive  the  com- 
mencement of  this  great  work,  which  the  civil  wars  probably  suspended.  It  was  apparently 
resumed  and  completed  under  the  reign  of  Augustus  and  the  ministry  of  his  son-in-law 
Agrippa,  to  whom  it  appears,  fiwm  Pliny,  to  have  been  afterwards  ascribed.  The  exact  prin- 
ciples upon  which  this  grand  measurement  was  conducted  have  nowhere  been  stated.  The 
reform  of  the  calendar,  efiected  by  Cesar,  seems  to  point  out  that  some  elements  of  a8tro> 
nomy  existed  among  those  with  whom  he  consulted. 

Rome,  in  the  most  flourishing  era  of  its  literature,  produced  two  eminent  geographers, 
Mela  and  Pliny. 

Sect.  I. — Mela. 

The  personal  history  of  this  eminent  geographer  is  a  subject  respecting  which 
scarcely  any  particulars  have  "transpired.  From  the  allusions,  however,  in  liis  own  writings, 
to  the  conquest  of  Britain  by  Claudius  as  a  recent,  event,  made  in  those  flattering  terms 
which  only  a  contemporary  would  have  employed,  it  would  appear  that  his  work  was  written 
under  the  reign  of  that  isglorious  prince,  and  is,  consequently,  anterior  to  that  of  Pliny, 

Mela,  in  forming  his  system,  does  not  appear  to  have  possessed  those  extensive  mea- 
surements and  itineraries,  which  were  probably  deposjted  in  the  imperial  archives.  Faith- 
ful, however,  to  *he  object  of  his  treatise,  "  de  situ  orbis,"  he  discovers  very  considerable 
anxiety  to  determine  the  position  of  the  globe,  and  trace  with  accuracy  its  general  outlines. 
He  adopts  the  general  principles  of  the  school  of  Eratosthenes,  incorporating  into  it  the  new 
features  which  had  been  afforded  by  Roman  conquest.  He  does  not  appear,  however,  to 
have  comprehended  their  idea  of  the  globular  form  of  the  earth,  nor  is  he  very  perspicuous 
in  any  thing  that  he  says  upon  that  subject.  He  begins — "  All  that,  whatever  it  is,  to  which 
we  give  the  name  of  the  world  and  heaven,  is  one  thing,  and  in  one  circuit  embraces  itself 
and  all  things ;"  vague  and  pompous  expressions,  to  which  no  determinate  idea  can  be 
attached.  We  find  him,  however,  adopting  in  its  fullest  extent  the  belief  of  a  circumam- 
bient ocean ;  and  when  he  speaks  of  "  the  high  earth  in  this  middle  part  of  it,"  and  describes 
the  sea  as  going  under  and  washing  round  it,  we  are  led  to  believe,  that  he  viewed  the  enrth 
ns  a  sort  of  cone,  or  as  a  high  mountain  raised  by  its  elevation  at»ve  the  abyss  of  waters. 
Having  made  a  vague  division  of  the  world  into  east,  west,  and  north,  he  distributed  it  into 
five  zones,  two  temperate,  one  torrid,  and  two  frigid.    Only  the  first  two  were  habitable ; 


References  to  the  Map  of  the  World  according  to  Eraionthenes. 

■ 

.   „   EIJROPA. 

2.  AmUiM 

15.  Patala 

16.  Palibothra 

AFRICA. 

10.  Rarenice 

1.  MnmiHa 

'J.  Binnpe 

1.  I.ixua 

U.  Soene 

2.  Roma 

4.  Ephe.ua 

S.  Carthaito 

12.  Murne 

3.  Athens 

5.  iHsiia 

Rivers. 

3.  Ptoleinaia 

13.  Ptnlemaia 

4.  Byzanlium 

0.  Thapiaeu* 

a  Oxna 
b  Jaxartea 

4.  CyrenB 

14.  Aduli 

7.  Ninua 

5.  Berenice 

Rivert, 

8.  Siina 

«;  Phaoia 

a  Rnenua 

».  Bahvlon 

d  EuphrsJfs 

7.  ('unopui 

a  Nilua 

■>  BoiyHUieoea 
c  Tanaia 

10.  Rhiriocolura 

e  Tisna 
f  Inifua 

8.  Polusium 

b  Aatapua 
e  Aataborai. 

11.  ifilana 

Q.  Amnoe 

ASIA. 

12.  Gmra 

13.  Tk uii  Iniula 

f  Oaogei 

1.  Dioicuriai 

14.  Aradua  loaula 

'., 

40 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 

He.  &-BY8TEM  or  MELA. 


Paev 


<3«hichpM«dui.d.rih,s,.,„Eihwn.fc,.   Mtli.1  c. 


ANTKHTHONBS 

McULik.l.e.  I. 

or  <'oiiiiMrl>ilancin( 

NKMISI'Hh!>K 

Manit  Aiiron  i 

'•""•  I. 

VIriil  Lib.  VII.  tot. 


and  that  on  the  south  was  inaccessible  to  man,  on  account  of  the  torrid  regions  intervening. 
According  to  this  system,  however,  there  was  on  that  side  another  earth,  inhabited  by  people, 
whom  he  calls  Anlichthones,  from  their  opposite  position  witli  respect  to  that  part  which  we 
inhabit.  The  form  and  boundaries  of  the  known  and  habitable  earth  are  thus  delineated : — 
The  Mediterranean,  with  its  branches  of  the  Straits,  the  Euxine,  and  the  Palus  Mceotis;  itn 
great  tributaries,  the  Nile  and  the  Tanais ; — ^these  combine,  in  his  conception,  to  tbrm  tho 
grand  line  by  which  the  universe  is  divided.  The  Mediterranean  itself  separates  Europo 
from  Africa ;  and  these  continents  are  bounded  on  the  east,  the  former  by  the  Tanais,  the 
latter  by  the  Nile ;  all  beyond  or  to  the  east  of  these  limits  was  Asia.    {Fifir.  8.) 

In  drawing  the  outline  of  Asia,  Mela  adheres  very  strictly  to  his  Alexandrian  models. 
He  describes  it  as  bounded  by  an  ocean  on  every  side  except  the  western,  where  it  confines 
with  Africa  and  Europe.  It  presents,  he  says,  a  huge  and  perpetual  front  to  the  eastern 
ocean,  its  shores  being  occupied  by  the  three  fiirthest  known  nations,  the  Indians  on  the 
eoutii,  the  Seres  in  the  middle,  and  the  Scythians  on  the  north ;  but  the  territory  of  the 
Indians  and  Scythians  is  rendered  in  a  great  measure  uninhabitable  by  the  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold.  The  limited  extent  of  his  accurate  information,  however,  is  apparent  from  tlie 
representation  he  gives  of  this  ocean,  as  flowing  directly  north  from  the  point  of  Colis  (Cape 
Comorin),  the  Ganges  flowing  into  it,  and  the  Scythians  occupying  its  shores  as  far  as  "  the 
Caspian  Baij."  He  even  inclines  to  credit  the  report  of  an  Indian  vessel  having  been  driven 
round  by  stress  of  weather  to  the  coast  of  Germany.  Thus  he  gave  to  Asia  the  same  .trun- 
cated form  which  it  had  received  from  the  authors  whom  he  followed ;  but  he  certainly  ren. 
dered  the  dimensions  of  its  eastern  shore  more  ample,  when  he  made  it  to  consist,  not  of  India 
only,  but  also  of  Serica  and  part  of  Scythia.  With  regard  to  the  southern  shores  of  Asia, 
they  were  known  with  sufficient  accuracy,  ever  since  the  expedition  of  Alexander,  and  the 
voyage  of  Nearchus.  He  calls  the  Indian  ocean  the  Red  Sea,  and  recognises  the  Red  Sea 
of  modern  freographers  only  under  tlie  name  of  the  Arabian  gulf;  but  this  is  plainly  a  mt  re 
nominal  diflercnce. 


Part 


Book  I. 


ROMAN  GEOGRAPHY.— MEI^ 


47 


regions  intervening. 

inhabited  by  people, 

that  part  which  we 

thus  delineated : — 

Palus  Moeotis ;  ito 

iception,  to  form  tho 

*  separates  Europe 

by  the  Tanais,  the 

Fifi(.  8.) 

exondrian  models. 

where  it  confines 

ront  to  the  eastern 

the  Indians  on  the 

he  territory  of  the 

le  extremes  of  heat 

apparent  from  tlie 

wintofColis  (Cape 

lores  as  far  as  "  the 

laving  been  driven 

sia  the  same  trun- 

t  he  certainly  ren« 

onsist,  not  ot  India 

em  shores  of  Asia, 

Alexander,  and  the 

fnises  the  Red  Sea 

s  is  plainly  a  mt  re 


fjiirope,  as  described  by  Mela,  extends  from  the  Tanais  to  Cadiz,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  its  eoHtorn  river-limit,  is  bounded  every  where  by  seas  and  oceans.     Its  leading  feature 
IH  tlio  Mnditerranean,  joined  to  t'lc  Euxino  and  the  Palus  MtEotis,  which  arc  considered 
only  OH  prolongations  of  that  sea;   while  the  Mge&n,  the  Ionian,  and  the  Adriatic  seas, 
form  its  diree  great  gulfs.    The  western  part  he  divides  into  the  Tuscan  and  the  Libyan 
seas.    His  delineation  of  the  exterior  coasts  marks  a  groat  advance  of  knowledge.     He 
asHJgns  to  Spain  a  northern,  and  to  France  i.  \.  ^otem  coast  of  great  extent,  and  adds  that  < 
the  Pyrenees,  after  separating  Fr  •        fVom  Spain,  enter  the  latter  country  and  penetrate  to 
ita  extremity,  when  tliey  face  the  Atlantic.    Here  the  whole  chain  of  the  Cantabrian  moun- 
tains  is  considered,  by  no  very  strained  meaning,  as  Pyrenean.    In  treating  of  these  outer 
siiores  of  Europe,  and  the  "  huge  and  infinite  sea"  on  which  they  border,  Mela  relates,  with 
exaggerating  wonder,  tlie  phenomena,  unknown  to  a  Mediterranean  people,  of  tlie  tides, 
"  Uiat  mighty  movement  by  which  the  sea  alternately  advances  and  returns  into  itself,  over- 
flowing the  lands,  driving  back  mighty  rivers,  and  sweeping  away  the  strongest  land 
animals."    His  speculations  on  the  cause  are  singular;  either  the  world  is  a  great  animal 
whoHC  breathings  excite  in  its  breast  these  alternate  movements ;  or  it  contains  deep  caves, 
into  which  the  waters  are  alternately  absorbed  and  ejected.     He  does,  however,  mention 
tlie  ilieory  which  supposes  them  influenced  by  the  moon,  and  remarks  their  correspondence 
with  the  movements  of  that  body.    In  treating  of  the  Cassiterides,  or  Islands  of  Tm,  which 
include,  as  already  observed,  the  Scilly  Islands  and  Cornwall,  he  shows  considerable  per- 
plexity, only  observing  that  they  are  "  in  Celticis,"  indicating  their  close  alliance  with 
France.    In  regard  to  Britain  itself,  however,  he  confidently  undertakes  to  give  the  world 
better  information,  in  consequence  of  the  victories  of  "  the  greatest  of  princes^'  over  nations 
hithcrtx)  unsubdued  and  unknown ;  and  he  certainly  makes  a  great  progress  beyond  the  im- 
perfect notions  of  Strabo.    He  describes  Britain  as  presenting  two  extensive  oblique  coasts, 
OTie  looking  towards  France,  the  other  towards  Germany ;  the  two  forming  a  great  angle 
nearly  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine.     The  coasts  then  began  to  bend  inv/ards,  and 
form  a  triangle  varied  with  numerous  points  and  angles,  and  somewhat  sunilar  in  form  to 
Sicily.    The  country  is  described  as  flat,  large,  apd  fruitful,  but  contrary  to  what  now  ob- 
tains, more  favourable  to  the  support  of  flocks  tlian  of  men.    The  natives  were  uncultivated, 
warlike,  and  ignorant  of  wealth ;  they  were  accustomed  to  paint  their  bodies,  and  to  ride  in 
chariots.    Above  Britain  was  Juvema  (Ireland),  nearly  equal  in  size,  and  of  an  oblong  form, 
its  soil  scarcely  fit  for  the  production  of  grain,  but  its  pastures  so  luxuriant,  that  if  the 
cattle  were  allowed  to  feed  for  more  than  a  short  period  of  the  day,  they  died  of  repletion. 
The  relative  dimensions  assigned  to  Britain  and  Ireland  would  seem  to  show  that  the  former 
was  known  only  in  its  southern  part,  yet  the  writer  discovers  himself  not  unacquainted  with 
the  Scottish  islands.     He  mentions  thirty  Orcades,  in  which  number  the  Shetland  Islands 
are  probably  included. 

In  proceeding  to  the  east  and  north,  Germany  is  described  by  Mela  as  a  region  of  great 
extent,  uitersected  by  many  rivers,  and  covered  m  a  great  measure  with  woods  and  marshes. 
The  inhabitants  were  tall  and  remarkable  for  courage  and  strength,  continually  exercised 
in  war  and  hard  labour,  eating  raw  flesh,  and  clothed  partly  in  the  bark  of  trees.  Passing 
the  Vistula,  wo  enter  into  Sarmatia,  extending  to  the  Danube,  rather  a  vague  limit,  but  the 
term  is  evidently  meant  to  comprehend  the  greater  part  of  modem  Poland.  The  people 
are  some  stages  in  barbarism  beyond  even  the  Germans,  having  no  cities  or  even  settled 
abodes,  and  carrying  their  fierceness  to  such  a  pitch,  that  hunting  and  bending  the  bow 
were  considered  the  best  accomplishments  of  their  females,  no  one  of  whom,  the  writer 
even  asserts,  could  enter  the  matrunonial  state  till  she  had  killed  her  man.  Gn  this  shore 
he  represents  the  Codanus  Sinus,  a  great  bay  filled  with  large  and  small  islands ;  nowhere 
presenting  an  expanse  resembling  a  sea,  but  dispersed  and  scattered  in  narrow  channels 
like  rivers ;  a.  description  very  applicable  to  the  entrance  of  the  Baltic  and  the  Danish 
islands.  In  common  with  all  the  ancients,  uowever,  Mela  appears  to  have  been  ignorant  of 
any  thing  like  a  continent  on  the  other  side  of  this  great  bay. 

The  outline  of  Africa,  drawn  by  this  geographer,  sufficiently  shows  his  limited  range  of 

information.    This  continent  he  views  as  a  triangle,  the  greatest  length  of  which,  measured 

in  his  system  from  the  Nile  to  the  Atlantic,  is  considerably  less  than  the  length  of  Europe. 

Of  this  triangle,  the  Nile  forms  the  base ;  and  from  thence  the  southem  coast,  or  that  of 

the  Ethiopic  ocean,  continually  approximates  to  the  northern,  till,  beyond  the  Pillars  of  Her- 

jules,  it  tapers  almost  to  a  point.     The  origin  and  course  of  the  Nile  are  to  Mela  a  subject 

c,       of  much  speculation.    One  account,  esteemed  by  him  as  tolerably  credible  (aliqud  credihile) 

identifies  it  with  a  great  Ethiopian  river,  called  in  the  language  of  the  natives  Nuchul ; 

which,  while  all  other  rivers  tend  towards  the  ocean,  alone  flows  eastward  to  the  central 

^i       region,  and  no  one  knows  where  it  terminates;  a  striking  coincidence  with  the  actual  ob- 

j.       servation  of  the  moderns,  respecting  that  celebrated  stream  denominated  the  Niger.     Eise- 

^1        where,  however,  Mela  propounds  an  hypothesis  of  a  much  more  extraordinary  character 

I        He  says,  that  if  there  be  another  earth  (on  the  south  of  the  equator),  and  Anticht hones 

I       opposite  ♦o  us,  "  it  might  not  be  departing  too  far  from  the  truth"  to  suppose  that  the  Nile 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


P*IIT  !. 


Am§e  in  that  earth,  and  reached  our  side  of  the  jjlobe  by  a  channel  beneath  the  ocpun, 
ThuH  it  would  naturnJIy  swell  during  the  Huminor  HoJHtice,  which,  on  the  side  of  the  vvnrld 
from  which  it  came,  was  the  sounon  of  winter.  Berlins  and  Vincent,  however,  have  per- 
hapti  dealt  too  hardly  with  the  author,  in  embody inff  thin  wild  conception  into  a  map,  mid 

( firing  it  to  the  world  as  the  nystfm  of  Mela,  who  mentions  it  merely  as  a  conjecture,  'i'he 
ower  part  of  tlie  course  of  the  Nile  he  describes  witii  less  accuracy  than  Htrabo,  tho  two 
channels  of  the  Astapud  and  Astaboras  beinf^f  made  branches  of  tiie  Nile  itself,  first  scptmit- 
inff  and  tlien  re-imitinff.  His  i|fnorance  respectinf?  oven  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea  ir 
proveti  by  their  beinp  hlled  with  poetical  wonders ;  the  piffmies  waffing  their  ancient  wai 
witli  the  cranes;  tJie  phcEnix,  atter  a  life  of  four  hundred  years,  dyinf?,  and  reviving;  from 
its  ashes.  Proceedinji^'  to  the  interior  and  remoter  shores  of  Ethiopia,  he  finds  always  new 
wonders,  sphynxes,  birds  with  horns,  flyinp  horses.  He  refers  to  tho  voyages  of  Hanno  atid 
of  EudoxuH,  to  whom  he  ascribes  a  variety  of  fables,  by  which  the  reputation  of  tiiat  navi- 

f^ator  has  been  much  and  perhaps  unjustly  tarnished ;  lastly,  he  comes  to  the  Fortimate 
slan<l8,  of  which  tho  soil  produces  all  things  spontaneously,  and  tlie  fountains  are  possessed 
of  miraculous  virtues.  In  short,  every  tiling  that  Mela  says  of  Africa  beyond  the  mere 
Mediterranean  coast  betrays  a  remarkable  ignorance  of  tlie  mysteries  of  that  continent. 

Sect.  H. — Pliny. 

Pliny,  the  most  learned  of  the  Roman  writers,  devotes  two  books  of  his  extensive  work 
on  natural  history  to  a  system  of  geograpiiy.  Ho  appears  to  have  possessed  a  greater  store 
of  authentic  materials  than  any  fonner  writer.  From  his  intimate  connexion  with  the 
imperial  family,  and  with  manv  of  the  most  eminent  commanders,  all  the  military  measure- 
ments, as  well  as  the  general  survey  of  the  Roman  empire,  were  placed  at  his  dispsaL 
He  has  introduced,  therefore,  a  multitude  of  itinen  ry  details,  which  are  generally  very 
accurate  and  valuable.  But  he  employs  no  astronomical  elements,  and  appears  to  liave 
taken  no  pains  to  construct  a  regular  system.  All  the  general  ideas  which  we  can  trace  in 
his  delineation  appear  to  be  founded  on  the  same  basis  with  those  of  Mela. 

Pliny  begins  with  Europe,  which  he  considers  as  by  far  the  most  beautiful  and  fruitful  of 
the  three  quarters  of  the  globe ;  and  he  applauds  the  opinion  of  those  who  consider  it  not 
merely  as  a  third,  but,  as  a  half  of  the  whole  globe,  separated  from  the  other  half  by  the 
Tanais  and  the  Mediterranean.  This  capital  error,  howe"er,  will  not  appear  so  surprising, 
when  we  consider  that  the  regions  here  compared  with  Europe  weie  Asia  terminated  by 
the  Ganges  and  the  Jaxartes,  and  Africa  extending  only  a  few  hundred  miles  inland  from 
the  Mediterranean.  Europe  had  been  computed  by  Agrippa  at  3440  miles  in  length,  by 
Polybius  at  only  2440;  which  lost  dimension  is  nearly  correct.  Pliny  discovers  a  clear 
conception  of  the  form  of  Spain,  drawing  the  Pyrenees  not  from  south  to  north,  but  irom 
south-east  to  north-west,  and  observing  that  Spain,  "  where  it  begins  from  them,  is  narrower 
tlian  France,  and  even  than  itself."  The  position  o^  Britain  in  the  map  of  Europe  is  very 
fairly  given ;  though,  to  enumerate  Spain,  with  France  and  Germany,  among  the  countries 
to  wiiich  it  is  opposite,  partakes  too  much  of  antiquated  theories.  He  states  the  belief  of 
Agrippa  tliat  Britain  was  eight  hundred  miles  in  length,  and  three  hundred  in  breadth ;  Ire- 
land the  same  in  breadth,  but  shorter  by  two  hundred  miles ;  which  is  a  tolerable  estimate, 
the  last  particular  excepted.  His  disposal  of  tlie  islands  around  Britain  is  not  a  little  con- 
insed.  He  mentions  the  Orkneys,  seven  JEmois,  and  thirty  Ebudce,  but  without  siiowing 
any  precise  idea  of  how  they  stand.  Not  only  the  Isle  of  Man,  but  that  of  Wight  also,  is 
placed  between  England  and  Ireland.  He  commits  also  a  remarkable  error  when  he  men- 
tions Cassiterim  or  Cattiterim,  where  tin  is  produced,  as  an  island  at  the  distance  of  six 
days'  sail  from  Britain.  To  the  remotest  point,  Thule,  he  assigns  the  attributes  of  a  region 
beneath  the  Arctic  circle,  having  only  one  day  and  one  night  in  the  year ;  and  only  a  day's 
sail  from  the  Cronium  or  Concrete  Sea.  Here,  also,  he  mentions  reports  of  other  ishuuls, 
Scandia,  Bergos  (Bergen),  Norigon,  which  have  intercourse  with  Thule.  These  features 
evidently  belong  to  the  coast  of  jSforway. 

In  describing  the  north  of  Europe,  Pliny  begins  from  the  northern  shores  of  the  Euxine, 
and  Palus  Moeotis.  The  latter  receives  tne  Tanais,  flowing  from  the  Riphtean  Mountains, 
and  forming  the  boundary  of  Europe,  Beyond  that  celebrated  and  demi-fabulous  range,  lie 
still  finds  the  Hyperboreans,  a  people  screened  from  every  noxious  blast,  leading  a  happy 
life  exempt  from  old  age,  sickness,  discord,  and  grief;  till  at  length,  satiated  with  felicity, 
they  throw  themselves  from  a  rock  mto  the  seo.  These  fables  are,  however,  'irialifiod  with 
the  saving  clause,  "  if  we  are  to  believe  them,"  which  shows  that  the  faith  of  Pliny  was 
not  implicit  The  shores  of  the  ocean,  he  confesses,  are  "  marked  by  uncertainty."  On 
the  authority,  however,  of  Xenophon  Lampsacenus  and  of  Pytheas,  he  reports  Basilia  or 
Baltia  as  an  island  of  immense  magnitude,  three  days'  journey  from  the  Scythian  coast 
Proceeding  westward,  he  comes  to  the  Cimbric  Chersonese,  and  opposite  to  it  another  island. 
Scandinavia,  of  unexplored  magnitude,  but  which  was  by  many  described  as  forming  quite 
another  world.    Thus  Baltia  and  Scandinavia,  approached  from  diiterent  points,  are  con- 


I  beneath  the  ocoiiii. 
the  Hulo  of  the  vvnrlil 
t,  however,  have  pt'r- 
'ption  into  a  map,  mid 
as  a  conjecture.    'I'he 

than  Htrabo,  tho  two 
lie  itKoltJ  first  Hopiimt- 
38  of  the  Red  Hra  ir 
ing  their  ancient  waf 
\gi  and  reviving:  fnim 

he  finds  alwnyH  new 
■oyages  of  Hanno  and 
putation  of  that  nuvi- 
nes  to  the  Fortiinnte 
luntains  are  pottsessnd 
lea  beyond  tlie  mere 
of  that  continent. 


f  his  extensive  work 
Bessed  a  greater  store 
connexion  with  the 
the  military  measure- 
laced  at  Ills  dispoHaL 
I  are  generally  very 
and  appears  to  have 
.fhich  we  can  trace  in 
[ela. 

lutlful  and  fniitfiil  of 
e  who  consider  it  not 
he  other  half  by  the 
appear  so  surprising, 
i  Asia  terminated  by 
(d  miles  inland  from 
I  miles  in  length,  by 
ny  ■■ 
:h 
im 


Boor  I. 


ROMAN  GEOGRAPHY.— I'ElJTINdKRIAN  TABLE. 


49 


'P 


discovers  a  clear 
to  north,  but  Irom 
them,  is  narrower 
of  Europe  is  very 
among  the  countries 
stales  the  belief  of 
red  in  breadth ;  Ire- 
tolerable  estimate, 
is  not  a  little  con- 
)ut  without  allowing 
of  Wight  also,  is 
!rror  when  he  men- 
the  distance  of  six 
tributes  of  a  region 
,  and  only  a  day's 
ts  of  otiier  islands, 
These  features 

)res  of  the  Euxine, 
iphtean  Mountains, 
-fiibulous  range,  he 
it,  leading  a  hnppy 
tated  with  felicity, 
ivcr,  lualifiod  with 
faith  of  Pliny  was 
ncertainty."  On 
reports  Basilia  or 
e  Scythian  caasL 

it  another  island. 

as  forming  quite 
t  points,  are  con< 


■i 


8id(>rn(l  as  two  distinct  iiiHular  territories,  the  vast  oxtont  of  wliicli,  however,  appears  to  be 
betlor  apprehended  by  Pliny  than  by  any  otlier  ancifiit  writer. 

Asiii,  in  Pliny,  is  delineated  according  to  tho  general  ideas  of  Strabo  and  Melp.  Tho 
CnHi)iiin  or  Hyrcanian  Sea  is  u  gulf  opt'iiing  into  tho  northern  or  Scythian  oc'>an,  whi»h  is 
in  communication  with  that  called  Heric  or  Oriental.  Plinv  seems  to  have  tliller  intbrnia- 
tion  of  tiip  grandeur  and  wealth  of  India  tlian  any  of  his  predocosHors.  Its  inhabitants  ami 
its  cities  were  innumerable,  and  it  was  reportetf  on  good  autliority  to  form  a  third  ol'  tho 
whole  world.  It  enjoyed  gentle  breezes,  two  summers,  two  harvests,  one  before,  anothnr 
atlor  the  periodical  winds.  Bloasod  with  these  advantages,  this  hapny  people  were  never 
known  to  emigrate  beyond  their  own  territories.  Ho  describes  the  marches  of  Alexander, 
from  the  measurements  of  Diognetus  and  Bmton,  and  whore  these  fliil,  he  continues  tlieiii 
by  those  of  Seleucus,  and  by  the  embassy  of  Mogasthenes,  as  far  as  the  moutii  of  the 
Ganges.  These  itineraries  seem  very  good.  In  treating  of  Taprobane,  he  observes,  tliat 
it  had  been  believed  by  some  to  be  an  opposite  continent  or  earth,  but  that  the  inquiriew  of 
Alexander  had  clearly  proved  it  to  be  an  island.  His  reixirt,  however,  that  the  countn'  of 
the  Seres  was  seen  from  it,  implies  a  moat  inadequate  and  erroneous  conception  of  the 
eastern  cooEts  of  Asia. 

Tho  Africa  of  Pliny  does  not  differ  in  its  general  outline  from  that  of  Mela.  His  access, 
however,  to  the  archives  of  the  empire,  and  his  ac(|uaintance  with  some  of  the  Roman 
generals,  enabled  him  to  give  new  details  as  to  some  of  its  most  interior  tracts.  The  region 
of  Atlas  hod  been  first  penetrated  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  by  iEdemon,  on  adherent  of 
the  extinct  family  of  the  Ptolemies,  who  sought  refiige  there.  Suetonius  Paulinas,  with 
whom  Pliny  had  conversed,  found  it  of  immense  height,  covered  with  snow  oven  in  summer; 
on  one  side  rising  from  the  sands,  rough,  horrid,  and  bare ;  on  the  other,  covered  witli  thick 
groves  of  unknown  species  of  trees,  and  sparkling  with  fountains.  An  account  is  given  of 
a  voyage  along  the  western  coast,  whicii  I'olybius  had  made  by  order  of  Scipio.  Only  the 
names  of  the  places  and  the  distances  are  given.  The  former  coincide  in  a  great  measure 
with  those  of  Hanno;  and  if  Polybius  was  right  in  this  coincidence,  his  report  tends  much 
to  confirm  M.  Gosselin's  view  of  the  limited  extent  of  Hanno's  discoveries.  In  the  time  of 
Vespasian,  another  expedition,  under  Cornelius  Balbus,  penetrated  into  and  conquered  Gara- 
ma  (Gem:  \),  and  Cydamus  (Gadamis).  Tlie  Romans  here  beheld  with  surprise  houses  built 
of  salt,  an:  on  digging  to  a  small  depth,  water  sprung  out  of  the  sand.  A  number  of  names 
of  conquered  places  are  here  given,  which  it  is  difficult  to  recognize ;  for  it  seems  too  hasty 
to  identify  Boin  with  Bomou. 

A  theory  of  the  course  of  the  Niger  was  formed  by  Pliny  from  these  materials  with  con- 
siderable pains,  but  very  imperfect  success.  Its  source,  according  to  king  Juba,  existed  in 
Mauritania,  and  it  is  even  said  to  have  been  fouml  by  Suetonius  Paulinus  afler  a  few  days' 
march  to  the  south  of  the  Atlas.  The  Niger  springs  here  from  a  lake ;  but  soon,  indignant 
at  flo\/ing  through  sandy  and  squalid  tracts,  it  pasHos  under  ground  for  several  days,  and 
emerges  into  another  lake  of  Mauritania.  After  a  circuit,  however,  of  some  extent,  it  again 
disappears,  and  having  pursued  a  subterranean  course  of  twenty  days,  re-appears,  dividing 
Africa  from  Ethiopia.  At  last,  in  its  passage  through  Ethiopia  itself,  it  assumes  the  charac- 
ter of  the  Nile,  first  in  two  channels,  Astusapes  and  Astaboras,  enclosing  the  island  of 
Mcroe,  and  afterwards  uniting  to  form  the  entire  and  proper  Nile.  This  wild  and  absurd 
detail  evidently  includes  the  course  of  several  rivers  belonging  to  different  and  widely  re- 
mote regions  of  Africa.  It  may  even  be  doubted,  if  any  part  belongs,  to  what  by  miHlcrns 
has  been  considered  the  Niger.  It  seems  very  probable,  however,  that  the  middle  part, 
which  divides  Africa  from  Ethiopia,  has  been  suggested  by  the  river  of  fiornou,  or  tlie  Yeou, 
as  it  has  been  called  by  our  recent  discoverers. 

Sect.  III. — Itineraries. — Peutingerian  Table. 

Of  the  itineraries  composed  by  tho  masters  of  the  world,  and  employed  by  them  as  an 
instrument  in  its  conquest,  some  fragments  yet  remain.  The  most  memorable  is  that  whicli 
bears  the  name  of  Antoninus.  It  has  been  ascribed  by  some  to  Severus,  by  others  to  Theo- 
dosius,  and  in  fiict  contains  many  particulars  which  could  not  have  been  written  prior  to  the 
era  of  the  last  sovereigns ;  but  it  seems  probable  that  there  were  successive  editions,  with 
such  amendments  and  alterations  as  time  suggested.  It  is  a  mere  skeleton  road-book,  with 
notiiing  but  the  names  of  places  and  their  distance  from  each  other.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  Jerusalem  Itinerary,  exhibiting  in  great  detail  the  route  from  Bordeaux  to  that 
holy  city. 

The  Peutingerian  Table  (the  Italian  portion  of  which  is  exhibited  in  Fig.  9.  p.  50.)  is  a 
more  remarkable  monument,  and  may  be  considered,  probably,  as  a  specimen  of  the  "  painted 
roads"  of  the  ancients.  It  forms  a  map  of  the  world,  constructed,  however,  on  the  most 
novel  and  peculiar  principles.  Its  dimensions  being  twenty  feet  in  length  and  one  in  breadth, 
an  idea  may  be  formed  of  tha  correctness  with  which  the  proportion  of  the  different  parts  is 
exhibited.  The  high  road  which  traversed  the  Roman  empire  in  the  general  direction  of 
east  and  west  is  made  the  first  meridian,  and  to  this  every  other  part  is  subjected.    The  ob- 

Vor,  I.  5  G 


THE  PEUTINORRIAN  TABLE. 


Fio.  0. 


Boor  I. 


SECOND  ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOL. 


81 


jcrta  alonff  thii  line  aro  minutoly  and  fhithfUlly  exhibited ;  of  thoM  lyinff  to  the  north  aiid 
wiiiMi  of  it  only  Home  ((nneral  notion  can  be  conveyed :  them  are  ail  repreaontod,  of  courac, 
moitt  ciiornioualy  extended  in  length  and  reduced  in  breadth. 


*'''ti'^il 


r 


ft*-i 


CHAPTER  VI. 

flECONO  ALKXANDRIAN  HCIIOOL. 

Alrxandria  by  her  contributions  to  geography  supplied  to  a  great  extent  the  dnflcicncioa 
of  the  lloinHiiM,  who,  amid  the  huccohh  with  which  they  cultivate<i  hifltory  and  literature, 
nnvcr  attiiinnd  to  uny  omirenco  in  this  science.  That  capital,  even  in  its  subject  state, 
ri>taini'<l  Htill  the  impni.se  received  from  the  Ptolemies,  and  continued  to  be  the  second  in 
DiHKnituili',  anrl  the  foremost  in  learning,  of  all  in  the  empire.  In  the  second  century  thero 
wttH  eHtabiiMhed,  here  and  at  Tyre,  a  geographical  school,  possessing  more  ample  materials 
anil  rettources  than  any  that  had  liithi'rto  existed.  To  the  conquests  and  itineraries  of  Ale»« 
nniier  were  now  added  those  of  Homo,  which,  extending  in  a  different  direction,  embraced 
many  coimtries  to  the  north  and  to  the  west,  Gaul,  Britain,  Germany,  Spain,  and  Maurita- 
nia, mnpectinij  which  the  (ireeks  had  possessed  only  confused  and  imperfect  notions.  Thui 
a  greater  portion  of  the  globe  than  at  any  former  period  was  now  united  under  one  govern- 
ment, which,  by  a  standing  army  and  a  regular  system  of  laws,  preserved  the  whole  in  peace 
and  order.  The  terror  of  the  Roman  arms  enabled  travellers  to  penetrate  with  safety  even 
beyond  the  limits  of  tl>e  empire.  Lastly,  the  unboundrd  luxury  of  the  great  capitals,  and 
above  all  of  imperial  Rome,  enriched  with  the  spoils  of  the  globe,  fired  the  enterprise  of  the 
merchant,  who  found  his  way  into  those  remotest  markets  of  the  eastern  world,  the  rich 
romtiKxIitics  of  which  had  hitherto  been  either  brought  by  caravans  or  found  at  intermediate 
stations. 

Tlicso  enlarged  materials  were  connected  together  by  a  much  more  accu.nte  and  scien- 
tific arrangement  than  hml  been  ailopted  under  the  school  of  Eratosthenes.  The  method 
suggested  by  HipparchuH  of  subjecting  the  whole  of  geography  to  astronomical  principles, 
and  of  fixing  the  position  of  every  spot  upon  the  globe  according  to  its  longitude  and  lati- 
tude, was  now  attempted  to  be  carried  into  full  eflect.  The  attempt,  however,  was  made  btit 
in  a  very  rude  manner,  and  upon  a  very  narrow  basis  of  observation.  Not  only,  therefore, 
did  it  present  a  very  imperfect  edition  of  the  new  system,  but  involved  errors  which  caused 
it  in  some  respects  to  retrograde  even  from  the  rude  state  to  which  it  had  been  brought  by 
the  tbriiier  school  of  Alexandria. 

Sect.  I. — Marinua  of  Tyre. 
No  Tyrian  system  of  geofrrnpliv  'nm  come  down  to  us,  notwithstanding  the  commercial 
greatness  of  its  people  nt         arly  period.     From  the  Hebrew  WTiterswe  have  accounts  per- 
haps of  nearly  the  whole  ot  the  distant  countries  with  which  the  Tyrians  held  intercourse ; 


He/erences  to  (he  Peutingerian  TahU  (page  60). 


1^ 


<    I 


U 


;  I 


MC 


NORTH  PART. 

1.  BiliciK 
'1.  Hiirdnna 

3,  Anuifico 

4.  nriKiiiitio 
a.  .liiniTii 

)l.  RngiiHono 

7.  Halinrio 

8.  Cnrnutilo 
n.  (Vli>ia 

10.  V'iiKl'ihnoa 

13.  Kmiiiiii 

13.  Pi.Ih 

U.  Hilvo 

I.V  PHrnniio 

Ifl.  rimit-mmaia 

17.  Aiiiiiliiiii 

IH.  OviliR 

1<).  Altiiio 

'iO.  Rt^ffino 

2i.Trid.me 

22.  I'l'iecniia 

21.  Ariiim  Poniilanie 

24.  Kliirontiii  Tutcorum 

25.  Hind  .lulia 
Qi;.  HiiiitihH 
27.  V'.Tciiia 
2^.  Mitniua 
211.  Miiiina 

30.  Cm 

31.  AilrHio 

32.  nnniinia 
Xf.  rinsio 
34.  VolHinifi 

'i5.  Aqiiuii  Paraaria 
30.  Rnvnnna 
•J?.  Arimino 
3H.  (irnniMa 
3)).  Conium  cellii 
40.  Aquai  mart 


41.  AnoyNia 

42.  Cnwro-novo 

41.  Anuna  Apollinarii 

44.  Siiloln 

4.^.  Pnlpntia 

4R.  Renin 

47.  (^B<lp|lo  Firmnni 

4H.  Ad  Som.  Pclrum 

40.  Roma 

50.  Iloiiia 

51.  rimrtasine 

52.  Uiicn  Colonia  - 
•V'<.  Aqiiit 

54.  ipiiiin'r  dinrito 
•V>.  Cnpmi  Ciiliinia 
.■ifl.  Ad  Mpdnni 
57.  TlmteotB  Col. 
.58. 1'hnnciie 
.50.  Siccn-voria 
60.  Ad  Aqua*  Cmnrii 

Rivers. 
R  Danubiua 
b  Urinum 
c  Bavum 
d  Ania 
e  FriKido 
f  Licenna 
f  Afnaia 
h  Clnuaia 
i  Umalia 
J  Padui 
k  Pnala 
I  Aninio 
m  laex 
n  Umbro 
o  Pallia 
P  Armenita 
q  Mnrta 
rTiberit 


■  Rubicum 
t  Nxlurum 
u  Matana 
V  Miiio 
w  Floiii 
X  Tiima 
y  Nurnlnum 
a  Anio 

SOUTH  PART. 
I.  Ad  Prctorum 

3.  S(>rvilln 

.1.  Ad  Preionim 

4.  MiirHa  Mnjur 

5.  Indenoa 

n.  Tiiiohurgo 
7.  RaKurio 
H.  Siclia,  run. 
9.  8iil(ina 

10.  Rpetin 

11.  Innrxiia 

12.  Sirmium 

13.  Nnrona 

14.  Tniiruno 

15.  Ad  Matrieeni 
in.  Hinirlduna 

17.  Kpitiiurci 

18.  Stnnedi 
10.  Iilasiiii 
80.  Viminatio 

31.  Dyrralio 

32.  Aninna 
3:).  Osn  Col. 
24.  Hiibrala 
S.5.  Rpxio 
30.  Caulnn 
27.  IjBCRniiiin 

2H.  Ciisirn  Minflrvm 
S!l.  Vibonu  Valentia 
30.  Tem» 


Sl.Tarenio 

39.  Rrindlai 
ai.  (liittlifl 

34,  IMeruloa 

35.  Halriiio 
30.  Niirpria 
.37.  Opionlla 
3H.  HonRvnnto 
30.  Vrniiain 

40.  N^apoll 

41.  Capua 
43.  Cuniiu 

43.  f  Vll.,:. 

44.  AHnifl 

45.  Prctonium  Lauoria- 

num 

46.  Hiponto 

47.  F«rnio 

48.  T  .ano  Scedicino 
40.  Sdiueaaa 

50.  Monturnii 

51.  Fundia 
.52.  Tnrrncina 
.53.  Forentinum 
54.  Fcbra'flrio 
.55.  lalnnum 
50.  Cnraiiiin 

57.  Mnrrubio 

58.  Trea  Tabernai 

59.  Careulli 
flO.  Oalla  eterni 
Al.  Pinna 

63.  Caatro  nova 

03.  Proneate 

04.  Riimn 
(v5.  Hoatia 

•w.  Chsrtssins 
ff7.  Mnxula 
68.  Ad  Aquai 
OB.  Miiua  Clipeii 


70.  Gumi 

71.  AriHorrM 
73.  Lflpieminui 

73.  Thiforo  Col 

74.  Ad  Aquai 
7.5.  Tnparura 
7fi.  Tacape 

77.  Drepania 

78.  LiljrW 

71).  Aquna  (labodas 
rO.  Sirncuiia 
81.  Aethna  Mow 
83.  Meaiao:: 


biua 


iiveri. 
a  Danubiua 
b  Drinum 

0  Snvum 
d  Margum 
e  Gcneaia 
f  Hapaum 
f  Tanno 

n  Crator 
i  Bilarum 
j  Color 
k  AveMiun 

1  Aufidenua 
m  Larinum 
n  Claeorii 

0  Sannum 
p  Cumara 
q  Nernuia 
t  Arno 

■  Tiberia 

t  8.ifn 

u  Vultunnt 

¥  iSitnerti 
w  NIranua 
X  Auaera 

1  Gerin 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  1. 


but  if  those  writers  are  supposed  to  have  borrowed  from  them  their  ideas  respect  in jr  tlie 
general  structure  and  boundaries  of  the  eartli,  geography  among  tlie  early  Phoenicianti  will 
not  appear  to  have  passed  its  infancy.  As  Tyre,  however,  even  under  the  Roman  eiiipiie, 
remained  still  the  seat  of  an  extensive  commerce,  some  of  her  intelligent  citizens  availed 
themselves  of  the  lights  afforded  by  the  learning  of  Alexandria,  and  applied  them  to  the 
illustration  of  those  subjects  on  which  the  greatness  and  prosperity  of  their  city  depended. 
If  the  merchants  of  Tyre  had  nothing  left  of  that  proud  rule,  and  those  monopolizing  profits, 
which  enabled  them  to  rival  the  pomp  of  princes,  their  commercial  relations  probably  ex- 
tended over  a  wider  sur&ce  of  the  globe  than  ever.  They  seem  to  have  been  engaged 
in  that  vast  caravan  route  which  was  opened  from  Byzantmm  across  the  whole  interior 
of  Asia,  conducting  the  merchants  by  a  journey  of  ten  or  eleven  months  to  the  Chinese 
frontier,  whence  they  brought  silk,  the  staple  product  of  that  great  coimtry.  Collect- 
ing tliese  enlarged  materials,  Marinus,  a  native  of  Tyre,  sought  to  apply  to  them  tlie 
astronomical  principles  of  Hipparchus,  and  thus  to  arrange  geography  into  a  new  and  more 
accurate  form. 

The  works  of  Marinus  have  perished,  and  are  known  to  us  only  by  the  references  and 
extracts  of  Ptolemy ;  but  these  are  sufficient  to  show  that  his  system  partook  largely  of  the 
imperfection  of  a  first  effort  Aware  that  the  degree  of  longitude  diminished  as  it  receded 
from  the  equator,  he  yet  did  not  attempt  to  express  this  difference  by  representing  the  meri- 
dians with  curved  lines  approaching  each  other,  although  this  had  been  already  shown  by 
Hipparchus  to  be  the  proper  course.  He  made  them  parallel  to  each  otlier,  not  at  the  equa- 
torial distance,  but  at  that  which  belonged  to  them  at  the  meridian  of  Rhodes.  Thus  in  the 
part  of  the  globe  which  came  into  his  immediate  observation  he  avoided  any  material  error ; 
but  the  meridians,  adjusted  only  to  this  latitude,  became  too  near  each  other  as  they  were 
carried  southward,  and  too  distant  as  they  went  northward.  He  fell  into  a  still  more  per- 
nicious error  in  adopting  the  geodesic  measurement  of  Posidonius,  according  to  which  the 
circumference  of  the  earth  was  .nade  to  consist  of  only  180,000  stadia,  and  consequently  the 
degree  to  contaui  only  500  stadia.  This  short  degree,  being  calculated  out  of  the  exagge- 
rated itineraries  upon  which  the  maps  of  those  days  were  constructed,  eriormously  amplitied 
all  the  dimensions  of  the  globe.  Marinus  appears  also  to  have  adiritted  with  excessive  cre- 
dulity the  extravagant  reports  of  the  merchants  who  had  penetrated  across  the  vast  moun- 
tain and  desert  tracts  in  the  east  of  Asia.  The  rugged  and  difficult  character  of  the  region, 
the  circuitous  route  which  they  were  frequently  obliged  to  follow,  and  the  obstacles  often 
encountered  from  the  rude  inhabitants,  caused  this  journey  to  occupy  a  much  longer  time 
than  those  performed  through  districts  better  knoviTi ;  and  time,  as  already  observed,  was  tiie 
element  out  of  which  the  ancients  were  chiefly  accustomed  to  calculate  space.  Ptolemy 
also  accuses  the  merchants  of  vain-glorious  propensities,  which  led  them  to  magnify  beyond 
truth  the  extent  and  vastness  of  the  regions  which  they  traversed.  Hence  the  great  line 
upon  which  Marinus  measured  the  length  of  the  habitable  globe,  instead  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-nine  degrees  given  to  it  in  the  measurement  of  Eratosthenes,  is  swelled  out  to 
two  hundred  and  twenty-five  degrees,  not  much  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  globe ;  whereas 
the  actual  length,  placing  Thinse  even  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  China,  is  not  much  more 
than  one  third.  The  exa^eration  is  enormous  chiefly  with  respect  to  the  country  beyond 
India,  which  is  made  to  comprise  one  hundred  degrees.  This  being  probably  a  new  route 
opened  through  the  Himaleh,  and  across  the  vast  deserts  of  Eastern  Tartary,  had  been 
affected  by  all  the  sources  of  amplification  in  a  remarkable  degree. 

Sect.  II. — Ptolemy, 
Ptolemy,  the  last  and  greatest  of  the  geographers  of  antiquity,  and  equally  illustrious  as 
an  astronomer,  instituted  a  complete  reform  of  the  science,  and  undertook  to  purify  it  from 
all  the  false  elements  with  which  it  had  been  alloyed.  The  principles,  in  fact,  which  he 
adopted  were  strictly  correct ;  for  though,  as  an  astronomer,  his  theory  of  the  universe  was 
substantially  fiilse,  yet,  in  admitting  the  globular  form  of  the  earth  and  the  revolution  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  he  admitted  all  the  elements  which  were  requisite  for  the  less  lofty  sphere 
of  earthly  delineation.  He  adopted  the  system  of  Hipparchus  in  its  utmost  extent,  subject- 
ing every  spot  on  the  known  globe  to  astronomical  data,  and  constructing  his  tables,  never 
according  to  itinerary  distance,  but  according  to  the  supposed  latitude  and  longitude  of  each 
place.  He  saw  and  corrected  the  error  of  Marinus  in  making  the  degrees  of  longitude  equal 
under  every  latitude.  Thus,  though  Ptolemy  did  not  actailly  introduce  any  new  principle 
into  geography,  he  was  the  first  who  combined  togetherTHl  the  sound  views  of  his  prede 
cessors,  and  formed  out  of  them  a  just  and  harmonious  delineation.  Yet  he  was  far  from 
reaching  his  aim  of  forming  a  perfect  system.  He  still  retained  the  erroneous  measurement 
of  the  degree  formed  by  Posidonius,  and  of  which  Marinus  had  made  so  unfortunate  a  use. 
Hence,  while  he  felt  the  extravagance  of  tlie  distances  assigned  by  his  predecessor,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  adoption  of  the  degree  of  500  stadia,  he  extricated  himself  but  partially 
from  the  same  error.  All  his  longitudes,  extended  along  the  length  of  the  known  world, 
present  a  similar  accumulation  of  errors,  only  somewhat  diminished  in  amount    Thesu 


Part  1. 

■  ideas  respectinjr  vlie 
early  Plitenicians  will 
ler  Uie  Roman  einpiie, 
igeiit  citizens  availed 
1  applied  them  to  the 
)f  ineir  city  depended. 
le  monopolizing  protitM, 
relations  probably  ex- 
to  have  been  engaged 
)ss  the  whole  interior 
nonths  to  the  Cliine&e 
eat  country.  Collect- 
to  apply  to  them  the 
y  into  a  new  and  more 

by  the  references  and 
partook  largely  of  the 
minished  as  it  receded 
representing  the  meri- 
een  already  shown  by 
other,  not  at  the  equa- 
Rhodes.  Thus  in  the 
ed  any  material  error ; 
.ch  other  as  they  were 
into  a  still  more  p<;r- 
Lccording  to  which  the 
,  and  consequently  the 
.ed  out  of  the  exagge- 
,  eiiormously  amplitied 
ed  with  excessive  cre- 
across  the  vast  moun- 
jaracter  of  the  region, 
id  the  obstacles  often 
)y  a  much  longer  time 
;ady  observed,  was  the 
late  space.  Ptolemy 
sm  to  magnify  beyond 
lence  the  great  line 
ad  of  one  hundred  and 
es,  is  swelled  out  to 
F  the  globe ;  whereas 
ina,  is  not  much  more 
:o  the  country  beyond 
probably  a  new  route 
■n  Tartary,  Lad  been 


equally  illustrious  as 
»ok  to  purify  it  from 
es,  in  fact,  which  he 
of  the  universe  was 
the  revolution  of  the 
the  less  lofty  sphere 
most  extent,  subject- 
ing his  tables,  never 
id  longitude  of  each 
es  of  longitude  equal 
i  any  new  principle 
views  of  his  prede 
Yet  he  was  far  from 
meous  measurement 
10  unfortunate  a  use, 
predecessor,  in  con- 
imself  but  partially 
f  the  known  world, 
in  amount    Thfw 


Book  I. 


PTOLEMY— EUROPE. 


58 


errors,  beginning  from  Cape  St.  Vincent,  constantly  increase  till,  in  India,  they  amount  to 
upwards  of  forty  degrees.  M.  Gosselin  has  even  accused  him  of  an  error  which,  as  he  justly 
okscrves,  would  mark  a  strange  departure  from  every  principle,  and  a  neglect  of  what  ought 
to  bo  the  first  care  of  a  geographer.  This  consists  in  giving  to  his  degrees  of  latitude  a 
difibrent  dimension  from  that  of  the  degrees  of  longitude,  and  retaining,  with  regard  to  the 
former,  Eratosthcncs's  standard  of  700  stadia.  I  suspect,  however,  that  M.  Gosselin  has 
been  somewhat  precipitate  in  advancing  so  serious  a  charge  against  the  first  geographer  of 
antiquity.  The  ground  on  which  he  proceeds  seems  to  be,  that  while  Ptolemy  has  changed 
materially  all  the  longitudes  of  Eratosthenes,  the  latitudes  along  the  great  line  continue 
unaltered  and  generally  correct.  The  real  cause  of  this,  however,  appears  to  be,  that  the 
latitudes  of  Rhodes  and  several  other  leading  points  ot  this  great  line  were  determined  by 
observations  which,  though  not  perfect,  at  least  approached  to  the  truth,  while  the  longitudes 
were  calculated  merely  out  of  the  itineraries.  This  central  line,  therefore,  bisecting  the 
breadth  of  the  known  world,  was  fixed  upon  sound  data,  and  the  errors  could  accumulate 
only  to  the  north  and  south  of  it.  In  fact,  we  shall  find  that  they  did  accumulate  as  rapidly 
as  in  the  longitudes,  when  the  sphere  of  observation  was  passed,  which  was  bounded  by 
Syerie  on  the  south,  Marseilles  and  Byzantium  on  the  north.  The  mouth  of  the  Seine  is 
plncdd  one  degree  too  far  north ;  that  of  the  Rhine,  nearly  two  degrees ;  that  of  the  Elbe, 
more  than  two  degrees ;  York  is  three  degrees ;  and  the  farther  accumulation  is  only  pre- 
vented by  that  singular  conformation  which  we  shall  find  given  by  Ptolemy  to  the  northern 
part  of  Britain.  To  the  south,  again,  Axum  is  placed  three  degrees  too  far  south ;  Cape 
Aromata  (Guardaflu),  nearly  six  degrees ;  and  from  that  point  the  errors  continually  become 
greater.  Thus  it  appears,  that  as  soon  as  Ptolemy  quits  the  sphere  of  observation,  his  lati- 
tudes are  calculated  exactly  as  his  longitudes,  out  of  itineraries,  and  exhibit  the  same  accu- 
mulation of  errors. 

The  manuscripts  of  Ptolemy  are  clearly  shown  by  M.  Gosselin  to  have  reached  us 
in  a  very  imperfect  state.  In  collating  with  care  the  different  editions,  that  learned  writer 
hiis  found  a  greater  number  of  variations  than  in  those  of  almost  any  other  ancient  writer. 
These  variations  were  of  course  very  likely  to  occur  in  copying  cyphers  where  there  was 
no  connexion  of  sense  to  check  the  copyist.  The  manuscripts  and  the  maps  appear  to  have 
been  copied  by  different  hands,  holding  no  communication  with  each  other ;  and  accordingly 
tlicso  two  parts  of  the  same  work  do  not,  in  many  instances,  correspond.  Lastly,  the  work 
of  Ptolemy  appears,  for  several  centuries,  to  have  been  carried  about  as  a  guide  by  mariners 
aiiil  travellers,  who,  wherever  they  found  any  feature  which  did  not  agree  with  their  obser- 
vations, altered  the  writing  or  the  map  accordingly.  This  process  appears  in  the  numerous 
vnriations  of  the  Latin  copies  with  regard  to  the  western  part  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  of 
the  Greek  with  regard  to  the  eastern.  The  alterations  thus  made  would  often,  and  indeed, 
most  generally,  be  improvements;  but  the  great  discrepancies  which  tliey  introduced  into 
tiio  different  copies,  must  have  greatly  bewildered  the  public. 

In  delineating  the  geographical  system  of  Ptolemy,  we  can  only  consider  the  general 
outline,  which  is  pretty  much  the  same  in  all  the  editions.  Ptolemy  begins  with  rejecting 
tiK'  tlieory  of  his  predecessors,  from  Homer  to  Strabo  downwards,  who  represent  the  whole 
earth  as  enclosed  by  a  circumambient  ocean.  Mercantile  carifcrans,  especially  in  the  east 
of  Asia,  had  nov,  proceeded  considerably  beyond  the  line  of  coast  which,  according  to  the 
last  school,  had  marked  the  eastern  bounding  ocean.  They  had  passed  that  line  without 
roaching  the  distant  corresponding  one  by  which  the  Pacific  and  Arctic  seas  were  actually 
drawn  around  this  vast  continent.  Tl;"  eastern  Atlantic,  and  the  Northern  Oceans  were, 
tluvi^tore,  efliiced  from  the  delineation  of  Asia,  and  an  indefinite  expanse  of  terra  incognita 
(nn!<iiown  land)  was  substituted  as  the  boundary  of  the  world.  This  proceeding  must 
ci'rtiinly  be  considered  as  more  precise  and  philosophical  than  the  gratuitous  theoretical 
oni;  for  which  it  was  substituted.  Men,  however,  seldom  kno'Sv  exactly  where  to  stop: 
Ptolemy,  having  once  formed  the  idea  of  a  bounding  terra  incognita,  extended  it  round 
noarly  the  entire  circuit  of  the  Iniown  world.  All  the  reports  of  the  circumnavigation  of 
Alrica  were  rejected ;  that  continent  \^as  represented  as  stretching  indefinitely  south,  and 
it  was  even  carried  round  to  join  the  east  of  Asia,  and  form  the  Erythrean  or  Indian  sea 
into  a  vast  basin.  Tims  the  whole  system  and  structure  of  these  two  continents  underwent, 
in  the  hands  of  Ptolemy,  a  complete  transmutation, 

SuBSECT.  1,     Europe.    {Fig.  10.)  ' 

In  regard  to  all  the  remoter  boundaries  of  Europe,  Ptolemy  displays  an  advancement 
in  knowledge,  truly  wonderful,  considering  the  short  period  winch  had  elapsed  since  the 
days  of  Strabo.  The  fiicts  which  we  have  stated  under  the  head  of  Roman  geography 
show  the  vnst  additiona!  mass  of  information  derived  from  the  conquests  of  Ctesar,  and  from 
tlio  imperial  surveys.  This  having  been  incorporated  into  the  writings  of  Mela  and  Pliny,  a 
cf^nttiry  before  the  age  of  Ptolemy,  would  easily,  through  these  and  other  channels,  reach 
his  hiiowledge.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  crude  delineation  of  the  exterior  coasits  of 
Europe  under  the  Strabonic  system  should  have  been  materially  amended;   that  Spain 

5* 


M 


THE  WORLD  ACCORDING  TO  PTOLEMY. 


.  Pio.  10 


! 


,  Fia.  10 


Book  L 


PTOLEMY-  EUROPE. 


to 


-IfJ 


11 


.3     t* 


3 


nhnuld  have  now  a  southern,  and  Craul  a  western  coast ;  and  that  the  Bay  of  Biscay  should 
appear  clearly  under  the  appellations  of  the  Cantabrian  Ocean  and  the  Aquitanian  Sea.  In 
recrard  to  Britain,  also,  or,  at  least,  England,  a  great  reform  had  been  effected.  Its  coast, 
after  passing  the  promontory  of  Kent,  bends  inward  toward  the  estuary  of  the  Thames, 
called  here  Idumanus.  Still  more  decided,  on  the  opposite  side,  is  the  "  Sabrina  estuarium" 
ahe  estuary  of  the  Severn),  a  very  appropriate  appellation  for  the  Bristol  Channel.  The 
projection  of  Wales,  and  its  entire  outline,  appears  then  drawn  in  a  very  unexceptionable 
manner.  With  regard  to  Ireland,  Ptolemy  has  not  been  able  wholly  to  shake  off  the  errone- 
ous impressions  of  the  first  Alexandrian  school,  according  to  which  that  countiy  lay  to  the 
north  of  Britain.  He  makes  it  west,  indeed,  but  at  the  same  time  greatly  too  fiir  north,  its 
southern  coast  being  on  a  line  with  that  of  Lancashire,  or,  at  least,  with  the  north-western 
point  of  Wales.  The  consequence  is,  that  the  island  of  Mona  (Man)  is  placed  off  the  south- 
eastern point  of  Ireland,  not  far  from  Wexford.  Having  pointed  out  this  great  error,  we 
must  add,  that  the  whole  form  and  circuit  of  Ireland  is  given  with  a  correctness  which  ap- 
pears very  surprising,  when  contrasted  with  so  great  a  mistake  as  to  its  relative  position. 
Again,  the  eastern  coast  of  England  proceeds  correctly  till  it  reaches  the  vicinity  of  York, 
when  an  aberration  takes  place  of  the  most  extraordinary  nature.  The  rest  of  the  English 
coast,  with  the  whole  of  that  of  Scotland,  instead  of  ranging  from  north  to  south,  runs  fi"oni 
west  to  east.  The  eastern  coast  becomes  thus  the  southern,  the  western  becomes  the 
northern ;  and  the  coast  of  Germany  appears  opposite  and  parallel  throughout  its  whole 
extent.  The  most  northerly  extremity  of  Britain  is  thus  fixed  at  a  point  which  Mr.  Pinker- 
ton  supposed  to  be  the  Mull  of  Galloway,  but  which  seems  more  probably  to  be  some  point 
near  Port  Patrick,  whicli  might  be  supposed  the  most  westerly,  for  the  west  is  here  the 
north.  It  is  part  of  th.'s  arrangement,  that  the  iEbudee  (Hebrides)  are  placed  in  the  Reuca- 
ledonian  Ocean,  which  washes  the  western  coast  of  Scotland,  made  herp  the  northern ;  and 
the  Orkneys  are  in  the  same  ocean;  for,  instead  of  following  the  line  oi  the  main  land,  they 
are  placed,  as,  indeed,  they  ought  to  be,  north,  becoming  thus  at  right  angles  to  that  line. 

To  account  for  this  strangely  distorted  form  of  northern  Britain,  M.  Gosselin  has  formed 
a  vety  ingenious  theory.  The  southern  extremity  of  the  island  being  in  lat.  52°  N.,  and 
T'i„  "e  remotest  extremity,  in  63°,  Ptolemy  could  not,  within  these  limits,  find  space 
for  st  expanse  of  coast,  which  the  itineraries  represented  to  him  as  belonging  to 

B  To  make  out  this  space  he  had  no  alternative  but  to  give  to  the  northern  part  the 

fbi.d  a  actually  bears  in  his  maps,  and  under  which  the  latitude  is  augmented  only  by  the 
breadth  of  Scotland,  a  much  smaller  dimension  than  the  length.  The  question,  however,  is, 
by  what  circumstance  Ptolemy  was  checked  in  his  latitude  of  Thule,  and  why  he  should 
not  have  driven  it  out  to  the  north  as  far  as  his  itineraries  seemed  to  require.  We  at  one 
time  thougiit  it  possible  that  this  grand  boundary  point  might  have  been  fixed  by  some  rude 
observation  which  was  not  applied  to  the  intermediate  points.  But  it  appears  very  improba- 
ble, that  any  expedition  which  should  have  made  an  observation  of  latitude  at  Shetland, 
should  not  have  done  the  same  in  the  southern  and  much  more  accessible  parts  of  Britain. 
I  rather  incline  to  udopt  the  following  solution.  We  have  seen,  that,  in  the  ideas  of  tiie 
Roman  navigators,  Thule  was  in  a  great  measure  separated  from  Britain,  and  attached  to 
tlie  east  of  Germany,  or  ratlier  to  Scandinavia ;  whether  its  existence  was  made  known  to 
them  by  Scandinavian  nayigators,  or  whether  a  part  of  the  coast  of  Norway  was  actually 
fixed  upon  by  tliem  instead  of  Shetland  for  this  most  northern  limit  of  the  earth.  This  idea, 
which  attached  Thule  to  Scandinavia,  appears  to  have  been  combined  in  Ptolemy's  mind 
with  that  of  Pythea.s,  who  made  it  the  remotest  extremity  of  Britain.  Such  a  combination 
could  be  accomplished  only  by  stretching  Scotland  across  the  German  ocean  in  that  strange 
direction. 

The  details  of  Scotland,  if  we  pass  over  this  radical  error,  are  given  in  a  manner  much 
more  tolerable  than  could  have  been  expected  in  a  country  unsubdued  by  the  Romans,  and 
witli  tlieir  imperfect  navigation.  Thule,  in  Ptolemy,  is  not  a  cluster  of  islands,  like  those 
of  Slietland,  but  one  large  island,  upwards  of  a  hundred  miles  in  length :  this  circumstance 
more  and  more  strengthens  the  suspicion  that  Norway,  to  a  considerable  extent,  entered 
hito  the  idea  attaclied  to  that  celebrated  name. 


References  to  the 

Map  of  the  World  according  to  Ptolemy. 

F.tTRnPA. 

%  Sinnpe 

in.  Rnrnciira 

H  I'niyiimiitug 

5.  Cyrpne 

1.  fnrthuiKj  Nova 

3.  ArniftuB 

20.  Bccyniia 

e  .lijinrtcd 

6  Alexamlria 

2  M:iK»ilia 

4.   lOKIII 

81.  BiirahiB 

f  CEnharilea 

7.  llcriKipulu 

3.  r,.niia 

.S.  K.litna 

!».  Taenia 

c  R  iiiihua 

8.  SypiiH 

4.  Riima 

6.  KiHram 

3;i.  Siitiaiia 

9.  Ptolemaii 

5.   VrhnniB 

7.  Muss 

24.  ('ntienra 

i  GnnKeB 

10.  Mernn 

6.  Brzantiiim 

8.  <5prra 

9.  Tirpiliin 

ai.  TliiniB 
afi.  AHpiihra 

j  Indus 

11.  Adulis 

Rivers 

10.  R»hylon 

27.Ti.niara 

Taprobana  /nntla. 

Ai'eer* 

a  Rlii'niis 

11.  Nimiii 

23.  Pinda 

a  GanKtw 

a  Stnr.hif 

b  riipninm 

m  ninTOKriai 

SO.  Rniona 

b  Dnralui 

c  THniiia 

l;1.  (Siiiara 

30.  Sent 

LIBYA  VEL  AFRICA 

r  Niiiir 

d  Rhn 

14.  Sima 

1.  Na'ira 

.lOi? 

•  Biirir^thonM 

IS  ri>rii«m>lil 

Rmeri. 

2  Oira 

«  Nilui 

16.  Ilacirn 

a  r.iiphrate* 

3.  Canhngo 

f  Astapui 
(  Aitaboiu 

.  ^  ^     ASIA. 

n.  Pmala 

bTierii 

i.  Phrcui 

L  Epheaui 

la  PahboUira 

eOxus 

M 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


P^KT  I 


Under  the  heads  of  great  Germany  and  of  Sannatia,  Ptolemy  has  given  all  the  knowledge 
he  liad  acquired  of  tlie  north  and  east  of  Europe,  which  was  not  inconsiderable.  The  line 
jf  tlie  German  coast  is  very  well  formed,  and  the  Amasius  or  Ems,  the  Visurgis  or  Weser, 
tiie  Albis  or  Elbe,  the  Vedra  or  Oder,  and  the  Visula  or  Vistula,  appear  in  regular  succes- 
sion, and  almost  under  their  modem  names.  Jutland  appears  as  the  Cimbric  Chersonese, 
and  liic  southern  coast  of  the  Baltic  is  carried  on  very  correctly;  but,  in  regard  to  Scandi- 
navia, he  fails  entirely.  Evidently  ignorant  tliat  the  Baltic  is  an  encloscl  gulf,  he  callii  it 
"  tiie  Sarmatic  Ocean,"  and  places  in  it  four  islands.  Three  of  these,  close  to  the  Cimbric 
Cliorsonese,  are  clearly  recognised  in  the  islands  of  Denmark ;  but  the  other,  of  greater 
extent,  fartiier  to  the  east  and  opposite  to  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula,  is  probably  part  of  Swe- 
d);u,  and  perhaps  Gothland.  It  is  clear,  that  navigators  had  not  then  rounded  Jutland,  and 
ptissed  through  the  Skagerrnck  or  Cattegat,  otherwise  they  must  have  noticed  these  straits, 
and  tlie  "teat  extent  of  continent  opposite  the  Cimbric  Chersonese.  The  Aloecian  islands, 
hosvevci,,  dituated  off  the  nortliem  extremity  of  Jutlan;',  must  have  been  suggested  by  some 
part  of  t;.e  Norwegian  coast,  as  tiiere  are  no  islr.nds  in  that  quarter.  The  more  northern 
part  of  the  Norwegian  coast  was  probably,  as  already  observed,  identified  with  Thule. 

The  coast  of  Sarmatia  is  described  by  Ptolemy  on  passing  the  Vistula,  and  he  traces  with 
accuracy  the  great  bend  which  it  takes  northward  to  the  gulf  of  Riga.  Four  rivers  are 
given,  whicii  cannot  be  recognised  by  their  names,  but  which  M.  Gosselin  conceives  to  be 
the  Pregel,  the  Niemen,  the  Wuidau,  and  the  Dwina.  Beyond  this  he  places  "  the  end  of 
the  sea  of  the  known  land,"  and  immediately  commences  that  boundary  of  terra  incognita 
which  he  carries  around  the  whole  of  Asia. 

Ill  regard  to  tlie  south  of  European  Russia,  Ptolemy  recovers  much  of  the  knowledge 
which  had  been  wholly  or  partially  lost  under  Strabo.  He  appears  indeed  to  have  gone  back 
in  a  great  measure  to  Herodotus,  whom  he  imitates  in  giving  most  unreasonable  extension 
to  the  Palus  Majotis.  There  is  little  room  for  complaint  as  to  the  Tanais,  the  Borysthenes, 
and  the  other  great  rivers  which  fall  into  the  Euxine.  In  this  remote  and  wild  extremity 
of  Europe,  however,  he  has  found  a  place  for  certain  poetical  and  historical  fictions,  wliich 
experience  had  banished  from  better  known  quarters,  but  wiiich  could  not  find  a  place  here 
with  any  propriety; — the  grove  of  Diana,  the  race-course  of  Achilles,  the  altars  of  Ctesar 
and  of  Alexander ;  neither  of  whom  ever  can  led  their  arms  into  this  part  of  the  ancient 
Scythia. 

In  tracing  the  Mediterranean,  Ptolemy  improves  considerably  upon  the  labours  of  .i is  pre- 
decessors. Sicily,  in  parti(;ular,  is  much  better  constructed,  and  the  straits  of  Mesf^ina  are 
p!;!(;ed  nearly  in  their  true  latitude.  He  still,  however,  merit"  deep  reproach  for  the  utterly 
barbarous  form  which  he  has  given  to  Italy,  that  rulmg  country,  wliich  must  of  all  others 
have  appeared  to  him  the  most  interesting,  and  for  which  he  must  have  possessed  the  most 
ample  materials.  Yet  Italy,  with  the  exception  of  a  slight  bend  at  its  extremity,  is  oriented 
almost  entirely  east  and  west,  having  the  Adriatic  for  its  northern,  and  the  Tyrrhenian  for 
its  southern  boundary.  I  cannot  find  any  account  of  an  error  so  strange,  except  by  supposing 
that  Ptolemy  must  have  been  led  into  it  by  one  of  those  itinerary  maps  which,  like  the 
Peutingerian,  made  'Everything  subservient  to  the  direction  of  the  Roman  high  road,  and 
drew  it  in  a  straight  line  from  one  extremity  to  the  other.  It  is  easy  to  suppose  that  he 
migiit  not  comprehend  the  very  odd  principle  upon  which  this  map  was  constructed,  and 
niiglit  conceive  that  being  made  with  regard  to  Italy,  a  country  so  near,  and  so  completely 
within  reach,  it  might  be  implicitly  relied  on.  This  suspicion  is  strengthened  when  we 
find,  after  passing  Dyrrachium,  the  port  of  embarkation  for  Greece,  this  being  the  direction 
of  the  great  road  of  the  empire,  that  the  coast  of  Italy  suddenly  resumes  its  just  form,  and 
tlie  peninsula  of  Campania  makes  even  too  abrupt  a  bend  to  the  south. 

SuBSKCT.  2. — Asia. 
In  regard  of  Asia  also,  important  discoveries  had  been  made  since  the  time  of  Eratos 
thenes.  Immense  territories,  included  by  that  geographer  within  the  domain  of  the 
ocean,  were  known  to  Ptolemy  as  occupied  by  the  wandering  hordes  of  Scythia,  or  by  the 
peaceful  and  industrious  nation  of  the  St/es  or  Chinese.  This  advantage  might  be  partly 
due  to  the  military  itineraries,  especially  that  of  Trajan  in  his  victorious  expedition  into 
Partliia.  The  grand  source,  however,  evidently  was  that  bold  spirit  of  commercial  enter- 
prise, to  which  an  impulse  was  given  by  the  vast  consumption  of  Rome,  when  tiie  wealth  o* 
tlie  world  centred  in  that  mighty  and  voluptuous  capital.  The  East  was  the  region  nuiiiiiy 
resorted  to  for  the  supply  of  the  boundless  wants  which  arose  in  that  artificial  and  luxurion.-j 
stiite  of  society.  The  merchants  soon  le;  rned  to  trace  routes,  both  by  land  and  sea,  much 
longer  and  more  adventurous  than  had  been  achieved  by  their  predecessors  at  any  former 
period.  Under  the  narrative  entitled  "the  Pcriphisof  the  Erythrean  Sea,"  we  linve  followed 
tlio  maritime  career  by  which  the  merchants  of  Alexandria  were  led  to  the  con.st  of  ?4ala' 
bar.  Whether,  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy,  tiie  Greek  navigators  had  actually  proceeded  farther, 
it  may  be  difficult  to  say  with  certainty.  He  has  certainly,  however  obtained  a  considera 
ble  accession  of  knowledge  with  regard  to  this  eastern  extremity  of  the  known  world.     Ho 


'en  all  the  knowledge 
isiderable.  The  line 
e  Visurgis  or  Weser, 
Bar  in  regular  siicces- 
Cimbric  Chersonese, 

in  regard  to  Scnndi- 
lose<l  gulf,  he  calls  it 

close  to  the  Cimbric 
the  other,  of  greater 
probably  part  of  Swe- 
rounded  Jutland,  and 

noticed  these  straits, 
rhe  Aloecian  islands, 
m  suggested  by  some 
The  more  northern 
fied  with  'i'hule. 
a,  and  he  traces  with 
ya.  Four  rivers  are 
sselin  conceiven  to  be 
e  places  "  the  end  of 
•y  of  terra  incognita 

!h  of  the  knowledge 

3d  to  have  gone  back 

ireasonable  extension 

lis,  the  Borysthenes, 

and  wild  extremity 

rical  fictions,  wliicli 

not  find  a  place  here 

the  altars  of  Ctesar 

part  of  the  ancient 

he  labours  of  jis  pre- 

:raits  of  Mossina  are 

roach,  for  the  utterly 

:h  must  of  all  others 

3  possessed  the  most 

itremity,  is  oriented 

the  Tyrrhenian  for 

except  by  supposing 

ips  which,  like  the 

nan  high  road,  and 

to  suppose  that  he 

IS  constructed,  and 

,  and  so  completely 

igthened  when  we 

being  the  direction 

!8  its  jnst  fonn,  and 


le  time  of  Eratos 
le  domain  of  the 
Scythia,  or  by  J  he 
ge  might  be  partly 
us  expedition  into 
commercial  oiitrr- 
I'hen  tiie  wealth  o* 
the  region  niainiy 
cial  and  liixuriniis 
nd  and  sea,  riiiich 
iors  at  any  former 
we  hfive  followed 
he  coast  of  Mala- 
proceeded  flirthei, 
lined  a  considera 
nown  world.    Ho 


Boor  L 


PTOLEMY— ASIA. 


W 


goes  far  hevond  th«?  month  of  the  Granges,  at  whicii  we  have  observed  the  termination  of 
111!  precise  knowledge  in  tlie  author  of  the  Periplus.  Alter  delineating  a  coast,  with  a 
si'-codsiion  of  ports  which  it  is  difficult  to  identify,  he  comes  to  a  grand  feature,  which  he 
culls  "tiie  Golden  Chersonese,"  formed  by  three  great  estuaries  discharging  their  waters 

ill  he  sea.  These  phenomena  are  actually  presented  by  tlie  mouths  of  the  Irrawaddy  at 
tl'  southern  extremity  of  Pegu.  This  is  followed  by  an  extensive  feature,  the  Magnut 
3iims,  or  Great  Bay,  penetrating  far  inland,  and  receiving  some  considerable  rivers.  The 
ouir  of  Malacca  is  not  nearly  so  large  or  so  deep  as  this  Magnus  Sinus;  but  its  mouth 
bring  very  broad,  and  its  shores  very  winding,  it  is  not  very  improbable  that,  in  the  eyes  of 
unc'imtand  unskilful  navigators,  it  might  assume  this  exaggerated  form  and  dimension. 
Ill  vonJ  the  Magnus  Sinus  the  coast,  in  continuity  with  its  eastern  shore,  stretches  due 
stuitli  t<j  the  farthicat  known  extremity  of  the  world.  On  this  coast  the  leading  features  are 
TliiiKB,  a  great  interior  metropolis,  and  Cattigara,  its  sea-port  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Cotiaria. 
Tliis  coutit,  it  should  seem,  can  only  be  that  of  Malacca  and  the  Isthmus  of  Kraw,  which 
runs  exactly  in  the  direction  here  assigned  by  Ptolemy.  Gosselin  identifies  Thinee  with 
Ton;isserin ;  but  there  seems  more  reason  for  acceding  to  Dr.  Vincent's  opinion  that  it  is 
Siani.  This  exposition,  which  is  supported  by  Vossius,  Gosselin,  and  Vincent,  appears  to  me 
undoubtedly  prefeii'.lde  to  the  more  general  one  sui»ported  by  the  autliority  of  d'Anville, 
wliich  makes  the  coast  of  the  SinoB  extend  along  the  gulf  of  Siam  and  the  sea  of  China. 
Such  a  line  would  involve  Ptolemy  in  the  strange  and  incredible  blunder  of  making  a  coast 
face  the  east  which  really  faces  the  west.  Sum.atra,  indeed,  is  so  land-locked  that  it  might 
easily  enough  have  been  taken  for  a  part  of  the  continent,  and  have  been  called  the  Golden 
Ciiersonese.  But  it  seems  inconceivable  how  the  straits  of  Malacca  and  of  Sunda  so  im- 
portant and  so  critical  to  navigators,  and  by  one  or  the  other  of  which  they  mui^t  have 
entered  the  sea  of  China,  could  have  been  overlooked.  On  this  supposition,  indeed,  the 
coasts  are  swelled  very  far  beyond  their  due  dimensions;  but  we  have  often  remarked  how 
enormously  this  is  apt  to  be  the  case,  in  regard  to  routes,  and  above  all  coasts  which  are 
traversed  for  the  first  time,  and  hy  inexperienced  navigatore.  Ptolemy,  as  we  have  seen, 
atlcr  retrenching  the  eastern  itir  jraries  of  Marinns  one  half,  left  them  still  greatly  too  large ; 
and  he  does  not  mention  any  siriilar  retrencliment  in  regard  to  the  coasts.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  those  of  Ptolemy  extend  to  the  Chinese  sea  and  to  China,  then,  contrary  to  every 
ancient  example,  he  must  have  immensely  underrated  the  extent  of  these  imperfectly  dis- 
covered tracts ;  an  error  which  would  be  contrary  to  all  precedent : — this,  however,  docs  not 
imply  that  there  may  not,  within  tins  line  of  positive  knowledge,  have  been  a  confused 
blending  of  features  that  lay  in  reality  beyond. 

The  increased  knowledge  of  Ptolemy  respecting  the  eastern  part  of  the  Asiatic  continent  was 
cliiefly  derived,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  fiom  the  great  caravan  which  proceeded  from 
Byy.antium,  having  the  country  of  Sorica  for  its  ultimate  destination.  This  caravan,  having 
tr^ivorsed  Asia  Minor,  crossed  the  Euphrates  at  Ilierapolis,  and  journeyed  through  Media, 
by  way  of  Ecbatana  (Ilamadan),  to  Hejatompylos  (Daumghaun),  the  capital  of  Parthia.  It 
then  advanced  north  to  Hyrcania  (Horkan  or  Jorjan),  thence  south,  to  take  in  the  fine 
province  of  Aria  (Herat).  It  now  again  turned  north,  to  include  tlie  capital  of  Margiana 
(Meru  Rood),  tiience  due  east  to  Bactria  (Balk),  which  then  formed,  au  at  present,  the  main 
C(>!itre  of  the  commerce  of  interior  Asia.  The  caravan  now  quitted  the  easy  and  level  tract 
through  which  its  route  had  hitherto  led,  and  began  to  ascend  that  vast  and  rugged  mountain 
world  which  fills  the  eastern  interior  of  Asia.  Atler  accomplishing  the  steep  ascent  of  the 
Monies  Comedorum,  which  seems  to  be  the  chain  of  the  Beloor,  it  reached  a  station  called 
the  "  ytone  Tower,"  which  tlieie  is  nothing  to  identify,  except  that  the  direction  towards  it 
is  north-east,  and  it  may  be  either  Liidauk  or  Yarcund,  the  great  modern  emporium  of  this 
part  of  the  East.  From  the  Stone  Towe*'  to  the  frontier  of  Serica,  Marinus,  on  the  authority 
of  tlie  merchants,  reported  a  journey  of  seven  months,  which  Ptolemy  considers  as  monstrous 
and  incredible,  though  he  admits  that  the  road  is  exposed  to  tl\e  greatest  hardships  and  diffi- 
culties. The  question,  what  is  the  country  described  by  Ptolemy  and  his  contemporaries  as 
Serica,  is  the  most  curious  hi  the  ancient  geography  of  Asia.  The  earliest  modern  opinion 
idontified  Serica  with  northern  China,  while  the  country  of  the  Since  composed  the  southern 
pjirt.  D'Anville,  however,  who  transported  the  Sina)  into  the  coast  of  Cambodia,  carried 
W(!stward  also  the  Seres  into  the  country  of  the  Igours,  or  Eygurs,  including  in  their  terri- 
tory only  the  small  projecting  portion  of*^  the  Chinese  province  of  Shensee.  Mr.  Pin!certon 
jilncos  it  still  farther  west,  in  Little  Bucharia.  M.  Gosselin,  followed  genernlly  by  tiio 
pn.Hcnt  French  school,  contends  thai  Serinagur,  in  the  north  of  Hindostan,  is  the  real  Sera 
inofrojwlis  of  Ptolemy.  I  can  see  no  reason  for  altering  the  grounds  on  which  I  concluded 
fbrnicrly,  and  endeavoured  to  prove,  Serica  to  be  simply  China.  (See  EtUnburg  Phil.  Trans. 
vol.  viii.  On  the  ancient  Geoffraphy  of  Central  and  EnBtern  Asia.)  All  the  natives  of  India 
whom  Ptolemy  saw  assured  him  that  the  Seres  lay  beyond  the  Sinre,  and  China  is  beyond 
Siam.  The  Sinaj  (Siam)  had  to  the  north  Scythia  beyond  Imaus,  which  country  had  Sorica 
on  the  east.  Serica  is  described  as  traversed  by  two  great  rivers,  flowing  eastward,  as  the 
Honng-h-'  and  Yang-tse-kiang  actually  do.     Serica,  according  to  Ptolemy's  graduation  was 

Vol.  I.  H 


<« 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  I. 


fourteen  hundred  mijes  from  north  to  south,  and  eleven  hundred  from  east  to  woht,  n  very 
close  approach  to  the  dimensions  of  modem  China.     Serica,  then,  in  form,  extent,  geojfra- 

Shical  feattires,  and  relations  to  the  neighbouring^  countries,  exactly  corresponds  to  the  mo- 
em  China.  Not  less  conformable  is  the  report  given  of  the  national  character.  The  Soros 
are  represented  as  frugal,  quiet,  seoal^,  ind  tranquil  beyond  all  other  nations;  as  of  all 
others  the  most  unwarlike,  and  the  most  nrse  to  the  use  of  arms;  as  shunning,  with  the 
most  studious  care,  the  society  and  intercourse  of  strangers,  and  scarcely  ever  allowing 
them  to  enter  their  territory ;  as  carrying  on  trade  at  a  fixed  frontier  station  only,  and  under 
*Jie  strictest  precautions;  as  selling  thcii  own  commodities  without  receiving  the  coinnio- 
dities  of  other  nations  in  return.  Silk  was  the  staple  of  Serica,  and  it  is  of  China.  With 
regard  to  M.  Gosselin's  Indian  theory,  it  must  now,  wo  nuppose,  be  on  all  hands  given  up, 
since  Thibet  and  Northern  India,  instead  of  being  connected  by  *'  valley  of  the  Ganges, 
have  been  found  separated  by  the  unbroken  continuity  of  the  loftiest  ridge  of  the  Himmaleh, 
which  can  be  penetrated  only  by  a  few  most  perilous  and  tremendous  passes. 

Respecting  Hindostan,  and  its  limitary  regions,  the  details  given  by  Ptolemy  include  a 
great  mass  of  sound  information.  In  some  important  particulars,  indeed,  his  map  is  decidedly 
superior  to  those  possessed  by  the  moderns,  previous  to  the  late  important  accessions  to  their 
knowledge.  He  describes  the  Ganges  rising,  as  it  really  does,  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
Himmaleh,  and  in  the  outer  limits  of  Hindostan,  while,  prior  to  the  mission  sent  by  Col. 
Colebrooke,  in  1808,  its  origin,  and  a  considerable  part  of  its  early  course,  were  supix)sed  to 
be  in  Little  Thibet.  The  mission  to  Caubul  first  found  that  all  the  great  western  rivers 
emptied  themselves  by  one  channel  into  the  Indus,  as  they  had  been  represented  by  Ptolemy, 
whi'e  modern  maps  had  exhibited  them  entering  by  two  great  separate  channels.  The 
same  mission  discover  i  two  very  considerable  rivers,  western  tributaries  of  the  Indus, 
the  Kaumeh  and  the  Buaut,  of  which  no  trace  had  yet  appeared  in  modern  delineation ; 
but,  on  turning  to  Ptolemy,  we  find  them  accurately  traced  under  the  names  of  the  Coe  and 
the  Suaste.  Thus  we  find  him  delineating  with  success  geographical  features  in  the  most 
secret  recesses  of  Asia,  which  remained  unknown  till  lately  to  the  best-informed  of  modern 
geographers. 

The  site  of  Palibothra  is  one  main  point  in  which,  after  much  discussion,  geographers 
have  in  vain  endeavoured  to  form  an  unanimous  opinion.  It  was  found  by  Megasthenos  tiie 
proud  capital  of  the  Gangetic  kingdom,  and  the  greatest  city  of  all  India.  Yet  modern 
geographers  have  not  been  able  to  -gree  within  several  hundred  miles  upon  this  marked 
and  celebrated  position.  Arrian  stateb  that  :t  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Ganges  with 
the  Erranaboas,  the  tiiird  river  of  India  as  to  magnitude,  being  surpassed  only  by  the  Ganges 
and  the  Indus.  This  scale  of  magnitude  suggests  the  Jumna,  and  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Jumna  with  the  Ganges  actually  stands  Allahabad,  a  city  of  great  magnitude  and  high  anti- 
quity, which  is  even  revered  by  the  Hindoo?  as  the  "  king  of  holy  cities."  Upon  this  general 
idea  D'Anville  and,  after  him,  Robertson,  have  considered  Allahabad  as  occupying  the  site 
of  Palibothni.  On  examination,  however,  this  is  found  in  contradiction  to  the  most  positive 
statements  of  Pliny  and  Ptolemy.  Pliny,  in  express  words,  states  Palibothra  to  be  425  miles 
distant  from  the  junction  of  these  two  rivers.  Ptolemy  makes  the  distance  somewhat  greater 
still.  In  considering  Allahabad,  then,  as  Palibothra,  we  abandon  altogether  the  authority  of 
these  two  great  geographers,  a  step  in  which  we  should  be  very  little  justified,  either  by  a 
reference  to  their  general  character,  or  by  our  knowledge  of  tlieir  remarkable  accuracy  with 
regard  to  tiie  other  features  of  central  and  northern  India.  Tlioir  account  of  Palibothra,  too, 
is  given  upon  the  authority  of  Greek  ambassadors,  who  actually  visited  that  capital.  The 
river  next  in  magnitude  is  the  Gogri  or  Snrayu.  But  the  junction  of  this  rivor  with  the 
Ganges  is  not  nearly  so  far  from  that  of  the  Jumna  as  the  above  statements  would  require. 
Besides,  Ptolemy  actually  gives  us  the  Sarabus  (Sarayu),  with  its  junction  in  the  due  relative 
position  to  that  of  the  Jumni,  but  Palibothra  much  fiirther  down.  Major  Rennel  has  made 
choice  of  Patna,  and  considers  the  junction  of  the  Soane,  at  present  thirty  miles  above  that 
city,  as  having  taken  place  formerly  by  a  different  and  nearer  channel.  This  theory  stands 
on  much  higher  ground  than  the  other ;  yet  it  by  no  means  closely  corresponds  with  the 
ancient  data.  Pliny  mentions  both  the  Sonus  and  the  Erranaboas  as  quite  distinct  tribut-iriea 
of  the  Ganges,  and  he  places  the  city  considerably  farther  down  than  Patna  is.  Ptolemy, 
also,  in  giving  the  junction  of  the  Soa  and  the  Ganges,  places  Palibothra  more  than  two 
hundred  miles  below.  Major  Rennell's  theory,  then,  brings  us  considerably  short  of  the 
point  at  which  this  great  capital  ought  to  be  situated. 

Another  point  which  appeared  to  mo  to  unite  the  name  and  position  of  Palibothra  has 
been  mentioned  (Discovpries  in  Asia,  v.  i.  p.  491.),  and,  without  being  inclined  very  confi- 
dently to  dogmatize,  it  still  appears  to  me  to  combine  better  the  different  requisites  than 
any  other  yet  named.  The  name  of  Bn,(rlipoor  may  be  considered  identical  with  Paliboor^ 
for,  in  transferring  Indian  terms  into  our  characters.  P  and  B,  O  and  A,  arc  always  tisfd 
prortiiscuously ;  and  the  termination  attached  by  the  Romans  is  evidently  according  to  tlioir 
system  of  harmonizing  foreign  sounds  with  their  own.  A  name  is  of  little  consequence 
when  it  is  not  accompanied  wit^>  a  corresponding  position ;  but  here  this  appears  to  coincide 


Part  f. 

n  nast  to  wost,  a  vory 

form,  extent,  (reojufra- 
prresponds  to  the  nio- 
iharacter.  The  Soros 
er  nations ;  as  of  all 
IS  shunning,  with  the 
arcely  ever  allowingf 
tation  only,  and  iindor 
receiving  the  coinnio- 
t  is  of  China.  With 
n  all  hands  given  up, 
alley  of  the  Ganges, 
ige  of  the  Himmaleh, 
jasses. 
»y  Ptolemy  include  a 

his  map  is  decidedly 
mt  accessions  to  their 
I  southern  side  of  the 

mission  sent  by  Col. 
•se,  were  supposed  to 

great  western  rivers 
iresented  by  Ptolemy, 
irate  channels.  The 
itaries  of  the  Indus, 

modern  delineation ; 
lames  of  the  Coe  and 

features  in  the  most 
^-informed  of  modern 

cussion,  geographers 

by  Megasthenos  the 

India.     Yet  modern 

les  upon  this  marked 

I  of  the  Ganges  with 

1  only  by  the  Ganges 

e  confluence  of  the 

itude  and  high  anti- 

Upon  this  g(!neral 

occupying  the  site 

to  the  most  positive 

;hra  to  be  425  miles 

somewhat  gi'eater 

her  the  authority  of 

ustified,  either  by  a 

table  accuracy  with 

of  Palibothra,  too, 

tliat  capital.     The 

liis  rivor  with  the 

iits  would  requira. 

in  the  due  relative 

r  Rennel  has  m;ide 

y  miles  above  that 

This  theory  stands 

■responds  with  the 

distinct  tribiit-iries 

itna  is.     Ptolemy, 

hra  more  than  two 

■rably  short  of  the 

of  Palibothra  h^is 
iclined  very  confi- 
'nt  requisites  than 
;al  with  Paliboofi 

arc  a  1  ways  used 
according  to  tlifir 

ittle  consequence 

ipears  to  coincide 


liOOK  L 


Pl'OLEMY— AFRICA. 


M 


nearly,  though  not  indeed  quite  exactly,  with  Pliny.  He  makes  Palibothra  430  miles  from 
the  junction  of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna,  and  600  from  Gauge,  a  capital  situated  at  the  mouth 
of  the  former.  Boglipoor,  however,  instead  of  being  only  two-fifths  of  the  distance  between 
these  two  points,  is  about  exactly  midway.  The  space  lower  down  the  river,  being  less 
known,  might  more  readily  have  been  exaggerate<l,  and  Gange  being  on  the  most  easterly 
branch  of  the  Ganges,  might  occupy  nearly  the  position  of  I^amabad.  The  place  assignecl 
by  Ptolemy  is  exactly  midway,  and  therefore  coincides  strictly  with  the  position  of  £)gli- 
poor.  Near  it  the  Ganges  receives  the  Coosy,  or  river  of  Nepaul,  certainly  not  the  tnird 
Inlndia  as  t^  magnitude ;  but  the  ambassadors  might  not  have  very  precise  means  of  as- 
certaining the  relative  dimensions  of  the  Indian  rivers.  There  is,  tlierefore,  a  great  weight 
of  evidence,  as  to  name  and  position,  in  favour  of  the  theory  here  proposed.  I  must  confess, 
however,  that  I  find  no  description  of  any  monuments,  such  as  might  be  expected  to  mark 
the  ancient  site  of  so  splendid  a  capital.  Indian  structures,  however,  are  not  usually 
composed  of  materials  suffit  antly  solid  to  resist  the  ravages  of  sixteen  centuries.  If  the 
local  data  could  at  all  have  allowed  us  to  fix  upon  the  thrice  ancient  and  holy  Benares,  its 
character  would  have  given  it  at  once  a  pre-eminence;  but  this  is  impossible.  Ra- 
jemahl,  suggested,  is  not  very  distant  from  Boglipoor;  but  besides  losing  the  coin- 
cidence of  name,  it  agrees  less  than  the  other  position  with  the  statements  both  of  Ptolemy 
and  Pliny. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Africa. 

In  the  delineation  of  Africa,  Ptolemy,  himself  an  African,  had  obvious  advantages.  Ac- 
cordingly his  delineations  of  several  of  the  most  interior  features  have,  as  in  tiie  case  of 
southern  India,  proved  to  be  more  accurate  than  those  given  by  modern  geographers  down 
to  a  very  recent  period.  The  course  of  the  Nile,  up  to  its  highest  probable  source  in  the 
central  range  of  the  mountains  of  the  Moon,  has  been  justified  by  recent  inquiry,  in  oppo- 
sition  to  the  Portuguese  missionaries,  who  drew  it  from  the  mountains  and  lakes  of  Abys- 
sinia. This  original  fountain-head  has  not  yet  been  traced  by  the  daring  foot  of  the  moilern 
traveller;  but  the  description  given  to  Brown,  of  its  descent  from  the  great  mountain  chain 
south  of  Darfoor,  corresponds  very  exactly  with  Ptolemy,  making  allowance  only  for  his 
erroneous  graduation.  With  equal  fidelity,  he  delineates  the  Astaboras,  or  Atbara,  tlie  As- 
tapus,  or  river  of  Abyssinia,  successively  falling  into  it  from  the  east.  He  has,  indeed,  made 
Meroe  an  island,  enclosed  by  branches  of  the  Nile ;  but  modern  discovery  has  shown  it  to 
be  so  very  nearly  insular,  in  consequence  of  the  great  bend  taken  to  the  south,  tlial  the 
error  cannot  be  considered  excessive. 

In  regard  to  central  Africa,  Ptolemy  had  not  equal  advantages,  on  account  of  the  dis- 
tance, because  no  track  had  yet  been  formed  across  the  vast  ocean  of  desert  which  inter- 
vened. It  appears  to  me  a  matter  of  some  difficulty  to  ascertain  the  precise  extent  of  liie 
knowledge  as  to  this  region.  M.  Gosselin  has  not  hesitated  to  assert,  that  he  knew  notiiiug 
of  Africa  south  of  the  desert,  and  that  all  the  features  which  he  has  assigned  to  interior 
Libya,  and  the  course  of  the  Niger,  belong  in  fact  to  Fezzan  and  that  region  behind  the 
Atlas  which  we  call  the  B'led-el-Jereede,  or  Land  of  Dates.  This  opinion  certainly  receives 
much  countenance  when  we  find  the  Garamantes  and  the  Garomantica  vallis  placed  on  the 
same  line  with  the  Niger,  the  lake  of  Nigritia,  and  the  other  leading  central  features.  I 
still,  however,  think  it  probable  that  Ptolemy  might,  by  way  of  the  Upper  Nile,  have  ob- 
tained intelligence  respecting  a  portion  at  least  of  these  vast  regions,  the  approach  to  which 
by  way  of  Dongola  and  Sennaar  was  not  obstructed  by  any  very  insurmountable  barriers. 
Besides  the  agreement  of  several  names,  as  Gana,  Tagana,  Panagra,  the  general  picture 
of  this  region  s.3  one  of  lakes,  rivers,  and  mountains,  agrees  much  better  with  the  intorior 
than  with  the  arid  tract  between  Atlas  and  the  desert.  My  suspicion  therefore  is,  that  Ptol- 
emy, unacquainted  with  any  route  across  the  great  desert,  was  not  aware  of  the  wide  in- 
terval between  the  features  to  the  north  and  those  to  the  south  of  it,  and  linked  them  to- 
gether in  his  description  as  contiguous  and  connected.  As  his  knowledge  of  central  Africa 
was  thus  obtained  only  in  a  westerly  course  from  the  Nile,  it  war  -"it  likely  to  extend  be- 
yond the  eastern  part  of  the  vast  breadth  between  the  Nile  and  the  i^  .i.  The  Mons  Maa- 
drus,  his  most  western  feature,  with  a  great  river  flowing  from  it  into  the  lake  of  Nigritia, 
may  perhaps  be  recognized  in  the  mighty  range  of  the  mountp.ins  of  Mandara  and  the  river 
Sliary  flowing  from  them  into  the  lake  or  sea  of  the  Tchad.  About  this  quarter  I  should 
conceive  the  knowledge  which  reached  Ptolemy  by  inland  chr.nnels  probably  terminited ; 
and  the  Atlantic  coast,  known  to  exist  by  the  voyages  of  Hanno,  Scylax,  and  Polybius,  was 
united  to  these  objects  by  a  merely  hypothetical  construction.  In  regard  to  the  course  of 
the  Niirer,  it  is  diflicult  to  say  very  precisely  what  were  Ptolemy's  views,  and  we  only  per- 
ceive tint  he  made  it  an  inland  river,  neither  flowing  into  the  Atlantic,  nor  by  the  Nile  into 
the  Mediterranean. 

Respecting  this  gretrt  central  region  of  Africa,  however,  Ptolemy  had  obtained  some  no- 
tices from  which  he  r.^.ight  have  estimated  its  magnitude.  Two  Roman  expeditions  li;ul 
been  reported  to  him,  one  made  by  Septiniius  Flaccus  from  Garama,  and  tlie  other  by  Julius 


m 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  I. 


Maternus  from  the  coast  of  Cyrone.  The  former  in  three,  and  the  latter  in  four  months, 
had  penetrated  into  the  country  of  the  Ethiopians.  Ptolemy  expresses  himself  very  scepti- 
cal as  to  the  possible  length  of  tliis  march ;  nevertheless  he  lays  down  the  country  of 
Afrisymba  us  tnat  farthest  region  of  interior  Ethiopia  into  v^hich  these  commanders  had 
penetrated.  Agisymba  -we  suspect  to  be  Agadez ;  at  least  as  the  march  comprehends  no 
rivers  or  lakes,  it  cannot  well  have  reached  the  line  of  the  Niger.  Nevertheless  Ptolemy 
places  it  considerably  to  the  south  of  Nigritia;  which  is  doubtless  in  favour  of  the  limited 
ext'Mit  which  M.  Gosselin  allows  to  his  information.  But  we  may  observe  that,  supposing 
Ptolemy  to  have  formed,  in  the  manner  above  supposed,  his  idea  ui  the  plain  of  the  Niger 
as  little  removed  to  tlio  south  of  Fezzan,  he  must,  in  protracting  marches  of  three  or  four 
months,  necessarily  have  carried  the  lino  much  farther  to  the  south. 

Ill  regard  to  the  western  coasts  of  Africa,  Ptolemy's  delineation  is  not  very  luminous,  but 
appears  on  the  whole  to  favour  M.  Gosselin's  views  respecting  the  extent  of  Hanno's  voy- 
age and  of  the  knowledge  of  the  ancients.  He  docs  indeed  present  two  rivers,  the  Daradus 
and  the  Btachir,  flowing  on  a  line  with  the  plain  of  Nigritia.  But  I  have  no  idea  that 
Ptolemy  could  have  any  precise  information  reaching  across  the  entire  breadth  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  conceive,  as  already  hinted,  that  the  coast  and  interior  were  here  hypothetically 
united.  As  Ptolemy  placed  tlie  plain  of  tlie  Niger  much  too  far  north,  he  might  make 
tlie.«e  rivers  on  a  line  with  it,  without  identifying  them  with  the  Senegal  and  Gambia. 
His  position  of  the  Fortunate  Islands  (Canaries)  opposite  to  their  mouths,  and  south  of 
Come,  is  not  at  all  in  favour  of  the  opinion  which  carries  these  last  features  deep  into  cen- 
tral Africa. 

On  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  Ptolent"  odds  to  the  line  described  by  the  author  of  the 
Pcriplus  a  coast  extending  from  the  promontory  of  Rhaptum  to  that  of  Prasum.  At  this 
point  the  coast,  hitherto  running  south-west,  changes  to  soutli-east.  No  details  are  given 
of  this  coast,  which  is  described  as  rough  and  difficult  to  navigate.  We  can  neither,  with 
M.  Gosselin,  limit  Prasum  to  Brava,  nor  with  Vincent  carry  it  so  far  as  Mosambique.  There 
is  lib  part  of  the  coast  to  which  the  direction  assigned  to  it  belongs,  exnpt  from  Quiloa 
to  Cape  Delgado;  and  if  Rhaptum  be  at  or  near  Quiloa,  the  latter,  allowing  for  some  exag- 
geration of  distance  on  a  coast  so  little  known,  will  be  the  promontory  Prasum.  Five  de- 
grees east  and  three  degrees  south  of  this  promontory  is  the  island  of  Menuthias.  The 
Menouthesias  of  the  Periphis  appeared  pretty  plainly  to  be  one  of  the  smaller  islands  near 
the  African  coast,  and  probably  Zanzibar ;  but  none  of  these  could  be  the  Menuthias  of 
Ptolemy,  which  is  manifestly  Madagascar. 


BOOK    II. 

GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

Under  the  "  geography  of  the  middle  ages  "  may  be  comprehended  that  of  the  Arabian  or 
Saracen  nations,  during  the  period  when  science  was  successfully  cultivated  among  them ; 
and  tlio  geographical  ideas  prevalent  in  Europe,  during  that  long  darkness  which  preceded 
tlie  revival  of  learning,  and  the  commencement  of  maritime  discovery. 


CHAPTER  I. 
ARABIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 

TnE  Arabs  were  for  some  time  the  most  learned  of  nations.  As  the  mantle  of  science 
dropped  from  the  sages  of  Greece  and  Rome,  it  fell  upon  this  wild  and  strange  race,  sprung 
from  the  besom  of  bigotry  and  barbarism.  The  fanatic  hordes,  who,  under  the  guidance  of 
their  false  prophet,  rushed  from  the  heart  of  Arabia,  at  first  owned  no  law  but  the  Koran  and 
the  sword.  When  they  had  conquered  half  the  world,  however,  and  founded  splendid  capi- 
fcils  on  tiie  banks  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Guadalquivir,  there  arose  a  race  of  humane  and 
polifihort  princes,  who  studiously  sought  to  relumuie  the  almost  extinguished  lamp  of  science. 
A.  Iniiimoun  above  all,  in  the  ninth  century,  may  rank  among  the  most  distinguished  of  its 
pntions  who  have  ever  filled  a  liirone. 

Geography  among  the  Arabian  states,  appears  to  have  been  studied  with  greater  ardour 
than  at  any  other  place  or  country,  except  at  Alexandria.  It  employed  the  pens  of  several 
of  tiioir  most  eminent  writers;  Maaudi  and  Ebn  Haukal  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries; 
Abiilfnda  and  Edrisi  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth;  to  whom  may  be  added  the  respecUihle 
names  of  Ibn-al-Vardi,  Bakoui,  and  Scheabeddin.  Although  none  of  their  works  have  t  s- 
Come  at  all  fanaliar  to  tlie  European  reader,  yet  learned  men  have  translated  portions,  which 


Pa«t  I. 

latter  in  four  months, 
B  himeelf  very  ecepti- 
down  the  country  of 
ese  commanders  had 
larch  comprehends  no 
fovertheless  Ptolemy 
fiivour  of  the  limited 
iserve  that,  supposing 
B  plain  of  the  Niger 
rches  of  three  or  tour 

ot  very  luminous,  but 
tent  of  Hanno*8  voy- 

0  rivers,  the  Daradus 

1  have  no  idea  that 
e  breadth  of  the  eon- 
j  here  hypothetically 
»rth,  he  might  make 
enegal  and  Gambia. 
Hutha,  and  south  of 
itures  deep  into  cen- 

by  the  author  of  the 
of  Prasuni.  At  this 
Vo  details  are  given 
Ve  can  neither,  with 
Mosambique.  There 
exnpt  from  Quiloa 
wing  for  some  exag- 
/  Prasum.  Five  de- 
of  Menuthias.  The 
smaller  islands  near 
16  the  Menuthias  of 


JBcokH. 


ARABIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


01 


at  of  the  Arabian  or 
'ated  among  them; 
388  which  preceded 


mantle  of  science 
range  race,  sprung 
r  the  guidance  of 
but  the  Komn  and 
ided  splendid  capi- 
Lce  of  humane  and 
id  lamp  of  science, 
istinguished  of  its 

ith  greater  ardour 
le  pens  of  several 
tenth  centurios; 
the  respectiihle 
works  have  !  3- 
jd  portions,  which 


■m 


not  only  convey  a  general  idea  of  their  system,  but  have  enabled  geographers  to  delineate 
some  di/itricta  of  the  globe  which  otherwise  would  have  long  remained  unknown. 

Sect.  I, — Oeneral  System.  Fig.  11. 
The  mathematical  sciences,  and  abovo  all  astronomy.,  were  among  the  most  favourite  pur- 
suits of  the  court  of  Bagdad;  and  the  ample  resources  which  they  at^brdcd  were  applied 
with  considerable  care  to  the  improvement  of  geography.  In  833,  tlie  caliph  Almamoun  en- 
deavoured, by  observations  of  latitude  made  at  Kufa,  and  at  a  point  in  the  desert  of  Pal- 
myra, to  measure  the  circumference  of  the  globe.  In  all  the  countries  subject  to  the  Maho 
medan  arms,  numerous  observations  are  recorded  which,  though  not  always  rigorously  cor- 
rect, appear  at  least  to  have  been  real,  and  not  merely  calculated  out  of  itineraries,  like  those 
of  the  Alexandrian  geographers.  The  tables  of  Abulfeda,  of  Ulug  Beg,  and  of  Nazir  Ed- 
din,  edited  by  Greevms,  and  republished  by  Hudson,  aftbrd  materials  that  are  still  useful  for 
the  construction  of  the  maps  of  interior  Asia. 

Fig.  It-MAP  OF  THE  WORLD  TAKIilN  FROM  AN  ARABIAN  MANUSCRIPT  OF  AL  EDRISI,  IN  THE 

BODLEIAN  LIBRARY. 


Mountain  of  the  IS. 
Iifiinn  and  Sources  IB, 
of  iho  Nile  17. 

Bcrbara  (kingdom  18. 
of  Adel) 

AlZunufZanguebai)  19. 


Seliiln  (Shfaia)  ' 
Al-Wak  Wak 


6.  Serendcub  (Oeylnn) 

7.  Al-Comor   (Mada- 
„    .  gascar) 

8.  A-T)a8i 

9.  Al-Yeman  (Arabia 

Felix) 
10.  Tehama 
ii.  Ai-itejaz  (Arabia' 

Dnserta) 
18.  Al-Shujar  (8egor) 
IJ.  AI-IiniimalYnmama) 
14.  AI-HabeBh  (Ethiopia, 

Abywinia) 
Voul 


Al  Nuba  (Nubia) 
At  Tiijdoen 
Al-Kejah 
Al-Saneed  (Upper 

Egypt,  Said) 
Al-ouhat-wtaat  (Oa- 
sis) 
Go  was 
Kanun 

Belad  Al-)emlum 
Helari  Mul'rada 
Belad  Nemaiich 
Al'  Mulita  u  Sinhajeh 
Curan  (Karooan, 

Klirnnp) 

Necrolund 
Al-S(>u9  Nera 
Al-Mughrub  Al 

AinkHiin  (Mogreb 

the  West) 


30.  Af'eekeea  (Africa)    47. 

31.  Belad  el  Gerid  (Date  48. 

Country)  49. 
33.  Sehareo,B«reneek(or  SO. 
Desert  of  Berenike)  51. 

33.  Mimnr  (E«»pt)  .VJ. 

34.  Al-Shain(3yna)       53. 

35.  Al-Irak  (Persian        54. 
—   _  empire)  55. 

36.  Pars  (Perain  Proper)  Ha. 

37.  Kirman  (Carmania)  57. 
•"      ■  58. 

.■59. 
60. 
6i. 
dri. 
ttl. 
64. 
65. 


38.  Alfazeh 

30.  Mughao 

40.  AI-Hunda(Scindi) 

4!.  A!  Hind  !U,,\m) 

43.  Al-Seen  (China) 

43.  Khorasan 

44.  Al-Bcharus 

45.  Azerbijan  (Media) 

46.  Khuwarizm 

6 


Al-Shash 

Kliirkeez 

Al-a«fur 

Al-Tibut  (Tibet) 

Al-Nufu7.  Izz 

Kurjoea  (Georgia) 

Keyrnak 

Kiilhffia 

Izzea 

Azkush 

Turkcsh 

Iturab 

Bulghar  (Bulgaria) 

Al-Mulenah 

Vajooj  (ling) 

Majonj  (Magog) 

Asiatic  (Russia) 

Bejoerut 

Al-Alman 


66.  Al-Khnzztts  Khoar 

(Caspian  Sen) 

67.  Turkeii  (Turkey) 

68.  Albeian  (Albania) 
60.  Makedunneah  ( Ma- 
cedonia) 

70.  Baltic  Sea 

71.  Jeniibea  (probably 

Sweden) 

72.  Germania((iermnny) 
TJ.  Denmark 

74.  A (ranseeah  (Franco) 
7.5.  Felowiah  (Norway) 
70.  Biirina  ..r  Burienua 
(Britain) 

77.  Corsica,Sardinia.&n. 

78.  Italy 

79.  Ashkerinnnh  (part  oil 
8pain,(i.Anauu(ia) 


fflSTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  I. 


Many  countries,  hitherto  unknown  aiid  barbaruus,  were  explored,  and  in  aome  dt^^ee 
civilized,  by  the  Moalem  arms.  Thune  on  tiie  Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes,  tho  Asiatic  Hcyllna  of 
tiifi  uncientt),  and  uccupieil  then  only  by  Nomutlir.  hordes,  were  covered  by  them  with  grea* 
and  tloiirii4liinff  cities.  Amon^  tlieso,  Sainarcand  became  atlcrwardM  the  capital  of  an  empire 
that  extendoti  over  half  of  Aaia.  At  the  opposite  extremity,  Mauritania,  which  had  been 
retrurdcd  by  the  Romans  as  almost  beyond  tlie  limits  of  tMXiial  existence,  became  u  flourishitiff 
kingdom,  and  possessed  in  Fez  an  eminent  school  of  learninif.  Even  beyond  the  limits  or 
the  iVlahomedan  world,  misHions  wore  sent  to  explore  the  remotest  limits  of  the  east  and 
west.  One  interesting  result  of  tliese  has  been  communicated  in  the  relation  of  two  Maho- 
medim  travellers,  Wahad  and  Abuzaid,  who  in  the  ninth  century  penetrated  into  China ;  and 
gave  a  description  of  that  country  ;  which,  though  only  recently  known  to  ns  by  the  transla- 
tion of  Renaudot,  must  have  been  the  earliest  ever  communicated  to  the  nations  of  the  west. 
From  Lisbon,  also,  the  brothers  Almu>.'rurim  sailed,  endeavouring  to  anticipate  tiie discoverieo 
of  Columbus,  by  exploring  unknown  couiitiios  Iteyimd  "  the  sea  of  darkness."  For  ten  or 
eleven  days  they  steered  westward ;  but  seeing  ii  storm  approaching,  the  light  feint,  and  the 
sea  tempestuous,  tiiey  dreaded  having  come  to  the  dark  boundaries  of  the  earth.  They  turned 
therefore  south,  sailed  twelve  days  in  that  direction,  and  came  fo  an  island,  which  they  called 
Ganiim,  or  the  island  oi'  birds ;  but  tlie  fleNli  of  these  birds  was  too  bitter  to  be  eaten.  They 
saiitHl  on  twelve  days  farther,  and  came  to  another  island,  the  king  of  which  assured  tJiem 
that  their  pursuit  was  vain :  that  his  father  had  sent  on  expedition  ror  the  same  purpose ;  but 
that,  after  a  month's  sail,  the  light  liiui  holly  tailed,  and  they  had  been  obliged  to  return.  The 
adventurers,  therefore,  made  their  way  back  to  tlie  coast  of  Africa,  which  they  reached  in 
three  days.  The  bearings  stuted  seem  to  point  out  Madeira  and  tlie  Canaries  as  tho  two 
islands  visited  in  this  expedition. 

In  regard  to  the  general  outline  of  tin*  eartii,  the  Arabs  seem  to  have  closely  adhered  to 
ancient  theories.  They  revived  the  eiirly  impression  of  an  ocean,  which,  like  a  zone,  encom- 
passed the  whole  earth.  This,  according  to  a  natural  feeling,  wos  characterized  as  the  "  Sea 
of  Darkness,"  an  appellation  most  usually  given  to  tho  Atlantic ;  but  the  northern  sea  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  inspiring  still  more  mysterious  and  gloomy  ideas,  is  c&lled  the  "  Sea  of 
pitchy  Darkness."  Edrisi  has  even  imagined  the  land  as  floating  in  the  sea,  and  only  part 
appearing  above,  like  an  egg  in  a  basin  of  water.  At  the  same  time  he  divides  it  into  seven 
seas,  fancifully  appropriated  to  the  seven  climates  into  which  the  earth  was  divided.  Ac 
cording  to  these  climates,  he  describes  the  earth  beginning  at  the  western  and  proceeding  to 
the  eastern  extremity ;  an  ill-judg^ed  arrangement,  wiiich,  by  a  mechanical  section,  separates 
portions  of  territory  the  most  intimately  connected.  The  knowledge  of  the  Arabs  was  sub- 
jected to  another  and  a  voluntary  limitation.  They  studiously  dcisted  from  all  inquiry 
respecting  those  blinded  nations,  whose  minds  had  never  been  illumined  by  the  light  of  the 
Koran.  Ibn  Haukal  even  makes  it  a  subject  of  glory,  that  he  had  found  nothing  worthy  of 
remark  among  nations  who  could  not  be  viewed  without  horror  by  men  who  had  any  innate 
principles  of  virtue,  wisdom,  or  religion.  These  views  of  the  subject  greatly  restricted  their 
means  of  knowledge  in  respect  to  Europe,  and  rendered  it  of  little  vali  ,  unless  with  regard 
to  those  two  continents,  which  their  arms  had  rendered  to  a  great  extent  Mahoroedan. 

Sect.  II. — Asia. 

The  Asia  of  the  Arabs  comprised  a  wider  range  than  had  belonged  to  that  continent  under 
any  former  system.  China  is  distinctly  marked,  partly  under  the  appellation  of  Seen,  and 
partly  under  that  of  Cathay ;  the  former  term  appearing  to  comprehend  India  beyond  tlie 
Ganges.  Lamery,  productive  in  camphor,  gold,  ivory,  and  dye-woods,  appears  by  these 
products  to  be  Sumatra,  and  mention  is  even  made  of  Al  Djavah.  The  countries  on  the 
Oxus  and  Jaxartes  having  become  the  seat  of  an  extended  Moslem  empire,  of  which  Samar- 
cand  was  the  capital,  Tartary,  both  eastern  and  western,  was,  for  the  first  time,  delineated 
with  tolerable  accuracy ;  many  of  the  leading  positions,  in  this  hitherto  inaccessible  part  of 
tho  continent,  were  even  fixed  by  astronomical  observation ;  and  some  positive  though  faint 
and  indistinct  notice  appears  to  have  been  received  resj)ecting  the  people  situated  along  the 
shores  of  the  Northern  Ocean.  Unfortunately  the  main  objects  of  curiosity  and  inquiry  were 
Gog  and  Magog.  The  authentic  application  of  these  names  has  been  observed  under  the 
Hebrew  system  as  belonging  to  a  devastating  race  from  the  shores  of  the  Euxine  and  Caspian. 
Oriental  fency  had  transformed  them  into  two  enormous  giants,  who  had  erected  an  impreg- 
nable castle  on  the  borders  of  Scythia.  The  efforts  made  by  the  court  of  Bagdad  in  pursuit 
of  this  chimera  ..  ere  very  extraordinary.  The  first  expedition  was  undertaken  with  the 
hope  of  finding  it  somewhere  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian ;  but  as  their  conquests  soon 
embraced  the  whole  of  that  region,  without  the  slightest  trace  of  this  tremendous  castle,  the 
more  southern  country  of  Bokhara  was  the  next  object  of  search.  When  that  also  had  been 
surveyed  in  vain,  the  court  was  involved  in  much  perplexity,  and  scp.rcely  .knev,'  to  what 
ulterior  region  their  view  was  to  he  directed.  At  length  one  of  the  caliphs  dispatched  a 
mission,  with  strict  injunctions  on  no  account  to  return  without  having  discovered  the  castle 
of  Gog.    The  envoys,  according  to  Edrisi's  report,  proceeded  first  along  the  shores  of  the 


Pa«t  I 

,  uid  in  some  Aegtee 
the  Asiatic  Hcytlna  of 
;(1  by  them  with  grea* 
le  capital  of  an  empire 
unia,  wliich  had  been 
,  became  ii  flouriHhitiff 
beyond  the  limits  oi 
imits  of  the  east  and 
relation  of  two  Maho- 
rated  into  China ;  and 
n  to  na  by  the  transla- 
o  nations  of  the  west, 
icipatc  the  discoveries 
irknesB."  For  ten  or 
he  lififht  faint,  and  tlie 
B  earth.  They  turned 
and,  which  they  called 
3r  to  be  eaten.  They 
r  which  assured  tJiem 
:he  same  purpose;  but 
)li{Ted  to  return.  The 
Inch  tliey  reached  in 
u  Canaries  as  the  two 

ve  closely  adhered  to 
h,  like  a  zone,  cncom- 
'ttcterized  as  the  "  Sea 
t  the  northern  sea  of 
8  c&lled  the  "  Sea  of 
Llie  sea,  and  only  part 
e  divides  it  into  seven 
rth  was  divided.  Ac 
em  and  proceeding  to 
lical  section,  separates 
]f  the  Arabs  was  sub- 
?ted  from  all  inquiry 
i  by  the  light  of  the 
nd  nothing  worthy  of 
who  had  any  innate 
reatly  restricted  their 
unless  with  reganl 
It  Mahoniedan. 


that  continent  under 
illation  of  Seen,  and 
id  India  beyond  tlie 

appears   by  these 

he  countries  on  the 

ire,  of  which  Samar- 

irst  time,  delineated 

inaccessible  part  of 

xjsitive  though  faint 

e  situated  along  the 

ity  and  inquiry  were 

observed  under  the 

Cuxine  and  Caspian. 

erected  an  impreg- 

f  Bagdad  in  pursuit 

idcrtaken  with  the 

leir  conquests  soon 

mendous  castle,  th«? 

I  that  also  had  been 

•ely  knev,'  to  what 

aliphs  dispatched  a 

scovored  the  castle 

the  shores  of  the 


ivk)k  rr. 


IN  EUROPE  DITRINO  TIIE  DARK  AGES. 


OS 


Ciispian,  then  through  a  vast  extent  of  (Icsort,  probably  the  country  of  the  Kirghinea,  when 
llii'y  nrrivod  nt  a  stupondouH  range  of  mountains,  which  muMt  have  been  the  Altai.  Mere 
tlit'v  ili<l  imtually  find  or  protend  to  find  something  which  they  concludetl  to  bo  the  castle  of 
(loiV  and  MugDg.  Perhaps  they  reachcil  some  of  tiiose  ancient  monuments  which  have  been 
toiiiiil  along  this  range,  and  gladly  embraced  this  pretext  to  rid  tliemselves  of  so  troublesome 
a  <i)miiiission.  The  picture  thoy  drew  of  it  was  certainly  very  highly  coloured,  according 
t<i  (JritMitiil  tn*te.  The  walls  were  of  iron  cementetl  with  brass,  and  a  gate  fifty  cubits  high 
was  secured  by  h  its  and  bars  of  enormous  magnitude.  The  ininds  of  the  Arabs  were  thus 
set  lit  rest,  and  in  all  the  future  delineations  of  Asia  this  mighty  castle  was  seen  towering  at 
it«  fiirthest  extremity. 

Sect.  HI. — Africa. 
In  regard  to  Africa,  the  wide-extended  settlements  of  the  Arabs  afforded  them  new  sources 
of  information.  The  Mediterranean  coast,  indeed,  aa  faras  Numidia,  had  been  fully  explored 
by  the  ancients,  and  had  even  formed  a  more  intimate  part  of  their  political  system  than  it 
liiw  (lone  of  that  of  the  moderns.  By  the  Arabs,  however,  who  had  established  hero  a  suc- 
cossion  of  kingdoms,  it  was  described  in  greater  detail  than  over ;  and  as  the  most  western 
of  these  kingdoms  was  the  flourishing  one  of  Morocco,  this  region,  comprising  the  nearly 
unknown  tracts  of  ancient  Mauritania,  formed  an  almost  entirely  new  acquisition  to  know- 
ledge. But  their  grandest  achievement  consisted  in  forming  a  road  across  thn  Great  Desert, 
and  in  colonising  a  considerable  part  of  the  central  regions  of  Africa.  They  here  founded  a 
series  of  powerful  kingdoms :  Ghana,  the  modern  Kano ;  Tocrur,  which  we  conceive  to  be 
Sackiitoo;  Kuku  and  Kauga,  which  recent  travellers  have  found  in  and  near  the  modem 
region  called  Bornou.  They  described  thoHo  countries  as  situated  on  the  Nile  of  the  Ne- 
groi?H,  which,  contrary  to  ancient  opinions,  tliey  represented  as  rising  indeed  from  the  same 
foinitain  with  the  Nile ;  but  as  flowinjf  westward  across  all  Africa,  and  falling  into  the 
Atlantic  ocean  or  sea  of  darkness.  At  its  mouth  they  placed  the  island  of  Ulil,  \vnence  salt 
was  conveyed  to  all  the  Negro  territories,  which  were  entirely  destitute  of  that  necessary 
of  life.  This  view  of  the  subject,  though  erroneous,  was  naturally  suggested  by  the  course 
of  thn  rivers  within  the  region  with  which  they  were  alone  intimately  acquainted ;  but  we 
reserve  this  dis-cussion  for  a  separate  chapter,  when  we  propose  to  give  a  succinct  view  of 
the  successive  Iheorics  respecting  this  great  Africiui  river.  We  shall  at  present  only 
observe,  that,  as  Tocrur  is  described  to  be  only  eighteen  days'  journey  from  the  ocean,  it  is 
plain  that  the  knowledge  of  the  Arabs  did  not  extend  toTombuctoo;  that  they  knew  nothing 
of  the  Senegal  or  Gambia,  or  the  countries  upon  these  ri/ers;  and  that  the  ocean  into  which 
they  rejirosented  the  Nile  of  the  Negroes  as  falling  was  either  a  hypothetical  feature  alto- 
gether, or  was  at  least  hypothetically  connected  with  all  that  they  knew  of  the  eastern  tracts 
of  interior  Africa. 


CHAPTER  II. 


EUROPEAN  GEOORAPIIY  DURINQ  THE  DARK  AGES. 

Even  the  imperfect  knowledge  possessed  by  the  ancient  geographers  became  involved  in 
the  general  progress  of  that  intellectual  darkness,  which  ensuecTon  the  decline  of  the  Roman 
empire.  Europe,  overwhelmed  with  a  deluge  of  barbarism,  no  longer  cultiyated  art  or 
science ;  and  the  rude  states  into  which  it  was  divided  had  only  a  vague  idea  of  each  other's 
situation.  The  atlvance  of  this  darkness  may  be  olwerved  in  an  anonymous  work,  published 
at  Rdvenna  in  the  eighth  century.  The  writer  presents  only  confused  fragments  of  the 
information  contained  in  Ptolemy  and  Pliny.  The  coast  of  India,  indeetl,  the  mercantile 
route  to  which  appears  to  have  been  kept  open,  is  still  delineated  with  some  denfree  of  cor- 
rectness. But  the  whole  interior  of  Asia,  from  China  to  Bactriana,  is  includetl  under  the 
name  of  "  Seric  India :"  the  Caspian  re-appears  as  a  gulf  of  the  Northern  Ocean ;  in  short, 
all  thcf  e  distant  regions  are  viewed,  in  the  manner  natural  to  ignorance,  as  a  dim  and  inde- 
finite expanse,  the  features  of  which  were  all  confusedly  blended  with  each  other. 

The  monasteries  during  the  dark  ages  aflTordod  an  asylum  for  all  that  remained  of  ancient 
knowledge ;  in  them  the  manuscripts  of  many  of  the  classic  writers  were  still  preserved, 
though  little  consulted.  The  reading  aloud  of  histories,  and  descriptions  of  neighbouring, 
and  even  of  distunt  countries,  formed  a  mode  of  beguiling  the  tedious  hours;  but  these  being 
recorded  under  the  title  of  "  Wonders  of  tlio  World,"  and  crowded  with  the  most  extrava- 
gant fables,  served  rattier  for  the  amusement  of  the  fire-side,  than  for  any  real  instruction. 

The  missions  und(  rtaken  for  the  conversion  of  the  northem  pagans  were  the  principal 
channel  by  which  any  geographical  knowledge  was  conveyed.  The  missionaries  did  not,  at 
this  time,  attempt  to  ')ass  the  limits  of  Europe ;  but  directed  their  efforts  trtwards  the  con- 
version of  the  Slavonic  tribes,  who  occupied  Poland,  Prussia  and  Livonia.  Other  appears 
even  to  have  penetrated  through  the  interior  of  Russia  to  the  White  Sea ;  he  undertook  also 
an  extensive  voyage  along  the  coasts  of  Norway.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Wilfrid,  named  by  the 
pope  the  apostle  of  the  Germans,  appears  to  have  been  the  person  who  transmitted  the  most 


HISTORY  OP  OEOORAPHY. 


Part  T 


ii 


fiill  cletniln  relative  to  Iho  Slavonic  triboa.  Ht.  Otto,  biMhop  of  Bambf>r^,  and  Aiiticuir<',  a 
nuiiik  ot'  (!ori>ic,  pnnotratod  to  the  kin((<loma  of  Hwn«li>n  and  Uoninark;  but  tho  (letinix  nf 
Uuiir  niiHtiion  havu  not  Imen  prowrvod.  Althoiiffh,  howuvor,  tlio  inonkn  thuH  did  H(iniitliiM(; 
to  ilhiHtriitu  the  |feo((raphy  of  Knrope,  tlxTu  in  t<ut)ici<<nt  evidence  tbat  thoy  lalHxintl,  in 
many  iiiHtiinccH,  undor  tlio  ^runtteHt  ifrnoranco;  Honin  of  tlivm  know  not  even  tlio  capital  of 
tlioir  own  country,  or  the  cttiew  neare«l  to  tbeir  own. 

The  i^reat  inotiarcliH  miulu  Home  etfortM  to  roMCUo  the  Vige  tVom  thin  Rtato  of  profound  igno- 
rance. The  two  illiititrioua  monarclm,  (Jharlemaf^ne  and  Alfrtnl,  diHtinifuinhed  thcniHt'lveH 
by  their  endeavours  to  promote  Koojfraphy :  the  former  couHtructod  a  Bilver  table  of  liir^re 
diinenHions,  on  which  was  delineated  the  whole  world  ho  far  as  known  to  him ;  unfortunately 
the  materials  were  too  contly,  and  tlie  silver  world  was  soon  rnelto«l  down  to  mipply  tlie 
necessities  of  one  of  its  kinyiloms.  Alfre*!  pnxluced  a  more  valuable  monument  in  a  (leM(ri|>- 
tion  of  the  north  of  Europe,  fVom  the  best  materials  which  could  bo  then  collected,  and  winch 
fbrms  still  the  best  rerf>nl  of  the  ptioji^raphical  knowledge  of  that  age.  Under  the  direction 
of  William  the  Contjuer  ir  was  drawn  up  that  important  document  railed  Doomsday  Btxik,  in 
whicn  the  ])opulation,  the  culture,  and  the  taxes  paid  by  each  district,  are  exhibited  in  the 
greatest  detail,  A  similar  survey  of  Denmark  was  made  in  the  thirteenth  century,  by  its 
dovereijfn  Waldemar  II.;  and  of  the  Mark  of  Brandenburg,',  in  the  fourteenth  century,  by  the 
emperor  Charles  IV. 

The  Danes  and  Norwogfians,  the  Northmen  as  they  were  calletl,  while  under  their  miffhty 
Bca-kin^  they  spread  desolation  over  the  maritime  districts  of  Europe,  necessarily  acquired 
a  very  extensive  knowledge  of  its  seas  and  coasts.  Huch  knowledge,  though  nowhere  formed 
into  any  regular  system,  may  be  traced  in  the  sjigas,  or  metrical  histories  in  which  they 
celebrate  the  gallant  exploits  of  their  countrymen.  They  were,  of  course,  familiar  with  nil 
the  countries  bordering  on  the  Baltic.  They  knew  by  conquest  Orkney,  Shetland,  the  He- 
brides, and  tht  western  coast  of  Ircliind.  Their  fleets  renchei  even  the  shores  of  Italy  and 
Sicily.  Towards  the  north,  they  established  colonies  in  Ice  und  and  Greenland.  But  tlio 
most  important  discovery  of  the  Northmen  was,  undoubtedly,  America,  if  their  claim  to  the 
merit  of  that  discovery  shall  ho  admitted  to  be  made  good.  In  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh 
century,  Thorwald  and  I^eif,  two  natives  of  Iceland,  having  sailed  fiir  to  the  south-west,  came 
to  a  country  which  appeared  to  them,  doubtless  by  comparison,  to  be  mild  and  agreeable ; 
the  natives  were  of  dwarfish  stature,  and  maintained  with  them  sometimes  a  hostile,  but 
oflener  a  friendly  intercourse.  Finding  that  the  rivers  alKiunded  with  fish,  and  tlmt  the  finest 
ftirs  could  be  procured,  they  and  their  countrymen  repeated  their  visits;  and  in  l-'ll,  Bishop 
Eric  is  said  to  have  roimired  thither  with  the  view  of  converting  the  natives.  The  name 
given  to  the  region  is  Vinland,  from  the  vines  growing  in  it;  a  feature  which  certainly 
occurs  to  us  as  very  foreign  to  this  |>art  of  the  world ;  but,  in  fact,  wild  vines  are  fiuin'' 
growing  in  all  the  most  northerly  districts  of  America.  It  is  highly  probable  that  the  conti- 
nent was  not  reached  by  the  Icelandic  adventurers,  and  that  Vinland  was  merely  a  southerly 
district  of  Greenland. 


CHAPTER  in. 
GEOGRAPHICAL  KNOWLEDGE  DERIVED  PROM  THE  CRUBADES. 

The  crusades  formed  a  series  of  events  which  roused  the  European  mind  from  its  local  am' 
limited  range,  and  directed  its  ken  into  the  regions  of  another  continent.  The  high-wroiighl 
enthusiasm  which  impelled  Europe  to  pour  itself,  as  it  were,  in  one  mass  on  the  eastijrn 
world,  however  blind  might  have  been  the  zeal  which  inspired  it,  was,  on  the  whole,  highly 
beneficial :  it  drove  back  the  tide  of  Saracen  and  Turkish  conquest,  which  might  have  swal- 
lowed up  the  whole  West,  and  involved  it  in  the  same  gloom  of  barbarism  and  superstiliun 
that  pervaded  the  E^ast.  Above  all,  the  crusades  had  a  powerful  influence  in  dispelling  the 
mental  darkness  in  which  the  western  regions  were  involved,  and  in  preparing  that  light  of 
science  and  intelligence  which  was  so  soon  to  dawn  upon  them.  The  attention  of  Europe 
was  thus  directed  to  these  interesting  and  memorable  regions,  known  hitherto  only  by  tlie 
meagre  report  of  some  occasional  pilgrims.  Not  only  the  Holy  Land,  with  the  kingdoms  of 
Jerusalem  and  Edessa,  founded  by  the  victorious  crusaders,  but  the  extensive  domains 
belonging  to  the  Saracen  and  Turkish  empires,  became  objects  of  inquiry ;  search  was  now 
made  in  the  writings  of  the  ancient  geographers,  and  perhaps  some  lights  were  derived  even 
fiom  the  Arabian  writers,  Sanudo  compiled  a  map  of  the  world,  annexed  to  Bongar's 
"  Gesta  Dei  per  Francos,"  (Jig^.  12.)  in  which  the  ideas  formed  out  of  the  crusading  expedi- 
tions are  fully  exemplified ;  Jerusalem  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  world,  as  the  point  to 
which  every  other  object  is  to  be  referred ;  the  earth  is  made  a  circle  surrounded  by  the 
ocean,  the  shores  of  which  are  represented  as  everywhere  nearly  equidistant  from  that 
spiritual  capital,  the  site  of  which  is,  indeed,  remarkable  for  its  rdation  to  the  three  conti- 
nents, Asia,  Europe,  and  Africa,  Persia  stands  in  its  proper  place ;  but  India,  under  the 
modifications  of  Greater  and  I^esser,  is  confusedly  repeated  at  different  points,  while  the 
river  Indus  is  mentioned  in  the  text  as  tlie  eastern  boundary  of  Asia.    To  the  north,  the 


Part  I. 

herg,  ami  AriHciiirts  a 
rk;  but  tho  ilcliiiU  dC 
(N  tliuH  dill  ■Miiiit'tliiri); 
liat  thuy  lulH)iiri'il,  m 
)l  even  the  capital  of 

tate  of  profound  ij,'iia- 
inffuished  tlicniMt.'lvdii 
I  silver  table  of  liir^o 

0  him ;  untbrtuimtoly 

1  down  to  Hupply  tlio 
lonutnent  in  a  dcscrii^- 
I  collected,  and  which 

Under  the  direction 
id  Doomwlay  Book,  in 
,  are  exhibited  in  tiie 
teonth  century,  by  its 
eonth  century,  by  the 

le  under  their  mifjlity 
necessarily  acriuirod 
oiipfh  nowhere  formed 
stories  in  which  tlu  y 
irse,  familiar  with  nil 
jy,  Shetland,  the  He- 
le  shores  of  Italy  niid 
Greenland.  But  tiie 
if  their  claim  to  tho 
nnirtp  of  the  eleventh 
the  south-weft,  came 
!  mild  and  agreeable; 
letimes  a  hostile,  but 
sh,  ond  tliiit  the  tiiiest 
:  and  in  I'Jll,  Biishop 
natives.  The  niiine 
;uro  which  certainly 
wild  vines  are  foun*' 
jbable  that  the  coiiti- 
18  merely  a  southerly 


\DES. 

nd  from  its  local  am' 

Tho  hi^'h-wrouirlU 

ma.s8  on  the  eastern 

in  the  whole,  liiphly 

:h  niipht  have  swal- 

sm  and  superstition 

ice  in  dispelling  the 

parinjsr  that  light  of 

attention  of  Europe 

litherto  only  by  the 

ith  the  kingdoms  of 

extensive  domains 

r ;  search  was  now 

were  derived  even 

liicxed  to  Bongur's 

crusading  expedi- 

irld,  as  the  point  to 

surrounded  by  the 

idistant  from   that 

to  the  three  conti- 

t  India,  under  the 

t  points,  while  the 

To  the  north,  tlie 


Book  TL 


KNOWIJSDTiE  PROM  THE  CRUBADEa 
lHf.  it-iANUDo-n  WAP  or  the  worlu. 


OecldfU 


castle  of  Gog  and  Magog,  an  Arabian  feature,  crowns  a  vast  range  of  mountains,  within 
which  It  is  said  that  the  Tartars  had  been  imprisoned  by  Alexander  the  Great.  The  Co*- 
plan  appears,  with  the  bordering  countries  of  Georgia,  Hyrcania,  and  Albania;  but  these 
features  stand  nearly  at  the  northern  boundary  of  the  habitable  earth.  Africa  has  a  sea  to 
the  south,  stated,  however,  to  be  inaccessible,  on  account  of  the  intensity  of  the  heat  The 
European  countries  stand  in  their  duo  place,  not  even  excepting  Russia  and  Scandinavia; 
though  some  oversights  are  observable  in  the  manner  >  'vhich  the  two  are  connected 
togetiier. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

TARTAR   GEOGRAPHY. 

The  revolutions  of  the  north  of  Asia  next  attracted  the  eyes  of  Europeans  to  the  distant 
quarters  of  the  world.  The  roaming  tenants  of  those  boundless  wilds,  known  under  tho 
ancient  name  of  Scythia,  and  the  modem  one  of  Tartary,  Imve  at  various  periods  conquered 
and  desolated  the  civilized  world  of  Asia,  The  offspring  of  Tartar  chiefs  sat  for  many  cen- 
turies on  the  thrones  of  Pekin,  of  Delhi,  of  Ispalian,  and  of  Constantinople :  but,  of  the 
Tartar  rulers,  none  ever  raised  so  terrible  a  name,  or  established  so  wide  an  empire,  a 
Gengis  or  Zinnia ;  originally  an  individual  chief  of  thei  Monguls,  he  attained  the  general  swa, 
over  that  warlike  race,  and  led  them  as  conquerors  from  empire  to  empire.  His  first  anl 
most  signal  exploit  was  the  conquest  of  China ;  having  thence  crossed  the  whole  breadth  of 
Asia,  he  died  on  the  shoresof  the  Caspian.  Hissuccessors  pressed  on  we8tward,overran  Russia, 
and  penetrated  through  Poland  into  Hungary  and  Silesia ;  their  approach,  their  rapid  move- 
ments, and  the  exaggerated  reports  of  their  ravages-,  struck  the  nations  of  Europe  with  inex- 
pressible terror ;  this  was  greatly  heightened  by  the  prevailing  ignorance  of  ijeography,  which 
was  such  that  none  knew  when  they  might  arrive,  or  where  Uiey  might  be  encountered.  The 

Vol.  I.  6*  I 


m 


mSTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  1. 


Danes  were  thus  deterred  one  season  even  from  going  to  the  herring-fishery,  on  the  coast  of 
Scotland.  The  Tartars  defei  ted  and  killed  the  Duke  of  Silesia ;  but  a  general  muster  of 
the  German  chivalry  being  n  ade  to  oppose  them,  they  retreated  into  the  mterior  of  Poland, 
and  even  further  to  the  east,  leaving  only  a  numerous  vanguard ;  but  it  was  suspected  that 
they  were  only  mustering  their  strength,  again  to  invade  Europe,  in  more  dreadfiil  and 
destructive  array. 

Embassy,  at  this  crisis,  was  deemed  the  expedient  most  likely  to  appease  the  fury  of  these 
dreaded  invaders.  According  to  the  ideas  of  the  age,  the  pope  appeared  the  most  respectable 
character,  in  whose  name  a  mission  could  be  undertaken,  and  monks  the  most  fitting  ambas- 
sadors. The  choice  was  injudicious:  these  envoys,  ignorant  of  the  political  relations  of 
countries,  of  the  usages  of  society,  and  the  mode  of  treating  with  mankind,  obtained  no 
respect  in  the  eyes  of  the  fierce  conquerors  of  Asia.  They  returned  without  fulfilling  any 
object  of  their  mission ;  and  if  Europe  was  not  again  exposed  to  this  barbarous  inundation,  it 
owed  its  safety  only  to  the  division  of  the  immense  empire  of  Kaptchak,  and  the  dissensions 
among  its  princes.  These  ambassadors,  however,  traversed  a  large  portion  of  the  continent, 
I'efore  unknown  to  Europeans,  One  mission,  indeed,  under  Ascelin,  which  met  the  Monguls 
on  the  frontier  of  Persia,  does  not  communicate  any  geographical  information;  but  the 
journey  of  Carpini,  and  after  him  of  Rubruquis,  (jSg-.  13.)  led  them  tlirough  the  north  of 


Fig.  13— MAP  OF  THE  JOURNEY  OF  RUBRUQUI& 


Russia,  along  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Caspian,  and  thence  into  the  very  heart 
of  the  immenae  plains  of  interior  Asia,  where  they  found  the  great  Tartar  capital  of  Kara- 
korum,  tlie  chief  seat  of  the  posterity  of  Zingis.  Here  the  masters  of  the  world,  while 
embassies  and  presents  were  waiting  them  from  all  the  courts  of  southern  Asia,  were  living 
in  the  rudest  Scythian  fashion,  feeding  scantily  on  horse-flesh  and  mares'  milk,  roving  about 
in  tents,  destitute  of  arts,  and  occupied  only  with  war  and  plunder.  The  Tartars,  however, 
treated  with  «  proud  disdain  all  other  nations,  over  whom  they  held  themselves  as  commis- 
sioned by  heaven  to  rule,  while  they  paid  the  most  abject  submission  to  their  own  Khan,  re- 
vering him  as  the  appointed  representative  of  the  deity  on  earth. 

Karakorum  was  found  scarcely  entitled  to  the  name  of  city,  being  little  larger  than  one 
of  the  suburbs  of  Paris,  and  its  most  sumptuous  edifices  scarcely  suitable  to  a  European 
country  town.  The  situation  of  this  capital  of  so  great  an  empire  has  been  a  subject  of  some 
controversy.  D'Anville  places  it  at  a  point  to  the  north  of  China,  near  the  eastern  limit  of 
the  great  desert  of  Shamo  or  Cobi,  while  Fischer  fixes  it  on  the  Orchon,  one  of  the  rivers 
which  unite  in  forming  the  Selingha.  I  have  elsewhere  endeavoured  to  show  (Discoveries 
in  Asia,  I.)  that  both  these  positions  must  be  about  a  thousand  miles  to  the  eastward  of  the 
real  site.  It  is  true  that  upwards  of  four  months  was  occupied  in  passing  from  the  western 
frontier  of  Russia  to  this  capital ;  and  the  missionaries  complain  of  the  grievous  rapidity  with 
which  they  were  conveyed.  They  estimate  the  daily  rate  as  ecjual  to  the  distance  from  Paris 
to  Orleans,  or  about  seventy  miles;  and  this  time  and  route  would  doubtless  he  sufficient  to 
carry  them  to  the  most  eastern  extremity  of  the  continent.  But  whenever  they  g  ve  us  the 
time  actually  employed  in  travelling  between  known  points,  a  rate  is  found  which  does  not 
even  approach  to  the  above.  Two  months  are  spent  by  Carpini  in  travelling  from  the  Dnieper 
to  the  Volga,  and  by  Rubruquis  from  the  Danube  to  the  Don,  "  riding  post  as  the  Tartars 
do ;"  yet  neither  of  these  spaces  exceeds  in  direct  distance  six  hundred  miles.  Then  from 
the  Volga  to  the  Ural,  which  may  be  two  hundred  and  fifly  miles,  we  have  twelve  days ; 
wiiile  the  journey  from  the  Ural  to  the  inland  sea  of  Balkash,  or  Palcati,  occupied  above 
forty-three  days.  Thus  down  to  that  point  it  required  four  months  to  travel  not  (|uite  eighteen 
liundred  miles.    From  the  Balkasli  to  Karakorum,  the  journey  was  performed  in  three  weeks. 


Part  1. 

Ishery,  on  the  coast  of 
it  a  general  muster  of 
the  interior  of  Poland, 
t  it  was  suspected  that 
in  more  dreadful  and 

lease  the  fury  of  these 
d  the  most  respectable 
he  most  fitting  ambas- 

political  relations  of 
mankind,  obtained  no 

without  fulfilling  any 
arbarouB  inundation,  it 
ik,  and  the  dissensions 
•rtion  of  the  continent, 
hich  met  the  Monguls 

information;   but  the 

through  the  north  of 


Book  II. 


VENETIAN  GEOGRAPHY. 


67 


U  it  possible  to  suppoee  that  they  could  in  that  time  have  travelled  fifteen  hundred  mnes,  the 
space  which  would  be  necessary  to  enable  them  to  reach  the  Karakorum  either  of  D'Anville 
or  of  Fisciier  1  They  could  not  have  passed  tlie  great  table  plain  of  Soongaria,  compared  by 
the  Oriental  histories  to  a  great  sea  of  verdure,  and  consequently  of  all  omers  the  best  fitted 
to  fbrrn  the  central  encampment  of  this  great  pastoral  and  military  empire.  All  the  geo- 
grapliical  indications  given  by  Rubruquis  agree  with  this  position ;  and  disagree  wholly  with 
the  other  two.  He  says  all  the  rivers  observed  by  him  flowed  to  the  westward,  which  is  true 
as  far  as  Soongaria,  but  directly  contrary  to  what  takes  place  in  the  other  positions,  both  of 
wliicii  are  even  placed  upon  rivers  that  flow  to  the  eastwaird.  China  is  said  to  lie  to  the 
soutli-east,  as  it  does  from  Soongaria ;  but  from  the  two  other  positions  it  would  be  directly 
south.  The  Kirghises  are  said  to  lie  to  the  north,  and  the  Baschkirs  to  the  west ;  but  these, 
according  to  the  ordinary  site,  would  have  been  at  a  distance  quite  immense,  and  could  have 
had  no  relations  with  Karakorum.  The  hypothesis  which  places  that  city  in  Mongolia  ii 
founded  upon  the  latter  having  been  the  original  seatof  Zmgis;  but  Rubruquis  expiessly 
states,  that  this  arrangement  had  now  ceased,  and  that  Tartaria  was  "  the  chief  and  royaJ 
city,"  Such  a  change  was,  indeed,  almost  necessary  to  an  empire  which  was  to  embrace  at 
once  the  East  and  the  West;  to  hold  China  in  one  hand,  and  Russia  in  the  other. 


no 


lao 


eo 


40 


100 

;e  into  the  very  heart 
artar  capital  of  Kara- 

of  the  world,  while 
?m  Asia,  were  living 
s'  milk,  roving  about 
he  Tartars,  however, 
lemselves  as  commis- 

their  own  Khan,  re- 

ittle  larger  than  one 

itable  to  a  European 

en  a  subject  of  some 

the  eastern  limit  of 

on,  one  of  the  rivers 

to  show  (Discoveries 

the  eastward  of  the 

i^  from  the  western 

rievous  rapidity  with 

!  distance  from  Paris 

)tles8  be  sufficient  to 

ver  they  g  ve  us  tlie 

3und  which  docs  not 

ig  from  the  Dnieper 

post  as  tlie  Tartars 

miles.    Then  from 

I  have  twelve  days; 

;ati,  occupied  above 

1  not  (|uitc  eijrliteen 

ned  in  tliree  weeks. 


CHAPTER  V. 

VENETIAN    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  republics  of  Italy,  and  above  all  that  of  Venice,  were  the  states  in  which  the  spirit  of 
commerce  and  inquiry,  after  being  long  dormant,  revived  with  the  most  brilliant  lustre. 
The  commerce  which  tiiey  carried  on  was  one  which  connected  them  with  tlie  most  distant 
regions :  they  traded  in  the  jewels,  the  spices,  and  the  fine  cloths  of  India,  a  country  situated 
at  a  distance  really  vast,  and  which  then  appeared  almost  iriimeasurable.  It  was  not  by 
Venetians,  however,  or  by  any  Europeans,  that  the  vast  intervening  space  was  traversed. 
They  found  the  Indian  commodities  in  the  ports  of  the  Mediterranean  or  the  Black  Sea,  to 
wliich  they  were  brought  by  the  Arabs  up  the  Red  Sea,  or  by  the  interior  caravans  across 
central  Asia.  It  was  impossible,  however,  that  they  could  see  these  precious  and  profitable 
commodities  continuing  to  enter  their  ports,  without  feeling  some  curiosity  as  to  the  splendid 
and  beautiful  regions  whence  they  came ;  and,  in  that  age  of  enterprise,  it  was  likely  that 
some  would  be  impelled  to  brave  even  the  obstacles  presented  by  this  vast  unknown  space, 
occupied  by  people  of  a  hostile  and  bigoted  fiiith.  The  Abbe  Zurla  has  collected  notices  of 
a  considerable  number  who,  actuated  by  this  spirit  of  discovery,  penetrated  to  a  considerable 
depth  into  the  interior  of  Asia.  But  the  fkme  of  all  these  is  eclipsed  by  one,  whose  travels 
extended  far  beyond  the  rest,  and  who  has  always  ranked  among  the  greatest  of  discoverers 
of  any  age. 

Marco  Polo  was  a  noble  Venetian,  whose  fiimily,  like  many  others  of  the  same  rank,  was 
engaged  in  extensive  commerce.  His  uncles,  Maffeo  and  Nicolo,  had  visited  Tartary,  and 
afterwards  China,  though  without  leaving  any  narrative  of  their  observations.  The  pope, 
however,  being  apprized  of  their  discoveries,  sent  out  an  ecclesiastical  mission,  accompanied 
by  the  young  Marco  Polo,  then  only  nineteen.  They  spent  twenty-four  years  in  traversing 
the  most  remote  regions  of  Asia.  The  result  of  their  religious  mission  is  not  stated ;  but  they 
returned  laden  with  precious  jewels,  with  which  they  dazzled  the  eyes  of  their  countrymen, 
by  whom  they  were  not  at  first  recognised.  Marco  being  afterwards  made  prisoner  by  the 
Genoese,  was  persuaded  to  amuse  the  hours  of  confinement  by  dictating  a  narrative  of  his 
travels,  which  was  read  with  avidity,  and  soon  translated  into  all  the  European  languages. 
He  has  suffered  like  many  other  eminent  travellers,  under  those  injurious  suspicions  which 
arise  in  the  minds  of  persons  unwilling  to  believe  any  event  or  object  which  goes  beyond 
the  sphere  of  their  ordinary  experience.  His  name  even  furnished  the  nickname  given  to  a 
personage  introduced  into  the  comedies  of  the  age,  to  recite  every  species  of  extravagant 
fable.  But  modern  information  has  verified  in  all  its  most  essential  points  the  narrative  of 
Marco  Polo,  leaving  only  a  slight  tincture  of  that  credulity  which  was  characteristic  of  the 
age,  and  is  confined  to  what  was  told  him  by  others  of  countries  which  he  did  not  himself 
visit.  He  appears  to  have  first  proceeded  along  the  northern  shore  of  Asia  Minor,  then  the 
seat  of  a  flourishing  Turkish  dynasty.  He  passed  through  Armenia,  along  the  lofty  ridges 
of  Ararat,  and  descending  the  Euphrates  through  Curdistan  came  to  Bagdad,  no  longer  the 
capital  of  the  caliphate,  but  still  a  flourishing  and  civilized  city  under  its  Tartar  conquerors. 
Ho  visited  the  great  commercial  capital  of  Ormuz,  and  thence  proceeded  eastward  trough 
the  southern  part  of  Persia  by  Herman  and  Kubbees,  across  the  great  salt  desert.  At  length 
he  reached  Balkh,  which,  though  still  a  considerable  emporium  of  central  Asia,  presented 
only  in  its  ruined  temples  and  spacious  squares  the  vestiges  of  its  ancient  grandeur.  Then 
passing  along  the  borders  of  Cashmire  nnd  the  mountain  tract  of  Bala8han(Badakshan),  cele- 
brated for  its  mines  of  rubies,  he  ascended  to  the  elevated  plain  of  Pamere,  forming  the  sum» 
mit  of  that  cross  branch  of  the  Himnialeh  culle<l  th«j  Bcloor.     On  this,  which  appeared  to  hira 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  I 


the  hiffhest  ground  in  the  world,  he  felt  that  difficulty  hi  respiration,  and  in  producing  com' 
bustion,  which  is  peculiar  to  the  most  elevated  mountain  sites.  He  atterwards  reached  the 
large  Tartar  cities  of  Yai-kund  and  Cashgar,  and  entered  on  that  great  eastern  table-luiid 
which,  before  and  since,  has  tbrmed  the  Terra  Incognita  of  Asia.  He  then  entered  Northern 
China,  which  he  calls  Cathay,  and  visited  its  capiUil  Cambalu,  his  description  of  which  strik- 
ingly coincides  with  thai  of  the  modem  Pekin.  He  afterwards  visited  Mangi  or  Southern 
China,  and  found  in  its  capital,  Quinsai,  a  scene  eclipsing  all  that  he  had  beheld  either  m 
Europe  or  in  tl^^  East  It  is  described  as  a  most  immense,  and,  firom  its  splendour  and  the 
beauty  of  its  i::ituation,  almost  a  magic  city.  In  fact  Hangtchoofbo,  which  corresponds  with 
Quinsai,  though  it  has  long  ceased  to  be  the  capital  of  China,  is  still  a  very  large  city,  very 
charmingly  situated.  From  China,  Marco  Polo  passed  through  the  Indian  Archipelago,  hear- 
ing only  of  Great  Java,  but  visituig  Sumatra,  which  he  calls  Little  Java.  He  touched  at 
the  coasts  both  of  Malabar  and  Coromandel,  and  learned  many  particulars  respecting  India 
and  its  people,  which  have  since  been  confirmed  by  modem  observation.  He  returned  by 
the  Red  Sea  to  Europe. 

A  map  of  the  world  on  a  large  scale,  {fig.  14.)  by  Fra  Mauro,  which  is  preserved  at  Venice, 
and  of  which  a  highly  finish^  copy  exists  in  the  British  Museum,  exhibits  a  view  of  the 
geographical  ideas  formed  by  the  Venetians,  fbunded  upon  the  information  derived  from  their 
Asiatic  travellers,  and  prior  to  the  discovery  of  America. 

Fig   14. — Map  of  the  Wobld  bt  Fra  Mauro. 


].  Barara 

5.  Charazan 

2.  Dafur 

&  Charaian 

3.  Fundan 

7.  Mihen 

4.  Marocbo 

8.  Mognan 

5.  Sieno 

9.  Bittchonn 

8.  Mechft 

0    Sclletoa 

7.  Thaai 

'.  1.  Candar 

a  Thate 

i  ^  Thrmchain 
S3.  Babilonia 

9.  SolunAir 

IC   Pelliicofidl 

84.  Mtnopotatnia 

i.  'Iiienega 

35.  Archa  Noe 

m.  liphilif 

3.  Doli 

SI7.  Armenia 

14.  Ava 

aa  Spaban 

SS.  Zanlavo 

30.  Here 

31.  Bal«b 
33.  Tiuigui 

33.  Chancay 

34.  Nangin 

35.  Quarau 

36.  Cambalu 

37.  Arcbanara 
3B.  Silan 

39.  Oirsf 

40.  Cbatajo 

41.  Bogenaeh 
48   Sepultura 


43.  Sepolcro  Uoearo 

44.  Bamargant 

45.  Nugra 

46.  Moachovia 

47.  Permia 

48.  Nuvogrado 

49.  Riga 

50.  Fraga. 

Rntrt.  Lakttt  tft^ 

a  Ualla 
b  Xitbe 
0  Avaai 
b  Abavi 


Nib 

Eufratei 

Tixria 

Indui 

Mandua 

Oangaa 

(luian 
.    Mare  Uraunto 
m  Amu 
"  Poiiiariuniii 

Mare  Biancba 


\ 


Edil 

Tanai 

Danubto. 


Part  L 


Book  in. 


MODERN  GEOGRAPHY. 


id  in  producing  com* 
erwards  readied  the 
it  eastern  tabie-luiid 
len  entered  Northern 
iption  of  which  strik- 
1  Mangi  or  Southern 
had  beheld  either  in 
ts  splendour  and  the 
ich  corresponds  with 
very  large  city,  very 
ui  Archipelago,  hear- 
iva.  He  touched  at 
lars  respecting  India 
on.    He  returned  by 

preserved  at  Venice, 
:hibits  a  view  of  the 
on  derived  from  their 


I.-,  I 


BOOK   III. 

MODERN    GEOGRAPHY. 


•.i>.  v.  .'.'kT 


Geography  was  now  to  assume  a  new  aspect,  and  worlds  before  unknown  were  to  be  com- 
prehended within  her  domain.  Although  the  Italian  states  produced,  almost  exclusively,  emi- 
nent astronomers,  skilfiil  pilots,  and  hardy  navigators,  their  attention  was  nearly  en^ossed 
by  land  conveyance,  and  the  navigation  of  the  interior  seas  of  Europe :  they  did  not  originate, 
or  even  attempt  to  follow  out,  any  trains  of  oceanic  discovery.  The  rulers  of  the  exterior 
coasts  of  Europe,  and  especially  of  the  Iberian  peninsula,  carried  off  all  the  prizes  in  this 
new  and  brilliant  career.  Between  1492  and  1498,  the  American  continent,  and  the  passage 
to  India  by  the  Cape,  were  discovered  by  Gama  and  Columbus :  the  face  of  the  world  was 
changed ;  and  all  the  daring  and  enterprising  spirits  of  the  age  embarked  in  this  career  of 
discovery,  conquest,  and  commerce. 


e  Nib 
f  GurratM 

ligrii 

Indiu 

MandiM 
j    Ganim 
k  Quian 
I    Mare  Braunto 
m  Ainu 
w    roiii«rivniil 

o  Mara  Biancba 
p  Edil 
q  Tanai 
r   Danubio. 


CHAPTER  L 

DISCOVERY  OP  AMERICA  AND  THE  EAST  INDIES. 

The  progress  of  discovery  over  the  globe,  when  the  first  steps  had  been  taken,  wa« 
astonishingly  rapid ;  no  cost,  no  peril,  deterred  even  private  adventurers  from  equipping 
fleets,  crossing  the  oceans,  and  facing  the  rage  of  savage  nations  in  the  remotest  extremities 
of  the  earth.  Columbus  had  not  yet  seen  the  American  continent,  and  the  month  of  the 
Orinoco,  when  Cabot,  of  Venetian  descent,  but  sailing  under  English  auspices,  discovered 
Newfoundland,  and  ''oasted  along  the  present  territory  of  the  United  States,  probably  as 
far  as  Virginia-.  In  the  next  two  or  three  years,  the  Cortereals,  a  daring  family  of  Portu- 
guese navigators,  began  the  long  and  vain  search  of  a  passage  round  the  north  of  America : 
they  sailed  along  the  coa^t  of  Labrador,  and  entered  the  spacious  inlet  of  Hudson's  Bay, 
which  they  seem  to  havp  mistaken  for  the  sea  between  Africa  and  America ;  but  two  of 
tliem  unhappily  perished.  In  1501,  Cabral,  destined  for  India,  struck  unexpectedly  on  the 
coast  of  Brazil,  which  he  claimed  for  Portugal.  Amerigo  Vespucci  had  saili  d  along  a  great 
part  of  Terra  Firma,  and  Guiana,  and  he  now  made  two  extensive  voyages  along  the  coast 
of  Brazil ;  services  which  obtained  for  him  the  high  honour  of  giving  his  name  to  the  whole 
continent  Grijalva  and  Ojeda  went  round  a  great  part  of  the  circuit  of  the  coasts  of  the 
gulf  of  Mexico.  In  1513,  Vunez  Balboa,  crossing  the  narrow  isthmus  of  Panama,  beheld  the 
boundless  expanse  of  the  Hacific  Ocean.  These  discoveries  afforded  the  impulse  which 
prompted  Cortez  and  Pizarro  u>  engage  in  their  adventurous  and  sanguinary  career ;  in  which, 
with  a  handful  of  daring  followers,  they  subverted  the  extensive  and  populous  empires  of 
Mexico  and  Peru.  Expeditions  were  .xxm  pushed  forward  on  one  side  to  Chili,  and  on  thp 
other  to  California,  and  the  regions  to  the  north.  Nearly  a  fiill  view  was  tlius  obtained,  both 
of  the  great  interior  breadth  of  America,  and  of  that  amazing  range  of  coast  which  it  pre- 
sents to  the  southern  ocean. 

In  the  EAstem  world,  the  domain  which  the  papal  grant  had  assigned  to  Portugal,  dis- 
covery was  alike  rapid.  Twenty  years  had  not  elapsed  from  the  landing  of  Vasco  da 
Gama,  when  Albuquerque,  Almeida,  Castro,  Sequeira,  Perez,  and  many  others,  as  navigators 
or  as  conquerors,  had  exploretl  all  the  coasts  of  Hindostan,  those  of  Eastern  Africa,  of  Ara- 
bia, of  Persia ;  had  penetrated  to  Malacca  and  the  Spice  Islands ;  learned  the  existence  of 
Slam  and  Pegu ;  and  even  attempted  to  enter  the  ports  of  China.  But  the  characteristic 
jealousy  of  that  power  was  soon  awakened :  the  Portuguese  embassy  was  not  admitted  into 
tlie  presence  of  the  emperor ;  and  a  mandate  was  issued,  that  none  of  the  men  with  long 
beards  and  large  eyes  should  enter  Ihe  havens  of  the  celestial  empii  e.  Af^er  all  these  dis- 
coveries, the  grand  achievement  yet  remained,  of  connecting  togeth  t  the  ranges  of  eastern 
and  western  discovery ;  and  of  laying  open  to  the  wondering  eyes  o(  mankind  that  structure 
of  the  globe,  which,  though  demonstrated  by  the  astronomer,  seemed  to  the  generality  of 
mankind  contrary  to  the  testimony  of  their  senses. 

Magellan,  in  1520,  undertook,  by  circumnavigating  the  earth,  to  solve  this  mighty  problem : 
he  passed  through  the  straits  which  bear  his  name,  and  crossed  the  entire  breadth  of  the 
Pacific.  He  himself  was  unhappily  killed  at  the  Philippine  Islands,  but  his  companions 
nailed  on,  and  presented  themselves  to  the  astonished  eyes  of  the  Portuguese  at  the  Moluc- 
cas. They  arrived  in  Europe,  after  a  voyage  of  three  years ;  and  it  could  no  longer  be 
doubted  by  the  most  sceptical  that  the  earth  was  a  spherical  body. 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  L 


CHAPTER  II. 

EARLY  SYSTEM  OF  MODERN  GEOGRAI'IIY. 

The  systematic  arrangement  of  the  immense  regions  thus  discovered,  their  adjustment  to 
each  other,  and  to  the  mass  of  knowledge  previously  possessed,  was  a  task  as  yet  beyond  the 
resources  of  modem  geography.  It  was  to  Venice  that  the  results  of  discovery  were  still 
referred  to  be  arranged  and  systematised ;  but  the  Venetian  geographers,  however  skilftil, 
laboured  under  r.iany  difficulties.  The  navigators  seldom  furnished  them  with  any  celestial 
observations,  or  even  accurate  surveys ;  for  which,  indeed,  science  had  as  yet  provided  no 
suitable  instruments :  they  gave  only  rude  delineations,  on  which  the  geographer  was  obliged 
to  trace  his  uncertain  way ;  most  of  the  countries  formerly  known  were  touched  at  new 
pomts,  and  recognised  under  new  names ;  and  the  continents,  being  made  to  contain  both  the 
old  and  the  new  features,  were  swelled  to  a  preposterous  ma^itude.  The  east  of  Asia 
was  obliged  to  contain  at  once  the  Serica  of  Ptolemy,  the  Mangi  and  Cathay  of  Marco  Polo, 
and  the  China  of  the  Portuguese,  all  as  separate  empires.  The  relative  site  of  the  two 
continents  of  Asia  and  America,  the  presentation  of  the  west  coast  of  the  one  to  the  east 
coast  of  the  other,  was  of  course  the  problem  which  they  had  the  fewest  means  of  solving. 
In  a  series  of  Venetian  maps,  preserved  in  the  king's  library,  the  two  continents  ore  de- 
scribed throughout  their  whole  extent  as  "either  united  or  separated  only  by  the  narrow  Strait 
of  Anian :  the  former  delineation  is  retained  even  in  a  map  by  Bertelli,  dated  1.571 ;  and  in 
one  by  Cimertinus  (1566),  Cathay  is  placed  upon  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  expedition 
of  Magellan,  it  might  be  supposed,  would  already  have  opened  their  eyes  to  the  extent  of  tluil 
vast  ocean  which  here  intervened :  but  Magellan  scarcely  penetrated  into  the  northern 
Pacific ;  and  his  ill-understood  course  was  probably  supposed  to  reach  direct  from  Cape 
Horn  to  the  Moluccas,  which  did  not  interfere  with  the  hypothesis  of  the  two  continents 
meeting  each  other  in  a  different  latitude.  The  breadth  of  America,  like  all  unknown 
spaces,  was  vastly  exaggerated  in  the  early  mapS ;  while  eastern  Asia,  by  the  process  above 
pointed  out,  was  tripled  in  all  dimensions,  and  thus  made  to  cover  an  ample  portion>of  the 
Pacific. 

Sebastian  Munster,  in  1572,  produced  a  delineation  of  the  world,  which  is  cleared  of 
some  of  the  grossest  mistakes,  and  which  very  tolerably  delineates  the  general  outline  of  the 
earth.  He  commits,  however,  a  very  discreditable  mistake,  in  taking  Ptolemy  for  his  guide 
in  regard  to  Scotland,  and  consequently  representing  that  country  as  extending  from  west  to 
east;  a  blunder  tlie  more  singular,  as  his  forms  of  Scandinavia  and  Ireland  are  liable  to  little 
exception.  Singular  flights  of  fancy  are  found  in  the  works  of  these  early  geographers. 
Munster  undertakes  to  describe,  not  only  the  surface  of  the  earth,  but  also  its  interior ;  this 
is  stated  to  be  occupied  by  hell,  a  huge  cavern  two  or  three  thousand  German  miles  in  length 
and  breadth,  and  "  capable  of  holding  many  millions  of  damned  souls."  Its  existence  was 
proved  by  the  spirits  which,  in  the  depth  of  mineral  caverns,  as  he  had  been  assured  by  Cor- 
nelius Agrippa,  often  killed  instantly  a  great  number  of  men.  The  inflammatory  gases, 
which  are  still  frequently  producing  such  disasters,  afford  certainly  no  unplausible  ground 
for  that  strange  conclusion. 

Ortelius,  -in  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century,  exhibits  a  remarkable  im- 
provement in  geography.  In  his  maps,  all  the  parts  of  the  globe  begin  to  assume  their  real 
form  and  dimensions ;  America  and  Asia  are  widely  separated,  the  expanse  of  the  South  Sea 
interposing  between  them.  The  south  pole  is  invested  with  a  Terra  Australis  Incognita ; 
which,  as  it  relates  to  New  Holland,  is  said  to  rest  on  the  authority  of  Marco  Polo  and  Bar- 
thema,  and  in  reganl  to  the  West,  on  that  of  Magellan.  Terra  del  Fucfro  is  made  a  por- 
tion oi^  this  Austral  contin«>'it:  while  in  lat.  41°  S.,  and  long.  10°  westof  Ferro,  is  Promnn- 
torium  Terra  Australis.  There  is  a  Terra  Septentrionalis  Incognita,  nearly  as  extensive, 
and  seeming  to  include  Nova  Zembla.  Greenland,  however,  exists  distinct  from  it.  In  the 
interior  of  Asia,  the  Caspian,  under  the  appellation  of  Mer  de  R^ohu,  presents  the  same  form 
and  dimensions  as  in  Ptolemy,  and  receives  all  the  rivers  falliUfT  really  into  the  Aral,  the 
existence  of  vvhich  seems  not  to  be  suspected  by  this  geographer. 

Mercator  advanced  considerably  farther,  particularly  by  showing  the  imperfections  vif 
Ptolemy,  and  the  injudicious  manner  in  which  the  delineations  given  by  him  had  been  mixed 
with  those  furnished  by  modern  authority.  Mercator  retains  the  Austral  continent,  includ- 
ing in  it  Terra  del  Fuego.  The  lakes  of  Canada  appear  for  the  first  time  in  his  maps,  as  a 
sea  of  fresh  water,  the  termination  of  which  is  unknown.  In  Africa,  Abyssinia,  enormously 
amplified,  is  made  the  principal  and  almost  sole  feature;  it  extends  southvvanl  to  the  vicinity 
of  the  Cape,  comprehending  Mosambique,  and  bordering  on  Caffraria:  the  Nile  rises  only 
about  ten  degrees  north  of  the  Cape,  and  consequently  traverses  all  Africa  from  south  to  north. 
With  respt'ct  to  the  extreme  northern  regions,  this  very  learned  man  has  indulged  in  some 
extraordinary  flights  of  imagination.  The  oceon  resumes,  aa  in  Homer,  the  character  of  a 
river,  and  is  seen  rushing  by  four  mouths  into  the  Polar  Gulf,  to  be  absorbed,  ii  is  said,  into 
the  bowels  of  tiie  earth.     On  one  of  the  river  branchcB  are  placed  pigmies,  scarcely  four 


Part  L 


d,  their  adjustment  to 
ask  as  yet  beyond  the 
r  discovery  were  still 
lers,  however  skilfiil, 
3m  with  any  celestial 
id  as  yet  provided  no 
sographer  was  obliged 
vere  touched  at  new 
de  to  contain  both  the 

e.  The  east  of  Asia 
Cathay  of  Marco  Polo, 
ative  site  of  the  two 
>f  the  one  to  the  east 
est  means  of  solving, 
ivo  continents  ore  de- 
r  by  the  narrow  Strait 
i,  dated  1571 ;  and  in 
ico.  The  expedition 
s  to  the  extent  of  thai 
ed  into  the  northern 
ch  direct  from  Cupe 
if  the  two  continents 
;a,  like  all  unknown 

by  the  process  above 
ample  portion«of  the 

which  is  cleared  of 
general  outline  of  the 
Ptolemy  for  his  guide 
ttending  from  west  to 
md  are  liable  to  little 

early  geographers, 
ilso  its  interior :  this 
rman  miles  in  length 
Its  existence  was 
been  assured  by  Cor- 
inflammatory  gases, 

unplausible  ground 

a  remarkable  im- 
to  assume  their  real 
iise  of  the  South  Sea 
ustralis  Incognita ; 
farco  Polo  and  Bnr- 
Siefro  is  made  a  por- 
>f  Ferro,  is  Promon- 
nearly  as  extensive, 
net  from  it.  In  the 
seius  the  same  form 

into  the  Aral,  the 

imperfections  „f 
lim  hud  been  mixed 
1  continent,  includ- 
le  in  his  maps,  as  a 
j'ssinia,  enormously 
^vnrd  to  the  vicinity 
le  Nile  rises  only 
rom  south  to  north, 
indulged  in  some 
the  character  of  a 
5ed,  ii  is  said,  into 
nies,  scarcely  four 


Book  III. 


MODERN  ASTRONOMICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


71 


feet  high ;  a  notion  suggested,  perhaps,  by  the  diminutive  stature  of  the  Laplanders  and  Sa- 
moyedes :  on  another  is  placed  a  sort  of  northern  paradise,  while  the  Poie  iteell.,  %  black  and 
immense  rock,  towers  to  a  prodigious  height. 

From  the  time  of  Mercator  modern  geogiaphy  made  rapid  and  continued  progress,  till  it 
attained  the  state  approaching  towards  perfection,  in  which  it  now  exists:  tliia  will  api>ear, 
when  we  consider  it  as  astronomical,  critical,  or  statistical ;  and  when  we  view  it  in  its  rela 
tion  to  the  diflerent  quarters  of  the  globe. 


CHAPTER  m. 

MODERN  ASTRONOMICAL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  astronomical  geography  of  the  Greeks  rested  on  a  basis  exceedingly  narrow.  It  was 
only  at  Alexandria,  Syene,  Rhodes,  and  a  few  other  leading  pomts,  that  observations  of  lati- 
tude appear  to  have  been  made  witJi  a  tolerable  approach  to  accuracy ;  all  the  others  seem  to 
have  been  only  extended  from  rude  itineraries.  With  regard  to  the  longitudes,  although  the 
mode  of  calculating  them  by  means  of  eclipses  appears  to  have  been  understood,  only  one  or 
two  actual  observations  of  this  nature  are  recorded ;  nor  does  it  seem  to  have  exerted  any 
iinportant  influence  on  geography  in  general.  The  Arabs  made  much  greater  progress  in 
this  department;  but,  through  the  separation  produced  by  religious  antipathy,  their  works 
were  scarcely  at  all  known  in  Europe  at  the  period  of  the  revival  of  letters.  At  that  time, 
the  pompous  display  of  latitudes  and  longitudes  made  by  Ptolemy,  venerable  as  it  had  become 
from  its  antiquity,  commanded  universal  assent. 

Modem  observations  have  gradually  shown  the  magnitude  of  Ptolemy's  errors.  The  first 
great  shock  to  his  authority  was  »riven  by  the  latitude  of  Constantuiople,  which  Amurath  III. 
caused  to  be  taken  in  1574,  when  it  proved  to  be  two  degrees  lower  than  ancient  authorities 
had  assigned :  the  idea  of  such  a  difference,  however,  was  treated  with  derision  by  some 
European  geographers,  till  it  was  confirmed,  in  1638,  by  Greaves,  who  had  been  sent  to  tiie 
East  by  Archbishop  Laud.  Even  then,  many,  rather  than  renounce  the  authority  of  Ptoleniy , 
believed  that  a  change  had  taken  place  in  the  position  of  the  earth ;  but  this  notion  became 
no  longer  tenable  to  any  extent  when  Alexandria  and  other  points  were  found  very  nearly 
to  coincide  with  ancient  observation.  But  the  great  alarm  as  to  the  unsoundness  of  ancient 
graduation  was  given  in  1635,  when  M.  de  Peiresc  caused  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  to  be 
observed  at  Marseilles  and  at  Aleppo ;  and  the  difference  of  longitude,  instead  of  45°  as  it 
had  been  represented,  was  found  to  be  only  about  30° :  such  an  enormous  error,  in  a  dimen- 
sion which  ought  of  all  others  to  have  been  most  exactly  ascertained,  shook  altogether  the 
blind  confidence  hitherto  reposed  in  the  longitudes  of  Ptolemy.  It  was  at  last  perceived, 
that  an  entire  reform  of  his  graduations  must  be  effected,  befbre  geography  could  rest  on  any 
secure  basis.  Numerous  observations  upon  eclipses  now  began  to  be  made ;  but  it  was  then 
discovered,  that  this  only  known  mode  of  ascertaining  the  longitude  was  attended  with  many 
imperfections.  In  the  observation  of  fifly-six  eclipses,  collected  by  Ricciolus,  there  were 
no  two,  observed  in  tho  same'  two  places  by  the  same  men,  which  exhibited  the  same  quantity 
of  longitude :  even  the  same  eclipse  gave  different  results,  when  observed  at  its  four  critical 
periods.  As  it  was  found  impossible  to  guard  against  errors  amounting  even  to  three  or 
four  degrees,  an  opinion  became  prevalent,  in  the  middle  ofthe  seventeenth  century,  that  unless 
for  very  great  distances,  even  itinerary  measures  would  give  the  result  with  greater  accu- 
racy ;  yet  Galileo,  in  1610,  had  already  pointed  out  a  source  of  more  accurate  knowledge : 
he  had  in  that  year  discovered  three  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  and  i'l  his  Nuncius  Sidereus, 
pointed  out  the  use  to  which  they  might  be  applied.  As  his  hhi'  •  did  not  meet  with  the 
attention  they  merited,  he  •'ommunicated  them  more  fully,  in  16^1,  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain  ; 
but  that  bigoted  prince  was  :,iiable  to  estimate  their  importance.  Galileo  met  with  a  more 
favourable  reception  from  the  Dutch,  who  sent  Hortensius  and  Bleau  to  Florence,  to  commu- 
nicate with  him  on  the  subject.  They  found  that  great  man  involved  in  the  storm  of 
persecution  which  the  ignorant  bigotry  of  the  Romish  church  had  raised  against  \Am :  he 
was  thrown  into  prison;  and,  afler  ha%;  i  -isked  pardon  on  his  knees,  for  asserting  that  the 
earth  moved  round  the  sun,  obtained  only  a  mitigation  of  1  's  confinement.  This  discovery 
was  therefore  of  little  use  till  1668,  when  Cassini  publishec^  i.^  tables  of  the  revolut'  .  iid 
elipsos  of  these  satellites  ;  and  three  years  afterwards,  he  and  Picard  made  joint  obse:  ■:  .ns 
ai  Paris,  and  in  the  observatories  of  Tycho  Brahe  at  Copenhagen,  by  which  the  lon^ rude 
of  these  two  important  points,  which  had  been  the  subject  of  long  controversy,  was  fiually 
fixed. 

The  French  government  now  took  the  most  active  measures  for  extending  geographical 
observation.  Two  academicians,  Picard  and  De  la  Hire,  were  employed  to  constnict  a  nmv 
map  of  France  upon  astronomical  principles.  In  this  operation  they  almost  everywhere 
reduced  the  previous  dimensions,  whicli  had  been  founded  upon  itinerary  measures,  and  were 
liable  to  their  usual  excess :  they  took  off  a  whole  degree  from  the  we'^tern  coast  between 
Britany  and  Gascony,  and  half  a  degree  from  the  coasts  of  liaiiguedoc  and  Provence ;  so  that 


72 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY 


Part  L 


on  dioir  return,  Louis  XiV.  facetiously  reproaxiheti  them  witli  having  robbed  him  of  a  part 
of  his  jwingi'.om.  Other  ^  «.  xdemicians  wore  employed  to  determine  the  lonffitude  of  Goree 
on  ttie  coast  of  AiVica,  ami  :f  Guadaloupe  and  Martinico  in  tho  West  Indies ;  and  M,  Cha- 
ze'ib?  was  sent  up  the  Levimt  on  a  similar  mission.  Expeditions  on  a  much  grander  scale 
V  .irw  dispatched,  under  Muupertuis  to  the  Arctic  circle,  and  Condamine  to  the  e<{uator 
'i":w  ;■;  lixwry  object  of  these  was  to  determine  the  figure  of  the  earth  by  the  application  of 
I  pii  Juluni ;  but  the  opportunity  was  taken  of  making  various  observations  of  longitude 
aii'i  l.titude,  in  regions  which  hr:d  been  formerly  delineated  oii'j  Ly  procesiiefc!  of  the  most 
vague  description. 

lathe  OIK  ration  of  detft'/'ining  the  position  of  places  on  !fi<>  ylAtie,  impcrtant  ^rprovc- 
niciits  have  been  made  sin  vo  the  above  eras.  Altliough  there  <:»»  be  n .  more  accurate  .iixle 
of  (leteimining  the  longitui'O,  than  by  the  eclipses  of  Jupite.v'n  batL-llites,  thuse  ma  t.  *oo 
imfrnquent  occurrence  to  aii-'tver  the  practical  purposes  required.  Obser'  .-i  ioph  '  'iho  tri  is  « 
ol'  Mercury  and  Verus  over  the  sun,  of  the  Ov  cultatu  i  s  of  fh  irxed  KUis,  o;a  of  vv'i;',;  nie 
culled  lunar  distances;  proce^Hes,  the  natvre  of  which  will  be  fully  explained  in  the  Ibliowing 
book,  have  been  employed  wiiti  success.  N.iy,  to  such  ;>erfectici.'  have  chpinome'ers  been 
brourht,  that,  by  showmg  the  il'fTerence  oi  tiv)*;  between  known  and  unknown  points,  they 
serve  many  of  the  ordinary  purptisec  of  naviirat  in.  The  voyages  undertaken  by  Caot.  Ciwk, 
under  the  aufapices  of  George  III.,  ullbrded  the  inoans  not  only  of  exploring  man;'  i&'i.udy  »;  id 
reyions  of  the  Pacific  and  Polar  seas,  but  of  Unowing  uricli  lif:-'!.  upon  the  geuerul  atiucture 
of  the  earth.  The  expeditions  of  Capt,  Parry,  vavl  tht  iiauli<;al  Bnrveys  executed  nidi  r  the 
direction  of  the  British  g;overnment  ^y  Flinders,  King,  OwcTi,  and  ollior  oj'  '  rs,  hiuc  jone 
fiir  lo  fix  the  outlines  ot  the  great  continents.  The  tri'Tondoetrical  ourvevn  </  France  and 
Engliuii?,  erocutfld  witiun  the  last  tiiirty  years,  hnve  nlmcsi  complei;;d  the  delineation  of 
ihosrt  cou.fiJrifis,    Still  Hub  branch  of  (geography  nmains  very  imperfect. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

MODERN  CRITICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

Tas;  application  of  a  sound  criticism  to  geographical  matnrials  cannot  be  discerned  in  the 
mat;  Mid  infant  atagos  of  the  science.  There  is  no  branch  in  which  the  inquirer  is  so  likely 
to  be  misled  by  false  and  fabulous  rumours.  The  persons  irom  whom  he  must  draw  his 
infiwiiiation, — the  navigator,  the  merchant,  the  traveller, — make  observations  oflen  only  in  a 
ronffh  and  super,*icial  manner,  and  are  swayed  in  their  reports  by  ihncy  or  vanity.  The  rcsultH 
of  if!,  ir  own  observation,  or  the  authentic  relations  of  well-infonnerl  persons,  are  confounded 
with  tiie  most  vapue  rumours  which  float  among  the  vulgar.  Hence  almost  all  the  early 
systemt!  have  a  portion  of  truth,  mingled  with  many  ideal  and  fabulouo  creations.  The  human 
mind  uiuvillingly  owns  its  ignorance  even  to  itself.  The  geographer  was  reluctant  to  stop 
short  at  the  point  where  his  euthentic  information  ceased.  Having  to  delineate  a  kinf  lom 
or  a  continest,  he  filled  up  the  really  unknown  parts 'from  vague  rumour,  or  a  fanciful  pro- 
longation of  those  that  were  known.  Whatever  object  had  once  found  a  place  was  copied 
mechanically  without  any  inquiry,  until  modem  maps  and  descriptions  became  crowded  with 
objects,  for  the  position  of  which  no  reason  could  be  assigned.  . 

Strabo,  among  the  ancient  geographers,  was  alone  endowed  with  a  critical  spirit :  but  not 
having  a  suificientiy  ample  stock  of  materials,  he  exercised  his  jud{j|7nent  with  a  blind  severity, 
which  appears  to  have  done  injustice  to  several  individuals  whose  exertions  in  the  infant 
cause  of  discovery  were  highly  meritorious.  This  extreme  of  scepticism,  opposite  to  that 
of  credulity,  has  indeed  thrown  unjustly  into  shade  the  merits  of  some  of  the  most  emi^  ont 
discoverers,  both  ancient  and  modern.  It  ip  only  by  the  collation  of  numerous  authoiities, 
atcnmulateid  by  time  and  extended  intercourse,  that  the  just  medium  can  be  observed,  and 
an  equitable  sentence  prorwunced  on  tlie  reports  of  each  party. 

D'Anville,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  possessed  of  ample  materials,  endued  with  indefa- 
tigable patience  and  sound  judgm-int,  undertook  to  revise  the  whole  system,  upon  wliicli  the 
world  and  its  regions  had  been  hitherto  delineated.  The  mans  of  the  age  were  still  covered 
with  many  obsolete  and  many  fanciful  particulars;  and  large  p;  'ora  of  the  world,  con- 
cerning which  absolutely  nothing  was  known,  were  filled  with  itm  '  ;•  tv  cities  and  countries. 
D'Anville  subjected  every  geographical  feature  to  the  strictt 
without  mercy  those  which  rested  on  no  positive  and  actual  a> 
his  hands,  assumed  a  new.  and  in  some  respects,  a  less  f  r*Tir 
before  been  amply  and  '  ularly  covered,  now  exhibited  v 
amid  the  boasted  learn'         '  this  age,  implied  a  mortifyiii .    oi  n 


■     •  .'t^ion,  and    expunared 

..    .    .     The  world,  under 

;;ect.     Maps,  whicii  iiad 

unseemly  blanks,  whici' 

.-iiion  of  ignorance.     It  was 


impossible,  however,    <    ^.ly,  that  this  was  the  sound    .y  ^r  .1  upon  which  to  proceed 

Geography  rested  at  la^st  upon  sure  bases, and  proceeded  in  a  se-  ■lir  courseof  imnr-t Tnent. 

Major  Rcnnell,  with  a  skill  and  sagacity  not  inferior  to  >'  i'  of  i  •'Anville,  arranged  and 

illu8trr,ed  the  mass  of  important  materials  collected  respecting  livi     .  d  Africa ;  and,  thou^rh 


Book  IIL 


MODERN  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


robbed  him  of  a  part 
lie  lonp^itude  of  Goree 

Indies ;  and  M.  Clia^ 
I  much  grander  scale 
mine  to  the  equator 

by  the  appHcation  of 
ervations  of  longitude 
prooiffiPt;  of  the  moBl 

«,  important  ^mprovc- 
:  more  accurate  ..iixle 
iites,  thiise  tiu^  t.  *oo 
r' ."•.(  \oPfl '  "tho  tri  1SX8 
avs,  0';d  of  Vv'i;'.'.  ase 
lined  in  tht  Ibllowing 
e  chronometers  beon 
unknown  points,  tliey 
rtaken  by  Cait.  C«x>k, 
■ing  many  i&'i.uda  oid 
the  geaeril  stiucture 
8  executed  uiidi  r  the 
^r  of:  '  rs,  })nve  ^'one 
irvevs  .-,  Franco  and 
■d  the  delineation  of 


it  be  discerned  in  the 
!  inquirer  is  so  likely 
1  he  must  draw  his 
itions  often  only  in  a 
■vanity.  The  results 
sons,  are  confounded 
almost  all  the  early 
Ettions.  The  human 
i^as  reluctant  to  stop 
lelineate  a  kinp lom 
ir,  or  a  fanciful  pro- 
a  place  was  copied 
icame  crowded  with 

* 

;ical  spirit :  but  not 
th  a  blind  severity, 
tions  in  the  infknt 
im,  opposite  to  that 
the  most  emi  ont 
nerous  authoiities, 
n  be  observed,  and 

idued  with  indefe- 
m,  upon  wiiich  the 
were  still  covered 
of  the  world,  con- 
ties  and  countries. 
n,  and  expunnrnd 
The  world,  imdor 
Maps,  which  liad 
ily  blanks,  whicl' 
norance.  It  was 
'hich  to  proceed 
of  imnrr  ( ■•ment. 
lie,  arranged  and 
Hca ;  and,  though 


A 


additional  contributions  of  vast  importance  have  in  some  degree  superseded  his  actual  delinea* 
tioii,  his  example  has  introduced  a  still  greater  precision  into  the  mode  of  treating  the  subject. 
The  comparison  of  ancient  and  modern  geography,  and  the  tracing  of  the  infant  steps  of 
early  diacovery,  constitute  an  interesting  field  of  inquiry,  which  has  been  much  cultivated 
during  the  present  age.  Vossius,  Bochart,  and  other  learned  scholaraofthe  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, iiad  exercised  much  diligence  in  these  researches ,  but  they  were  not  always  guided 
by  the  soundest  judgment,  nor  were  they  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  objects  actually 
cxibting,  to  be  able  to  recognise  them  under  the  early  descriptions.  Rennell,  Vincent,  and 
Mannert,  seemed  to  have  carried  this  research  nearly  as  far  as  it  can  go,  though  without 
being  able  to  dispel  that  impenetrable  darkness  in  which  some  questions  are  still  involved. 
GortJtdin  hns  applied  to  the  science  an  extent  of  investigation,  oi.-'.  a  critical  acumen,  which, 
porhaprf,  none  of  his  predecessors  have  equalled ;  but  animated  by  too  Strabonic  a  spirit,  and 
seeking  to  subvert  all  the  bases  on  which  ancient  geography  had  before  rested,  he  has  in 
many  instances  rather  g>'  en  lustre  to  bold  and  ingenious  paradoxes,  than  made  solid  addi- 
tiona  to  the  science.  ^^^^^^^ 

CHAPTER  V. 

MODERN  DESCRIPTIVE  AND  STATISTICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  mere  outline  of  the  globe,  its  continents  and  countries,  the  leading  features  of  moun- 
tains, rivers,  ani  cities,  their  distance  and  position  with  respect  to  each  otlier,  constitute  all 
thiit  in  the  very  strictest  sense  can  be  called  geography.  But  the  mind  cannot  pass  these  in 
review,  without  feeling  its  interest  excited,  in  even  a  superior  degree,  by  other  objects,  for 
wiiich  these  only  serve  as  the  basis.  The  productions  of  the  earth,  whether  natural  or  arti- 
ficial ;  the  treasures  hid  in  its  bosom ;  the  animals  which  roam  or  are  bred  on  its  surface ; 
above  all,  the  men  by  whom  each  region  is  peopled, — their  manners,  laws,  industry,  com- 
merce, the  revolutions  through  which  they  have  passed, — these  possess  the  strongest  claim 
on  our  attention,  and  are  of  an  importance  superior  to  that  of  the  mere  geometrical  outline. 

The  ancients  did  not  occupy  themselves  with  much  more  than  the  simple  and  fundamental 
bases  of  the  science.  The  delineation  of  these  formed  alone  an  arduous  task,  which  the 
geojjrapher  was  required  to  accomplish  before  he  could  attend  to  tiie  accessary  and  orna- 
montiil  parts.  Eratosthenes  does  not  appear  to  have  extended  his  research  beyond  those 
brandies  which  were  connected  with  astronomy.  The  work  of  Ptolemy  fonns  a  mere  naked 
tabular  list  of  positions,  rarely  enlivened  by  any  historical  or  descriptive  notices.  Pliny  does 
not  go  much  farther.  Strabo  alone  has  enriched  his  work  with  numerous  anecdotes  and  de- 
scriptions which,  though  not  given  on  any  complete  or  systematic  principle,  constitute  a 
great  portion  of  its  value. 

Rarly  modern  writers  confined  themselves,  like  the  ancient  geographers,  to  mere  outlines. 
All  the  first  treatises  were  formed  on  the  model  of  Ptolemy;  D'Anville,  the  head  of  the 
French  school,  applied  himself  solely  to  the  boundaries  and  positions  of  countries,  which  he 
fixed  with  a  precision  before  unknown,  but  without  directing  much  attention  to  their  physical 
and  social  relations. 

Statistics,  the  science  which  treats  of  kingdoms  and  states  in  their  relations  of  population, 
wealth,  productions,  commerce,  and  public  force,  is,  as  a  separate  branch  of  knowledge,  only 
of  recent  orijrin.  '^rom  the  first  it  had  a  natural  alliance  with  geography.  Busching  may 
be  jansidered  as  the  father  of  statistical  geography:  his  vast  research,  strict  fidelity,  and 
access  to  the  best  sources,  enabled  him,  in  his  description  of  Europe,  to  assemble  a  mass  of 
intbrination  unequalled  by  any  of  his  predecessors.  He  has  arranged  it,  however,  nearly  in 
tlie  same  mechanical  manner  in  which  they  had  drawn  the  mathematical  outlines  of  the 
globe.  His  writings,  instead  of  conveying  to  the  mind  striking  general  Views,  are  loaded 
with  minute  and  burdensome  details,  which  can  be  usefiil  only  as  matter  of  reference,  and 
would  tlierefore  have  most  properly  appeared  in  the  form  of  a  dictionary.  His  successors  have 
been  numerous,  and  their  labours  are  oi  similar  character  and  value.  Bnms,  with  regard  to 
Africa,  a  1  Ebeliiio-  to  As  continued  the  series.  The  great  geographical  work  recently 
coiiiplcii .  )\'  H&iiol,  Oannabich,  Gaspari,  and  Gutsmuth,  in  twenty-five  octavo  volumes,  each 
eqnit^  *o  three  or  four  of  ordinary  size,  comprises,  probably,  the  largest  mass  of  statistical 
ir;  '  iiation  ever  assemblea  i  to  one  work. 

I'he  English  compilations  of  Bowen,  C  thrit;,  Salmon,  and  others  of  the  same  school  were, 
pi'.haiis,  the  first  works  which  embraced  ;early  all  the  objects  that  can  give  interest  to  a 
system  of  geography ;  and  though  indifferently  executed,  and  devoid  of  any  charms  of  style, 
they  acquired  a  very  extensive  popularity.  Mr.  Pinkerton  has  executed  a  work  on  the  same 
plan,  in  a  superior  manner,  adding  notices  of  the  different  branches  of  natural  history,  and 
of  tho  difibiCnt  languages  of  nations.  M.  Malte-Brun,  by  his  acquaintance  with  the  euSteMi 
ami  northern  literature  of  Europe,  and  by  an  animated  and  interesting  style,  has  produced  a 
work  in  some  respects  superior.  M.  Balbi  has  distinguished  himself  by  the  industry  wit* 
W'lich  he  has  collected  geographical  facts. 

Wc  '■'•  "  .now  take  a  view  of  modem  discovery  in  the  remoter  quarters  of  the  globe. 
\>-..i.  7  K 


7t^ 


HISTORY  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  I. 


CHAPTER  VI.  .    ' 

MODfjRN  GEOORAPHY  OF  ASIA. 

Asia  was  the  first  continent  which  attracted  the  attention  of  Europeans,  and  the  jonmevH 
of  all  the  enrly  travellers.  The  enterprise  of  the  Venetians  penetrated  into  some  of  the 
wide  and  perilous  tracts  of  its  interior,  which  the  boldest  of  more  modem  travellers  have  in 
vain  essayed  to  reach.  Since  the  pasaage  of  the  Cape,  the  career  of  discovery  has  been 
chiefly  maritime.  We  have  seen  how  rapidly  the  Portuguese  fleets  explored  all  the  south- 
em  coasts  and  islands.  The  eastern  shores  beyond  Japan,  as  they  presented  nothing  tenipt- 
■ng  to  commercial  avidity,  were  left  to  be  examined  by  expeditions  having  science  and  curi- 
osity for  their  object.  This  task  was  efl'ected  by  Cook,  Perouse,  Broughton,  and  Krusenstern. 
Jesso,  which  hadf  figured  as  a  large  continental  tract,  stretching  between  Asia  and  America, 
was  reduced  by  them  to  its  insular  form  and  dimensions,  and  its  separation  from  Saghulicn 
established ;  the  range  of  the  Kurile  islands  was  also  traced ;  but  some  questions  respecting 
this  very  remote  ancfirregular  coast  remain  yet  to  be  solved.  Along  its  northern  boundary, 
beset  by  the  almost  perpetual  ices  of  the  polar  sea,  the  progress  of  navigation  was  slow  and 
laborious.  The  English  and  Dutch,  the  chief  maritime  states,  made  extraordinary  efforts 
and  braved  fearful  disasters,  in  the  hopeless  attempt  to  eflect  by  this  route  a  nearer  ptusHoge 
♦o  India ;  but  though  they  penetrated  beyond  Nova  Zcmbla,  they  never  could  pass  the  formi- 
dable promontory  of  Severovostochnoi,  the  most  northern  point  of  the  Asiatic  continent.  The 
Russians  now  claimed  for  themselves  the  task  of  advancing  farther.  Theyliad  most  rapidly 
discovered,  and  conquered  the  whole  south  and  centre  of  Siberia,  and  reached  the  eastern 
ocean  at  Ochotzk ;  but  the  ft-ozen  bounds  of  the  north  for  some  time  defied  their  investiga- 
tion. Proceeding  in  little  barks,  however,  they  worked  their  way  from  promontory  to  pro- 
montory. Behring  and  Tchirikoff",  early  in  the  last  century,  sailed  through  the  Northern 
Pacific,  discovered  the  American  coast,  and  the  straits,  bearing  the  name  of  the  former,  which 
divide  Asia  from  America.  Deschnew  and  Shalaurof,  by  rounding  the  Asiatic  side  of  this 
Cape,  and  discovering  the  coast  stretching  away  to  the  westward,  were  supposed  to  have  es- 
tablished the  fact  of  the  entire  separation  of  the  two  continents.  There  still  remained  a 
portion  of  coast  on  the  side  of  Asia,  which,  it  was  alleged,  might,  by  an  immense  circuit, 
have  connected  the  two  together ;  but  the  late  voyage  of  Baron  Wrangle  seems  to  have  re- 
moved every  ground  on  which  such  conjecture  could  rest,  and  to  have  established  beyond 
doubt  or  dispute,  the  existence  of  Asia  and  America  as  continents  altogether  distinct. 

Respecting  the  interior  of  Asia,  the  British  obtained  much  additional  information  from 
India,  after  they  became  undisputed  masters  of  that  region.  This  information  was  in  many 
respects  only  a  revival  of  ancient  knowledge.  The  mountain  boundary  of  India  was  traced, 
and  found  to  rise  to  a  height  before  unsuspected.  The  sources  and  early  courses  of  the 
Ganges  and  the  Indus,  were  found  in  quarters  quite  different  from  those  which  modarn 
geography  had  long  assigned  to  them.  The  mountain  territories  of  Cabul  and  Candahar, 
the  vast  sandy  plains  of  Mekran,  were  illustrated  by  the  missions  of  Elphinstone  and  Pottin- 
gcr ;  while  Turner  and  Moorcroft  penetrated  into  the  high  interior  table-land  of  Tliibet 
Recent  and  authentic  information  has  also  been  fiimished  by  Burnes  respecting  Bochara  and 
Samarcand,  those  celebrated  capitals  of  the  early  masters  of  Asia:  but  there  remains  still  a 
great  central  Terra  Incognita,  respecting  which  our  information  rests  chiefly  upon  the  desul- 
tory and  somewhat  clouded  reports  of  Marco  Polo,  and  the  meagre  narrative  of  Goez;  though 
some  important  and  more  precise  information  has  recently  been  aflTorded  by  the  researches  of 
Ixumboldt  and  Klaproth. 


CHAPTER  Vn. 

MODERN  GEOGRAPHY  OF  AFRICA. 

Africa,  more  than  any  other  quarter  of  the  globe,  has  defied  the  research,  and  humbled  the 
pride,  of  modern  inquiry.  After  accurate  surveys  had  been  made  of  the  remotest  oceans  and 
shores,  this  continent,  placed  almost  in  view  of  Europe,  still  baffled  every  attempt  to  pene- 
trate the  mighty  secrets  which  it  held  in  its  bosom.  This  vast  and  unbroken  region  enclosed 
by  huge  expanses  of  desert,  and  occupied  by  barbarous  and  predatory  tribes,  for  a  long 
period  proved  fatal  to  every  daring  mortal  who  attempted  to  penetrate  into  its  depths.  Tiie 
Portuguese,  however,  at  an  early  period,  made  very  extraordinary  exertions,  impelled  by  the 
odd  chimera  of  Prester  John,  a  Christian  prince,  whom  they  expected  lO  find  in  the  interior. 
With  this  view  they  explored  Abyssinia,  of  which  they  vastly  exaggerated  tV  e  dimensions, 
making  it  extend  even  to  the  Cape,  in  the  vicinity  of  which,  according  to  their  idea,  the 
Nile  took  its  origin.  In  their  progress  also  along  the  western  coast,  the;,'  »  nt  repeated  em 
bassies  into  the  interior,  to  discover,  if  possible,  the  abode  of  Prester  Johii ;  and  though  thai 
favourite  object  always  eluded  their  search,  they  annnnr  to  have  reached  < .;  one  occasion  as 
%r  as  Timbuctoo,  and  learned  at  Benin  some  particulirs  respecting  the  ^reat  interior  king 
dom  of  Ogaue  or  Ghana. 


Book  ITT. 


MODERN  GEOGRAPHY  OP  AFRICA. 


;eat  interior  king 


The  great  interior  river  called  by  Ptolemy  the  Niger,  was  tlie  object  whicli  from  the  first 
excited  the  chief  interest  in  respect  to  the  African  interior.  All  the  eurly  European  navi- 
gators, on  coming  to  the  two  broad  estuaries  of  the  Senegal  and  Gambia,  concluded  that  one 
or  both  tbrme<l  the  termination  of  the  long  course  which  the  Ni^er  had  been  described  aa 
taking  across  the  entire  breadth  of  Africa.  For  several  centuries  the  European  nations, 
intent  only  on  the  trade  in  slaves,  merely  touched  at  ditferent  points  of  the  roast,  to  which  ' 
those  unhappy  victims  were  brought  down  by  large  caravans.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  however,  the  French  and  English  having  respectively  settled  on  the 
Senegal  and  Gambia,  were  tempted,  by  the  report  and  view  of  the  gold  brought  from  the 
interior,  to  push  up  these  rivers  and  endeavour  to  reach  Timbuctoo.  They  had  not  ascended 
for,  when  they  became  sensible  that  the  extraordinary  magnitude  and  distant  origin  ascribed 
to  both  was  altogether  chimerical.  They  were  traced  so  near  to  their  sources  as  to  be 
little  more  than  rivulets ;  yet  still  the  explorers  were  fiir  from  Timbuctoo,  and  from  the 
great  central  plain,  through  which  the  main  course  of  the  Nigev  was  understood  to  liow. 
At  the  same  time,  notices  were  transmitted  to  the  French  geographers  Delisle  and  D'Anvillo, 
which  led  them  to  infer  that  there  was  in  that  region  another  and  greater  river,  which 
flowed  eastward  towards  the  interior,  and  of  which  they  were  unable  to  learn  the  termina- 
tion. Yet  this  delineation  of  tliese  great  geographers  had  been  in  a  great  measure  lost 
sight  of,  even  among  their  own  countrymen. 

The  information  obtained  by  the  African  Association  at  first  tended  to  confirm  this  impres- 
sion.  The  persons  who  had  crossed  the  Ni^er  at  the  most  eastern  part  of  the  central  Afri- 
can plain,  described  it  to  Mr.  Lucas  as  flowing  westward :  but  these  conflicting  statornonts 
were  silenced  by  the  first  expedition  of  Mr.  Park,  who  at  Sego  beheld  it  a  broad  and  iniijos- 
tic  stream,  flowing  through  the  plain  of  Bambarra  from  west  to  east,  and  directing  its  course 
into  tlie  depths  of  interior  Africa.  From  that  time,  the  termination  of  the  Niger  becaine 
the  grand  problem  which  the  science  and  the  enterprise  of  the  age  were  exerted  to  so)v«. 
A  boundless  field  was  open  to  conjecture.  By  one  theory,  the  Niger  was  lost  in  some  grout 
inland  seas  or  lakes  of  the  interior ;  by  another,  it  bent  to  the  south  and  west,  and  roiiched 
the  Atlantic  either  in  the  Gulf  of  Benin,  or  by  the  estuary  of  the  Congo;  lastly,  it  rolle<l  to 
the  eastward,  till,  under  the  name  of  the  Abiad,  or  White  River,  it  became  the  princii>al 
head  of  the  Nile  of  Egypt.  At  last,  by  the  persevering  exertions  of  the  British  govern- 
ment, an  expedition  fairly  succeeded  in  penetrating  into  the  hitherto  unknown  interior  of 
Africa,  and  in  throwing  a  wonderful  addition  of  light  upon  its  structure.  This  mission,  how- 
ever, broke  up  the  grand  question.  They  discovered,  flowing  through  the  r  reat  Afrinin 
plain,  not  one  river  in  one  direction,  but  several  in  diflTerent  directions;  aii  ■,?  which,  it 
appears,  have  been  considered  at  different  times,  ai:u  under  different  circumstances,  as  the 
Niger.    These  rivers  are  four : — 1.  The  Senegal,  considered  by  the  Arabians  and  r  a 

Europeans  as  the  embouchure  by  which  the  Ni^er  entered  the  ocean.    2.  The  Joliba  h 

ever  since  it  was  visited,  and  its  course  ascertained,  by  Park,  has  oeen  fixed  in  the  mind  of 
Europeans  as  the  only  Niger ;  though  probably  not  known  to  any  of  the  ancient  geographers 
who  used  that  term.  3.  The  Quarrama,  or  river  of  Zirmie,  first  discovered  by  tlie  late 
mission,  flowing  from  east  to  west,  and  falling  into  the  Joliba  or  Quolla.  This  is  evidently 
the  Arabian  Nile  of  the  negroes,  on  or  near  which  are  sitnatefd  all  their  great  cities — Ghana, 
now  known  under  the  name  of  Cano ;  Berissa,  under  that  of  Bershee ;  Tocrur,  as  I  appre- 
hend, under  that  of  Sackatoo.  4.  The  Yeou,  flowing  eastward  into  the  great  lake  of  Bornou, 
and  which  appears  to  have  been  the  western  Nile  of  Herodotus,  visited  by  the  Na.sanionian 
adventurers  from  Tripoli.  The  mission  also  ascertained  the  site  of  the  kingdom  of  Bornou, 
which  had  been  very  erroneously  placed ;  they  discovered  the  fertile  kingdom  of  lA)ggiin, 
perhaps  the  Cauga  of  Edrisi,  and  the  great  mountain  region  of  Mandara,  which  appears-  to 
be  the  Mons  Mandrus  of  Ptolemy.  The  subsequent  expedition  of  Clapn  i  ^  -m  the 
(julfof  Benin  showed  the  connexion  between  the  Atlantic  coast  and  the  intt.  ..  ,r,l  com- 
pleted the  diagonal  section  made  across  the  greatest  breadth  of  the  African  continent.  It 
showed  also  the  continuity  of  large  and  ])opulous  kingdoms  extending  in  this  direction : 
Ejco,  the  Gago  of  Leo  .ana  the  early  geographers;  Zegzeg,  with  its  large  capital  Zaria; 
Nyffe,  the  most  industrious  of  the  African  states;  Boussa,  Koolfu,  and  other  flourishing 
cities.  The  Niger  of  Park  was  here  seen  holding  a  southerly  direction  towards  tlie  Gnlf 
of  Benin ;  but  it  was  reserved  for  Lander  finally  to  solve  the  g^and  problem  by  tracing  the 
Niger  down  to  its  termina*"in  in  the  Gulf  of  Benin.  This  discovery,  with  that  of  its  numor- 
ous  tributari  s,  .lens  to  commerce  the  prospect  of  being  able  to  penetrate  into  the  most 
interior  a  ,  t,  regions  of  the  African  continent. 

Among  y  ual  but  important  contributions  to  the  knowledge  6f  Africa,  may  be  mentioned 
the  observations  of  Bruce  and  Salt  in  Abyssinia;  those  of  Brown  in  Darfur ;  of  Waddington 
and  Caillaud  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Nile ;  and,  lastly,  of  Lichtenstein,  Campaell,  and 
Biirehali,  iipun  the  countries  which  lie  in  the  interior  northward  from  the  Cape  of  Gtwjd 
Hope.  Yet  a  vast  field  still  remains  for  future  discovery.  In  particular,  all  the  southern 
interior,  f  <  -^  the  equator  nearly  to  the  Cape,  has  sc;:rcely  been  the  subject  even  of  rumour. 
The  source    of  the  Nile,  afl«r  the  search  of  so  many  ages,  are  yet  unexplored ;  as  well  as 


76 


HISTORY  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  L 


I'  I 


Uiat  wide  nnge  of  territory  which  intervene!  between  it  and  the  leries  of  riven  which  we 
hfivo  i\iHt  noticed  an  aiwiiniinif  thn  naniu  of  Ni((er.  Tho  continuity  und  structuru  alno  of 
that  vast  chain  of  niountainn,  wiiich,  acconiin^f  to  recent  travellers,  appears  to  cross  A*rica 
at  i\M  ^reatct«t  hreadtlu  and  givea  rise  to  ao  many  mighty  Htreama,h&ve  yet  by  numeana  been 
eoiiipletoly  traced.  -      ■ 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
MOr^F.aN  GEOORAPHY  OP  AMERICA. 


The  discovery  of  Ai  ,.<  ■  '«^ii  \h  formerly  observed,  was  made  in  the  first  instance  with 
extraordinary  i  >;  I'ji.y.  T  o  '  urst  foi-  gold  and  the  spirit  of  advonturo  urgnd  nation  afler 
nation  to  explore  tts  coasts,  and  jienetrate  its  interior.  Within  twenty  years  was  farmed 
a  tiill  and  tol' "(.''ly  precise  outline  of  the  whole  eastern  coast,  fVoni  the  mouth  of  Hudson's 
Biiy  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  The  conquest  of  Cortez,  of  Pizarro,  and  of  their  im- 
mediate successors,  soon  loiiveyed  a  pretty  accurate  idea  of  the  western  coast  of  South 
Aiii»'rica,  of  Mexico,  and  even  of  the  peninsula  of  California.  But  tlie  northern  regionw, 
stretching  into  the  ices  of  the  Pole,  prc«"MtPf»  '  "rriers  of  a  formidable  description,  which 
lonjif  Itmed  the  utmost  efforts  of  v^  ..  .o.  /iirtoric  on  this  side  resisted  for  a  longer 
timo  tho  attempts  to  complete  its  delineation  than  any  other  continent. 

To  explore  the  north-western  coast  seems  to  havo  been  an  undertaking  properly  belong. 
in<if  to  Spain,  the  possessor  of  all  the  vast  and  opulent  regions  which  extend  along  Ui  ■ 
Piif'ilic.  Recent  notices  have  shown  that  tliey  did  not  neglect  that  inquiry,  for  Cortez  and 
•evral  of  the  other  viceroys  sent  expeditions  along  this  coa^t,  to  which  they  gave  the  name 
of  /.cw-Mexico.  Tho  Spaniards,  however,  as  usual,  shrouded  in  deep  mystery  even  these 
lip'itod  discoveries,  and  were  long  able  to  prevent  the  other  nations  of  Europe  from  visiting 
tine  coast,  the  most  remote  and  inaccessible  of  any  in  the  circuit  of  the  globe.  Europeans, 
tlierofore,  were  not  aware  of  the  vast  breadth  to  which  tlm  continent  expanded  towanls  llio 
north.  They  rather  supposed  that,  like  South  America,  it  narrowed  to  a  point  or  capf, 
upon  passing  which  the  navigator  would  enter  upon  the  expanse  of  the  Pacihc,  and  might 
bear  down  upon  Japan,  China,  and  the  East  Indies.  Tlie  commercial  nations  therefore, 
mude  vigorous  and  almost  ceaseless  efforts  to  turn  this  point,  and  effect,  as  they  imagined,  a 
nearer  and  more  direct  route  into  the  ex  stern  seas. 

Tho  English  took  the  lead  in  this  important  career.  Under  the  T'  ■  m  of  Queen  I] 
both,  Frobisher  and  Davis  made  each  three  successive  voyages.  ->ne  discovc  I'd  tiie 
entrance  mto  Hudson's  Bay,  tho  other  found  the  entrance  into  the  great  sea  which  bears 
the  name  of  Baffin's  Bay;  but,  partly  arrested  by  the  well  known  obstructions  to  which 
tliese  seas  are  liable,  partly  diverted  by  a  chimerical  search  afler  gold,  they  could  not  pene- 
trate beyond  the  numerous  islands  and  inlets  by  which  these  entrances  are  beset  Hudson, 
in  1610,  steered  a  bolder  course,  and  entered  the  vast  bay,  which  has  received  its  ap|M>lla- 
tion  from  that  great  navigator,  who  there  unfortunately  terminated  his  adventurous  career. 
Tlie  treachery  of  a  ferocious  and  mutinous  crew  exposed  him  on  tliese  frozen  and  desolate 
shores,  where  he  miserably  pf  li-thed.  Sir  Thomas  Button  followed  in  1612,  and  finding 
himself  in  the  middle  of  this  capacious  basin,  imagined  himself  already  in  the  Pacific,  and 
stood  full  sail  to  the  westward.  To  his  itter  dismov  he  came  to  the  long  continuous  line 
of  shorn  which  forM  Lhe  wp'  'em  boun.  y  of  Hudpoii's  Bay.  He  expressed  his  disappoint- 
ment by  giving  to  the  coast  the  name  oi  '  Hope  checked."  Bylot  and  Baffin,  who  followed 
throe  years  afler,  were  stopped  by  the  ice  at  Southampton  Island.  Baffin,  however,  made 
aflorwards  a  more  important  voyage,  in  which  he  completely  roundefl  the  shores  of  tiiat 

frreat  sea  which  bear  !.  :■  uame,  and  whi:b,  appearing  'o  iiim  to  be  inclosed  on  all  sides  by 
and,  has  been  denomin-ited  Baffin's  Bay.  The  error  involved  in  this  appellation  deterred 
subse(|uent  navigators  from  any  further  attemnt;  for  Baffin,  in  .ussing  the  great  opening 
of  liiiiicaster  sound,  had  concluded  it  to  be  merely  a  gulf.  From  th j'  period  the  English 
navigators,  though  they  ceased  not  t  ■  view  iiis  object  with  ardour,  hoped  to  fulfil  it  only  by 
the  cliannel  of  Hudson  s  Bay.    In  V    ',  two  vessels  were  sent  thither  under  Fox  and  James. 

utli  rn  bays,  returned  afler  dreadful  sufferings  from 
1 1',  qu  intly  calling  himself  North-west  Fox,  explored  a 
Thomas  Roe's  Welcome,  which  appeared  now  to  afford 
almost  the  only  hope  of  a  passage ;  'jut  he  stopped  short  at  a  point  which  he  termed  "  Fox's 
farthest."  Under  Charles  II.  a  company  was  formed  for  tho  purpose  of  settlement  and 
coiniiierce  in  Hudson's  Bay,  and  engaged  to  make  tlie  most  strenuous  exertions  to  discover 
western  passage ;  but  it  is  believed  that  the  only  exertions  really  made  by  the  Company 
ended  lo  prevent  any  such  discovery.  Middleton,  an  officer  in  their  service,  was  sent  out 
in  1741,  sailed  up  the  Welcome,  and  believed  himself  to  have  discovered  that  the  head  of 
tluit  channel  was  completely  closed.  He  was  strongly  charged  with  having  received  a  high 
bribe  from  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  to  stifle  the  discovery,  and  Moor  and  Smith  wei'> 
seul  out  in  tlie  followuig  year  with  tlie  most  sanguine  hopes ;  but  when  they  returned  with 


Bay.    In  V 
The  latter,  entangled  in  some  of   n 
the;  cold  of  the  winter ;  but  the  fo. 
part  of  that  great  opei.ing  called  Si 


Part  L 

ries  of  riven  which  wa 

y  and  atructuro  alno  of 

appears  to  croM  A*Vic« 

Lve  yet  by  no  means  been 


Book  III.     I 


TIIE  AUSTRAL  SEAS  AND  ISLANDS. 


T» 


expectutions  wero  ffreatiy  abatflo.     It  became  the 
'le,  funned  a  inaiM  uf  unbroken  land,  and  ttmi  the 


the  first  instance  with 
iture  urgod  nation  ailer 
wenty  years  was  firmed 
I  the  mouth  of  Huiison's 
zarro,  and  of  their  im- 

weHtem  coast  of  South 
t  Uie  northern  regionH, 
lable  description,  which 
ide  resisted  for  a  longer 
>nt. 

rtaking  properly  belong- 
'hich  extend  along  Uu' 
I  inquiry,  for  Cortez  and 
lich  they  gave  the  name 
leap  mystery  even  these 

of  Europe  from  visiting 

the  globe.  Europeans, 
nt  expanded  towanis  the 
>wed  to  a  point  or  capp, 
'  the  Pacihc,  iind  mifjlit 
jrcial  nations  therefore, 
^ect,  as  they  imagined,  a 

r»  '-m  of  Queen  K     •. 

One  discovt  i  I'd  tiie 

great  sea  which  bears 

obstructions  to  which 

Id,  they  could  not  pene- 

:eB  arc  beset     Hudson, 

is  received  its  ap|n'lla- 

his  adventurous  career. 

;se  frozen  and  desolate 

1  in  1612,  and  finding 

ladv  in  the  Pacific,  and 

e  long  continuous  line 

xprcssed  his  disappoint- 

nd  BafTin,  who  followed 

Baffin,  however,  made 

idf'd  the  shores  of  tiiat 

inclosed  on  all  sides  iiy 

lis  appellation  deterred 

ing  the  great  opening 

period  the  English 

oped  to  fulfil  it  only  by 

under  Fox  and  James. 

readful  sufferings  from 

th-west  Fox,  explored  a 

appeared  now  to  afford 

hich  he  termed  "  Fox's 

)ose  of  settlement  and 

s  exertions  to  di.scover 

mode  by  the  Company 

service,  was  sent  out 

vered  that  the  head  of 

havmg  received  a  high 

VIooi  and  Smith  werfl 

en  they  returned  with 


out  having  eflfected  any  tiling,  the  puM 

ffeneral  impression  that  America,  on  Ui 
ong  sought  passage  had  no  existence. 

New  views  of  the  extent  and  llirm  w  lie  nortliem  extremities  of  America  were  opened 
by  the  diHcoveries  of  Cook,  corroborated  by  those  of  some  other  English  navigators  in  tlie 
Northern  Pacific.  It  appeared  that  America  there  stretche<i  away  to  the  north-west,  till  it 
reached  a  breadth  equal  to  one-fourth  part  of  the  circumference  of  the  globe.  Cook  pene- 
trated, indeed,  through  the  strait  which  bounds  the  continent  and  separates  it  fVom  Asia ;  but 
the  coast  appeared  there  extending  indefinitely  north ;  and  it  became  a  general  impression 
that  America  formed  a  huge  unbroken  mass  of  land  approaching  the  Pole,  and  perhupa 
reaching  that  ultimate  point  of  the  globe.  This  belief  received  a  sudden  shock  from 
Iiearne*B  voyage  down  the  Copper  Mine  River,  and  his  discovery  of  the  sea  into  which  it 
fell,  in  a  latitude  not  higher  than  tliat  of*  the  north  of  Hudson's  Bay.  Soon  afler,  Hir 
Alexander  Mackenzie  traced  also  to  the  sea  another  river  twenty  degreos  farther  west 
There  was  now  a  strong  presumption  that  a  sea  boundrd  the  whole  of  America  to  the  north, 
and  that  there  really  was  such  a  passage  as  had  been  so  long  sought,  and  mi(|^ht  be  found, 
were  it  not  too  closely  barred  by  ice  and  tempest  The  British  administration,  aniinat(!d 
with  an  active  and  laudable  zeal  in  the  cause  of  discovery,  determined  that  no  possible  etlort 
should  be  omitted  by  which  this  important  and  long  agitated  question  might  be  brought  to  a 
final  decision. 

A  series  of  exploratory  voyages  was  now  begun.  Capt  Ross,  in  1818,  made  the  circuit 
of  Baffin's  Bay,  andi  returned  with  the  belief  that  no  opening  existed :  Lieut  Parry,  second 
in  conmiand,  formed  a  diflferent  judgment,  and  having  satisfied  the  Admiralty  as  to  his 
groundn  of  belief,  was  sent  out  with  the  command  of  a  new  expedition.  In  this  memonibie 
voyage,  Capt  Parry  penetrated  thr' -igh  Lancaster  Sound,  which  he  found  to  widen  gradually, 
until  it  opened  into  the  expanst  f  the  Polar  Sea.  IIu  did  not  touch  on  any  part  of  the 
Americu.\  coast,  hut  found  parallel  to  it  a  chain  of  large  islands ;  and  his  progress  through 
these  was  arrested,  not  by  land,  but  by  straits  and  channels  encumbered  with  ice.  In  con* 
sideration  of  thexe  obstacles,  his  next  attempt  was  made  through  Hudson's  Bay,  by  the  yet 
imperfectly  explored  channel  of  the  Welcome.  Struggling  through  various  obstacles,  he 
reached  at  len|,'th  a  point  considerably  beyond  that  where  Middleton  hod  stopped,  and 
found  a  strait  opening  from  Hudson's  Bay  into  the  Polar  Sea.  This  strait  was,  however,  so 
narrow,  and  so  completely  blocked  with  ice,  tliat  there  appeared  no  room  to  hope  that  it 
would  ev  r  nfford  an  open  piiHsage.  Capt.  Parry  was  therefore  again  sent  out  in  his  first 
direclioi'  i  it  he  made  no  material  addition  to  his  former  discoveries.  Meantime  a  land 
journoi  ,i(jer  Capt  Franklin,  following  in  the  footsteps  of  Heame,  reached  the  sea,  and 
discoM  u  d  a  conBidcrable  extent  of  the  hitherto  unknown  northern  coast  of  the  American 
continent.  A  tolerably  clear  glimpse  was  thus  obtained  of  its  extent  and  boundaries ;  and 
''e  zealous  efforts  of  government  were  employed  to  verify  the  whole  by  actual  survey.  A 
'  end  expedition  under  Capt  Franklin  extended  this  survey  over  three-fourths  of  this 
boundui  coast  and  reached  beyond  the  149th  degree  of  longitude.  Meantime  an  expedi- 
tion, iiii  '  Captain  Beechy,  sent  to  meet  Captain  Franklin  from  the  westward,  passed  the 
Icy  Ca,  f  Cook,  and  arrived  at  nearly  156°  W.  longitude;  between  which  point  and 
Captain  I'rankli  I's  farthest  limit  there  intervened  only  7°,  or  150  miles. 

The  belief  was  hence  entertained,  that  the  whole  coast  extended  in  a  line  not  varying 
much  from  the  70th  degree  of  latitude ;  but  the  important  expedition  which  Captain  Ross 
has  just  achieved  through  so  many  difficulties,  proves  the  existence  of  a  large  peninsula, 
extending  as  far  north  as  74°  N.  latitude.  It  remains  still  probable  that  a  naval  passage 
may  exist  farther  north,  in  the  line  of  Captain  Parr;  's  first  voyage.  But  the  encumbering 
ice  is  BO  thick,  and  so  wedged  into  various  straits  and  channels,  that  pruba^'ly  no  vessel  win 
ever  be  able  even  once  to  work  its  way  through  ;  and  certainly  a  ship  corJa  never  set  out 
with  any  assurance  of  thus  finding  its  way  from  the  Atlantic  into  the  Pacific.  Britain  has, 
.  however,  reaped  an  ample  share  of  glory  in  contributing  so  essentially  to  delineate  the 
:  boundaries  and  dimensions  of  this  great  and  important  continent 


CHAPTER  IX. 

MODERN  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  AUSTRAL  SEAS  AND  ISLANDS. 

More  than  half  the  surface  of  the  globe,  including  long  groups  of  islands  and  vast 
expanses  of  ocean,  remained  unexplored,  even  afler  regular  naval  routes  had  been  formed 
round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  Cape  Horn ;  yet  there  soon  arose  the  belief  of  an  Austral 
continent,  as  extensive  and  n  j  abounding  in  wealth  as  that  which  had  been  discovered  by 
Columbus.  An  ideal  balance  was  fancied,  which  it  was  supposed  must  exist  between  the 
lands  of  the  northern  and  those  of  the  southern  hemispheres;  and  the  more  disproportionate 
the  extent  of  sea  which  existed  in  the  known  parts  of  the  latter,  the  greater  it  was  sup- 
posed  must  be  the  mass  of  southern  continent  which  was  to  establish  this  ideal,  imaginary 

7* 


HISTORY  OF  OEOORAPIIY. 


Part  I.  Book  III. 


biilnnco.  In  all  tho  rarly  mnpii,  a  hiifto  continental  man  encircle*  the  Ui'TCtic  pole,  and 
pr<*Hi*ntM  to  tho  i^nmt  ocnuii  ii  contindoim  circuit  of  Ntmro  reachin|/  nnA  the  (finbe:  tho 
uli«)V()  annlu|fii'ri  wi^rii  doiibtli'iM  aitlt'd  by  liiMcovttriuM  made  on  gre\> .  i  mlui  tracta  of  thu 
Hotith  Mca,  MO  partial  tliat  thuy  inic^ht  bo  nimtuken  tbr  protnontoriea,  o;  ,x>niona  of  a  (frnat 
miuw  of  Antarctic  land. 

Tho  Purtuffueao,  ho  loii^^  tho  moat  akilftil  and  intrepid  naviffatora  of  tho  ocean,  appear  to 
havo  bod'n  tho  flrHt  who  throw  any  light  upon  this  flllh  and  mo«t  remote  portion  of  the  earth ; 
in  1(!H8  than  twenty  yearn  after  their  paaeaffo  of  tho  Capo  thoy  had  reached  tho  most  extreme 
iHlimdH  of  the  Oriental  Archipniuffo,  uichidinff  Java  and  tho  Moluccaa,  and  appear  even  to 
have  observed  some  |»arU)  of  tho  coaHt  of  New  Guinea.  There  are  no  record8  of  their  liavinK 
proceeded  further ;  but  maps  have  been  found  in  tho  British  Museum,  and  other  cnllectionn, 
which  exhibit  an  extoimivo  land  to  tho  aouth  of  Java,  under  the  title  of  Java  Major,  on 
which  occur  a  number  of  names.  Home  of  tli*m  Portuffuoao :  one  of  these  ninps,  partly 
trarwlated  into  French,  has  tho  "  (Jdte  dm  Herhaif^i"  a  name  somewhat  curiously  comciil- 
in^r  with  Botany  Bay.  Is  one  of  these  aiscuveries,  however,  have  been  embodied  in  any 
known  narration. 

The  HjianiardH  also,  durini^f  their  early  and  adventurous  career,  made  strenuoup  ofTorts  to 
explore  the  Houthern  Hoas:  Majyollan,  as  already  observed,  by  his  Hrst  circuin?<  igntion  bf 
the  |;hil>e,  effected  a  ^and  step  in  geographical  discovery.  Alvaro  Meiidana,  in  1506, 
sailed  from  Lima,  and,  after  cruHsing  the  breadth  of  ttie  Pacific,  discovered  a  group  of  largo 
maritime  lands,  to  which,  tVom  a  chimerical  reference  to  Ophir,  he  gave  the  name  of 
"  Islands  of  Solomon  :"  they  appear  to  be  part  of  that  great  group  which  forms  the  outer 
range  of  Australasia.  Mendana  set  out  on  a  second  voyage,  and  reached  the  same  quarter, 
but,  by  some  fatality,  could  not  again  find  the  islands  fonnerly  discovered.  Quiros  made  a 
still  more  important  expedition  ;  he  passed  through  the  Polynesian  group ;  and  Sagittaria, 
one  of  the  islands  discovered  by  him,  appears  clearly  identified  with  Otaheite ;  ho  ter- 
minated his  voyage,  like  Mendana,  among  the  exterior  islands  of  Australasia ;  and  with 
him  expired  the  spirit  of  Spanish  enterprise. 

The  Dutch,  when  they  had  expelled  the  Portuguese  from  Java  and  the  Spice  Islands,  and 
had  established  in  them  the  centre  of  their  Indian  dominion,  were  placed  in  such  close 
proximity  with  New  Holland,  that  it  was  scarcely  possible  for  a  great  maritime  nation  to 
avoid  extending  their  search  to  that  region.  Van  Diemen,  the  Dutch  governor  of  India 
about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  greatly  promotetl  this  object,  and  sent  successive 
vessels  to  explore  the  coast  of  New  Holland.  Hertog,  Carp«mter,  Nuytz,  and  Ulaming 
mode  very  extensive  observations  on  the  northern  and  western  shores,  but  found  them  so 
dreary  and  unpromising,  that  no  settlement  of  any  description  was  ever  attempted.  Abel 
Tasman,  however,  wont  beyond  his  predecessors ;  he  reached  the  southern  extremity  of  this 
great  mass  of  land,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Van  Diemen,  without  discovering  it  to  be 
an  island  :  ho  then  sailed  across  surveyed  tho  western  coast  of  New  Zealand,  and  returned 
home  by  the  Friendly  Islands.  This  important  range  of  discovery  wos  not  Ifallowed  up ;  it 
refuted,  however,  the  delineation  by  which  New  Holland  had  been  made  part  of  the  imagined 
Austral  continent.  In  tho  newly  arranged  charts,  that  continent  still  remained,  but  with 
its  position  shifted  fkrther  to  the  south,  and  New  Zealand  probably  contributing  to  forn^  part 
of  its  fancied  outline. 

The  English  nation,  hy  the  voyages  of  several  navigators,  and  particularly  of  Cook,  secured 
the  glory  of  fully  exploring  the  depths  of  the  great  Pacific.  The  previous  voyages  of  Byron, 
Wallis,  and  Carteret  had  already  made  known  some  of  the  interesting  groups  of  islands 
with  which  its  vast  surface  is  studded.  Cook  fully  traced  the  great  chains  of  the  Society 
Islands,  and  of  the  Friendly  Islands ;  he  discovered  and  surveye<l  the  eastern  coasts  of  New 
Holland  and  Van  Diemen's  Land.  He  settled  the  form  and  relations  of  New  Zealand,  New 
Caleuonia,  and  the  other  great  Australasian  lands  and  islands.  This  side  he  passed  thrice  the 
Antarctic  circle,  and  ranging  along  the  yet  unvisited  borders  of  the  southern  pole,  solved,  by 
refuting,  the  famous  modern  hypothesis  of  an  Austral  continent.  He  navigated  also  through 
the  northern  Pacific,  observed  carefiilly  the  group  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  established, 
in  the  manner  before  pointed  out,  the  relation  between  the  continents  of  Asia  and  America. 
Many  eminent  navigators,  among  the  French,  La  Perouse,  Marchand,  D'Entrecasteaux ; 
among  the  Russians,  Kotzebue  and  Krusenstern ;  among  the  English,  Vancouver  and  Beechey, 
followed ;  and,  though  tho  grand  prizes  of  discovery  had  been  carried  off,  found  still  some 
gleanings  in  so  vast  a  field.  The  circumnavigation  of  the  globe  has  ended  in  becoming  a 
mere  trading  voyage,  which  conveys  neither  name  nor  glory  to  him  by  whom  it  is  achieved. 
Captain  Weddell,  however,  has  lately,  in  New  South  Shetland,  found  a  tract  of  land  situated 
nearer  to  the  Antarctic  pole  than  any  previously  supposed  to  exist. 

New  Holland,  much  the  most  extensive  of  the  lands  belonging  to  the  southern  hemisphere, 
and  rendered  doubly  interesting  by  its  recent  relations  with  Europe,  has  formed  the  theatre 
of  late  southern  discoveries.  Bass,  in  an  optui  boat,  found  the  strait  which  bears  his 
name,  separating  New  Holland  from  Van  Diemen's  land,  and  making  the  latter  a  separate 
island.     Baudin  and  Flinders,  contemporaneously  employed  by  the  French  and  Englisl 


Part  T.  Dook  III. 

\ii»Tct(C  pole,  Btjd 
.'iTKi  the  fflnbo:  tho 

I  mli:  tracta  of  tho 
.'  .wnioM  of  a  gruat 

the  ocean,  appear  to 
portion  of  the  earth ; 
lioii  tho  most  extreme 
and  appear  even  to 
;cnrd8  of  thoir  having 
imi  other  collections, 
le  of  Java  Major,  on 
f  these  niapH,  partly 
lat  curiouHly  comciJ- 
len  embodied  in  any 

B  Btronuoup  efforts  to 
circuiiH'  igiition  bf 
Mciidana,  in  IfttiB, 
ored  a  group  of  larj^e 
e  flfave  the  name  of 
[lien  forms  the  outer 
led  the  same  quarter, 
red.  Quires  made  a 
oiip ;  and  Sa^fittaria, 
th  Otaheite ;  ho  ter- 
uetralasia;  and  with 

he  Spice  Islands,  and 
placed  in  such  close 
it  maritime  nation  to 
ch  povernor  of  India 
:t,  and  sent  successive 
Nuytz,  and  Ulaming 
!s,  but  found  them  so 
^er  attempted.  Abel 
em  extremity  of  this 
discovering  it  to  be 
caland,  and  returned 
not  followed  up ;  it 
mrt  of  the  imagined 
remained,  but  with 
tributing  to  forn~  part 

rly  of  Cook,  secured 

us  voyages  of  Byron, 

ng  groups  of  islands 

hains  of  the  Society 

stem  coasts  of  New 

New  Zealand,  New 

he  passed  thrice  the 

lern  pole,  solved,  by 

vigated  also  through 

ids,  and  established, 

f  Awia  and  America. 

d,  IVEntrecastcaux ; 

couver  and  Bcechey, 

off,  found  still  some 

ndcd  in  becoming  a 

whom  it  is  achieved. 

tract  of  land  situated 

outhem  hemisphere, 
formed  the  theatre 
it  which  bears  hia 
the  latter  a  separate 
Vench  and  Englisl 


pabt  n. 


PRINCTPLRS  OP  OKOORAPHY. 


71» 


niifioiiH,  m««lo  a  continuou!*  survey  of  tho  vaiit  circuit  of  its  counts,  which  had  been  before 
l^)iu:lif(l  niily  at  partial  poiiits.  At  a  later  |)oriod,  Freycinot  made  some  ad<liti«nal  oboorva- 
t>i)iiM;  and  king  tbund  still  a  groat  extent  of  north  ami  nortli-woMtorn  coast  to  survey  tor  tho 
lirnt  tune.  More  recently,  lh«)  discovery  of  Hwan  Kivor  aiyl  it«  slioroa  promises  to  redeem 
the  reproach  of  sterility  wliicli  had  l)een  attached  to  tho  whole  western  const  of  this  conti- 
nent :  tlio  interior  on  the  eastern  side  also,  though  guanled  by  steep  and  lotly  barriora,  has 
been  iMMietratod  to  a  considerable  depth,  and  found  to  contain  extensive  plains  traversed  by 
largo  riv(-rs.  Htill  tho  explored  tractii  form  only  a  small  pro|H>rtion  of  Uie  vast  surlkce  of 
tins  aouthurn  continent. 


/I      

PART  II. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  "  ' 

Amono  tho  various  branches  of  human  knowlodire  there  is  so  intimate  a  connexion,  that 
no  science  can  be  truly  said  to  bo  independent  of  all  others.  Some,  indeed,  may  be  regarded 
as  primary,  because,  to  a  certain  extent,  they  have  had  an  independent  existence,  and  be- 
cause otlior  sciences  have  sprung  from  them.  Such,  for  example,  are  arithmetic  and 
geometry,  tho  prolific  parnntH  of  all  the  branches  of  moilcrn  mathematics.  Other  sciences, 
again,  arc  connected  by  collateral  relationship,  in  respect  of  their  affording  mutual  aid :  and 
in  this  manner  all  the  branches  of  human  knowledge  depend  one  on  another,  each  rcpayilig 
the  advantages  which  it  has  received. 

The  subject  of  this  treatise,  Geoorapht,  which  in  common  with  other  sciences  owes  its 
origin  to  tlio  wants  of  man,  joined  with  his  inherent  desire  of  knowledge,  has  arrived  at  its 
present  state  of  improvement  by  the  aid  of  several  sciences,  and  of  a  very  great  number  of 
llio  arts  which  are  the  fruit  of  human  ingenuity.  It  is  more  particularly  indebted  to  the 
mnthematical  sciences,  either  directly,  as  furnishing  rules  and  methods  by  which  the  mag- 
nitiidn  of  the  earth,  its  figure,  and  the  position  of  tlie  different  parts  of  its  surface,  may  be 
determined ;  or  indirectly,  inasmuch  as  it  has  been  improved  by  astronomy,  navigation,  and 
other  sciences  which  owe  their  perfection  to  tho  mathematics.  To  tho  arts  its  obli^tions 
are  iimiimerable :  for  every  step  of  progress  which  has  been  made  in  the  constmction  and 
nianagement  of  ships,  in  the  fabrication  of  mathematical,  optical,  and  nautical  instruments, 
and  in  the  collateral  arts  on  which  these  depend,  has  contributed  to  the  advancement  of 
geographical  knowledge. 

The  doctrines  of  geography  strongly  support,  and  have  a  close  af&nity  with,  those*  of 
astronomy.     It  is  only  by  the  application  of  this  latter  science  that  we  have  been  able  to 
discover  the  true  figure  of  the  earth,  and  its  magnitude :  and  some  of  the  most  import*"  ^ 
divisions  of  the  earth's  surthce  are  marked  out  by  astronomical  phenomena.     On  the  of. 
hand,  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  figure  and  magnitude  of  the  earth  is  of  the  highest  impo' 
ance  in  the  explication  of  the  more  recondite  doctrines  of  astronomy.     Hence,  while 
doctrines  of  astronomy  involve  the  principles  of  geography,  it  holds  equally  tme  that 
principles  of  geography  can  only  be  understood  by  a  due  application  of  some  of  the  n.. . 
simple  theories  of  astronomy. 

I'he  science  of  geology  has,  if  possible,  a  still  more  intimate  connexion  with  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  earth.  While  astronomy  delineates  the  form  and  movements  of  that  planet,  and 
its  relation  to  other  bodies  in  the  universe,  geology  describes  the  materials  which  compose 
its  surface,  and  the  order  in  which  they  are  arranged,  with  the  composition  and  phenomena 
of  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  The  various  inequalities  into  which  it  is  formed,  the  dis- 
tinction of  land  and  sea,  with  their  origin  and  effects,  come  all  within  the  sphere  of  this 
important  science. 

The  organized  and  living  beings  which  cover  the  surface  of  our  planet,  form  a  most  in- 
teresting feature  in  its  delineation.  For  the  support  and  nourishment  of  these^  the  whole 
of  ita  vast  structure  was  originally  destined.  In  taking  a  survey  of  this  interesting  range 
of  objects,  we  may  begin  with  plants ;  then  ascend  to  animals ;  and,  lastly,  to  man,  who 
holds  the  chief  rank  in  the  constitution  of  this  lower  world. 

Three  divisions,  comprehending  each  a  separate  book,  will,  on  the  grounds  now  stated, 
comprehend  the  Principles  of  Geography :  these  are — I.  Astronomical  Principles.  II.  Geo  • 
logical  princioles.  III.  Geography  considered  in  relation  to  the  organized  living  and  rationa 
natures  which  cover  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

i 


60 


PIIINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


BOOK    I. 

ASTRONOMICAL    PRINCIPLES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  PHENOMENA  OF  THE  HEAVENS,  APPARENT  MOTIONS,  FIXED 

STARS.  PLANETS,  tea. 

Tar  succession  of  day  and  night  brings  under  our  observation  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  an 
innumerable  multitude  of  luminous  bodies,  which  appear  like  points  on  the  concave  surface 
of  the  heavens.  Of  these  the  sun  and  the  moon  are  the  most  remarkable.  The  sun  at  all 
times  presents  to  us  a  circular  disc :  the  disc  of  the  moon  is  also  at  certain  periods  circular, 
but  she  undergoes  a  succession  of  changes  in  the  appearances  of  her  luminous  part,  which 
are  denominated  phases.  With  regai'd  to  the  distances  of  the  sun  and  moon  from  this  earth, 
we  are  certain  that  they  are  very  remote ;  for  we  observe  that  their  apparent  magnitude  is 
not  sensibly  affected  by  any  change  in  our  local  position.  We  may  with  probability  suppose 
the  stars  to  be  bodies  of  the  same  nature  with  the  sun  and  moon,  appearing  smaller  only 
becaus    they  are  at  a  greater  distance. 

The  apparent  motion  of  the  heavens  from  east  to  west  about  a  fixed  point  in  the  northern 
quarter  of  the  sky,  as  seen  in  this  country,  is  a  phenomenon  quite  familiar  to  every  one.  If 
we  change  our  position  on  the  earth  by  ^oing  always  south,  this  fixed  point  appears  to  de- 
scend, and  at  last  it  sinks  below  the  horizon :  but  we  now  perceive  that  there  is  another 
fixed  point  in  the  southern  region  of  the  heavens,  exactly  opposite  to  the  former,  about 
which  the  diurnal  motion  is  also  in  like  manner  performed.  These  two  points  are  the  north 
and  SOUTH,  or  the  arctic  and  antarctic  pox.es  of  the  heavens. 

From  what  we  see  on  the  earth's  surface,  we  learn  by  experience  that  the  real  and  ap- 
parent motions  of  bodies  may  be  very  different.  An  observer  in  a  vessel  carried  along  by 
the  current  of  a  river,  will  feel  disposed  to  believe  himself  at  rest ;  and  then,  if  he  were  to 
judge  from  appearances,  he  would  suppose  that  trees  and  fixed  objects  on  the  banks  were 
m  motion,  because  of  the  apparent  change  in  their  relative  positions.  Hence  we  may  infer, 
that  we  cannot  judge  immediately  respecting  the  absolute  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
irom  their  apparent  motions.  It  has  only  been  by  a  series  of  nice  observations,  and  the  appli- 
cation of  the  doctrines  of  mathematics,  that  the  former  have  with  absolute  certainty  been 
deduced  from  the  latter. 

The  general  phenomena  of  the  apparent  motions  have,  however,  been  discovered  by  the 
ordinary  observation  of  mankind  from  the  remotest  ages.  To  a  specuitor  in  any  place  of 
the  earth,  the  whole  system  of  the  celestial  bodies  appears  as  if  placed  on  the  surfece  of  a 
concave  sphere,  the  centre  of  which  is  the  place  where  he  stands ;  and  this  sphere  appears 
to  revolve  daily  on  an  ideal  line  which  passes  through  the  poles  of  Uie  heavens,  and  is  called 
the  AXIS  of  the  world.  Although  the  supposition  that  the  celestial  bodies  are  all  situated  in 
the  surface  of  a  sphere,  of  which  the  eye  is  the  centre,  be  perfectly  consistent  with  the 
appearance  of  the  heavens,  it  is  easy  to  understand  that  tiiis  may  be  a  consequence  of  their 
immense  distances.  To  an  observer  standing  on  an  extensive  plain,  objects  very  remote 
around  him,  though  at  unequal  distances,  would  appear  in  the  circumference  of  a  ci-cle 
having  his  eye  in  the  centre. 

Besides  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  which  is  common  to  them  all,  we  dis- 
cover that  some  of  them  have  peculiar  motions  by  which  they  change  their  apparent  places 
in  respect  of  one  another.  Thus  we  see  the  mock  in  the  course  of  about  a  month  describe 
a  circle  quite  round  the  heavens  from  west  to  east  The  sun  also  appears  to  change  his 
position  daily,  and  to  go  round  ihe  heavens  from  west  to  east  in  a  year.  It  is  in  conse(iuence 
of  this  peculiar  motion  of  the  sun,  that  we  find  diflTerent  stars  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year  set  immediately  after  him,  or  rise  immediately  before  him ;  and  that  the  appearance  of 
the  heavens  through  the  course  of  the  year  is  continually  changing. 

From  the  remotest  antiquity  ^dc  stars  hod  been  observed  to  change  their  position  ;  and  in 
modem  times  five  others  have  been  discovered.  These  "  wandering  stars  "  have  been  appro- 
priately denominated  planets  ,  and,  generallv  speaking,  they  can  be  seen  at  all  times,  except 
when  their  feeble  light  is  rendered  insensibio  by  the  efl^iilgence  of  the  sun.  The  planets 
huve  received  particular  names,  and  are  distinguished  by  particular  characters ;  these  are 
Mercury  ?,  Venus  ?,  Mars  $,  Vesta  g,  Juno  $,  Ceres  ?,  Pallas  t  Jupiter  4,  Saturn  b, 
Uranus  fj*. 

There  are  other  luminous  bodies  having  a  proper  motion,  v^-rl  are  se::n  for  a  short  time 

and  afterwards  disappear.    Their  existent  e,  however,  ispeu.itiii'  ■*     ''^i  ly  are  distinguished 

*rom  the  planets  by  their  being  visible  only  for  a  short  pe.nc:,     t    also  by  a  in.n  of  light 
'  ..     -      .  .....  ..   ^ 


proceeding  from  them  on  one  side,  forming  a  tail ;  these  bodi 
number  is  not  known,  but  it  appears  to  be  very  considerable. 


ure  called  coMS'iS,    Thei' 


Pabt  U. 


Book  I. 


THE  HEAVENS  AS  SEEN  THROUGH  THE  TELESCIOPE. 


81 


■  ■  ■■  !    ■    -.    ■ 
OnONB,  FIXED 

the  moon,  and  an 
he  concave  surface 
!.  The  sun  at  all 
Q  periodn  circular, 
minous  part,  which 
on  from  this  earth, 
irent  magnitude  is 
probability  suppose 
taring  smaller  only 

int  m  the  northern 
r  to  every  one.  If 
loint  appears  to  de- 
Lt  there  is  another 
the  former,  about 
oints  are  the  north 

at  the  real  and  ap- 
il  carried  along  by 
then,  if  he  were  to 
on  the  banks  were 
mce  we  may  infer, 
he  heavenly  hodieB 
ions,  and  the  appli> 
ute  certainty  been 

discovered  by  the 
ir  in  any  place  of 
on  the  surfiice  of  a 
his  sphere  appears 
vans,  and  ia  called 
are  all  situated  in 
onsistent  with  the 
isequence  of  their 
bjects  very  remote 
brence  of  a  ci-cle 

them  all,  we  dis- 
ir  apparent  plan's 

a  month  describe 
ears  to  change  hin 

is  in  consetjuence 
ent  seasons  of  the 
the  appearance  of 

position ;  and  in 
have  been  appro- 
t  all  times,  except 
un.  The  planets 
ucters;  these  are 
iter  4,  Saturn  ^, 

1  for  a  short  time 

are  distinguished 

i  %  irs'n  of  light 

J  coMS-iB,    Thei- 


Besides  the  sun,  moon,  planets,  and  comets,  tiiere  are  other  iummous  bodies  visible  every 
clear  night ;  tliese  retain  always  the  same  position  in  re.?pect  of  each  otJier,  mA  for  this 
reason  are  denominated  fixed  stars.  Tlieir  apparent  moticn  about  the  axis  of  tlie  celestial 
sphere  is  perfectly  uniform,  and  a  complete  revolution  is  pertbnned  in  about  23  hours  ,76 
minutes. 

By  the  permenence  of  the  relative  situations  of  the  fixed  stars  on  the  ;oncavity  of  the 
celestial  sphere,  we  are  enabled  to  determine  the  apparent  motions  of  the  other  heavenly 
bodies.  Of  these  the  motions  of  the  sun  and  moon  are  tlie  most  conspicuous  and  simple. 
The  motions  of  the  planets  appear  more  complicated,  and  are  considerably  diil'ereit  from 
one  another.  This  dissimilarity  might  well  lead  to  a  conjecture,  that  the  real  motions  of 
the  lieavenly  bodies  are  very  different  from  the  apparent  motions,  and  that  these  last  are 
modified  by  the  real  motion  of  the  earth.  This  conjecture  we  shall  aAerwards  find  fully 
verified. 

All  the  heavenly  bodies  .which  this  general  survey  has  brought  under  our  notice,  with 
their  motions  and  mutual  relations,  form  the  subject  of  astronomy,  which  of  all  the  n&.tural 
sciences  presents  tlie  most  extensive  feries  of  discoveries.  By  observing  for  ages,  and  deter- 
mining with  exactness,  tiie  positions  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars ;  by  tracing  and  measuring 
with  precision  their  various  motions ;  and  by  employing  all  the  resources  of  mathematical 
science  in  investigating  the  constant  laws  to  which  tliese  motion*  are  subject,  the  human 
mind  lias  sue  ceded  in  passing  from  the  first  cursory  view  of  the  heavens,  to  that  compre- 
hensive survey  by  which,  in  the  present  state  df  astronomical  science,  we  contemplate  the 
past  and  future  states  of  the  system  of  the  universe. 


CHAPTER  aI. 

THE  HEAVENS  AS  SEEN  THROUGH  THE  TBLRSCOPE. 

From  the  aiscovery  of  the  telescope,  and  its  application  tothepurposesof  astronomy,  anew 
era  may  be  dated  in  that  science.  The  number  of  stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye  is  about  three 
thousand,  which  appear  scattered  over  the  concave  surface  of  the  heavens.  Even  in  the 
clearest  night,  and  in  the  absence  of  the  moon,  seldom  more  than  two  thousand  are  seen  at 
once.  They  are  not  distributed  indiscriminately  over  the  heavens,  but  are  disposed  in  groups, 
wiiich  from  the  remotest  antiquity  have  received  distinct  names,  and  these  have  been  em- 
ployed to  facilitate  tiie  description  of  the  heavens,  and  the  reference  to  any  particular  star. 
The  ancients  imagined  the  figures  of  various  personages  of  their  mythology,  and  of  animals, 
6ic.  to  be  traced  on  the  concave  surface :  these  figures  they  called  constellations,  and  con- 
sidered a  group  of  stars  to  belong  to  each.  To  some  of  the  brighter  stars,  and  to  tliose  more 
remarkable  for  their  position,  proper  names  have  been  given. 

The  distinction  founded  on  the  different  degrees  of  brightness  of  the  fixed  stars,  is  the 
most  obvious  which  occurs  to  the  spectator  while  his  vision  ia  unassisted  by  the  telpr-rd;." , 
and  has  accordingly  been  employed  for  the  purpose  of  classifying  them.  The  start)  ,  iHihie 
to  the  naked  eye  have  been,  on  this  principle,  arranged  under  six  magnitudes.  The  br  ijjhl- 
est  are  reckoned  to  be  of  the  first  magnitude,  the  next  in  brigiitness  of  the  second,  a,id  ^o  «:» 
to  the  sixth  magnitude. '  Tlie  arrangement  of  the  stairs  has  been  still  farther  faciliti)t'j<]  *)t 
combining  the  principle  of  this  last-mentioned  arrangement  with  the  method  of  constellationd. 
In  maps  of  the  heavens  and  on  celestial  glob'^s  the  constellations  are  delineated,  and  the  stars 
in  each  constellation  are  marked  with  the  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet  according  to  their 
degrees  of  brightness. 

The  use  of  the  telescope  has  greatly  increased  the  number  of  visible  stars  :  and  his  at 
the  same  time  discovered  to  us  many  particulars  before  unknown  respecting  those  that  are 
visible  to  the  naked  eye.  Many  of  the  stars  which  to  unaided  vision  appear  single,  are 
found,  when  observed  through  a  telescope  of  high  magnifying  powers,  to  consist  of  two, 
sometimes  of  three  or  more  stars  extremely  near  to  one  another.  Seven  hundred  of  these 
multiple  stars  were  observed  by  Sir  William  Hersohel,  and  the  number  has  been  increased 
by  tlie  joint  labours  of  his  son  and  Sir  James  South,  also  by  the  German  astronomer  Str.ive. 
In  some  of  them  the  small  stars  are  different  in  brightness  and  in  the  colour  of  their  light 
Thus  a  Herculis  is  double ;  the  larger  of  the  stars  is  red,  the  smaller  blue ;  t  Lyrce  is 
composed  of  four  stars;  three  white,  and  one  red:  y  Andromcdse  consists  of  two  stars  very 
unequal,  the  largest  a  reddish  whitf',  the  smallest  a  sky-blue  inclining  to  green.  Some 
single  stars  evidently  diflfer  in  their  colour:  Aldebaran  is  red,  Sirius  of  a  brilliant  white. 

Nebulae  are  small  luminous  spots  of  a  cloudy  appearance  and  irregular  shape,  seen  in 
many  places  of  tlie  heavens.  The  most  remarkable  appearance  of  tiiis  kind  is  the  Galaxy, 
or  Milky  Way,  which  encom.passes  the  whole  heavens,  and  is  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 
The  Sword  of  Orion  contains  a  beautiful  nebula.  Two  occur  in  the  head  of  the  Great 
Bear,  one  of  an  oval  shape  the  other  round  like  a  comet  without  attil.  Viewed  through 
a  telescope  of  great  magnifying  power,  these  luminous  spots  are  resolved  into  a  multitude 
of  small  stars,  distinctly  separate,  but  apparently  very  near  one  another,  whose  light  being 

Vol.  \.  L 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtIL 


blended  together  produces  the  luminous  appearance.  In  a  portion  of  the  Galaxy,  about 
fifteen  degrees  in  length,  and  two  in  breadth.  Dr.  Herschel  found  no  fewer  tlian  fifty  thousand 
atars  large  enough  to  be  distinctly  counted.  The  number  of  nebula  is  very  considerable. 
Herschel  discovered  two  thousand  ;  before  his  time  only  one  hundred  and  three  were  known. 

Continued  observation  iias  shown  that  the  fixed  stars  are  not  altogether  exempt  front 
change.  Several  stars  mentioned  by  the  ancient  astronomers  are  no  longer  visible,  while 
some  are  now  seen  by  the  naked  eye  which  are  not  in  the  ancient  catalogues.  Some  stars 
have  sud !  "nly  appeared,  and  after  having  been  seen  for  a  short  time  have  ceased  to  be  visi- 
ble. In  i.6T2  a  new  star  appeared  in  Cassiopeia's  Chair ;  and  in  1604  another  appeared  in 
Serpentarius.  These  stars  did  not  change  their  places :  but  having  gradually  increased  in 
orilliancy,  until  they  exceeded  Venus  or  Jupiter  in  brightness,  and  were  even  seen  in  tlie 
day-time,  tiiey  diminished  in  the  same  gradual  manner,  and  in  a  few  months  entirely  disap- 
peared. Some  stars  are  observed  to  have  period  leal  changes  of  brightness.  Of  this  descrip- 
tion is  Algol,  or  fl  Persei :  when  brightest  it  is  of  the  second,  and  when  least  bright  of  the 
fourth  magnitude.  It  goes  through  all  its  changes  of  lustre  in  four  days,  twenty-one  hours. 
Other  stara  like  |3  in  the  Wliale,  have  gradually  increased  in  brilliancy ;  or,  like  6  in  the 
Great  Bear,  have  continually  diminished  in  brightness. 

The  fixed  stars,  when  viewed  through  the  telescope,  appear  like  luminous  points  on  the 
toncave  surface  of  the  heavens ;  but  the  planets  are  found  to  exhibit  the  appearance  of  discs 
of  greater  or  less  diameter.  Mercury  and  Venus  accompany  the  smi,  appearing  at  one  time 
on  the  east,  and  at  anotlier  time  on  the  west*  of  that  luminary,  and  never  receding  from  him 
beyond  a  certain  distance.  The  other  planets  recede  from  the  sun  to  all  possible  angular 
distances.  Connected  with  this  circumstance  is  a  distinction  which  it  is  useful  to  make  of 
inferior  planets  and  superior  planets ;  the  former  appellation  being  applied  to  Mercury  and 
Venus,  and  the  latter  to  the  remaining  planets. 

Mercury  and  Venus,  as  they  oscillate  about  the  sun,  exhibit  all  the  phases  of  the  moon. 
From  having  the  appearance  of  a  crescent,  they  gradually  assume  that  of  the  half-moon. 
The  illuminated  part  of  tiie  disc  increasing,  they  become  gibbous,  and  at  last  present  a  com- 
plete circular  disc,  like  the  full  moon.  From  this  state  of  illumination  they  again  pass 
through  the  same  appearances  in  an  inverted  order,  until  tliey  disappear  altogether.  Some- 
times tiiese  planets  are  seen  like  black  spots  in  the  sun ;  these  appearances  are  called  tran- 
sits of  the  planets  over  tiie  sun's  disc.  They  are  rare,  but  when  observed,  particularly  the 
transit  of  Venus,  they  give  the  best  means  of  determining  the  magnitude  of  the  solar  system. 
In  all  the  phases  of  Mercury  and  Venus  the  convexity  of  the  illuminated  portion  of  the  disc 
is  turned  towards  the  sun. 

The  discs  of  the  other  planets  are  always  nearly  circular.  Mars,  however,  in  certain  p{)si- 
tions  with  regard  to  the  sun,  assumes  a  gibbous  appearance ;  but  he  never  becomes  cornicu- 
lar  like  Venus.  He  has  no  satellite.  As  viewed  from  the  earth,  he  is  known  by  his  red 
and  fiery  appearance.  Dr.  Herschel  observed  that  the  polar  regions  of  Mars,  after  having 
been  turned  from  the  smi,  appeared  brighter  than  the  rest  of  the  planetary  disc ;  just  as  if 
these  regions  had  in  the  absence  of  the  sun's  heat  been  covered  with  snow. 

Certain  spots  appear  on  the  d'=-cs  of  the  sun  ai:d  the  four  planets  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and 
Saturn,  when  they  are  viewed  through  the  telescope,  and  are  distinguished  fi"om  other  parts 
of  tlie  discs  by  tiie  colour  or  intensity  of  their  light.  Similar  spots  are  seen  on  the  moon 
with  the  naked  eye.  Jupiter  has  also  his  disc  marked  with  several  parallel  belts  or  stripes, 
wliich  stretch  across  it.  They  are  subject  to  considerable  variation  with  regard  to  number, 
breadth,  and  distance  from  each  other.  Mercury  is  too  much  immersed  in  tlie  solar  rays; 
Vesta,  Tires,  Juno,  and  Pallas,  are  too  small ;  and  Uranus  is  too  distant  to  allow  points  of 
unequal  brilliancy  to  be  observed  on  their  surface.  The  spots  upon  the  sun  are  very  varia- 
able  in  their  number,  position,  and  magnitude.  Often  tliey  are  numerous,  and  of  great  extont. 
Each  of  them,  in  general,  consists  of  a  dark  space,  or  umbra,  surrounded  by  a  penumbra, 
or  fainter  shade,  beyond  'lich  is  a  border  of  light  more  brilliant  than  the  rest  of  the  sim's 
disc.  Sometimes,  tliough  boldom,  the  sun  has  been  without  spots  for  several  years;  this  was 
the  case  from  1676  to  1684.  The  dark  nucleus  of  the  spot  is  seen  to  form  and  disappoar 
amidst  the  greater  brilliancy  that  nuronnds  it.  After  the  nucleus  ceases  to  be  t  "on,  the 
umbra  continues  visible  for  some  time :  the  place  where  it  at  length  disappears  becomes 
like  the  other  parts  of  the  solar  surface,  unless  it  be  succeeded,  which  is  sometimes  the  case 
by  a  luminous  spot.  Uinbrie  of  great  extent  have,  with  few  exceptions,  a  nucleus  in  thoir 
centre  ;  but  small  umbroe  are  otlen  seen  without  it. 

The  solar  spots  are  never  stationary,  lint  are  seen  to  move  slowly  over  thf  sun's  disc  from 
east  to  west.  Their  paths  across  the  disc,  when  accurately  traced,  are  foi.id  to  be  reocih- 
neal  in  the  beginning  of  June,  and  in  the  beginning  of  December;  but  in  the  intermrdiatt 
seasons  they  are  found  to  be  elliptic.  Between  June  and  December  the  convexity  of  the 
path  is  towards  the  upper  part  of  the  disc,  and  between  December  and  June  it  is  towards 
the  lower  part. 

The  planei  Jupiter,  when  viewed  through  the  tel(>scope,  nppoars  to  be  attended  by  fou 
small  stars,  ranged  nearly  in  a  straight  line,  which  are  seen  sometimes  on  tlie  sainfj  side. 


Book  I. 


FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH. 


and  at  othor  times  on  opposite  sides  of  the  planet.  These  small  stars  occasionally  paaa 
between  us  and  Jupiter,  and  then  they  are  found  to  project  shadows  which  are  seen  to  trtip 
verse  his  disc.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are  often  immersed  in  the  shadow  of  Jupiter,  and 
exhibit  the  phenomenon  called  an  eclipse.  The  planets  Saturn  and  Uranus  are  also  simi- 
larly attended,  the  former  by  seven,  and  the  latter  by  six,  little  stars.  These  accompanying 
stars  are  called  satellites,  and  also  secondary  planets,  in  contradistinction  to  the  others, 
which  are  called  primary. 

Saturn  is  distinguished  from  all  the  other  planets,  in  being  surrounded  by  a  circular  ring 
concentric  with  itself.  When  first  examined  by  the  telescope,  this  planet  was  almost 
always  seen  between  two  small  luminous  bodies  of  an  irregular  form,  which  seemed  to  be 
attached  to  it,  and  which,  as  they  suggested  the  idea  of  handles,  were  denominated  ansa. 
Sometimes  the  anste  disappeared,  and  then  Saturn  appeare'd  round  like  the  other  planets. 
By  tracing  with  care  these  singular  appearances,  and  combining  them  with  the  positions  ot 
Saturn  relatively  to  the  sun  and  the  earth,  Huygens  at  last  discovered  that  they  are  pro- 
duced by  a  ring  which  encompasses  the  body  of  the  planet,  and  wliich  is  everywhere  sepa- 
rated from  it.  Being  seen  obliquely,  the  ring  appears  of  an  oval  or  elliptic  form.  Before 
the  time  of  Herschcl  the  ring  of  Saturn  was  supposed  to  be  single ;  but  this  distinguisliea 
astronomer  discovered  that  it  is  double :  so  that  two  rings  concentric,  and  in  the  same  plane, 
constitute  what  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  a  single  ring.  The  ring,  which  is  very  tliin,  is 
inclined  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  It  revolves  from  west  to  east  in  10'' 39' 54".  Its 
breadth  is  nearly  equal  to  its  distance  from  Saturn ;  that  is,  about  one  third  of  the  diameter 
of  the  planet.  The  interval  between  the  rings  is  very  little;  yet  Dr.  Herschel  saw  a  star 
thi'ough  it     The  inner  ring  it,  somewhat  broader  than  the  outer. 


CHAPTER  m. 

APPROXIMATION  TO  THE  FIGtJRE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OP  THE  EARTH. 

The  true  figure  and  exact  magnitude  of  the  earth  are  elements  of  the  highest  importance 
in  geography.  Their  determination,  however,  has  required  the  aid  of  astronomy  in  its  most 
improved  state ;  yet  it  is  necessary,  to-  the  explanation  of  the  general  doctrines  of  astronomy, 
tliat  we  should,  in  the  outset,  know  nearly  its  figure  and  magnitude :  we  shall  afterwards 
explain  by  what  means  the  first  conceptions  have  been  corrected,  and  its  true  figure  and 
magnitude  found.  Having  now  pointed  out,  generally,  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens — 
taking  into  view  the  more  remarkable  discoveries  made  by  aid  of  the  telescope — we  are  next 
to  consider  the  causes  and  mutual  dependence  of  these  phev.anena.  The  first  stpp  towards 
obtaining  an  explication  of  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  is  to  form  some  notion  of  the 
figure  and  magnitude  of  the  earth  which  we  inhabit,  and  from  whicli  all  the  celestial  phe- 
nomena are  observed.  To  a  person  placed  in  an  elevated  situation  in  an  open  country, 
wliere  the  view  is  unconfiaed  on  all  sides,  the  earth  appears  an  extended  plane,  with  the 
concave  sphere  of  the  heavens  resting  upon  it, — fJie  liorizon  being  the  common  boundary. 
Tliis  appearance  is,  however,  altogetiier  illusory. 

The  eartli  is  a  round  body,  and  is  isolated  in  space.  This  is  sufficiently  established  by 
tiic  following  facts : — 

1.  To  an  observer  who  travels  from  north  to  south  the  nocturnal  heavens  appear  conti 
nualiy  to  change  tlieir  aspect.  The  stars,  indeed,  retain  the  same  relative  position  in 
respect  of  each  other,  and  tlie  points  on  which  the  iieavens  appear  to  revolve  remain 
unchanged ;  but  the  angle,  wnicli  the  axis  of  tlieir  motion  forms  wiili  the  horizon,  continually 
decreases ;  so  that  stars  wliicii,  at  tlie  place  from  which  he  set  out,  appeared  to  reach  their 
greatest  elevation  to  the  south  of  the  jroint  directly  over  his  head,  now  tiiat  he  has  changed 
his  position,  appear,  wlion  Iiigliest,  on  tiie  north  of  that  point.  This  clearly  indicates  that 
his  path  on  the  earth's  surface  has  not  been  a  straight  line,  but  a  curve  of  which  the  con- 
vexity is  turned  towards  the  sky. 

2.  The  convexity  of  tlie  earth  is  quite  apparent  to  a  spectator  in  a  ship  recodmg  from  the 
shore.  At  first  low  objects  disappear;  then  those  more  elevated;  and  at  la-st  the  highest 
points  of'the  land  sink  in  the  iiorizon,  on  account  o;'  th  'iirect  visual  ray  bomg  broken  by 
tlie  interposed  curved  surfiice  of  the  ocean.  In  lilie  man  or,  when  two  iijiips  approach  each 
other,  the  navigators  in  each  see  at  first  the  uppci  part  of  the  rigging  of  tiie  otlier  vessel 
the  hull  being  still  invisible :  as  the  distance  becomes  less  the  b(xly  of  eacii  vessel  comes 
gradually  into  view.  The  reverse  linppens  if  the  distance  between  the  vessels  is  increasing. 
From  these  appearances  it  is  evident,  that  a  straight  line  joining  any  two  points  of  the 
earth's  surfaces  passes  within  the  body  of  the  earth. 


^.  Tiiat  the  horizon  of  the 


,hich,  to  tilt!  eye,  terniinntes  i*;s  surface,  is  only  an  appa- 


rent limit  in  reference  to  the  jiosition  of  the  observer,  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that  if  we 
advance  towards  it  we  find  it  recede ;  and,  at  the  sjime  time,  v  s^till  imagine  ourselves 
niaced  in  the  nenfre  of  an  extended  plane,  bounded  by  the  line  m  which  the  heavens  and 


« 


PRINCTPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IL 


eartn  appear  to  meet.  This  is  what  the  navigator  uniformly  experiences ;  wliile,  to  an 
observer  on  the  shore,  his  vessel  appears  to  sink  below  the  horizon ;  and  by  continiiiiiff  to 
sail  in  the  same  direction,  he  will  at  last  arrive  at  the  same  port  from  which  he  set  out, — 
having  thus  circumnavigated  the  earth.  This  enterprise  has,  it  is  well  kr  jwn,  in  numerous 
instances,  been  accomplished  by  navigators,  who  have  leil  the  shores  of  Europe  and  returned 
home,  some  by  sailing  always  towards  the  west,  and  others  by  holding  an  easterly  course. 
This  great  experiment  demonstrates  that  the  sea  and  land  have  a  curved  surface  whicSi 
returns  into  itself,  so  that  no  part  of  it  is  touched  by  the  heavens. 

There  are  other  phenomena  which  prove  that  the  earth,  if  not  an  exact  sphere,  is  at  least 
nearly  of  that  figure.  The  various  appearances  of  the  moon,  in  the  course  of  her  revolution 
round  the  earth,  show  that  she  is  an  opaque  body,  and  is  visible  only  by  the  reflected  light 
of  the  swn.  The  earth  being'  also  an  opaque  body,  must  project  a  shadow  in  a  direction 
opposite  to  the  sun.  It  will  afterwanls  be  shown  that  the  moon,  when  full,  must  sometimes 
pass  through  this  shadow.  In  this  case,  when  the  moon  begins  to  penetrate,  or  is  about  to 
leave,  the  shadow,  the  greater  part  of  the  disc  is  still  illuminated  by  the  sun;  and  it  is 
found  that  this  luminous  part  is  always  of  the  form  of  a  crescent,  having  its  concave  side 
bounded  by  an  arch  of  a  circle.  The  section  of  the  earth's  shadow,  shown  by  its  projection 
on  the  moon,  is,  therefore,  as  to  sense,  circular, — a  proof  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere,  or  nearly 
of  a  spherical  figure ;  whence  we  may  conclude  that  there  is  a  point  within  the  earth  which 
is  its  centre. 

That  the  earth  is  a  round  body,  is  thus  completely  proved  by  experience  and  observation ; 
yet,  when  this  doctrine  is  presented  to  the  mind  for  the  first  time,  there  is  some  difficulty 
in  believing  that  the  earth  is  balanced,  as  it  were,  on  its  centre,  without  any  visible  suf»- 
port;  while  all  things  at  rest  on  its  surface  require  to  be  supjKirted.  We  must,  however, 
consider  that  the  bodies  which  we  sec  fall  towards  the  centre  of  the  eartli  are  mere  atoms 
in  comparison  to  the  earth  itself;  and  that,  although  their  tendency  to  its  centre  is  anotiier 
fact  established  by  experience,  yet  it  does  not  thence  follow  that  the^artli  it^lf  should  move 
towards  one  point  of  space  rather  than  towards  anotiier.  A  little  reflection  will  show  that 
there  is  no  inconsistency  in  supposing  the  earth,  an  immense  mass,  to  be  at  rest,  and  all 
things  to  be  retained  on  its  surface  by  some  force  analogous  to  that  by  wliich  a  piece  of  iron 
is  drawn  towards  a  magnet.  This  is  really  the  fact ;  and  a  consequence  of  it  is,  tliat  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  earth  its  inhabitants  stand  in  opposite  directions,  with  their  feet  t^iwards 
each  other,  for  which  reason  they  are  called  Antipodes ;  and  every  country  has  its  own 
Antipodes. 

The  knowledge  of  the  true  figure  and  magnitude  of  the  earth  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
in  geography,  and  on  this  account  we  shall  treat  of  them  in  a  particular  manner.  In  the 
mean  time,  as  a  near  approximation  to  the  truth,  the  earth  may  be  considered  as  differing 
but  little  from  a  sphere,  7916  miles  in  diameter,  and  consequently  nearly  24,870  miles  in 
circumference.  In  geometry,  the  circumference  of  every  circle  is  supposed  to  be  divided 
into  360  equal  parts,  called  degrees ;  and  each  of  these  into  60  equal  parts,  called  minutes, 
and  so  on.  A  degree,  therefore,  of  any  circle  on  the  earth's  surface,  whose  ceiitre  is  the 
same  with  that  of  the  earth,  will  be  rather  more  than  69  miles ;  and  a  minute  of  a  degree 
will  be  about  lj(,  mile. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

DOCTRINE   OP  THE    SPHERE. 


The  motions  of  the  celestial  bodies  being  in  appearance  all  performed  on  a  sphore,  o' 
wliich  the  rye  of  th<f  spectator  is  the  centre ;  with  a  view  to  describe  the  nature  of  these 
motionn,  it  uas  been  foimd  expedient  to  wippose  certain  circles  to  be  traced  on  rJiis  sphere, 
to  which,  also,  the  positions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  in  space  are  referrfd 

The  distance  of  the  fixed  stars  is  immensely  great  in  respectf  f  the  earth's  semi-diameter; 
for  it  is  foimd  that,  when  viewed  from  any  two  {X)int''  of  t'lf  earth's  surface,  they  have  the 
very  same  relative  position,  and  the  hh Tie  apparent  distances,  at  a  given  instant  of  tune. 
Hence  it  follows,  that  the  appearance  of  th?  heavens,  and  the  angular  distances  of  the  fixed 
stars,  will  be,  ab  to  sense,  the  mine,  whether  they  be  viewed  from  the  centre  of  the  earth 
or  from  a  point  on  its  surface.  We  may,  therefore,  conceive  the  axis  of  the  din'nHl  revo- 
lution to  pass  through  the  centre  </  the  earth,  which  will  be  also  the  centre  of  tiie  celeatiai 
sphere. 

DEFIKITTONB. 

A  great  'ircle  of  the  sphere  ia  that  whose  pl&ne  passes  thm^  its  centre ,  and  all  othert> 
are  called  small  circles. 

A  cirv  le  of  the  eoleoi/iti  mptii^fe,  wliose  plane  passes  throofB  the  earth's  centre,  and  tt 
jjerpendicular  to  the  axis,  i«  railed  the  fiyuATOR.  The  line  ir  which  this  plane  meets  tht 
earth's  surface  is  called  the  £<tiATOR  of  the  earth,  or  the  EauiNocriAL. 


Book  I. 


DOCTRINE  OF  THE  SPHERE. 


eo 


gT-e'atest  importance 


itre ,  and  all  othew 


To  illustrate  this  by  a  diagram,  let  c 
15 


be  the  centre  of  the  sphere  {Jig.  15.)»  which 
we  supjwse  to  coincide  with  the  centre  of  the 
eartli,  and  let  Pc/»  be  the  axis;  then  the  cir- 
cle, whose  diameter  is  E  Q,  which  paases  through 
c,  and  is  perpendicular  to  P/>,  is  the  Equator, 
The  circleb  wiiich  the  stars  describe  by  the 
d'urual  revolution,  are  all  parallel  to  the  Equa- 
tor.    Such  is  the  circle  whose  diameter  is  A  B. 

A  circle,  whose  plane  passes  through  the 
poles,  is  called  tlie  Mekidian,  and  the  section 
ojF  the  earth's  surfiice  made  by  this  plane  is  call- 
ed tlie  Meridian  of  all  the  places  through  which 
it  passes.  Thus  VEpQ,  is  a  meridian  circle 
in  the  heavens.  The  number  of  these  circles 
is  indefinite. 

By  the  geometrical  properties  of  a  sphere, 
the  plane  of  any  meridian  cuts  the  planes  ot 
the  equator  and  all  circles  parallel  to  it  at  right 
angles. 

We  know  by  observation,  that  any  body  at  rest,  and  let  fal)  from  a  point  above  the  earth, 
will,  by  its  weight  or  gravity,  descend  in  a  straight  line.  This  line  is  the  direction  of 
gravity:  it  is  also  indicated  by  the  direction  of  a  cord  to  which  a  plummet  is  suspended, 
and  is  everywhere  perpendicular  to  the  sur&ce  of  water  at  rest.  If,  now,  a  line  in  the 
direction  of  gravity  at  any  point  on  tlie  earth's  surface  be  produced  indefinitely  upward  and 
downward,  this  line,  called  a  vertical,  will  mark,  on  the  celestial  sphere,  two  points  called 
the  Zenith  and  Nadir.  The  former  is  the  point  in  the  heavens  immediately  over  head.  A 
plane  conceived  to  pass  through  any  plane  on  the  earth's  surface  at  right  angles  to  the  line 
joiuinw  its  zenith  and  nadir,  will,  when  extended  to  the  heavens,  meet  the  sphere  in  a  circle, 
wliich  IS  the  Horizon  of  that  place,  A  plane  that  passes  through  the  earth's  centre,  and  is 
parallel  to  the  plane  just  now  defined,  will  meet  the  sphere  in  a  circle,  which  is  also  called 
the  Horizon,  but,  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other,  the  former  is  called  the  Sensible, 
and  tiie  latter  the  Rational  Horizon.  On  account,  however,  of  the  smallness  of  the  earth's 
sernidiameter,  when  compared  with  the  immense  distances  of  the  fixed  stars,  the  two  horizons 
arc,  as  to  sense,  the  same. 
The  zenith  is  at  Z  (fig.  15.),  and  nadir  at  N.  Tlie  circle  H  O  R  is  the  horizon. 
If  tiie  earth  were  a  perfect  sphere,  the  direction  of  gravity  being  everywhere  perpendicu- 
lar to  iti?  surface,  all  bodies  would  tend  towards  its  centre.  But  if  there  be  any  deviation 
from  the  exact  sphertA^al  figure,  (and  this  is  really  the  case,)  then  the  direction  of  gravity 
will  not,  in  general,  pass  through  the  centre ;  thougii,  if  the  deviation  be  small,  it  will  nearly 
pass  through  tliat  point. 

Tho  plane  of  the  horizon  of  any])lace  touches  the  earth's  surface,  and  divides  the  whole 
expanse  of  the  heavens  into  two  Hemispheres  ;  one  of  which,  viz.  that  above  the  horizon, 
is  Visible,  and  the  other  Invisible.  To  an  eye  placed  close  to  the  earth's  surface,  or  to  the 
stirtiice  of  the  sea,  the  two  hemispheres  will  appear  exactly  eqtial.  A  spectator,  however,  on 
tti(>  tx)])  of  a  mountain,  can  see  more  than  half  of  the  heavens;  because,  if  a  line  drawn  from 
his  eye  to  touch  the  earth's  surface  were  carried  roimd,  it  would  generate  the  surface  of  a 
cone.  The  portion  of  the  heavens  within  this  cone  would  be  invisible ;  but  he  would  see  all 
the  spice  without  the  cone,  which  would  manifestly  be  the  larger  portion.  His  apparent  hori- 
zon would  still  be  a  circle  ;  hut  it  would  be  below  the  plane  passing  through  his  eye  perpen- 
(lioiilar  to  the  vertical.  The  depression  of  the  horizon  of  a  spectator  so  situated  below  this 
pltine  is  called  tlie  Dip. 

Circles  whose  planes  pass  through  tlie  zenith  and  nadir  of  any  place  are  called  Vertical 
CiiKi.Ks.  Such,  for  example,  as  the  circle  Z  O  N.  These,  by  the  properties  of  a  sphere, 
art'  all  perpendicular  to  the  horizon.  The  meridian  is,  of  course,  a  verti:^al  circle;  and 
the  vortical  circle  whose  plane  is  perpendicular  to  the  meridian  is  called  the  Prime 
Vkiitical. 

The  meridian  cuts  the  horizon  in  the  North  and  South  points,  and  the  prime  vertical 
cuts  it  in  the  East  and  West.  Those  four  are  the  Cardinal  Points.  They  divide  the  horizon 
ir.to  fear  equal  parts. 

f  iTt  a  rurtical  circle  be  supposed  to  pass  continually  through  a  star,  or  any  point  of  the 
heav«n>',  the  arc  of  that  circle  between  the  star  and  {lie  horizon  is  called  the  Altitude  of 
tho  star ;  and  the  arc  of  the  horizon  betwetm  the  vertical  circle  and  the  meridian  is  called  its 
A/.jmuth,  which  may  be  measured  either  from  the  north  or  sotith.  Thus,  inf.g.  15.,  suppose 
m  w  if  ni  r,  rhun  it-*  altitude  is  the  arc  S  O,  and  its  azimuth  the  arc  H  O. 
V'-rtiral  circles  are  called  CiarLES  of  Azimuth. 

f  I  >  iliiiude  of  a  star  will  ^3vidently  be  greatest  when  it  is  on  the  meridian,  and  it  will 
Vol.  I.  8 


66 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


pAitT  tl 


have  equal  altitudes  when  it  is  at  equal  distances  fhim  the  meridian ;  that  is,  when  its  eastern 
and  western  azimuths  arc  equal. 

Buppoee  a  meridian  to  pass  tliroujfh  a  star,  then  the  arc  intercepted  between  the  star 
and  the  equator  is  called  the  Declination  of  the  star.  Thus  P  S^  being  a  meridian  thai 
passes  through  the  star  S,  jmA  meets  the  equator  in  K,  the  arc  S  K  is  the  declination  of  the 
star. 

If  the  meridian  circle  pass  through  the  zenith  of  any  place,  the  arc  intercepted  between 
the  zenith  and  the  equator  is  called  the  Latitvde  of  that  place.  Thus  Z  being  the  zenith  of 
any  place,  and  £  K  Q  the  equator,  the  latitude  of  the  place  is  the  arc  Z  E. 

Assuming  the  meridian  circle  that  passes  through  the  zenith  of  any  particular  place  as  the 
First  Meridian,  the  arc  of  the  equator  intercepted  between  the  first  meridian  and  the  meri- 
dian circle  passing  througli  the  zenith  of  any  other  place,  is  called  the  Lonoitvdf  of  thai 
place.  It  is  usual,  in  this  country,  to  reckon  the  longitude  of  places  from  the  merichan  circle 
that  passes  through  the  zenitli  of  the  Observatory  at  Greenwich. 

Because  the  arcs  Z  R,  the  distance  of  the  zenith  fiom  the  horizon,  and  P  E,  the  distance 
of  the  pole  from  the  equator,  are  each  one-fourth  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle  or  a 
quadrant,  they  are  equal,  and  consequently,  leaving  out  the  common  arc  P  Z,  the  arcs  Z  E 
and  P  R  are  equal.  Hence  it  appears  that  P  R,  the  distance  of  the  pole  from  the  horizon  of 
any  place,  called  the  elevation  or  altitude  of  the  pole,  is  equal  to  the  latitude  of  that  place. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ROTATION  OF  THE  SUN.  MOON,  AND  PLANETS  ON  THEIR  AXES.    TflEIR  FIGURE. 

From  the  phenomena  of  the  spots  which,  by  aid  of  the  telescope,  are  visible  on  his  disc, 
we  are  led  to  conclude  that  the  sun  revolves  from  west  to  east  on  an  axis,  in  about  twenty- 
five  days  and  a  half.  Though  these  spots  are  subject  to  many  variations,  they  are  suin- 
ciently  permanent  to  enable  us  to  discover  that  they  Jiavc  regular  motions  across  the  disc, 
exactly  the  same  as  must  belong  to  correeponding  points  on  the  surfece  of  tho  sun,  supposing 
him  actually  to  have  a  motion  of  rotation  from  west  to  east  on  an  axis  nearly  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  of  the  path  or  orbit,  which,  in  virtue  of  his  apparent  motion,  he  describes 
round  the  heavens  in  the  course  of  a  year.  When  a  spot  is  first  discovered  on  the  eastern 
edge  of  the  disc,  it  appears  like  a  fine  line :  as  it  approaches  the  centre  of  the  disc  its 
breadth  increases ;  as  it  advances  towards  the  western  edge  the  breadth  again  diminishes, 
until  the  spot  at  length  entirely  disappears.  The  same  spot  is  sometimes  again  observed, 
after  fourteen  days,  on  the  east  side  of  the  disc ;  but  more  frequently  the  spot  is  dissolved, 
and  is  no  more  seen.  By  careful  observation  of  the  time  occupied  by  a  spot  in  crossing 
the  disc,  taking  also  into  account  the  proper  motion  of  the  sun  from  west  to  east  during 
that  period,  the  time  of  the  sun's  rotation  on  his  axis  is  tbund  to  be  about  twenty-five  and  a 
half  days. 

That  the  moon,  and  the  planets  Mercury,  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn,  have  each  a 
motion  of  rotation  from  west  to  east,  on  an  axis  inclined  to  the  plane  of  the  sun's  orbit,  is 
inferred  in  like  manner  from  tiie  spots  that  are  seen  to  traverse  their  discs.  The  moon  pre- 
sents always  nearly  the  same  side  to  the  earth ;  and  must,  therefore,  revolve  on  lier  axis  in 
the  same  time  in  which  she  is  carried  round  the  heavens  by  her  apparent  motion,  namelv,  in 
27 ''  7 '"  43 '.  Mercury  revolves  in  24  "  5 '" ;  Vfnus  in  28  •■  30  "• ;  Mars  in  24 ''  39  "" ;  Ju]!itei  in 
9''  56";  Saturn  in  10  *"  29"'.  In  the  remaining  planets  no  appearances  have  been  discovered 
which  enable  us  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  they  revolve  on  axes ;  though,  from  analogy,  it 
is  highly  probable  that  tiiey  do.  v 

With  regard  to  the  Sgirre  of  the  sun  and  of  ttiose  planets  which  are  known  to  revolve  on 
axes,  we  may  conclude  that  they  are  nearly  spherical ;  because  no  other  but  a  spherical  body 
can,  when  revolving  on  an  axis  in  the  manner  of  the  planets  (with  the  exception  of  the 
moon),  present  in  every  position  tiie  appearance  of  a  circular  disc.  The  spherical  figure  of 
the  moon,  and,  indeed,  of  the  other  planets  which  exhibit  phases,  may  be  inferred  from  the 
feet,  that  the  concavity  of  the  crescent  which  they  from  time  to  time  display  is  bounded  by 
an  elliptic  line.  The  planet  Uranus  always  presents  a  disc  that  is  nearly  circular,  nnd  it  lias 
not  been  ascertained  tliat  he  revolves  on  an  axis ;  but  it  is  very  improbable,  when  we  con 
aider  how  very  irregular  his  motions  among  the  fixed  stars  appear  when  seen  from  the  earth, 
that  he  should  keep  the  same  side  always  turned  towards  us.  His  apparent  motion  is  some- 
times direct,  that  is  from  west  to  east,  sometimes  retrograde,  or  in  the  contrary  direction ;  t>o 
that  to  present  constantly  the  appearance  of  «  circular  disc,  the  planet  woiild  require,  were 
it  not  spherical,  to  have  motions  in  opposite  directions  about  the  same  axis.  The  .same  rea 
Boning  will  apply  to  the  remaining  planets.  We  may  conclude,  therefore,  that  thf;  nnn 
/Tioon,  and  planets,  are  bodies  neariv  spherical. 


Pakt  II 

is,  when  ite  eastern 

I  between  the  star 
n^  a  meridian  thai 
I  declination  of  the 

jtercepted  between 
being  the  zenitii  of 

Vj. 

ticular  place  as  the 
•idian  and  the  ineri- 
LONOITVPK  of  tlmi 
the  merichan  circle 

d  P  E,  the  distance 
ze  of  a  circle  or  a 
c  PZ,  the  arcs  ZE 
from  the  horizon  of 
itude  of  that  place. 


HEIR  FIGURE. 

!  visible  on  his  disc, 
is,  in  about  twenty- 
ions,  they  are  Bulli- 
ons across  the  disc, 
f  tho  sun,  supposing 
early  perpendicular 
notion,  he  describes 
•ed  on  the  eastern 
ntre  of  the  disc  its 
h  again  diminishes, 
les  again  observed, 
le  spot  is  dissolved, 

a  spot  in  crossing 
ivest  to  east  during 

twenty-five  and  a 

atum,  have  each  a 

the  sun's  orbit,  is 

The  moon  pre- 

vc  on  her  axis  in 

motion,  namely,  in 
'■SO"-;  Jupiter  in 

ve  been  discovered 

h,  from  analogy,  it 

own  to  revolve  on 
ut  a  spherical  body 

exception  of  the 
i])herical  figure  of 
inferred  from  the 
ay  is  bounded  by 
circular,  and  it  has 
)le,  when  we  ron 
len  from  the  esirth, 
nt  motion  is  sonie- 
tniry  direction ;  .so 

lid  roquu-e,  were 

The  same  rea 

ore,  that  the.  nnn. 


87 


( .  •( 


Book  I.  DISTANCES,  ETC.  OP  THE  HEAVENLV  BODIES. 

CHAPTER  VI.     »  VM   . 

DISTANCES  AND  MAONI'nJDES  OF  THE  HEAVENLY  BODIES. 

DiSTANUES  of  the  fixed  stars.  From  whatever  point  of  the  earth's  surfiice  we  obeerve  the 
fixed  stars,  they  always  appear  to  preserve  tho  very  same  relative  positions.  We  may  heuct 
conclude  that  these  bodies  are  situated  at  immeasurable  distances  from  the  earth ;  and  tha; 
tiiough  to  us  who  mhabit  it  the  dimensions  of  the  earth  appear  very  great,  they  are  insensi- 
ble when  compared  with  theee  immense  distances.  The  earth  is  in  reality  but  as  a  point  in 
space.  But  though  the  fixed  stars  are  vastly  too  remote  to  admit  of  their  distances  being 
determined,  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  they  are  placed  at  very  different  degrees  of 
remoteness.  They  shine  with  very  various  degrees  of  brilliancy ;  multitudes  ore  not  visible 
without  the  aid  of  the  telescope,  and  it  may  reasonably  be  supposed  that  many  more  have 
not  yet  been  discovered  by  the  most  powerfiil  instruments  which  have  been  directed  to  the 
heavens. 

The  distances  of  the  fixed  stars  being  unknown,  we  can  only  form  conjectures  from 
hypothesis  and  analogy  respecting  their  true  magnitudes.  When  viewed  through  the  best 
telescopes,  they  have  no  apparent  diameter,  but  appear  like  points  in  the  heavens. 

Mode  of  determining  the  d.'^tance  of  the  eun,  moon,  and  planets.  In  reference  to  the 
sphere  of  the  fixed  stars,  then,  the  earth  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  point.  To  a  spectator,  at  the 
sun,  moon,  and  planets,  however,  it  would  present  a  disc  subtending  an  angle  of  greater  or 
less  magnitude,  and,  even  when  smallest,  admitting  of  measurement.  This  angle  can  be 
determined  by  an  observer  on  the  earth's  surface ;  and  as  we  know  the  true  magnitude  of  the 
eartii,  it  afl!brds  us  the  means  of  estimating  the  distances  of  these  bodies.  Let  O  n  (fig.  16)  be 
the  places  of  two  observers  under  the  same  meridian,  but  very  distant  from  each  other.  Let  P 
be  a  planet  in  the  meridian  of  these  places,  and  let  some  fixed  star  which  comes  to  the  meri- 
dian at  the  same  time  with  the  planet,  be  seen  by  the  observers  at  O  and  o,  in  the  directions 
0  S,  0  s.  Join  O  P,  0  P,  and  produce  O  P,  to  meet  o  s  in  A.  Then,  because  O  S,  o  s,  are 
parallel  (the  distance  of  the  star  S  being  regarded  as  infinite),  tlie  angles  O  A  o,  A  O  S  are 
equal ;  and,  because  O  P  o  is  the  exterior  angle  of  the  triangle  o  A  P,  it  is  equal  to  tlie  sum 
of  the  two  interior  and  opposite  angles  A  o  P,  o  A  P.  Wherefore  the  angle  O  P  o  is  equal 
to  tiie  sum  of  the  angles  A  o  P,  P  O  S ;  that  is,  the  angle  subtended  at  the  planet  by  the 
chord  of  the  terrestrial  arc  intercepted  between  the  points  of  observation,  is  equal  to  the  sum 
of  tiie  apparent  distances  of  the  planet  from  the  star,  provided  the  planet  is  seen  (as  we  iiave 
here  supposed)  on  opposite  sides  of  the  star  by  the  two  observers.  If  tiie  star  is  seen  on  the 
same  side  by  both,  the  angle  at  the  planet  will  then  be  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  appa- 
rent distances. 

If  the  observers  are  so  situated  that  P  O,  P  o  (Jig.  17)  are  tangents  to  the  circle  O  E  o  at  the 
points  O  and  o,  the  angle  O  P  o  will  be  the  angle  subtended  by  the  disc  of  the  earth  at  the  planet. 


But  if  P  O,  P  0  are  not  tangents,  draw  P  0'  and  P  d  tangents  to  the  circle  O  E  o,  and  from 
C  tlie  centre  draw  C  C,  C  o  to  the  points  of  contact:  draw  also  the  vertical  lines  C  Z  and 
(]  Z'  through  O  and  o  the  places  of  the  observers,  and  produce  P  O,  P  o  to  meet  C  0',  C  o 
in  B  and  D.  Now,  for  the  sun  and  planets  the  angle  O  P  o  is  very  small,  and  even  for  the 
moon  it  is  not  very  considerable.  Tiie  distance  P  C  may  therefore  be  regarded,  in  every 
case,  Hs  m.uch  oreater  tiian  C  O'^  or  C  6.  Hence  the  lines  C  O',  C  B,  C  D  may  without  sen- 
sible error  be  considered  as  proportional  to  the  angles  C  P  O',  C  P  B,  C  P  D ;  so  that  we 
nave  ZCPO':  ZCPO  =  CO':  CBand  ZCPO:  ZCPo  =  CO':  CD;  where- 
fore  Z  C  P  0' :  Z  C  P  O  +  Z  C  P  0  or  Z  O  P  o  =  C  0' :  C  B  +  C  D     But  tl      angles 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  U. 


nt  B  and  D  arc  very  nearly  right  angles,  and  therefore,  to  radius  C  O',  we  huvo  C  B 


Sin.  C  O  B  =  Sin.  P  O  Z ; 
Z  C  P  O' :  Z  O  P  o  -  (C  O 


D  =  Sin.  P  o  Z' :  Honco 


we  obtain 
:  Aiid2Z 


and  C  I)  =  Sin.  C  o 
:  C  B  +  C  D  =)  Had. :  Sin.  P  O  Z  +  Sin.  P  o  Z' 

CPO'  or  ZO'Pd  =  2ZOPoXq.     r,f.J^'       p     ^, 

Sm.  P  O  Z  +  Sin.  P  o  Z 

If  the  planet  be  on  the  same  side  of  the  zenith  to  both  observers,  then  the  difference, 
instead  of  tlie  sum  of  the  sines  of  the  zenith  distances,  must  be  taken  fur  the  denominator. 
Expressing  the  above  formula  in  words,  we  give  the  following  simple  rule : — Divide  the  arc, 
(jxpressed  in  parts  of  the  radius,)  which  measures  the  observed  angle  at  the  planet,  by  the 
sum  of  the  sines  of  the  zenith  distances  of  the  planet,  \f  it  is  between  the  zeniths  of  the 
two  observers ;  or  by  the  difference  of  these  sines  \f  the  planet  is  on  the  same  side  of  the 
zenith  to  both  observers ;  and  twice  the  result  will  be  the  arc,  expressed  in  ^arts  of  the 
radius,  that  measures  the  angle  stU»tended  at  the  planet  by  the  disc  of  the  earth. 

Since  small  angles,  that  recjuire  for  their  measurement  only  the  tise  of  the  micrometer 
can  be  determined  with  much  more  accuracy  tlion  large  angles  retjuiring  the  whole  telescope 
to  be  moved,  it  is  best  to  employ,  in  .Inding  the  angle  O  P  o  a  star  which  is  near  the  planet ; 
a  small  error  in  taking  the  zenith  distances  of  the  planet  will  produce  no  sensible  error  in 
the  result 

Another  method  of  determining  this  angle,  is  by  observations  on  the  transit  of  Venus  over 
the  disc  of  the  sun ;  a  phenomenon  in  which  the  planet  is  seen  like  a  dark  spot  on  the  disc ; 
but  the  method  now  explained  is  sufficient  for  our  present  purpose. 

I'iie  following  are  the  angles  subtended  by  the  earth^s  disc  at  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets, 
when  the  earth  is  nearest  to  each : 

Seconds. 

=  17  Angle  at  Uranus 

=  28  Vesta 

=  62  Juno 

=  42  Ceres 

=    4  Pallas 

=    2  Moon 


Angle  at  the  Sun 

Mercury 

Venus 

Mars 

Jupiter 

Saturn 


Senniids. 
1 


=        9 


=  2°  2' 

To  determine,  now,  the  distance  of  the  sun  or  moon,  or  of  a  planet : — In  the  right  angled 

Q  triangle  P  O  C  we  have  given  the  angle  P  equal  to 

^ —  half  the  angle  subtended  by  the  earth's  disc  at  the 

body  whose  distance  is  to  be  found ;  also  O  C  the 
earth's  semi-diameter:  therefore  vhe  distance  P  C 
may  be  determinctl  by  the  proyjorlion  Sin.  P :  Rad.= 
C  O  :  P  (^.  Since  the  angle  P  is  small,  its  sine 
must  be  nearly  equal  to  tlie  arc  which  measures  it 
Observing  therefore  that  tiie  arc  to  which  the  radius 
is  equal,  expr(!ssed  in  seconds,  is  206265"  we  have 
Z  P  (in  seconds)  :  20<)265  ::r-.  C  O  :  P  C.     Hence 

Whence  we  derive  the  following  rule: — Divide  the  lonstanl 


PC  =  2C0  X 


206265 
2  P    ' 


number  206265  by  the  number  of  seconds  in  the  nvale  subtended  by  the  farth\s  disc  as  seen 

from  the  body  whose  distance  is  to  be  determined ;  multiply  the  rrsnlt  hy  the  diameter  of 

the  earth,  and  the  product  is  the  distance  required.     In  the  case  of  tlii;  sun ;  asHtiming  the 

206265 
diameter  of  the  earth  as  unity,  we  have  the  distance  equal  to  — - —  or  12133  diameters  of 

the  earth.  In  like  manner,  taking  4",  2",  1"  for  the  angles  subtonded  by  thf  eartii's  disc  at 
Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus,  the  distances  of  these  planets  from  the  earth,  when  hvi.st,  will 
be  51566,  103132,  206265  diameters  of  the  earth  respectively.  The  mean  distance  of  tJJt 
moon  is  about  sixty  semi-diameters  of  the  earth. 

The  apparent  diameter  of  any  one  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  is  the  number  of  seconds  in  the 
measure  of  the  angle  under  which  its  circular  disc  is  seen  by  a  spectator  upon  tlic^  eiirth, 
Wlion  measured  by  a  micrometer,  the  apparent  diameters  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  jjlanets  are 
found  to  be,  when  greatest,  as  follows : 

Seconds.  Seromlp 

Diameter  of  the  Sun  =  1923  Diameter  of  Jupiter  =      46 

Mercury  =      12  Saturn  —      18 

Venus      =      61  Uranus  =        4 

Mars        =      18  Mwn    =  2020 

Tlie  four  remaining  planets,  according  to  the  most  carefiil  observations,  appear  to  ijubt^ij 

only  a  small  part  of  a  second. 


Now,  for  dediicinnr  the  real  diameters  fri 


v/tii     Lilt; 


apparent,  we  nave  inis  rule . — As  t/iit 
apparent  diameter  of  the  earth,  (or  the  seconds  in  the  angle  which  its  disc  siU)tends,)  at 


I,  momi,  and  planets. 


Book  I. 


ROTATION  OP  THE  EARTH. 


m,^ 


Siicn  from  the  planet,  in  to  the  apparent  diameter  of  the  planet  as  setn  from  the  earth,  f* 
it  Ihi  true  diameter  of  the  earth  to  the  true  diameter  of  the  planet. 
Calling  the  diameter  of  tlio  earth  unity,  or  8U00  miles  in  roimd  numbers,  we  obtain, 

Uiitmetrm  uf 


lh«  Rnnh. 

Mlln. 

Diameter  of  the  Sun           = 

111.454    = 

882,(H)0  nearly. 

::.       ■ 

'      Mercury    = 

0.398    = 

3,140    —    -. 

Venus       = 

0.9        = 

7,2(K)    —  ■■> 

Mars         = 

0.517    = 

4,100    ^    i 

.Jl 

.'upiter      = 

10.860    - 

87,(K)0    —     • 

<fv.i/'      ,-1' 

Jttturn       = 

9.982    = 

70.008    —    i 

,.   :'    .  '  ,- 

Uranus      = 

4.332    = 

84,500    — 

,  '    '     J 

Moon         = 

0.273    = 

2,160    — 

An  the  sun,  moon,  and  plannts  are  spherical  bodies,  their  magnitudes  compared  with  the 
mn^initude  of  the  earth,  may  be  found  upon  the  principle  that  similar  solids  are  to  one 
aniithor  as  tlie  cubes  of  tlieir  similar  dimensions ;  so  that  as  the  cube  of  the  diameter  of  the 
earth  is  to  the  cube  of  the  diameter  of  the  sun;  moon,  or  a  planet,  so  is  the  magnitude  of 
the  former  to  the  magnitude  of  the  latter. 

Assuming  the  magnitude  of  the  earth  as  unity : 
The  magnitude  of  the  Sim 


Sim 

= 

1384472.000 

Mercury 

= 

.063 

Venus 

=: 

.927 

Mars 

r= 

.139 

Jupiter 

=. 

1280.900 

Saturn 

=:: 

99.'j.000 

Uranus 

= 

80.490 

Moon 

= 

.020 

Having  now  ascertained  the  distances  and  magnitudes  of  the  henvenly  bodies,  we  proceed 
to  inquire  whether  the  diurnal  motion  which  we  observe  in  them  be  a  real  or  only  an  ap- 
parent motion ;  and  whether  the  earth  is  the  centre  to  which  tlie  proper  motion  of  any  of 
tliein  is  to  be  referred. 


divide  the  constant 


CHAPTER  Vn. 

POTATION  OP  THE  EARTH. 

The  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies  suggests  the  existence  of  some  cause,  under 
tlio  influence  of  which  they  either  perform  or  appear  to  perforni  a  iC  olution  from  east  to 
west  round  the  axis  of  the  celestial  sphere  in  the  s^-'ie  of  a  day  and  a  r.  „ht  Now,  there 
arc  two  suppositions,  on  either  of  which  the  diurni.l  ,  oti'^r.  may,  be  explaii~"(j,  We  may 
suppose  the  heavens  to  be  carried  round  the  earth,  .'ile  the  latter  remains  lAiimoveable  in 
the  centre ;  or  v/e  may  suppose  the  heavens  to  be  at  rcat,  and  tlie  earth  to  revolve  on  an 
axis  in  an  opposite  direction;  that  is,  from  west  to  "  ..st  To  which  of  these  hypotheses  the 
preference  is  due,  will  be  evident  if  we  consider  that  the  heavenly  bodies  are  independent 
ow  of  another,  and  are  placed  at  very  different  distances  from  the  earth ;  that  variations  in 
the  apparent  diameters  of  the  planets  indicate  great  changes  in  their  distances,  while  the 
comets  traverse  the  heavens  in  all  directions ;  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  that  one  and 
the  same  cause  should  impress  on  all  those  bodies  a  common  motion  of  rotation. 

Since  the  earth  is  a  globe  of  about  8000  miles  di.Jiieter,  it  is  small  when  compared  with 
the  immense  mass  of  the  sun.  Were  the  centres  of  the  sun  and  earth  brought  into  coinci- 
dence, the  former  body  would  fill  the  orbit  of  the  mooii  and  extend  as  fur  again  beyond  it. 
Besides,  the  sua  is  distant  from  us  about  twelve  thousaml  diametera  of  the  earth;  so  that  to 
revolve  round  the  heavens  in  the  interval  of  twenty-four  hours,  he  must  move  at  the  im- 
monst^  velocity  of  about  twent)'-five  millions  of  miles  in  an  hour.  It  is  therefore  more 
reasonable  to  suppose  the  eartli  to  have  a  motion  of  ro'  tion  on  an  axis,  than  to  suppose  the 
sun,  a  body  so  distant  and  of  such  immense  magnitude,  to  move  witli  Uie  vast  rapidity  that 
would  be  ro<iuisite  to  carry  him  round  the  heavens  in  so  e'lort  an  interval.  With  regard  to 
the  fixed  stars,  we  may  reason  in  the  same  nianner  with  still  greater  force:  for  the  velocity 
necessary  to  carry  the  sun  rotmd  in  twenty-four  hours  is  really  insonsible  when  comjmred 
with  tlie  rapidity  with  which  the  fixed  stiirs  must  move  to  accomplish  a  like  revolution.  In 
order  to  account  for  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens  on  tae  hypothesis  that  the  earth  is 
at  rest,  it  must  be  isupposetl  that  the  sun,  moor  i.nd  stars  have  their  velocities  so  adapted 
t*i  their  respective  distances,  that  all  of  tl  plete  iheir  revolutions  round  the  earth 

in  exMotly  the  same  nnmbor  of  seconds.  Si,  ■  ^  idaptation  among  innumerable  indenen- 
ui^iit  'otxiie.s,  placed  at  such  a  variety  of  distancts,  i<   "  impossible  to  admit. 

There  are  other  phenomena  of  the  heavens  wan;';  orve  still  farther  to  confirm  the  con* 
elusion,  tliat  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavenly  'lodi-.s  s  not  a  real  motion.  Every  difficulty, 

Vol,  I  8*  M 


00 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GE(X}RAPHY. 


PartII 


however  disappiare,  if  we  supposo  the  earth  to  have  a  motion  of  rotation  on  nn  nxJB  trorn 
west  to  east.  Ca.'icd  round  with  a  velocity  common  to  all  the  objects  which  wirrdiind  'ii* 
on  the  eartli's  surfhc  •,  we  are  in  a  situation  sirnilnr  to  that  of  a  spectntor  placed  in  n  vt^  .ni 
in  motion.  At  tlip  .irst  careless  glance  he  imagines  himself  at  rest,  while  the  shore,  and 
all  the  ofijccts  which  ne  sees,  unconnected  with  the  vessel,  apimar  to  bo  in  motio>i.  By 
r*"flecting,  however,  ■  tl; ,  \lent  of  the  sliorc,  on  the  magnitude  of  the  mountains,  and 
other  objects  on  land,  '  or  coni]>ared  with  the  vessel  from  which  f  -^  ibserves  them,  he  frees 
bis  mind  from  this  momentary  illusion,  and  becomes  convinced  '  i  >  the  motion  of  these 
objects  is  o"ly  apparent,  and  that  it  is  produced  by  the  real  i  ;ouuii  of  the  vessel.  The 
multitudL^  of  stars  scattered  over  tlie  heavens  are,  with  respect  to  us,  what  the  shore  and 
the  objects  uixin  it  are  with  regard  to  tlie  spectator  placed  in  the  vessel:  and  by  the  same 
considerations,  by  which  his  first  imprcHsions  are  so  corrected  that  he  becomes  assured  of 
the  reality  of  his  motion,  we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  tlie  rotation  of  the  earth  on  un 
axis  produces  the  apparent  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens. 

An  argument  for  the  rotation  of  the  earth  may  also  bo  drawn  fVom  analogy.  Several  of 
the  planets  are  known  to  have  a  motion  on  an  axis  similar  to  that  which  we  have  supposed 
to  belong  to  the  earth.  Jupiter,  for  example,  which  ia  many  times  greater  than  the  farth, 
revolves  on  his  axis  from  west  to  east  in  less  than  half  a  day;  and  to  an  observer  on  his 
surface,  the  heavens  would  appear  to  revolve  round  Uiat  planet  in  the  same  manner  as  we 
see  them  revolve  round  the  earth,  but  in  about  half  the  tune.  This  motion  of  the  heaven* 
in  reference  to  a  spectator  on  the  planet  Jupiter  would,  however,  be  only  apparent ;  and 
hence  we  may  reasonably  conclude,  that  the  case  is  the  same  u>  reference  to  a  spectator  on 
the  earth. 

Lastly,  if  the  earth  is  actuolly  in  motion,  there  will  be  generated  a  centrifugal  force,  or 
a  tendency  to  throw  off  objects  from  its  surface,  which  must  diminish  the  force  of  gravity, 
particularly  at  the  equator,  where  the  motion  is  most  rapid.  Now,  by  observations  made 
with  the  pendulimi,  this  diminution  of  the  force  of  gravity  has  been  found  to  exist.  The 
same  cause  affects  also  the  figure  of  the  earth,  which  has  been  found  to  be  flattened  some- 
what at  the  points  of  rotation,  and  elevated  at  the  equatorial  regions.  The  same  is  observed 
to  be  the  figure  of  Jupiter, — a  circumstance  which  greatly  strengthens  the  argument  drawn 
from  analogy.  The  evidence  which  has  now  been  addyced  leaves  no  doubt  respecting  the 
eartli's  motion  of  rotation ;  and  thus  we  are  enabled  to  ascertain  the  true  place  which  the 
globe  that  we  inhabit  holds  in  the  universe. 

The  points  in  which  the  axis  of  rotation  meeta  ,  «  surface  are  called  the  poles  of  thff 
earth;  and  it  i^  evident  that  the  axis,  if  produced,  must  pass  through  the  poles  of  the 
heavens. 


CHAPTER  Vm. 

APPARENT  ANNUAL  MOTION  OP  THE  SUN.     VICIS8ITUDE  OP  SEASONS. 

While  the  sun  participates  in  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens,  he  also  appears  to  move 
eastward  among  the  fixed  st^rs.  This  motion  it  will  be  of  importance  now  to  trace  out, 
and  to  explain  the  change  of  seasons  to  which  it  gives  rise.  If  we  observe  each  day  of  the 
year  the  meridian  altitude  of  the  sun,  and  note  the  time  which  elapses  between  his  passage 
over  the  meridian  and  the  passage  of  any  particular  star,  we  shall  have  the  apparent  motion 
of  the  sun  in  the  direction  of  the  meridian,  and  of  the  circles  parallel  to  the  equator  in 
which  he  appears  daily  to  be  carried  by  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens.  The  result  of 
the  composition  of  these  two  motions  will  give  the  true  motion  for  each  day.  In  this  manner 
it  has  been  found  that  the  sun  moves  in  a  path  or  orbit  which  cuts  the  equator  in  two  oppo- 
site points,  and  makes  with  it  an  angle  equal  to  23°  28'  nearly. 

The  name  of  ecliptic  is  given  to  the  circle  which  the  plane  of  this  orbit  marks  out  on  the 
sphere  of  the  heavens.  It  passes  through  twelve  constellations,  which  are  called  the 
TWELVE  SIGNS.  This  has  given  rise  to  the  division  of  the  ecliptic  into  twelve  equal  parts, 
called  sioNS,  each  containing,  of  course,  30°.  The  twelve  signs  are  contained  in  a  zone  of 
the  starry  heavens,  called  the  Zodiac.  The  names  of  these  constellations,  with  the  charac- 
ters by  which  they  are  usually  denoted,  are  as  follow: — AriesT,  Taurus  !^,  Gemini  11,  Cancer 
5c,  Leo  SI,  Virgo  ^%  Libra  ^,  Scorpio  1T[,  Sagittarius  ^,  Capricornus  ]/y,  Aquarius  "XC,  Pisces  X- 

The  vicissitude  of  seasons  arises  from  the  combination  of  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun 
m  the  ecliptic  with  his  apparent  diurnal  motion.  When  the  sun  is  in  either  of  the  jviints 
ui  which  the  ecliptic  intersects  the  equator,  he  describes  the  equator  on  that  day  in  virtue 
of  his  diurnal  motion;  and  as  by  the  properties  of  the  sphere  this  circle  is  divided  into  two 
equal  parts  by  the  horizon,  at  whatever  point  of  the  earth's  surface  the  si)ectator  is  situated, 
the  day  is  then  equal  to  the  night  over  all  the  globe. 

The  points  of  intersection  of  equator  and  ecliptic  are  called  the  E<juiNOCTiAii  Points. 
Tlie  first  p<jintof  the  sign  Aries  is  supposed  to  coincide  with  the  point  of  the  vernal  equinox; 
and  from  that  point  the  sigxis  of  the  ecliptic  are  reckoned :  the  first  point  of  the  sign  LH"-(t 


tklOK   I 


VKJISHI'J'UUE  OF  8KAHONS. 


le  b 


however,  o^uin  y:riuluully 


and  such  tlu  succession  of  tlie 

"   •!<'  voriml  or  spring  ecjuinox, 

ice,    ,  h  ch  happens  uliont  the  'Jlnt 

d  equinox,  which  tkllH  ubuul  the 

itumnal  equinox  und  tiie  winter 

>  tumk:  and,  lastly,  the  VVintiih 


Mill  therothre  coincide  with  the  point  of  tlie  autumnal  equinox.  Aiitlio  sun,  when  lit.  leavea 
tiio  point  of  the  vernal  equinox  advances  in  the  ecliptic,  his  nieri'Mon  allitiulo  iiIkwh  ..ur 
horizon  daily  increases,  and  a  larf^er  [XN'tion  of  the  (Mimllel  which  h(<  illy  describes  boconiua 
visible.  Hence  arises  a  gradual  increase  in  tlio  len^fth  of  the  day  m  all  countries  to  tlie 
north  of  the  equator;  until' the  sun  liavuiff  reached  his  proatest  altitude,  the  day  acquires  ita 
ijrreutest  length,  and  begins  to  shorten.  As  the  variations  of  the  altitude  <<ii  each  side  of  tlio 
|)oints  at  which  it  is  greatest  are  insensible,  the  sun,  if  \vi  uttend  only  to  his  altitude,  ap(N!urs 
stationary,  and  the  day  continues,  for  some  time,  very  neui  of  'w.  same  length.  The  point 
of  the  ecliptic  at  which  the  viaximum  takes  place  is  thereluK  .-noininated  the  point  of  the 
Mummer  Souitice.  The  sun,  having  reached  this  jxiint,  ii<  .  returns  towards  tiie  equator, 
which  he  crosses  at  the  point  of  tlie  autumnal  oquiiKJX.  His  meridian  i  itude  gradually 
(iiiiiinishes  until  it  reaches  the  minimum  at  the  |)>.iat  of  the  Wimter  Solnhcr.  The  day, 
which  has  been  gradually  shortening  tVom  Ih"  wit-  -^r  solsti'-e,  is  then  the  shortest  in  tlio 
year,  and  for  some  lime  does  not  sensibly     ngi  Tl 

approaches  the  equator,  and  reaches  it  at  tin.'  vci  . 

Hiicii  is  the  constant  progress  of  the  sun  in  the 
seiwons  of  the  year.    The  Spring  is  the  time  < 
which  falls  about  the  2l8t  of  March,  and  the 
of  June  :  the  interval  between  the  solstice  and     • 
2:3d  of  September  is  the  Summer  :  the  time  betwee: 
solstice,  which  occurs  about  the  22d  of  December,  ib 
IS  the  time  that  elapses  between  the  winter  solstice  and  tiio  spring  eijuinox. 

The  two  circles  parallel  to  the  equator,  which  tlie  sun  describes  on  the  longest  and 
shortest  days,  are  called,  one  the  sumimr  or  northern  Tkopic,  and  the  otlier  the  winter  or 
Bouthcrn  Tropic.  They  are  also  respectively  denominated  the  tropic  of  Cancer  and  tlie 
tropic  of  Capricorn,  in  reference  to  the  points  in  which  they  touch  the  ecliptic. 

The  presence  of  the  sun  above  the  horizon  being  the  cause  of  heat,  and  the  temperature 
increasing  as  the  altitude  increases,  it  might  be  interred  that  the  temperature  should  he  tiie 
same  in  summer  as  in  spring,  and  in  winter  as  in  autumn ;  because  the  altitudes  of  the  sun 
in  these  seasons  exactly  correspond.  But  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  temperiiture  is  not  an 
instantaneous  effect  of  the  sun's  presence;  but  is  the  result  ol  tiie  continued  action  ot'  iiis 
rays.  On  this  account  it  is  not  greatest  on  the  day  when  the  altitude  is  greatest,  but  s^oine 
time  between  the  summer  solstice  and  autumnal  eq#»nox.  In  like  manner,  the  greatet-t  cold 
of  winter  does  not  occur  on  the  shortest  day,  but  some  time  between  the  winter  solstiiio  and 
the  spring  equinox. 

With  regard  both  to  temperature  and  the  length  of  the  day,  great  differences  aristi  from 
the  different  elevations  of  the  pole  above  the  horizon,  as  we  proceed  from  the  eiiualor 
towards  either  of  the  poles.  The  horizon  pf  an  observer  at  the  equator  passes  through  fiie 
poles,  ond  by  the  geometrical  properties  of  tlie  sphere  it  divides  the  equator  and  all  tlie  circles, 
parallel  to  it  into  two  equal  parts.  It  also  cuts  them  at  right  angles ;  and  hence  the  |X)sition 
of  the  celestial  sphere,  in  reference  to  the  horizon  of  an  observer  at  tlie  equator,  is  called  the 
Right  position  of  the  sphere.  In  whatever  point  of  the  ecliptic  the  sun  is  situated,  his 
diurnal  course  is  therefore  at  right  angles  to  the  horizon,  and  one  half  of  it  is  in  tiie  visible 
hemisphere,  and  the  other  half  in  the  invisible;  hence,  at  the. equator,  the  day  is  ut  all 
seasons  equal  to  the  night. 

When  the  sun  is  in  either  of  the  equinoctial  points,  he  passes  through  the  zenith  at 
mid-day.  When  he  is  in  either  of  the  solstitial  points  his  meridian  altitude  is  the  least,  and 
is  equal  to  the  complement  of  the  inclination  of  the  ecliptic  to  the  equator.  In  tliese  two 
[lositions  of  the  sun  the  shadows  of  objects  fall,  at  mid-day,  in  op]K«ite  directions, — a  pheno- 
menon which  at  no  season  occurs  in  our  climate,  where  the  solar  shadows  are  at  mid-dny 
always  directed  towards  the  north:  there  are,  then,  properly  speaking,  two  summers  mid 
two  winters  in  the  year  at  the  equator.  The  same  thing  takes  place  in  all  the  countries 
where  the  elevation  of  the  pole  above  the  horizon  is  less  than  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic. 
In  every  country  beyond  this  region  there  is  only  one  summer  and  one  winter  in  the  year, 
with  *he  intervening  seasons  of  spring  and  autumn :  the  sun  is  never  in  the  zenith :  the 
length  of  the  longest  day  increases,  and  that  of  the  shortest  day  diminishes,  as  we  advance 
towards  either  of  the  poles ;  and  when  we  have  reached  such  a  position,  that  the  zimith  is 
distant  from  the  pole  by  an  arc  of  the  meridian  equal  to  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  the 
sun  does  not  set  at  the  summer  solstice,  nor  rise  at  the  winter  solstice. 

The  polar  circles.  About  each  of  the  poles  of  the  celestial  sphere,  suppose  a  circle  to  be 
described  distant  from  it  by  an  arc  equal  to  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic ;  these  two  circles 
are  called  the  Polar  Circles.  In  the  region  of  the  earth  situated  around  either  of  its 
poles,  at  every  point  whoso  zenith  lines  within  the  polar  circle,  the  time  of  the  sun's  presence 
above  the  horizon  and  of  his  absence  below  it,  at  certain  seasons,  exceeds  twenty-four  hours; 
it  increases  as  we  approach  the  pole,  and  may  amount  to  days  or  even  to  months.  Thus, 
when  the  sun's  declination  north,  increasing,  becomes  equal  to  the  distance  of  the  zenitii  of 
any  place  in  the  northern  polar  reg.on  from  the  north  pole  of  the  heavens,  he  ceases  to  set 


^ 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


L0_  l^KilSS 

m  JM  12.2 


I.I 


1.25 


S  us  12.0 


I: 


14  r 


'^ 


Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


^^V-.-^^ 

";j«^^^^ 


33  WEST  MAIN  STMET 

WE»STER,N.Y.  14SS0 

(716)  872-4503 


C- 


1»RING1PLE3  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  tL 


ftt  thst  place,'  sml  oonUnnes  above  the  horiaon  until  he  haa  retched  the  aame  declination  in 
retumiiw  towards  the  equator.  From  that  time  the  mm  rises  and  'sete  in  the  course  of 
twenty^four  hours,  until  the  sun's  declination  souA  becomes  equal  to  the  distance  of  the 
lenith  frnn  the  pole,  and  then,  he  ceases  to  rise  and  continues  below  the  horizon  tii^  he  has 
ngstin  acquired  uie  same  declination  in  returning  northward. 

At  the  pole,  the  equator  coincides  with  the  horizcm,  and  all  the  circles  parallel  to  the 
equator  are  also  parallel  to  the  norizon.  This  is  coUed  the  ParauiBL  position  of  the  sphere. 
To  an  observar,  jdaced  at  the  pole,  the  heavenly  bodies  would  appear  to  move  round,  either 
in  tiie  horizm  or  parallel  to  it  Hence  the  sun  is  constantly  above  Jie  horiztHi  when  he  is 
on  the  sanvi  side  of  the  equator  with  the  pole,  and  constantly  below  it  when  on  the  other 
side ;  so  that  at  either  of  the  poles  of  the  earth  there  is  (Mily  one  day  and  one  night  in  the 
year.  -.tcf'-.-^:.!. 

At  anj  point  Ml'  tlw  earth's  aurftee,  between  the  equator  and  either  of  the  poles,  the 
ttquator  and  the  circles  parallel  to  it,  are  oblique  to  the  Iwrizon.  This  is  called  the  Obu^uk 
position  of  the  sphere ;  and  by  the  geometrical  properties  of  the  spjhere,  the  horizon,  in  this 
position,  divides  all  the  circles  parulel  to  the  eqi^rtor  into  two  unequal  parts ;  hence  arises 
the  inequality  of  the  days  and  nights  at  all  places  between  the  equator  and  either  pole.  In 
this  countTjr,  for  example,  in  summer,  when  the  eun  is  on  the  north  side  of  the  equator,  the 
larger  portum  of  his  diurnal  course  lies  in  the  visible  hemisphere,  and'the  Itoss  in  the  invisible, 
so  that  the  day  is  longer  than  the  night.  The  reverse  is  the  case  in  the  winter  when  the 
sun  is  on  the  south  side  of  the  equator. 

If  two  places  are  situated  on  opposite  sides  of  the  equator,  the  spring  and  summer  of  the 
me  will,  it  is  evident,  correspond  to  the  autumn  and  winter  of  the  other. 

With  regard  to  the  temperature,  it  is  higher  in  the  equatorial  regions  than  in  any  other 
port  of  the  earth,  because  Uiere  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays  is  most  direct.  To  every  point 
of  the  earth's  sur&oe,  whose  zenith  lies  between  the  tropics,  the  sun  is  vertical  twice  in  the 
year ;  so  that  his  rays,  acting  perpendiculcj-ly,  produce  their  greatest  effect.  In  the  polar 
regions  the  temperature  is  lowest,  in  consequence  of  the  obliquity  with  which  the  sun's  rays 
fell  on  the  earth's  surihce,  and  the  great  length  of  the  winter  night  In  the  countries  situated 
between  the  equatorial  region  and  the  two  polar  regions,  there  prevails  a,  medium  tempera^ 
ture,  increasing  as  the  zenith  approaches  the  nearer  of  the  two  tropics,  and  diminishing  afl 
it  approaches  tiie  nearer  of  the  polar  circles. 
i>' A  division  of  the  earth's  surface  into^ve  zaaea  has  been  suggested  by  this  differencr 

temperature  from  the  equator  towards  either  pui<3. 
In  the  adjoining  figure  let  P  p  represent  the  earth's 
axis,  P  £  p  Q,  a  meridian,  and  E  Q  the  equatorial 
diameter.  Let  E  C  Q  be  the  representation  of  a 
circle  on  the  earth's  sur&ce  equally  distant  from 
the  poles,  which  will  therefore  be  the  equator: 
and  F  6  H,  fg  k  circles  ou  the  earth's  sur&ce 
parallel  to  the  equator,  and  at  the  distance  of  about 
23^  degrees ;  on  each  side  of  it  and  A  B  D,  a  b  d 
circles  round  the  poles  P,  p,  and  at  the  same  dis* 
tanoe  of  38^  degrees. 

At  the  times  of  the  year  when  the  sun  is  in  the 
trop'c  of  Cancer,  he  will,  in  his  apparent  revolu- 
tion, be  vertical  to  all  places  on  the  circle  F  G  H ; 
and  when  he  is  in  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  he  will 
be  vertical  to  the  circle //g'  A.  The  space  on  the 
earth's  surface  between  these  circles  is  the  Torrid 
Zone. 


When  the  sun  is  .n  tlie  southern  ttbpic  he  will  not  be  seen  aiwwhere  in  the  space  bounded 
by  the  circle  A  B  D  This  is,  therefore,  the  northern  Frigid  Zone :  and  when  he  is  in  the 
northern  tropic  there  is  a  like  tract  bounded  by  the  circle  abd,  roimd  the  south  pole,  where 
he  will  then  be  invisible.  This  is  the  southern  Frigid  Zone.  The  two  tracts  bet '  een  the 
torrid  zone  and  the  frigid  zones  are  the  temperate  zones. 

Another  division  of  the  earth  into  zones  was  used  by  the  ancient  geographers,  founded  on 
the  different  lengths  of  the  longest  day,  as  we  proceed  from  the  equator  towards  either  of 
the  poles.  These  zones  were  denominated  Climates,  and  were  each  of  such  a  breadtli,  tliat 
the  longest  day  at  the  boundary  nearer  the  pole  exceodixi  the  longest  day  at  tlie  bound..ry 
nearer  the  equator  by  some  certain  space  of  time,  as  half  an  hour  or  an  hour.  Within  the 
polar  circle,  the  climates  wore  supposed  of  such  a  breadth  as  to  make  the  longest  day  at  the 
opposite  sides  differ  by  a  month. 

The  points  in  which  the  equator  and  ecliptic  intersect  each  other  are  not  immoveable;  hut 
appear,  with  respect  to  the  fixed  stars,  to  recede  towards  the  west  at  the  rate  of  ."jOyV' 


nearly,  annually,  or  about  1°  m  72  years.     This  motion  is  called  the  Pkecission  of  tlie 
Equinoxes.     Wheit  the  constellations  of  the  zodiac  were  iurst  delineated  bv  the  ancient 


IomL 


"VICISSITUDE  OP  gEASONS. 


Runmer  of  the 


moveable-  but 


astronomera,  the  middle  of  the  si^  Aries  was  at  the  point  of  Uie  vernal  equinox,  from  which 
it  is  now  distant  more' than  58°  towards  the  east.  In  consequence  of  the  precession  of  tlie 
equinoxes,  the  time  in  which  the  son  moves  fhnn  the  vernal  equinox  to  the  vernal  equinox 
again,  is  less  than  the  time  in  which  he  moves  ftom  any  star  to  the  same  star  a^[ain ;— ^he 
point  of  the  vernal  equinox  moving  westward,  so  as  to  meet  the  sun,  and  thus  anticipate  the 
time  of  his  crossing  the  equator  in  the  {H^oeding  year. 

The  intervals  of  time  which  separate  the  equinoxes  or  the  solstices  are  unequal.  Almost 
eight  days  more  elapse  from  the  spring  to  the  autumnal  equinox,  tiian  from  the  latter  to  the 
former.  We  may  therefiwe  conclude,  that  the  moticm  of  the  sun  is  not  uniform.  From 
precise  and  multiplied  observatiixis,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  his  motion  is  most  rapid  at 
a  point  of  the  ecliptic  situated  near  the  winter  solsticial  point,  and  slowest  at  the  opposite 
point  towards  *he  summer  solstice.  At  the  former  point  the  sun  describes  daily  1°  1  10", 
at  the  latter  only  57'  11^".  The  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth  is  also  variable.  This 
is  proved  by  variations  observed  in  his  apparent  diameter,  which  increases  and  diminishes  at 
tlie  same  tune  with  his  angular  velocity,  but  not  in  the  same  ratia  The  angular  velocities 
at  any  two  instants  of  time  are,,  to  one  another,  as  the  squares  of  the  apparent  diameters. 

If  V  and  v'  be  the  angular  velocities  of  the  sun,  or  his  daily  advances  in  the  ecliptic  at  any 
two  seascms  of  the  year,  and  d  and  d'  his  apparent  diameters  at  the  eame  time,  then  v  :  v'  => 
ff:d'\ 

To  diminish  the  apparent  motion  ol  the  sun,  it  would  be  sufficient  to  suppose  that  body 
removed  to  a  greater  distance  from  tiie  earth,  without  altering  his  true  angular  velocity. 
But  if  the  diminution  of  his  motion  depended  entkely  on  tiiis  cause,  tlie  apparent  velocity 
would  diminish  in  the  same  ratio  with  the  apparent  diameter.  Since  it  diminishes,  however, 
as  the  square  of  the  diameter,  there  must  necessarily  be  an  actual  diminution  of  the 
velocity  of  the  sun  while  he  recedes  to  a  greater  distance  from  the  earth. 

His  distance  being  reciprocally  as  his  apparent  diameter,  if  D  and  D'  be  his  distances  at 
the  two  seasons  when  his  diameters  are  d  and  d',  we  have  »  :  «'  =  D":  D';  and  wD*  =  »'D". 
Hence  it  appears,  that  from  the  combined  effect  of  the  two  causes  influeticing  the  sun's 
apparent  motions,— namely,  the  diminution  of  his  velocity  and  the  increase  of  his  distance, — 
hiti  daily  angular  motion  diminishes  as  the  square  of  his  distance  increases;  so  that  the  pro- 
duct of  the  sojare  of  the  distance  by  the  velocity  is  a  constant  quantity. 

Let  us  imagine  a  straight  line  to  join  the  centres  of  the  sun  and  of  the  earth.  This  line 
is  usually  called  the  Radius  Vector.  It  is  not  difficult  to  prove  that  the  small  sector,  or 
the  area  which  Uie  Radius  Vectw  traces  in  a  day,  in  consequence  of  the  sun's  motion,  is 
proportional  to  the  product  of  the  square  of  this  radius  by  the  sun's  daily  motion,  that  is,  to 
V  It.  This  area  is  therefore  constant ;  and  the  whole  area,  described  by  the  Radius  Vector, 
setting  out  from  a  fixed  radius,  increases  as  the  number  of  days  reckoned  from  the  epoch 
when  the  sun  was  at  the  fixed  radius. 

Since  tD*  =  c'D",  we  have  D'  =  D>/!.    Assuming,  therefore,  any  line  whatever  for  D, 

•' 
and  finding,  by  observation,  the  sun's  angular  velocity  for  every  day  of  the  year,  the  value 
of  D'  for  each  day  may  be  found. 

Thus  we  shall  be  able  to  trace  a  curve  line  representing  the  orbit  of  the  sun.  This  curve 
is  found  to  be  not  exactly  circular,  but  a  little  elongated  m  the  direction  of  tiie  straight  line 
passing  through  tlie  centre  of  the  earth,  and  joininsr  the  points  in  the  oilnt  ut  which  tlie  sun 
IS  at  its  greatest  and  least  distances.  The  reaemblance  of  this  curve  to  an  ellipse  having 
given  rise  to  a  comparison  between  them,  their  identity  has  been  discovered.  Hence  we 
conclude,  that  the  apparent  solar  orbit  is  an  ellipse  having  the  centre  of  the  earth  in  one 
of  its  foci. 

The  solar  ellipse  is  not  much  different  from  a  circle ;  for  its  eccentricity,  which,  from  the 
geometrical  properties  of  the  ellipse,  is  equal  to  half  the  difference  of  the  sun's  greatest  and 
least  distances  from  the  earth,  is  a  quantity  which  bears  but  a  very  small  proportion  to  the 
distance  of  the  sun.  It  appears,  from  observation,  that  there  is  a  small  diminution  of  the 
eccentricity, — so  small,  indeed,  as  scarcely  to  be  perceptible  in  a  century. 

The  position  of  the  greater  axis  of  the  solar  ellipse  is  not  conetantly  the  same.  Its 
extremities  have  an  annual  motion  eastward,  in  reference  to  the  fixed  stars,  of  about  12"  in 
the  direction  of  the  sun's  motion. 

The  obliquity  of  the  sur's  orbit,  or  of  the  ecliptic  to  the  equator,  is  also  subject  to  change, 
and  appears  to  have  been  continually  duninishing  from  the  remotest  date  of  astronomical 
observation.    Its  present  rate  of  diminution  may  ae  stated  at  nearly  48'  in  a  century. 

The  apparent  elliptic  motion  of  the  sun  does  not  represent,  with  perfect  exactness,  the 
results  of  modem  observation.  The  great  precision  now  attained  in  the  art  of  observing 
has  made  known  to  us  small  inequalities,  the  laws  of  which  it  would  have  been  almost 
impossible  to  determine  by  mere  observation.  These  laws  can  be  investigated  only  after 
the  physical  jBauwiiui.  been  di8covaBe4  ^gou  wbicb  the  phencMnen*  4eoend. 


SWU'-ii   (te. 


-rt)tV«»f 


M 


PRINCIPI^  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PawtD. 


CHAPTER  IX 

^  DIVISION  AND  MEASURE  GV  TIME. 

Tm  notion  of  time  is  suggested  \n  the  succession  of  phenomena  in  the  universe.  When 
two  events  exactly  correspond  in  all  ineir  circumstances,  they  are  conceived  to  occupy 
equal  portions  of  time.    The  descent  of  a  heavy  body  to  the  earth,  for  example,  from  a 

given  height,  if  repeated  under  precisely  similar  circumstances,  will  in  every  case  be  per- 
rmed  in  the  same  interval  of  time.  Suppose  then  that  a  number  of  heavy  bodies  &11  to 
the  ground  one  after  another  from  the  same  height, — the  descent  of  the  second  and  of  each 
succeeding  body  commencing  at  the  instant  in  which  the  bodv  th&t  nreceded  it  had  reached 
tlie  ground ;  the  whole  time  occupied  by  the  fkll  of  these  bodies  will  be  divided  into  equal 
portions,  one  of  which  may  be  assumed  as  the  measuring  unit  of  time.  The  vibrations  of 
a  pendulum,  performed  under  precisely  the  same  circumstances,  are  employed  for  estimatmg 
the  smaller  portions  of  time :  the  larger  portions  are  determined  by  the  motions  <^  the  sun ; 
ftom  which  arise  the  vicissitude  of  day  and  night,  and  the  change  of  seasons. 

The  Day,  in  civil  life,  is  the  time  that  elapws  between  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun ; 
and  the  Night  the  time  between  his  setting  and  rising.  The  Astronoiiioal  or  Solab  Day, 
on  the  other  hand,  comprehends  the  whole  period  of  the  sun's  diurnal  revolution,  and  is 
reckoned  from  the  time  of  his  passing  any  particular  meridian,  to  the  time  of  his  returning 
to  the  same  meridian.  The  pendulum  usually  employed  is  of  such  a  length  as  to  divide  the 
mean  astronomical  day  into  24x60X60=66400  equal  parts  called  seconia;  60  of  these 
parts  make  a  minute ;  60  minutes  make  an  hour ;  and  24  hours  complete  the  day. 

As  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun  carries  him  eastward  among  the  iixed  stars,  the  time 
that  elapses  between  his  passing  the  meridian,  and  his  returning  to  it  again,  is  longer  than 
the  time  that  intervenes  between  two  successive  passages  (called  transits)  of  any  particular 
star.  This  latter  period  is  the  exact  time  of  the  earth  s  revolution  on  its  axis,  aiia  is  called 
a  Sidereal  day :  it  is  about  23"  56"  4*  in  lengdi. 

The  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  being  perfectly  uniform,  the  length  of  the  tidereal  day 
is  always  the  same.  This  is  not,  however,  the  case  with  respect  to  the  astronomical  or  solar 
day,  whibh  is  affected  by  the  unequable  qtption  of  the  sun,  and  by  the  obli^uitv  of  the  ecliptic. 
At  the  summer  solstice,  towards  which  the  sun's  motion  in  the  ecliptic  is  slowest,  the  solar 
day  is  more  nearly  equal  to  the  sidereal  day  than  at  the  winter  solstice,  when  the  sun's  motion 
is  quickest. 

With  regard  to  the  effect  of  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  in  reference  to  the  length  of  the 
solar  day,  it  is  to  be  observed,  that,  by  the  geometrical  properties  of  the  sphere,  equal  portions 
of  any  circle,  whose  plane  is  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  revolution,  pass  over  the  meridian 
in  equal  times ;  but  if  the  plane  of  a  circle  is  oblique  to  the  axis,  the  arc%  that  pass  over  the 
meridian  in  equal  times  are  not  equal.  Hence,  if  the  sun  mov^  uniformly  in  the  equator, 
the  solar  day  would  be  always  of  the  same  length :  but  as  he  movp'  're  ecliptic,  whose 
plane  is  oblique  to  the  axis,  even  if  he  did  proceed  with  a  unifortv  jn,  the  equal  arcs 

which  he  daily  described  would  pass  over  the  meridian  in  unequal  >.•  .i.  ,£ ;  so  that  the  solai' 
day  would  be  longer  or  shorter  according  to  the  sun's  place  in  the  ecliptic. 

The  motion  of  the  shadow  on  a  sun-dial  marks  out  time  as  mesiiured  by  the  sun's  motion 
in  the  ecliptic :  but  if  the  sun  moved  uniformly  in  the  equator  at  such  a  rate  as  to  complete 
the  annual  circuit  of  the  heavens,  in  the  same  time  as  he  does  by  his  actual  motion  in  the 
ecliptic,  time  measiured  by  his  motion  would  then  correspond  with  that  of  a  well-regulated 
clock. 

The  difference  between  the  tim«j  shown  by  the  sun-dial,  and  that  shown  by  (he  clock,  is 
called  the  Equation  of  Time.  The  part  of  this  equation  which  depends  on  the  obliquity  of 
the  ecliptic,  vanishes  at  the  equinoxes  and  at  the  solstices ;  because  at  these  seasons  the  sun 
comes  to  the  meridian  at  the  same  moment  as  he  would  do  if  he  moved  in  the  equator. 

From  the  vernal  equinox  tUl  the  summer  solstice,  and  from  the  autumnal  e^umox  till  the 
winter  solstice,  the  time  as  shown  by  the  sun-dial  is  in  advance  of  that  indicated  by  the 
clock ;  because  then  the  sun's  distance  from  the  first  point  of  Arte*,  and  first  point  of  Libra, 
passes  sooner  over  the  meridian  than  the  equal  arc  upon  the  equator,  which  the  sun  would 
have  described  had  he  moved  in  that  circle. 

Again,  the  hour  shown  by  the  sun-dial  is  behind  that  shown  by  the  clock,  fh)m  the  summer 
and  winter  solstices,  till  the  autumnal  and  vernal  equinoxes ;  because  at  these  two  eexaons 
the  distance  of  the  Sun  from  the  first  point  of  Artes,  and  firom  the  first  point  of  Libra,  re 
quires  longer  time  to  pass  over  the  meridian,  than  the  equal  arc  upon  the  equator. 

The  part  of  the  equation  of  time  which  arises  from  the  unequable  motion  of  the  sun,  wiL 
vanish  when  he  is  at  his  greatest  and  least  distances  from  the  earth;  because  he  is  in  these 
two  points  of  his  orbit  at  the  sa^e  instants  of  time  as  he  would  be  if  he  moved  uniformly 
with  his  mean  velocity;  that  is,  with  a  rate  of  motion  by  which  he  would  describe  equalljf 
the  ecliptic  in  the  same  time  in  which  he  describes  it  by  his  unequable  motion. 

The  dial,  during  the  time  when  the  sun  is  moving  from  the  point  of  his  greatest,  to  th« 
point  of  his  least  distance  from  the  earth,  is  faster  than  the  clock ;  because  the  sun  is  then 


PabvO. 


uiivene.  When 
jived  to  occupy 
jxomple,  from  a 
ery  case  be  per- 
vy  bodies  inll  to 
!ond  and  of  each 
d  it  had  reached 
vided  into  equal 
"he  vibrations  of 
Bd  for  estimating 
bions  of  the  sun ; 

IS. 

tiag  of  the  sun ; 
L  or  Solar  Day, 
3Volution,  and  is 
of  his  returning 
as  to  divide  the 
•dt;  60  of  these 
le  day. 

i  stars,  the  time 
a,  is  longer  than 
>f  any  narticular 
CIS,  ana  is  called 

the  ridereal  day 
momical  or  solar 
y  of  the  'icliptic. 
lowest,  the  solar 
[  the  sun's  motion 

|he  length  of  the 
e,  equal  portions 
ret  tiie  meridian 
lat  pass  over  the 
in  the  equator, 
ecliptic,  whose 
the  equal  arcs 
N>  that  the  solai' 

he  sun's  motion 
as  to  complete 
motion  in  the 
well-regulated 

>y  the  clock,  is 
the  obliquity  of 
seasons  the  sun 

equator. 
H^umox  till  the 
dicated  by  the 
point  of  Libra, 

the  sun  would 

im  the  summer 
two  season? 
of  lAbra,  re 
tor. 

the  sun,  will 

he  is  in  these 

ived  uniformly 

Iscribe  equally 

Ireatest,  to  thi 
lie  sun  is  then 


Book  I. 


DIVISION  AND  MEASURE  OP  TIME. 


M 


at  no  instant  so  fiu:  advanced  in  his  orbit,  oa  he  would  have  been  if  he  had  be«i  moving  uni« 
formly  with  his  mean  velocity.  The  reverse  is  the  case  while  the  sun  is  moving  from  the 
point  of  his  least  to  that  of  his  greatest  distance.  Time  measured  by  the  dial  is  called 
APPARENT  time ;  that  shown  by  a  well-regulated  clock  is  called  tr»b  time.  The  effect  of 
t)ie  ubliiiuity  of  the  ecliptic,  and  that  of  the  sun's  unequable  motion,  in  rendering  the  dial 
faster  or  slower  than  the  clock,  sometimes  combine  with  and  at  other  times  counteract  each 
other.  The  amount  of  each  is  given  in  the  two  following  tables  for  every  fifth  day  of  the 
year ;  and  by  taking  the  sum  or  difference,  according  as  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  and 
the  sun's  unequable  motion  produce  similar  or  opposite  effects,  a  table  may  be  formed  of 
Jie  equation  of  time. 

Table  ehomng  the  Part  of  the  Equation  of  Time  that  ari$e$from  the  bbliguity  qf 

the  Ecliptic. 


Dial  Farter. 

Dial  Slower. 

DialFaater. 

Dial  Blower. 

M. 

R. 

M. 

8. 

M. 

& 

M. 

B. 

March  •   • 

91 

0 

0 

June    •   • 

91 

0 

September 

93 

0 

0 

December. 

91 

0 

0 

SS 

1 

3» 

90 

48 

98 

1 

30 

90 

1 

48 

ao 

3 

1.1 

July*   •   • 

1 

39 

October 

3 

3 

15 

31 

3 

39 

April    •    . 

4 

4 

40 

7 

8 

8 

4 

40 

January   • 

5 

5 

8 

9 

0 

0 

19 

35 

13 

0 

9 

10 

« 

35 

14 

7 

99 

17 

48 

18 

7 

39 

15 

7 

48 

10 

B 

93 

99 

45 

93 

8 

S3 

20 

8 

45 

34 

B 

9 

98 

90 

98 

0 

9 

95 

9 

90 

30 

0 

40 

Au|IMt<    • 

9 

49 

Novnnber  • 

9 

9 

40 

90 

9 

49 

May-   •   • 

5 

0 

S3 

7 

53 

7 

U 

53 

February  • 

3 

9 

S3 

10 

9 

40 

19 

40 

19 

9 

49 

8 

9 

40 

15 

0 

SO 

17 

0 

17 

0 

90 

13 

9 

0 

90 

R 

45 

39 

93 

99 

8 

45 

18 

8 

93 

90 

7 

48 

98 

99 

97 

7 

48 

93 

7 

99 

31 

0 

35 

September 

9 

9 

December- 

9 

0 

35 

98 

0 

9 

June     •   • 

S 

s 

8 

7 

4 

40 

7 

5 

8 

March  •   • 

5 

4 

40 

10 

3 

39 

19 

3 

15 

19 

3 

39 

10 

3 

IS 

10 

1 

48 

17 

1 

30 

17 

1 

48 

15 

1 

3B 

1 

1 

1 

90 

0 

0 

Table  showing  the  Part  of  the  Eqttation  of  Time  that  arieeafrom  the  Inequality  of  the 

Sun's  Motion. 


Dial  Falter  than  Clock. 

Dial  Slower  than  Clock. 

M. 

8. 

M. 

8. 

M. 

a 

M. 

8. 

July-    •    • 

1 

0 

0 

October     - 

3 

7 

43 

December  • 

31 

0 

0 

March  -    • 

30 

7 

43 

7 

0 

40 

6 

7 

43 

January    • 

5 

0 

41 

April    ■    - 

4 

7 

40 

19 

1 

19 

13 

7 

37 

10 

1 

99 

9 

7 

34 

17 

1 

57 

18 

7 

99 

15 

9 

9 

14 

7 

94 

S9 

9 

35 

83 

7 

18 

30 

3 

41 

10 

7 

19 

98 

3 

19 

9a 

7 

3 

95 

3 

10 

94 

0 

.10 

Auguiit-  - 

3 

3 

47 

November- 

9 

0 

45 

99 

3 

50 

30 

0 

30 

7 

4 

'21 

7 

0 

94 

February  • 

3 

4 

30 

May-   •   • 

5 

0 

14 

19 

4 

S3 

19 

5 

30 

8 

5 

3 

10 

5 

SO 

17 

5 

99 

17 

5 

39 

13 

5 

as 

15 

5 

99 

93 

5 

SO 

99 

5 

9 

18 

5 

3B 

30 

4 

SB 

98 

0 

14 

97 

4 

30 

93 

0 

94 

SO 

4 

91 

September 

9 

0 

30 

December- 

9 

3 

50 

98 

0 

45 

31 

3 

47 

7 

0 

50 

7 

3 

IB 

5 

7 

3 

Jane    •   - 

5 

3 

19 

19 

7 

19 

19 

9 

41 

10 

7 

18 

10 

3 

.15 

17 

7 

94 

17 

9 

9 

15     7 

SB 

10 

1 

s 

S3 

7 

34 

SI 

1 

99 

90  '  7 

37 

SI 

1 

S8 

7 

40 

90 

0 

41 

95     7 

4S 

30 

0 

40 

The  difference  between  the  apparent  and  the  true  time,  is  very  observable  about  the 
season  when  the  day  is  lengthening  or  shortening  with  most  rapidity.  It  is  a  common 
remark,  that  when  the  day  is  shortening,  the  change  is  more  observable  in  the  evening  than 
in  the  morning ;  but  that  the  reverse  is  the  case  when  the  day  is  lengthening.  This  arises 
from  the  clock  being  before  or  afler  the  sun.  Thus,  in  the  end  of  October,  the  dial  is 
upwards  of  sixteen  minutes  faster  than  the  clock ;  so  that  the  time  of  sun-rise,  and  the  time 
of  sun-set,  will  each,  as  indicated  by  the  clock,  appear  earlier  by  16  minutes,  than  as  indicated 
by  the  motion  of  the  solar  shadow.  Hence  the  mstant  of  noon,  as  shown  by  the  clock, 
appears  not  to  divide  equally  the  time  during  which  the  sun  is  above  the  horizon :  the  time 
fVom  sun-rise  till  noon,  appears  longer  than  from  noon  till  sun-set  Again,  about  the  middle 
of  February,  the  dial  is  about  15  minutes  slower  than  the  clock ;  so  that  the  time  of  sun-rise 
and  the  time  of  sun-set  will  each,  as  indicated  by  the  clock,  bo  later  by  15  minutes  than  as 
indicated  by  the  dial;  and  the  time  fh)m  sun-rise  till  noon,  as  eliown  by  *he  clock,  will 
appear  shorter  than  the  time  fh)m  noon  till  sun-set.       '   '  '  '  "    '"""  '    " 


/"W 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY;   T 


Part  IL 


Ai  the  ntutn  of  the  sun  to  the  meridian  marks  out  the  day,  ao  his  return  to  the  same 
equinox  marks  out  another  fortion  qf  time  of  much  importance  to  be  determined  witli 
accuracy ;  namely,  the  Ybab.  tlhis  period  comprehends  the  ueasona  which  divide  it  into 
four  parts.  Within  this  perkxl  also,  the  moon  goes  twelve  times  through  all  her  phases, 
which  occupy  the  space  of  nearly  twenty-nme  and  a  half  days :  hence  the  year  has  been 
divided  into  twelve  months,  three  of  which  are  aUotted  to  each  season.  By  accurate  obser- 
vetion  it  is  found,  that  the  time  which  elapses  between  the  instant  at  which  tlie  sun  passes 
the  vernal  equinox,  and  the  period  of  his  return  to  it,  is  366^  5**  46"  48*.  This  period  is 
called  the  TaonoAL  year.  It  is  found  to  be  shorter  than  the  interval  between  two  successive 
returns  of  the  sun  to  the  same  star  by  20""  29*.  This  last-mentioned  period  ia  called  the 
BiDBBBAL  year,  and  consists  of  365''  6"  9"'  11*. 

In  order  to  make  such  a  distribution  of  time  as  is  accommodated  to  the  purposes  of  lifb, 
it  is.  necessary  so  to  adjust  the  reckoning  of  the  solar  revolution  to  the  length  of  the  mean 
solar  day,  that  the  beginning  of  the  year  may  coincide  with  the  beginning  of  the  day,  and 
the  seasons  may  always  recur  in  the  same  months.  If  the  solar  revolution  consisted  of  an 
exact  number  of  days,  there  would  be  no  dtfSculty ;  but  as  it  includes  a  ftnction  of  a  day, 
it  is  evident  that  one  year  cannot  be  made  equal  to  one  revolution,  without  incurring  the 
inconvenience  of  making  the  year  commence  at  a  different  point  of  time  from  the  beginning 
of  the  day.  But  thoiigh  one  year  cannot  be  made  equal  to  one  revdntion,  a  certain  number 
of  years  may  be  made  equal  to  a  like  number  of  revolutions. 

Julius  Cesar  introduced  the  first  near  approximation  to  accuracnr  on  this  subject,  in  the 
45th  year  before  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era.  The  Romans  had  before  that 
time  estimated  the  year  according  to  the  course  of  the  moon,  in  imitation  of  the'  Greeks ; 
dividing  it  into  twelve  months,  which  coosisted  in  all  of  354  days ;  but  as  an  odd  number 
was  thought  the  more  fortunate,  one  day  was  added  which  made  the  year  consist  of  355 
daya  To  make  the  lunar  year  correspond  with  the  course  of  the  sun,  on  which  depends 
the  vicissitude  of  seasmis,  an  intercalary  month  was  inserted  every  other  year,  between  the 
23d  and  24th  day  of  February.  The  intercalation  of  this  month  was  left  to  the  discretion 
of  the  priests,  who,  from  interested  motives,  inserted  often  more  or  fewer  than  the  proper 
number  of  Jays,  so  as  to  make  the  year  longer  or  shorter,  according  as  it  suited  their  own 
purposes.  This  caused  the  months  to  be  transposed  from  their  stated  seasons,  the  winter 
months  being  carried  back  into  autumn,  and  the  autuihnal  months  into  summer.  When  Julius 
Ctesar  became  master  of  the  state,  he  resolved  to  put  an  end  to  this  disorder,  by  abolishing 
the  use  of  intercalations  which  had  been  the  source  of  it ;  and  for  that  purpose,  by  the 
assistance  of  Sosigenes,  a  celebrated  astronomer  of  Alexandria,  he  adjusted  the  year  to  the 
course  of  the  sun,  and  assigned  to  the  respective  months  the  number  of  days  which  they 
still  contain.  That  matters  might  proceed  with  regularity  from  the  beginning  of  the  ensuing 
January,  he  made  the  current  year,  which  was  called  the  last  year  of  cor^fusion,  consist  of 
fifteen  months,  or  445  days. 

The  JuuAN  year  is  founded  upon  the  supposition  that  the  solar  revolution  is  exactly 
865''  6**.  For  tbxee  successive  years  the  six  hours  are  omitted ;  but  in  the  fourth  year  an 
additional  day  is  inserted  in  the  month  of  February,  which  makes  the  four  years  correspond 
with  four  solar  revolutions.  This  fourth  year,  consisting  of  366  days,  is  called  Bissextile 
or  Leap  year.  But  as  the  true  length  of  the  solar  revolution  is  npt  365^  6\  but  only 
865''  5**  48"*  48*,  the  Julian  year  is  too  long  by  11"  12*;  so  that  before  a  new  year  begins, 
the  sun  has  passed  the  point  of  the  ecliptic  where  the  preceding  year  began.  The  error 
tlience  arising  is,  however,  so  small,  that  it  was  long  before  it  was  observed.  The  Julian 
Calendar  was  introduced  into  the  church  at  the  time  «  the  Council  of  Nice,  in  the  year  325 
of  the  Christian  era;  and  the  vernal  equinox  was  at  that  time  fixed  to  the  21st  of  March. 
In  the  year  1562,  however,  it  was  found  that  the  vernal  equinox  fell,  not  on  the  2lBt  of 
March,  but  on  the  11th  of  that  month ;  so  that  the  Julian  year  had  Mien  about  ten  days 
behmd  the  sun.  If  this  erroneous  reckoning  had  been  contmued,  the  seasons  would  have 
entirely  changed  their  places.  It  was  there/ore  resolved  to  reform  the  calendar,  which  was 
done  by  Pope  Qregory  XIII.,  and  the  firet  step  was  to  correct  the  \obb  of  the  ten  days,  by 
counting  the  day  aAer  the  4th  of  October,  not  the  5th,  but  the  15th  day  of  the  month.  The 
error  in  the  Julian  year  reckoning,  being  about  eleven  minutes  yearly,  amounts  to  nearly 
three  days  in  four  centuries.  Hence  to  prevent  its  accumulation  in  fhture,  it  was  agreed  to 
suppress  three  intercalary  days  in  the  course  of  four  hundred  years,  by  considering  the  lost 
of  uiree  successive  centuries  common,  instead  of  leap  years.  The  years  in  which  the  inter 
calary  davs  are  omitted  are  1700, 1800, 1900 :  and,  in  general,  the  last  year  of  every  century 
not  divisifile  by  four,  is  reckoned  a  common  year,  which  in  the  Julian  account  is  bissextile. 
The  degree  of  accur&cy  thus  attained  is  very  considerable ;  for  taking  the  annual  error  at  \\\ 
minutes,  in  four  centuries,  it  will  amount  to  4480  minutes,  or  to  3*^2''  40".  Of  this  error, 
the  fractional  part,  2**  40",  is  all  that  remains  uncorrected ;  and  this  error  will  require  the 
lapse  of  3600  years  before  it  amounts  to  a  day. 

Other  modes  of  intercalation.    If  the  tropical  year  were  2^*  S*"  49"  12^,  the  Gregorian 
r.  would  bfi  serfactly  exact.   Accurate  observation  proves,  however,  that  the  year 


'~nPD(-'    ,--JC-^.lB|- 


Qooc  L 


DIVISION  AND  MEASURE  OP  TIMR 


^ 


u  shorter  by  about  34  seconds.  If  scientific  principles  had  been  strictly  f()llowed,  thu/  ^vouW 
have  pointed  out  other  modes  of  intercalation  still  more  accurate,  though  perhaps  not  nioro 
convenient,  than  tliat  which  has  been  adopted.  The  determination  of  the  methods  of  .'nter 
calatiop  best  suited  to  make  the  computations  in  the  calendar  correspond  as  nearly  as  possible 
with  the  real  motions  of  the  sun,  requires  all  the  integer  numbers  to  be  found,  which  most 
nearly  express  the  ratio  of  5''  48"  48*  to  a  day.  These  numbers  are  easily  determined  by  the 
method  ot  corUinited  fractioTm.  In  the  Gregorian  calendar,  97  days  are  intercalated  in  the 
coiuse  of  400  years;  but  it  would  be  much  more  exact  to  intercalate  109  days  in  the  course 
of  450  years,  utlie  tropical  year  were  precisely  966*  S**  48"  48*,  tiiis  intercalation  would,  in« 
deed,  be  quite  accurate :  for  d**  48"  48",  multiplied  by  450,  give  exactly  109  days. 

The  reformation  of  the  calendar,  or  the  change  from  the  Ou>  Stvub  to  the  NiW  Styi.b, 
did  noi.  take  place  m  England,  till  the  year  17S2,  at  which  time  it  was  establiiihed  by  an 
act  of  parliament  The  alteration  was  ordered  to  be  made  on  the  2d  of  September ;  and  as 
the  error  of  the  Julian  reckoning  now  amounted  to  11  days,  the  Sd  was  to  be  counted  the 
14tn  of  September. 

Corretpondence  betteeen  the  daw  of  the  week  and  numth.  As  the  common  year  consists 
of  52  weeks  and  one  day,  it  is  evident  that  the  beginning  and  end  of  each  common  year  will 
fall  on  the  same  day  of  the  week.  In  a  series  of  years,  therefore,  if  no  leap  yoan  opcurred,. 
.  the  first  day  of  each  month  would,  year  after  year,  be  one  day  farther  advanced  in  the  week, 
till,  in  the  course  of  seven  years,  the  same  days  of  the  month  would  return  to  the  same  days 
of  the  week.  But  since  leap  year  contains  52  weeks  and  2  davs,  and  occurs  every  fourth 
year,  it  follows  that  the  days  of  the  week  cannot  correspond  to  me  same  days  of  the  month, 
(ill  tifter  the  lapse  of  four  times  seven  or  twenty-eight  years.  This  period  is  called  the 
Cycub  of  thb  Sun.  When  this  period  is  completed,  the  sun's  place  in  the  ecliptic  returns 
to  the  same  signs  and  degrees  on  the  same  months  and  days,  so  as  not  to  differ  a  degree  in 
a  centuiy ;  and  the  leap  years,  as  well  as  the  common  years,  begin  the  same  course  over 
again  with  respect  to  the  days  of  the  week  on  which  the  days  of  the  month  fUL  The  year 
of  our  Saviour  s  burth,  according  to  the  vulgar  era,  was  the  ninth  year  of  the  solar  cycle : 
hence,  to  find  the  current  year  of  that  cycle,  we  must  add  nine  to  the  given  year  of  the 
Christian  era,  and  divide  the  sum  by  twenty-eight;  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  cycles 
which  have  been  completed  since  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  the  remainder  will  be  the  current 
year  of  the  present  cycle.  Thus,  for  the  year  1829,  the  cycle  of  the  sun  is  found  to  be  18. 
The  first  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet  have  been  employed  to  mark  the  several  days  of  the 
week.  As  one  of  those  seven  letters  must  necessarily  stand  against  Sunday,  it  is  printed  in 
the  calendar  in  a  capital  form,  and  called  the  Dominical  Litter  :  the  other  six  letters  are 
inserted  in  a  difierent  character,  to  denote  the  other  six  days  of  the  week.  When  January 
begins  on  Sunday,  A  is  the  Dominical  letter  for  that  year :  but  because  the  next  year  begins 
on  Monday,  the  Sunday  will  of  course  fall  on  the  seventh  dov,  to  which  is  annexed  the 
seventh  letter  G,  which  will  therefore  be  the  Dominical  letter  for  all  that  year :  and  as  the 
third  year  will  begin  on  Tuesday,  Sunday  will  fall  on  the  sixdi  day,  so  that  F  will  be  the 
Dominical  letter  for  that  year,  and  s^  oa  Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  Dominical  letters 
will  succeed  each  other  in  a  retrograde  order,  viz.  G,  P,  E,  D,  C,  B,  A.  As  the  days  of  the 
week  correspond  to4he  same  days  of  the  month  only  once  in  twenty-eight  years,  it  follows 
that  it  is  only  after  the  lapse  of  the  same  period,  that  the  series  or  Dominical  letters  can 
proceed  in  the  same  order  in  reference  to  the  days  of  the  month.  Every  leap  year  has  two 
Dominical  letters;  one  answering  from  the  beginning  of  January  till  the  end  of  February ; 
the  other  being  the  letter  immediately  preceding,  answering  for  the  remainder  of  the  year. 
The  Dominical  letter  may  be  found  for  any  year  of  any  century  by  the  following  rule : 
divide  the  centurierby  4,  and  take  twice  what  remainefrom  6:  then  add  toarether  mm  latt 
remainder,  the  odd  years  above  the  even  centurieg,  and  the  fourth  jtart  ofthete  odd  years, 
neglecting  the  remainder  if  any :  divide  the  sum  by  7,  and  the  excess  of  7  above  the 
remainder  is  the  number  answering  to  the  letter  required.  Thus,  for  the  year  1830,  the 
Dominical  letter  is  C.  Por  the  centuries  18  divided  bv  4  leave  2;  and  twice  this  remainder 
taken  from  6  also  leaves  2;  by  adding  to  which  the  ocid  number  (^  years  80,  and  their  fourth 

Ki-t  7,  we  obtain  39:  tliis  sum  divided  by  7  leaves  the  remainder  4,  which  taken  fh>m  7; 
ives  3,  answering  to  C,  the  third  letter  of  the  alfriiabet 


/V< 


CHAPTER  X. 


PBOPER  MOTION  OF  THE  MOON.    HEE  PHASES.    ECLIPSES  OF  THE  SUN  AND  MOON. 

The  moon,  next  to  the  sun,  is  the  most  interestinf|^  to  us  of  all  the  heavenly  bodies.    Her 
phases,  or  that  series  of  changes  in  her  figure  and  illnmination  which  she  undergoes  in  the 
course  of  about  a  month,  are  one  of  the  most  striking  of  the  celestial  phenomena;  uid  presen 
n  division  of  time  so  icmarkable  that  it  has  been  ihe  first  in  use  among  all  nations. 

The  moon  has  an  apparent  motion  among  the  fixed  stars  similar  to  that  of  the  sun,  bu 
Vol,.  T.  ft  N 


PRiNCIPUffl  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


^abtL. 


much  man  npM :  !t  eirries  her  eastward  at  the  rate  of  nearly  18^  10}',  at  an  average,  in 
24  hours.  Wnen  this  motion  ia  accurateljr  traced  out,  it  ia  ftwind,  that  the  moon  describea 
round  the  earth,  in  27*  7^  49",  a  path  or  orbit  inclined  to  Uie  ecliptic  at  an  an^le  of  nearly 
5°  0'.  The  line  in  which  the  plane  of  the  orbit  cuta  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  la  called  the 
LiNi  or  THB  Noon.  The  point  in  which  the  moon  croaaes  the  ecliptic  when  a$etndinf 
to  the  north,  ia  called  the  AaoBNDiNo  node ;  and  the  oppoaite  point,  in  which  ab»  oroaaoa  it 
when  detcendiw  to  the  south,  is  called  the  dbmendino  nodt. 

T!iti  ligure  of  the  lunar  brbit  is  determbied  in  tfie  aame  manner  aa  that  of  the  solar,  by 
observing  the  changes  in  the  apparent  diameter  of  thp  moon,  and  comparing  these  with  the 
variations  in  her  anguUa  velocity.  It  is  thus  fbund,  that  the  moon's  «hit,  like  that  of  the 
8un,  is  in  appearance  an  ellipee,  havinff  the  centre  of  the  earth  in  one  of  the  Ibci,  and  that 
tlie  radius  vector,  or  the  line  joining  the  centres  of  the  earth  and  moon,  describes  areas  pro- 
portional to  the  times.  Neither  the  line  of  the  nodes  nor  the  greater  axis  of  the  lunar  orbit 
18  fixed.  The  former  has  a  slow  retrograde  motion,  by  which  it  makes  an  entire  revolution 
in  Bomcthing  more  than  18}  years ;  the  latter  has  a  progressive  motion,  by  which  it  com- 
pletes a  revolution  in  somethmg  leas  than  9  years.  The  elliptic  orbit  is  liable,  indeed,  to  so 
many  changes,  that  the  full  investigation  of  the  lunar  motion  has  been  fbund  one  of  the  most 
difficult  prMlems  in  astronomy.  At  the  same  time  it  is  one  of  the  most  usefbl,  as  connected 
with  the  finding  of  the  longitude  of  places  on  the  surfiice  of  the  earth.  Accordingly,  the 
eflbrts  of  astronomers  have  been  assiauously  directed  to  the  iperfbcting  of  the  lunar  theory ; 
and  by  employing  the  resources  of  modem  science,  and  combming  these  with  ccmtinued  and 
accurate  observation,  their  labours  have  been  crowned  with  wonderfUl  success. 
Tlie  phases  of  the  moon  depend  on  her  position  with  regard  to  the  sun.    Let  E  be  the 

earth,  M  the  moon  revolving  in  her  orbit 
round  the  earth,  E  S  the  direction  of  the  sun, 
and  let  us  suppose  all  the  solar  rays  which 
illuminate  the  moon  to  proceed  in  straight  lines 
parallel  to  S  E.  Tde  moon  is  an  opaque  body 
like  the  earth,  and  is  visible  only  in  conse- 

Suence  of  reflecting  the  light  of  the  sun.  When 
lie  comes  to  the  meridian,  therefore,  about  the 
same  time  with  the  sun,  that  is,  when  she  is  at 
M,  riie  must  be  invisible,  on  account  of  the 
nnenliffhtened  side  being  turned  towards  us. 
It  is  then  said  to  be  i«bw  vaooa :  and,  in  refer- 
ence to  her  positimi  with  regard  to  the  sun,  the 
moon  is  said  to  be  in  coNioiiciTioif.  Aeain, 
when  the  moon  comes  to  the  meridian  &oat 
midnight,  that  is,  when  she  is  at  m,  she  is  said 
to  be  in  oppoarnoN,  and  in  that  position  she 
presents  an  entire  circular  disc;  oeeause  the 
whole  of  the  enlightened  side  is  then  turned 
towards  the  earUL  It  is  then  said  to  be  luu. 
moon.  At  any  point  of  her  orbit,  between  the 
pomts  of  conjunction  and  opposition,  the  moon 
lums  more  or  less  of  her  enlightened  side  towards  the  earth,  according  to  her  angular  dis- 
tance fVom  the  sun,  and  presents  exactly  the  same  appearances  as  an  opaque  sphencal  body, 
of  which  one  side  is  illuminated,  would  exhibit,  if  viewed  fh>m  a  distance,  and  in  the  same 
positions  in  which  the  moon  is  seen  from  the  earth.  After  the  conjunction,  as  soon  as  she 
has  emerged  sufficiently  fixnn  the  solar  rays,  she  is  seen  in  the  western  sky,  after  sunset,  in 
the  form  of  s.  Cbbsoemt,  as  at  M',  having  the  convex  side  turned  towards  the  sun,  and  the 
concave  bounded  by  an  elliptic  line.  On  every  succeeding  nig^t  the  luminous  part  increases, 
while  Uie  elliptic  boundary  ccmtinually  approaches  to  a  straight  line.  On  the  seventh  night 
from  the  time  of  new  moon,  the  moon  reaches  the  position  M",  where  her  distance  from  the 
sun  is  90^ :  die  is  then  said  to  be  in  her  first  Quadraturb,  and  exhibits  the  appearance  of 
HALF  moon ;  that  is,  the  disc  is  a  semicircle.  The  enlightened  pejt  still  continuing  tc 
increase  on  the  same  side,  the  rectilineal  boundary  of  the  semicircular  disc  passes  again 
into  an  elliptic  line,  and  the  moon  becomes  oibbous,  as  at  M'":  on  all  sides  the  disc  is  con- 
vex, though  it  does  not  become  entirely  full  orbed  until  she  reaches  the  point  of  opposition, 
at  m,  aboif  t  the  end  of  seven  days  from  the  time  of  half  moon.  From  the  instant  of  opposi- 
tion the  moon  beeins  to  return  to  the  sun  on  the  western  side ;  and  in  her  pn^ress  towards 
the  conjunction  uie  goes  through  the  same  series  of  changes  in  on  inverted  order,  becoming 
first  gibbous,  as  at  m' ;  then  half  moon  at  the  time  when  she  reaches  the  position  m",  hei 
second  quadrature ;  then  a  crescent,  as  at  m'",  which,  continually  diminishing,  at  last  dis- 
appears altogether.  Thus,  on  the  supposition  that  the  moon  is  an  opaque  body  and  nearly 
spherical,  and  that  she  revolves  in  an  orbit  round  the  earth,  the  phenomuna  of  her  phases 

&tS  caSiiy*  cXpiaiDcu. 


>'-lS 
if'i 


ir.')!!^ 


1"  fctnv  ■:(;,'„"  mi^ 


Bool  L 


PHASES  OF  THE  MOON.   ^ 


Strictly  ■peakinff,  the  mooa  ia  not  enoUy  90  degrees  dietant  ftom  the  ean  when  ehe  pre 

■enta  the  appearance  of  half  nioon.  Thia  phuia 
occun  at  the  moment  when  the  nuxMi  ii  in  luch  a 
position  that  two  straight  lines  drawn  from  her 
centre, — the  one  to  the  centre  of  the  earth,  the 
other  to  the  centre  of  the  sun, — fbrm  a  rig^t  angle. 
By  observing,  therefore,  the  moon's  distance  nom 
tne  sun,  at  tne  instant  when  the  boundary  between 
the  enlightened  and  dark  put  exactly  bisects  tho 
lunar  disc,  we  should  have  in  the  right-angled  tri- 

angle  S  M  F  the  angle  a'..  F;  and  hencei  smce  the 

side  F  M  is  also  known,  S  F,  the  distance  of  the  sun  may  be  deurmined.  Thia  was  the 
first  method  employed  for  finding  the  sun's  distance  from  the  earth ;  but,  from  the  nicety  of 
the  observations  required,  it  cannot  be  expected  to  lead  to  an^  very  satii^tory  result 

To  a  spectator  on  the  moon  the  earth  must  evidenUy  exhibit  a  series  of  changes  similar 
to  the  lunar  phases  as  seen  from  the  earth.  At  the  time  of  coi\junction  the  moon  ia  on  the 
illuminated  side  of  the  earth,  so  that  the  earth  must  then  appear,  as  seen  fitnn  Uie  moon, 
an  entire  circular  disc.  Again,  at  the  time  of  opposition,  the  moon  is  on  the  dark  side  of 
the  earth ;  so  that  the  earth  must  then  be  invisible.  When  the  moon  is  seen  as  a  creaeent, 
the  earth  will  appear  gibbous ;  an.-!  when  the  moon  appears  gibbous,  the  earth  will  be  seen 
as  a  crescent 

The  fact  of  the  earth  appearing  to  a  spectator  on  the  moon  an  entire  luminous  disc,  at 
the  time  of  the  moon's  conjunction  with  the  sun,  fiimishes  an  explanation  of  a  phenomenon 
with  which  every  one  is  fiuniliar.  In  clear  weather,  when  the  moon  ia  three  or  four  days 
old,  her  wiuAe  body  ia  viuble.  The  homa  of  the  enlightened  crescent  appear  to  project 
beyond  the  old  moon  as  if  they  were  part  of  a  sphere  of  considerably  larger  diameter  tnan 
the  unenlightened  part  Now,  the  port  of  the  moon  not  directly  illuminated  Irfr  the  sun  ia 
(seen  by  the  light  reflected  frtnn  the  earth.  The  appearance  of  a  lucid  bow,  connecting  the 
horns  of  the  crescent,  is  produced  by  the  circumstanfe  of  the  eastern  edge  of  the  moon's 
disc  beine  more  luminous  than  the  a4jacent  regions  towards  the  centre.  With  regard  to 
the  enlightened  crescent  appearing  a  portion  of  a  larger  sphere,  this  is  an  optical  decention, 
and  furnishes  a  remarkable  proof  that  of  two  objects  of  equal  magnitude,  but  of  different 
degrees  of  brightness,  the  brighter  appears  larger. 

A  lunation  or  lunar  month  is  formed  by  the  time  that  elapses  between  one  new  moon 
and  another.  It  consists  of  28^  12^  44*'^  nearly :  and  therefore  exceeds  the  period  of  her 
mean  pidereal  revolution,  which  is  27"7^  43"  ll4'.  This  excess  arises  from  the  proper 
motion  of  the  sun  in  the  ecliptic ;  for  it  ia  evident  that  the  period  in  which  the  moon  goes 
through  all  her  phases  must  be  equal  to  the  time  required  to  describe  360°,  with  an  angular 
velocity  equal  to  the  dilFerence  between  angular  velocities  oif  moon  and  sun. 

Cycle  of  the  moon.  In  10  Julian  solar  years  there  are  235  lunations,  and  about  one 
hour  and  a  half  more  Hence,  after  19  years,  the  conjunctions,  oppositioii£<,  and  other 
aspects  of  the  moon  ncur  on  the  same  days  of  the  month,  and  only  abouf  .«  hour  and  a 
half  sooner.  Thia  period  is  accordingly  called  the  Cyolb  or  tbb  Moon,  .)'t';  haa  been 
found  of  so  much  use  in  adjusting  the  uinar  to  the  solar  year,  in  order  to  know  '.  ae  time  of 
new  and  full  mooki,  and  to  determine  the  time  of  Easter,  and  other  moveable  feasts,  that  the 
numbers  of  it  have  been  called  Goldbn  Niwanw.  The  year  of  our  Saviour's  birth,  accord- 
ing to  the  vulgar  era,  was  the  first  year  of  the  lunar  cycle :  hence,  to  find  the  golden 
number,  or  the  current  year  of  that  cycle,  we  must  add  one  to  the  year  of  Christ  for  which 
the  golden  number  is  required,  and  divide  the  sum  by  19 :  the  quotient  will  be  the  number 
of  cycles  which  have  elapsed  since  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  the  remainder  will  be  the  golden 
nnmber  or  current  year  of  the  cycle. 

Tlie  epact  va  the  difierence  between  the  solar  and  lunar  periods  at  the  end  of  each  vear, 
or  the  moon's  age  on  the  first  of  January.  Since  the  Julian  solar  year  is  365*  6\  and  the 
lunar  year,  or  twelve  lunations,  354''  8"  48"  36',  if  we  suppose  new  moon  to  have  happened 
on  the  first  of  January,  so  that  the  enact  for  that  year  is  0,  it  follows  that  the  epact  ror  the 
next  succeeding  year  will  be  10*  2V  11"  24*,  or  nearly  11  days.  For  the  thinl  year,  the 
epact  will  be  nearly  22  days.  For  the  fourth  year  it  will  be  S@  days,  or  (rejecting  30  days 
for  a  complete  lunation)  3  days,  and  so  on. 

The  annexed  table  contains  the  golden  num- 
bers with  the  corresponding  epacta  adapted 
to  the  Gregorian  calendar,  tul  the  year  1900. 
The  epact  for  each  month  of  the  year  is,  in 
like  manner,  the  moon's  age  oa  the  first  day 
of  the  month,  supposing  new  moon  to  have 
happened  on  the  first  of  January. 


OoMm 
Mwafem. 

I. 

IL 
III. 
IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VIL 

Epteli. 

0 
11 

S3 

3 
U 
3S 

0 

Ootdea 
Niuubm. 

Epteii. 

Oolitai 
NuniUra. 

EpMtb    > 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

17 
38 

0 
SO 

1 

13 
23 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

I. 

4 
IS 
98 

7 
M 

0 

.      J 

'm  immt-M  .uft  nl  M  yssi-d  -towA 


"■6 


.jevarfM  *i»  'jf  tntm  i 


■Mi>  imrii  «-i-:nii  lETJirtti'ftf 


PRINCIPLES  OP  (lEOORA^Y. 


l»AirrTI. 


The  epaeta  finr  the  monUut  of  the  common  and  luap  yeav  are  aa  followa:— 


Conmon  ytar 
Lttp  yaar 


Jan. 
0, 
0. 


I. 
1. 


1, 


M«y. 

a. 


JUIID. 

a. 

4, 


July. 

4, 

a, 


Aug. 


Sep. 
7, 
8, 


m:t. 

7. 
8, 


Nov. 
». 
10. 


Dm. 

V. 

la 


It  ia  evident  that  the  moon's  age  will  be  ibund  bjr  adding  together  the  epact  of  the  year, 
the  epact  of  the  month,  and  the  day  of  the  month,  rejecting  thirty  if  the  aum  amount  to  tliat 
number.  Thua,  if  it  ia  required  to  find  the  moon's  a^  on  the  11th  November  1829;  by 
adding  1  to  1829  and  dividing  by  10,  we  obtain  a  remamder  0,  which  ia  the  golden  number 
for  the  year  1820.  Now,  against  VI.  in  the  table,  we  find  25  for  the  epact  ot  the  year,  and 
9  ia  the #pact  for  November :  hence  25  +  9  +  11  —  30=  15,  which  ia  the  moun'a  age ;  so 
that  the  moon  is  foil  on  that  day. 

The  lunar  cycle  of  10  years,  though  remarkably  simple,  is  however  for  fton  being  accu- 
rate. Nineteen  years  contain  about  an  hour  and  a  half  more  than  285  lunations ;  so  that  at 
the  termination  of  that  period  the  moon  has  advanced  about  an  hour  and  a  half  in  the  next 
lunation.  This  error  amounta  to  &  d«y  in  the  course  of  16  cycles,  or  about  800  years.  But, 
to  compensate  this  excess,  the  epacts  may  be  advanced  one  day  every  800  years,  and  in 
this  manner  the  lunar  anid  solar  periods  will  be  made  to  agree.  In  consequence  of  her 
apparent  motion  eastward,  the  moon  is  about  48  minutes  later  after  every  diurnal  revolution 
ot  coming  to  the  meridiaa  As  48  minutes  is  equal  to  |  of  an  hour,  an  approximation  is 
made  to  uie  time  of  her  southing,  oy  multiplying  her  age  by  4,  and  dividing  by  5.  This 
givea  the  time,  nearly,  before  or  after  noon,  according  aa  the  moon  is  past  the  opposition  or 
conjunction. 

The  time  of  her  rising  and  setting  is  affected  by  the  same  cause.  In  one  part  of  the 
orbit,  however,  this  is  in  a  great  measure  counteracted  b^  the  smallness  of  the  angle  which 
the  orbit  makes  with  the  horizon.  For  focilitating  the  illustration  of  this  phenomenon,  let 
UB  suppose  the  moon  to  move  in  the  ecliptic,  firran  which  she  never  deviates  much  more 
than  0°.  By  turning  round  the  celestial  globe,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  ecliptic  makes  with 
the  horizon  very  dinerent  angles,  aa  the  points  of  their  intersection  vary.  If  the  first  point 
of  ArieM  be  brought  to  coincide  with  the  east  point  of  the  horirj)n,  the  angle  which  t)ie 
ecliptic  makes  with  the  horizon  is  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  and 
the  complement  of  the  latitude :  but  if  the  first  point  of  Libra  be  brought  into  coincidence 
with  the  east  point,  the  angle  between  the  ecliptic  and  the  horizoi  is  equal  to  the  sum  of 
the  obliquity  and  tlie  complement  of  the  latitude.  When  the  moon  is  in  Pi$ce»  or  Ariei, 
her  motion  m  her  orbit  will  therefore  produce  a  considerable  change,  each  succeeding  night, 
on  the  distance  between  the  east  and  the  point  of  rising,  but  the  time  of  rising  wiU  not  be 
much  a£fectod.  The  reverse  will  be  the  case  when  the  moon  is  in  Yirgo  or  Libra.  Hence 
it  ia  obvious  that  in  every  lunation,  at  a  certain  time,  the  moon  must  rise  nearly  at  the  same 
hour  for  several  days  together.  Tliis  phenomenon,  however,  for  the  most  part,  passes  unob- 
served; but  in  the  harvest  season  it  attracts  attention,  as  being  then  much  more  conspicuous 
than  at  anv  other  time  of  the  year.  In  the  autumnal  months  the  moon  is  full  in  the  signs 
Pitces  and  Artes,  (the  sun  being  at  that  season  in  the  opposite  signs  Virgo  and  Libra,)  and 
on  that  account  rises  an  entire  orb  (or  nearly  so)  for  about  a  week,  almost  at  the  time  uf 
sunset,  Uius  affording  a  supply  of  light  very  lieneflcial  to  the  husbandman,  in  gathering  in 
the  firuits  of  the  earu.    This  lunation  has  accordingly  been  distinguished  by  the  name  of 

the  HABVBBT  MOON. 

The  inclination  of  the  moon's  orbit  to  the  ecliptic,  makes  the  harveit  mom  rise,  more  or 
less,  nearly  at  the  same  time  that  she  would  if  she  moved  in  the  ecliptic,  according  to  the 
position  01  the  line  of  the  nodes.  If  we  suppose  the  ascending  nale  to  be  in  Arte*,  the 
moon's  orbit  makes  with  the  horizon  an  angle  upwards  of  5°  less  than  the  angle  which  the 
ecliptic  makes  with  it,  and  consequently  tJ^e  harvest  moon  will  rise  more  nearly  at  the  same 
time  than  if  the  moon  had  been  in  the  ecLptic.  In  a  little  less  than  9^  years,  however,  the 
line  of  the  nodes  will  have  made  half  a  revolution,  and  the  descending  node  will  be  iaAriet. 
Tlie  moon's  orbit  will  then  make  with  the  horizon  an  angle  more  than  5°  greater  than  that 
which  the  ecliptic  makes  with  it ;  and,  consequently,  the  harvest  moon  will  not  rise  so  nearly 
at  the  same  time  as  if  the  moon  had  been  in  the  ecliptic. 

The  quantity  of  moonlight  which  we  eqjoy  in  winter  is  much  greater  than  in  mimmer. 
As  the  moon  is  always  on  the  same  side  of  the  heavens  with  the  sun,  at  the  time  of  new 
moon,  and  on  the  opposite  side  at  the  time  of  foil  moon ;  it  is  evident  that  at  midsummer  the 
moon,  when  seen  as  a  crescent,  will  rise  at  a  point  of  the  horizon  to  the  north  of  east,  and 
set  at  a  point  to  the  north  of  west,  and  will  be  seen  high  in  the  heavens  when  she  passes 
the  meridian.  As  she  approaches  foil  moon,  however,  she  will  rise  forther  and  forther  to  the 
south  <£  east,  will  appear  low  in  the  heavens  when  on  the  meridian,  and  will  set  farther  and 
forther  to  the  south  of  west  The  reverse  takes  place  at  mid-winter :  the  nKxm  is  low 
when  seen  as  a  crescent,  and  rises  higher  and  higher  in  the  heavens  as  she  approaches  full 
moon.  She  also  rises  to  the  south  of  east  when  a  crescent,  and  sets  to  the  south  of  west; 
but,  when  foil,  riees  and  sets  to  the  north  of  these  points.  Thus  the  great  quantity  of  moon 
li<rKf  durin**  the  long  nights  of 


v/intcr  arises  fh}m  the  mccn  being  foil  in  the  ncrtnem  sigvA 


Book  L  f. 


PHASES  OF  THE  MOON 


101 


of  the  ecliptic  and  it  anologouf  to  that  of  eunahine  in  the  long  dnyn  of  ■ummer.  As  we 
ipproach  the  pole,  the  ouantity  of  moonlight  in  winter  becomes  still  more  remarkable ;  and 
^l  the  pole  itself,  at  mid-winter,  the  moon  does  not  set  for  fifteen  days  together,  namely,  from 
diu  first  to  the  last  quarter. 

The  lunar  dine  is  diversified  with  a  great  variety  of  apots,  which  are  nuite  permanent,  but 
dirt'cr  verv  considerably  fVom  each  other  in  degrees  or  brightness.  These  mc<|ualities  of 
iUurniiiatiun  are  visible  to  the  naked  el^e.  Since  the  discovery  of  the  telescope  they  have 
cni^agcd  the  particular  attention  of  sovoral  astronomers,  by  whom  their  relative  positions 
have  been  carefiiUy  ascertained,  and  laid  down  in  maps  of  the  lunur  surface.  From  an 
attentive  examination  of  the  lights  and  shades  seen  on  the  moon's  disc,  it  has  been  inferred 
that  her  surfiice  is  very  irregular,  being  diversified  by  lofty  mountains,  precipitous  rocks,  and 
deep  caverns.  The  existence  of  these  irregularities  of  surfkee  is  strikingly  evident  fiom  the 
serrated  apiiearance  of  the  line  which  separates  the  enlightened  flrom  the  dark  part  of  the 
moou,  and  by  a  variety  of  bright  detached  spots,  almost  always  visible  on  the  dark  part  and 
near  the  line  of  separation  between  light  and  darkness.  These  bright  spots  are  the  tops  of 
mountains  illuminated  by  the  sun,  while  his  rays  have  not  yet  reached  the  bottom  of  the 
intervening  valleys.  The  dark  spots  of  the  moon  are  smooth,  and  apparently  level,  while 
the  luminous  parts  are  elevated  regions,  which  either  rise  into  high  mountains  or  sink  into 
deep  and  immense  cavitie&  The  general  smoothness  of  the  dark  spots  naturally  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  they  were  collections  of  water ;  but  more  careful  observation  has  made  it 
appear  that  the  line  which  separates  the  enlightened  fi-om  the  dark  part  of  the  moon  is  not 
smooth  and  regular,  even  when  it  passes  over  a  dark  spot ;  so  that  there  is  no  reason  to  sup- 
pi>4e  that  there  is  any  large  collection  of  water  in  the  moon :  and  this  conclusion  is  strengtn- 
ened  by  the  constant  serenity  of  her  appearance,  which  seems  undisturbed  bv  any  of  those 
atmospherical  phenomena  which  arise  on  our  globe  fVom  the  existence  or  water.  The 
mountainous  scenery  of  the  moon,  and  more  especially  the  immense  caverns  with  which  her 
surface  is  broken,  Dear  little  analogry  to  what  we  see  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  The 
resemblance  may,  however,  be  conceived  to  be  considerably  increased  if  all  the  waters  of 
the  earth  were  removed,  and  the  beds  of  the  ocean,  seas,  and  lakes  were  left  dry  with  all 
the  inequalities  of  their  surfaces  exposed  to  view.  The  earth  would  then  be  diversified,  not 
onlv  with  the  rocks  and  mountains  now  seen  upon  its  surface,  but  likewise  with  deep  caverns 
of  immense  extent,  and  having  detached  mountains  and  rocks  rising  firom  the  bottom,  similar 
to  the  cavities  discovered  in  the  moon.  From  certain  light  spots  which  have  sometimes 
been  seen  on  the  dark  part  of  the  moon,  at  such  a  distance  mm  the  enlightened  portion 
that  they  could  not  arise  nom  the  light  of  the  sun,  astronomers  have  inferrM  the  existence 
of  volcanoes  in  the  moon.  Dr.  Herschel,  in  particular,  two  or  three  different  times,  observed 
such  spots. 
The  height  of  a  lunar  mountain  may  be  measured  by  the  following  method.    Let  DAE 

be  a  section  of  the  moon  maide  by  a  plane  passing 
through  O,  the  eye  of  an  observer  on  the  earth,  M  the 
summit  of  a  mountain  situated  in  the  dark  part  of  the 
lunar  disc,  and  S  the  sun.  It  is  evident  that  this  plane 
will  be  perpendicular  to  the  line  which  joins  the  honis 
;  of  the  moon.  Let  D  A  be  the  arch  of  the  circle 
D  A  F,  which  passes  over  the  visible  portion  of  the 
enli(>!tt*ned  hemisphere.  Whenever  the  point  M  be- 
comes visible  to  a  spectator  at  O,  it  must  be  illumi- 
nated by  a  ray  of  the  sun  SAM,  which  will  be  a 
tangent  to  the  circle  D  A  F  at  the  point  A,  and  there- 
fore at  right  angles  to  the  diameter  A  F.  Produce 
O  M  to  meet  the  diameter  D  E  in  m,  and  draw  A  r 
and  A  It  parallel  to  D  E  and  M  m ;  also  produce  E  D  to  meet  S  M  in  C.  Because  DAE 
is  a  section  of  that  hemisphere  of  the  moon  which  is  turned  towards  the  earth,  the  visual 
ray  0  M  m  is  perpendicular  to  D  E :  hence  the  angles  «i  M  C,  M  C  m  are  toprether  equal 
to  two  right  angles.  But  because  C  A  is  perpendicular  to  A  B,  the  angles  ABC  and  A  C  B 
(or  M  C  m)  are  also  together  equal  to  two  right  angles :  wheqco  it  is  evident  that  the  angle 
m  M  C  is  equal  to  A  B  C ;  and  that  the  triangles  A  M  r,  A  B  n  are  similar.    We  have, 

therefore.  An:  AB  =  Ar:  AM.    Hence  A  M  =  j •       > 

A  n 

Now,  A  r  is  the  projection  of  A  M  on  the  lunar  disc,  and  will  be  found  by  measuring, 

f^ith  the  micrometer,  m  a  direction  perpendicular  to  a  lino  joining  the  horns  of  the  moon, 

the  distance  of  the  illuminated  summit  M  fVom  the  enlightened  disc  at  A ;  also  7~n  =  Sir. 

^  A  B  C,  radius  being  unity,  the  angle  A  B  C  is  equal  to  S  M  m  the  moon's  distance  or 

A  r 
elongation  from  the  sun :  wherefore  we  obtain  A  M  =  an^eioneation'  "  S"'""  H"^"*"*y' 

.0*         •    ^  :  ,.,:^ 


- f    ^"ii    ■Hi'Jf'--  tj- 


101 


PRINCIPLES  OF  OEOORAPHY. 


pajit  n. 


NmU  l«t  a  Q  H  be  a  Motion  of  the  moon  made  bjr  a  plane  paMinff  altm;  the  tangent  A  M, 
and  through  the  contra  K :  draw  M  K  G ;  then,  by  a  well-known 
property  of  the  circle,  A  M'  =  O  M  X  M  H  =  M  H  x  (O  H  +  H  M), 
or,  H  M  being  much  unaller  than  O  H,  we  have  AM'  =  MHxOH, 

A  M' 
and  M  H  3s  ^-rr- nearly.  Nojr,  A  M  and  O  H  are  both  given ;  there- 
fore H  M,  the  height  of  the  mountain  above  the  general  aurflioo,  may 
be  determined. 

Suppoae,  fbr  example,  that  when  the  apparent  diameter  of  the 
moon  b  81'  10",  and  her  elonmtion  from  the  aun  99**  07i'>  the  dis- 
tance between  the  enlighteneJ  part  of  her  diac,  and  tlie  summit  of  a 
mountain  situated  in  the  dark  part  of  it  ii  found  to  be  414";  and  let 
it  be  required  thence  to  determme  the  height  of  the  mountain. 

The  diametwr  of  the  moon  is  about  2180  miles;  hence  31'  Ifi"  or  187&" :  414"  =  2180: 

ire  Ar  =  48-25 


48'3&i  which  is  the  number  of  miles  in  41^"  on  the  lunar  disc ;  so  that  we  have 
milesL 


Af 


'  Again,  the  Nat  Sin.  of  the  elongation  98"  57^  =  "9976 ;  therafbre  A  M  =  gin  elongation 


=  48-86  milea. 


The  height  ssA*!' 
*         OH 


(48-36)'' 


=  1*07  mile. 


2180  "  " "'        v  vj^M'  it'i  tifptMt  H-ii^'  ••"s 

Thus  the  height  of  the  lunar  mountain  in  question  is  fbuiid  to  be  abont  a  mfte.  'Rie 
principle  now  explained  is  correct  in  theory ;  mit  with  regard  to  the  results  obtained  fVnm 
the  practical  application  of  it,  a  greater  diflference  of  opinion  exists  than  might  have  been 
expected.    These  results  are,  however,  highly  curious  and  interesting. 

Jtfoon't  motion  round  the  earth.  The  moon's  surfiuse,  when  viewM  through  a  telescope, 
is  so  strongly  characterised  by  the  spots  visible  upon  it,  as  to  leave  no  doubt  of  its  being 
always  the  same.  From  this  the  inference  is  obvious,  since  we  are  certain  firom  the  moon's 
motion  round  the  earth,  that  she  must  revolve  on  an  axis  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  plane 
of  her  orbit  in  the  same  time  that  she  revolves  about  the  earth,  namely  in  27^  days  nearly. 
Her  rotation  on  her  axis  is  equable;  but  this  is  not  the  case  with  her  motion  in  her  orbit, 
which  is  periodically  variable :  and  hence  there  are  parts  of  the  eastern  and  western  edges 
of  the  moon  which  are  seen  occasionally.  This  appearance  is  called  the  libration  or  thi 
MOON  IN  LONOiTUDi.  It  is  entirely  optical,  and  argues  no  inequality  in  the  moon's  motion 
cm  her  axis. 

The  moon's  axis  of  rotation  is  not  altogether  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  her  orbit,  but 
inclined  to  it  at  an  anj^le  of  88°  29'  49".  In  consequence  of  tliis  position  of  her  axis  her 
poles  are  alternately  visible,  and  a  small  portion  of  the  polar  regions ;  this  phenomenon  is 
called  the  libration  op  the  moon  in  latitvde. 

The  diurnal  libration  of  the  moon  is  another  optical  appearance  arising  ftom  the  moon 
bemg  viewed  flvm  the  surfiice  instead  of  the  centre  of  the  earth.  At  rising,  a  part  of  the 
western  edge  is  seen,  which  is  invisible  at  setting;  and,  at  setting,  a  part  of  tne  eastern 
edge  is  seen,  which  is  invisible  at  rising. 

The  explication  of  the  lunar  phases  leads  to  that  of  EoLiraKfl — ^thoae  occasional  obscura- 
tions of  Uie  sun  and  moon  which  have,  in  ages  of  iterance,  been  objects  of  superstitious 
terror  to  mankind,  and  at  all  times  objects  of  curiosity  to  the  philosopher.  At  tlie  time  of 
new  moon,  the  moon  is  upon  the  same  side  of  the  heavens  with  the  sun,  but,  fbr  the  most 
part,  passes  either  above  or  below  the  solar  disc  without  obscuring  any  part  of  it.  This 
arises  firom  her  orbit  being  inclined  to  the  ecliptic :  for  it  is  evident  that  if  the  planes  of  the 
orbit  and  ecliptic  coincided,  the  centres  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  earth  would,  at  every  nc\«' 
moon,  be  in  the  same  straight  line ;  so  that  the  moon  would  be  seen  to  pass  over  the  snn't* 
disc,  and  the  sun  would  appear  to  be  totally  or  partially  eclipsed,  according  to  the  position 
of  an  inhabitant  upon  the  earth's  surface.  Again,  at  the  time  of  full  moon,  the  moon  is  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  heavehs  from  the  sun ;  and  therefore  she  is  on  the  same  side  of  the 
heavens  with  the  shadow,  which  the  earth,  as  an  opaque  body,  projects  into  space.  In  monl 
cases,  however,  the  moon  passes  above  or  below  this  conical  shadow ;  so  that  she  is  not 
deprived  of  the  sun's  rays.  But  if  the  plane  of  the  orbit  coincided  with  that  of  the  ecliptic, 
die  centres  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  earth  would  evidently  be  in  the  same  straight  line  at  every 
flill  moon  as  well  as  at  eve- y  new  moon :  tho  moon  would  therefore  fall  into  the  eartli's 
shadow,  and  would  be  eclipsed  to  all  the  inhabitants  or.  that  side  of  the  earth  which  is  turned 
towards  the  moon  at  the  time. 

Though  the  inclination  of  the  lunar  orbit  to  the  ecliptic  prevents  the  occurrence  at  every 
new  and  full  moon  of  these  phenomena,  there  are  certain  distances  from  the  nodes  of  the 
moon's  orbit,  called  ecliftio  limits,  within  which,  if  the  moon  is  situated  at  the  time  di 
new  or  fliU  moon,  there  will  be  a  solar  or  lunar  eclipBo. 


Oooi  Li 


VN'iAMi^KLIPSEa 


lOB 


To  illuatimU  the  gonoral  phenomena  of  lunar  eolipMt.     Let  A  B,  D  E  be  aectionri  ot  the 
■un  and  earth,  by  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  plane  at  the  •clipUc.  Draw  A  V,  B  V  touchinu 


iameter  of  the 
»  B7J',  the  dim 
he  tuinmit  of  a 
)  41i  ";  and  let 
iiountain. 
4U"  =  2180: 
reAr  =  48-26 


Bin.  elongation 


t  a  mile.  The 
B  obtained  fVoni 
ight  have  been 

gh  a  telescope, 
Bt  of  its  being 
irom  the  moon's 
lar  to  the  plane 
7i  days  nearly, 
ion  in  her  orbit, 
western  edges 

lATlON  or  THI 

moon's  motion 

'  her  orbit,  but 
if  her  axis  her 
>henomenon  is 

mm  the  moon 
a  part  of  the 
of  tne  eastern 

ional  obsciira- 

sHperstitioiis 

At  the  time  of 

for  the  most 

of  it.    This 

ihines  of  the 

,t  every  nev 

over  the  snn's 

to  the  position 

he  moon  is  on 

ne  side  of  the 

ice.     In  most 

lat  she  is  not 

if  the  ecliptic, 

line  at  evory 

to  the  eartli's 

hich  is  turned 

ence  at  every 
nodes  of  the 
it  Uie  time  d 


>••» 


the  circle*  A  B,  D  E  on  the  correeponding  aidee  in  E  and  D,  and  meeting  each  other  in  V : 
also  draw  B  0,  A  H,  touching  theae  circlet  on  the  oppoaite  aidea  in  M  and  N.  Then,  if  wo 
suppose  the  figure  A  B  H  G  to  revolve  about  the  line  C  F,  which  joins  the  centres  of  the 
circles,  as  an  axia,  the  cone  generated  by  the  line  E  V  represents  the  shadow  which  the 
earth  projects  into  space ;  and  fVom  every  point  of  that  conical  shadow  the  liffht  of  the  sun 
is  entirely  excluded.  The  spaces  between  E  V,  M  G,  and  between  D  V,  N  II,  will  receive 
the  light  of  a  part  of  the  sun :  and  hence  the  space  round  the  ahadow,  which  is  generated  by 
the  motion  of  the  lines  G  M,  E  V,  is  called  the  pbnumbba. 

Join  C  E.  It  is  evident  that  the  angle  E  V  F  is  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  angles 
A  R  C,  E  C  F.  But  A  E  C  is  the  angle  under  which  the  sun's  semid  iameter  is  seen  trom 
the  earth ;  and  E  C  F  is  the  angle  under  which  the  earth's  semidiamotor  is  seen  iW»n  the 
sun.  BoUi  of  these  aneles  being  known,  their  difference  E  V  F  is  a  given  angle.  Now,  in 
the  right  angled  triangle  E  V  F  we  have  given  the  angle  at  V,  and  uie  side  E  F,  which  is 
the  earth's  semidiameter :  hence  F  V,  the  height  of  the  earth's  shadow,  may  be  determined. 
The  height  of  the  shadow  varies  from  213  to  220  semidiameters  of  the  earth. 

Again,  let  F  O  be  the  distance  of  the  moon  ttom  the  earth :  draw  K  O  L  perpendicular 
to  F  V,  and  ioin  F  L.  The  angle  L  F  O,  under  which  tlio  semidiameter  of  the  section  of 
the  eartli's  shadow  is  seen  ftom  the  earth,  is  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  angles,  F  L  E, 
F  V  li.  But  F  L  E  is  the  angle  under  which  the  semidiameter  of  the  earth  is  seen  from  the 
moon,  and  F  V  L  is,  as  has  been  shown,  equal  to  the  difference  between  the  angle  under 
which  the  sun's  semidiameter  ia  seen  from  the  earth,  and  the  angle  under  which  the  earth's 
semidiameter  is  seen  from  the  sun :  hence,  to  find  the  angle  under  which  the  section  of  the 
earth's  shadow  through  which  the  moon  passes  in  a  lunar  eclipse  is  seen  f^om  the  earth, 
we  must  add  together  the  two  angles  under  which  the  semidin  meter  of  the  earth  appears 
when  seen  from  the  sun  and  moon,  and  firom  the  sum  subtract  tho  cun's  apparent  semi- 
diameter, the  remainder  is  the  angle  required.  'The  angle  L  F  O,  when  greatest,  is  about 
46':  but  the  inclination  of  the  lunar  orbit  to  the  ecliptic  is  upward  of  5*^,  and  to  this  distance 
the  moon  may  recede  from  the  ecliptic.  It  is  evident,  Uierefore,  that  an  eclipse  of  thr  moon 
can  take  place  only  when  she  is  near  her  nodes. 

Let  the  circle  A  H  B  be  the  section  of  the  earth's  shadow  at  the  moon ;  A  B  a  portion 
of  the  ecliptic,  and  D  F  a  portion  of  the  moon's  orbit  near  tlte  ascending  node.  Draw  C  G 
from  the  centre  of  the  shaaow,  (which  must  bo  ^e  point  of  the  ecliptic  directly  opposite  the 
sun,)  perpendicular  to  A  B,  and  let  it  meet  D  F  in  G ;  then  G  is  the  point  of  opposition  at 
which  the  moon  will  be  180  degrees  of  the  ecliptic  distant  flvm  the  sun.    Now,  in  moving 

from  D  to  6,  the  moon  must  enter  the  earth's  shadow, 
and  will  therefore  be  eclipsed.  The  beginning  of  the 
eclipse  will  be  the  moment  that  she  enters  on  the  shadow 
at  K :  the  middle  of  the  eclipse  will  be  the  moment  when 
her  centre  reaches  the  point  E,  the  extremity  of  the  per- 
pendicular drawn  firom  C  to  D  F ;  and  the  end  of  the 
eclipse  will  be  the  moment  when  she  leaves  the  shadow 
at  the  point  L.  The  portion  of  the  moon's  disc  that  is 
obecured  will  depend  on  the  distance  between  E  and  C, 
which  will  vanish  when  the  point  of  the  opposition  coin- 
cides with  the  node.  It  is  evident  that  had  the  eclipne 
happened  on  the  other  side  of  the  node,  tho  opposite  edge  of  the  moon  would  have  been 
immersed  in  the  shadow. 

In  eclipses  there  are  various  degrees  of  immcniion.  When  this  is  entire,  it  is  said  to  be 
total ;  when  only  a  part  of  the  moon  is  immersed,  the  eclipse  is  said  to  be  partial ;  and 
when  the  centre  of  the  moon  passes  through  the  centre  of  the  shadow,  the  eclipse  is  said 
1o  be  central  and  total.  The  breadth  of  the  shadow  at  the  moon  is  about  three  times  her 
diameter,  so  that  in  the  case  of  a  total  central  eclipse,  the  moon  may  be  entirely  obecured 
for  nearly  two  hours. 


I 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PastU 


Hie  time  when  eclipses  shall  happen  may  be  computed  from  the  laws  which  regulate  the 
motions  of  the  sun  and  moon.  This  computation  reqiiires  astronomical  tables,  and  is  per- 
formed  with  considerable  labour.  But  it  may  be  observed  that  in  223  lunations,  or  18  years 
10  days  (or  11  days  according  as  four  or  five  leap  years  occur  in  the  interim),  7  hours 
4^)  minutes,  the  moon  returns  to  the  same  position  nearly  with  regard  to  the  sun,  and  the 
lunar  nodes,  and  therefore  the  eclipses,  will  return  nearly  in  the  same  order  and  circum- 
stances. This  is  thought  to  be  the  period  called  the  Chaldean  Saroa,  being  used  by  the 
Chaldeans  in  predicting  eclipses. 

When  it  is  known  that  a  lunar  eclipse  is  to  happen,  it  is  easy  to  compute  its  general  cir< 
cumstances.  The  distance  of  the  moon  from  the  ecliptic  at  opposition,  the  time  of  opposi- 
tion, the  angles  under  which  the  earth's  semidiameter  is  seen  at  the  sun  and  moon,  also  the 
apparent  diameters  of  these  two  luminaries,  are  known  from  the  tables.  In  tlie  ri^ht  angled 
triangle  C  E  G  we  have  given  C  6,  and  the  angle  G  C  E,  which  is  equal  to  the  mclination 
of  the  moon's  orbit  to  the  ecliptic,  nearly ;  hence  we  find  C  E  and  E  G.  Prom  C  E  and 
C  F,  the  sum  of  the  semidiameters  of  the  section  of  the  earth's  shadow  and  the  moon,  we 
find  E  F,  which  is  equal  to  E  D ;  thence  D  G,  G  P  become  known.  We  can  compute  from 
the  tables  the  angular  motion  of  the  moon  in  her  orbit  relatively  to  the  sun,  the  latter  body 
being  supposed  at  rest.  Her  motion  relatively  to  the  opposite  point  C  is  evidently  the  same : 
hence  we  can  determine  the  time  of  describing  D  G  and  G  P;  that  is,  the  time  tiiat  elapses 
between  the  beginning  of  the  eclipse  and  the  opposition,  and  between  the  opposition  and 
the  end  of  the  eclipse.  But  the  time  of  the  opposition  is  known,  therefore  the  times  of  the 
beginiling  and  end  of  the  eclipse  will  also  be  known. 

For  estimating  the  quantity  of  an  eclipse,  the  diameter  of  the  solar  or  lunar  disc  is  con- 
ceived to  be  divided  into  twelve  equal  parts  called  digits  ;  and  according  to  the  number  of 
those  parts  which  are  obscured,  so  many  digits  are  said  to  be  eclipsed. 

Let  it  be  supposed  that  the  edge  of  the  moon's  disc  just  touches  the  edge  of  the  section 

of  the  earth's  shadow  at  P,  and  that  at  the  same  time 
the  diameters  of  the  moon  and  shadow  are  each  at  the 
maximum,  and  we  shall  find  the  ecliptic  limit  for  lunar 
eclipses.  Produce  E  D  and  B  A  to  meet  in  N :  then 
N  C  is  the  limit  of  the  distance  of  the  node  firem  the 
opposition  at  which  an  eclipse  can  happen.  Since  the 
line  in  which  the  centre  of  the  moon  moves  ^which  for 
a  short  distance  may  be  considered  as '  a  straight  line) 
must  be  supposed  parallel  to  the  tangent  to  the  circle 
A  P  B  at  the  point  P,  the  angle  at  E  is  a  right  angle. 
The  angle  N,  is  the  inclination  of  the  lunar  orbit  to  the 
ecliptic :  also  C  E  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  semidiameters  of  the  moon  and  shadow. 
Hence  from  the  spherical  triangle  C  E  N,  C  N  may  be  determined ;  and  is  found  to  be 
about  llj°.  Unless  when  the  node  and  the  point  of  opposition,  which  are  both  liable 
to  continual  change  of  position,  come  within  this  distance,  there  cannot  possibly  be  a 
lunar  eclipse. 

Calculation  of  longitude.  The  penumbra  makes  it  very  difficult  to  observe,  with  pre- 
cision, the  beginning  or  end  of  a .  lunar  eclipse ;  so  that  though  these  periods  may  be  em- 
ployed for  determining  the  longitude  of  places  on  the  earth,  no  great  degree  of  accuracy  is 
to  be  expected.  The  best  method  is  to  note  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  boundary  of  the 
shadow  at  the  different  spots  on  the  lunar  surface,  which  may  be  considered  as  so  many 
different  observtions. 

The  moon  seldom  disappears  entirely  in  lunar  eclipses,  but  is  seen  of  a  dusky  red  colour: 
even  the  spots  on  the  lunar  surface  may  be  distinguished  through  the  shade.  This  efl^ect  is 
to  be  attributed  to  a  portion  of  the  sun's  light,  which  enters  the  conical  shadow  in  conse- 
quence of  being  refracted  by  the  atmosphere  of  the  earth.  The  nature  and  effects  of  atmos- 
pherical refraction  will  afterwards  be  explained. 

Eclipses  of  the  sun.  With  regard  to  the  general  phenomena  of  solar  eclipses,  we  may 
begin  with  remarkinfr,  that  when  the  sun's  light  is  intercepted  by  the  moon,  so  that  at  any 
place  on  the  earth's  surface  he  becomes  partly  or  wholly  invisible,  properly  speaking,  it  is 
an  eclipse  of  that  portion  of  the  earth  on  which  the  moon's  shadow  or  penumbra  falls. 

The  semi-angle  at  the  vertex  of  the  moon's  shadow  is  determined  in  a  similar  manner 
to  tliat  on  which  the  semi-angle  at  the  vertex  of  the  earth's  shadow  was  found.  It  is  equai 
to  the  difference  of  the  angles  under  which  the  semi-diameters  of  the  sun  and  moon  would 
be  seen,  if  each  of  these  bodies  were  viewed  from  the  other  at  the  time  of  their  conjunc- 
tion ;  and  will  therefore  not  be  very  &r  from  being  equal  to  the  apparent  semi-diameter  of 
the  sun  as  seen  from  the  earth.  Compr'ing,  then,  the  length  of  the  conical  cihauow  of  the 
moon,  we  shall  find  it  vary  firom  about  60^  to  55^  semi-diameters  of  the  earth.  The  length 
of  the  shadow  at  the  time  of  the  conjunction  may  therefore  at  one  time  exceed,  and  at 
another  time  fall  short  of  the  moon's  distance  from  the  earth,  which  varies  from  64  to  ."ifl 
semi-diaineters.    In  the  former  case,  if  tlie  conjunction  happen  when  the  moon  is  witltiu  a 


Book  I. 


;/IM/-    ECLIPSES.   MH)y/.Ui'{ 


l(» 


certain  distance  of  the  node,  the  hinar  shadow  will  reach  the  earth,  and  a  section  of  it  will 
traverse  n  portion  of  the  earth's  surface,  producing,  wherever  it  falls,  a  total  eclipse  of  the 

SUM. 

Whcrtiver  the  penumbra  falls,  the  sun  will  appear  partially  eclipsed ;  more  or  fewer 
di^'itH  being  eclipsed  according  as  the  place  is  less  or  more  removed  from  the  shadow, 
Buyund  the  penumbra  the  sun  is  not  eclipsed  at  all.  The  section  of  the  lunar  shadow  is  so 
netir  the  vertex,  that,  even  wheii  greatest,  the  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  which  it  covers 
is  not  very  extensive,  being  only  about  180  miles  in  diameter:  the  penumbra,  however 
extends  over  a  considerable  part  of  that  hemisphere  of  the  earth  which  is  turned  towards 
tli(3  sun.  A  total  eclipse  in  any  place  cannot  exceed  7'  58".  If  the  vertex  of  the  lunaur 
siiadow  just  reaches  the  surface,  the  total  eclipse  then  produced  will  be  instantaneous. 

When  the  vertex  of  the  lunar  shadow  falls  short  of  ttie  earth's  sur&ce,  at  no  place  will 
there  be  a  total  eclipse :  but  at  places  near  the  axis  of  the  cone,  there  will  be  seen  an 
ANNULAR  eclipte ;  that  is,  the  central  parts  of  the  sun's  disc  will  be  obscured,  but  a  bright 
rinii;  will  be  left  visible  round  the  dark  body  of  the  moon.  Thus  let  A  B,  C  D  be  sectiona 
at'  Uie  sun  and  moon  and  V  the  vertex  of  the  lunar 

■  *::;  -;••-  i  ->'H  ■■:'.  Si       ,'•:;■■■)  --[i   \,i    •■:;,,..■ 


Shadow  which  is  supposed  not  to  reach  the  earth.  Produce  F  V  the  axis  of  the  shadow  to 
meet  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  E.  From  E  draw  E  C  G,  E  D  H  tangents  to  the  moon, 
and  intersecting  the  sun's  disc  in  G  and  H.  The  circle  of  which  the  line  joining  G  H  is 
the  diameter,  marks  out  the  portion  of  the  sun  that  is  hid  by  the  body  of  the  moon  from  an 
observer  at  E,  and  the  annulxu,  of  which  the  breadth  is  A  6,  will  be  visible. 

The  general  circumstances  of  a  solar  eclipse  may  be  represented  by  projection ;  and  a 
map  may  be  constructed  to  show  the  progress  of  the  shadow  over  the  surface  of  the  eartli. 
The  most  simple  projection  is  that  which  supposes  the  observer  to  be  placed  in  the  sun,  and 
to  see  the  path  which  any  place  on  the  earth's  surface  describes  in  consequence  of  the 
diurnal  motion  projected  into  an  ellipse  on  the  plane  of  the  earth's  disc,  while  the  path  of 
the  moon's  shadow  is  projected  into  a  straight  line  on  the  same  disc.  The  geometrical  con- 
struction thus  obtained  is  sufficiently  accurate  for  the  prediction  of  eclipses. 

The  circumstances  of  a  solar  eclipse  may,  however,  be  computed  with  considerable  accu- 
racy. Tlius,  find  for  the  given  place,  from  the  tables,  the  time  of  the  conjunction  of  the 
sun  and  moon.  The  position  of  the  heavenly  bodies  in  reference  to  the  ecliptic  is  deter- 
mined by  latitude  and  longitude,  m  the  same  manner  as  the  position  of  a  place  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  in  reference  to  the  equator.  Find,  then,  for  the  time  of  the  conjunction, 
the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the  moon,  and  apply  to  them  the  small  change  produced  by 
the  spectator  being  placed  on  the  sur&ce  instead  of  the  centre  of  the  earth ;  a  change 
which  depends  on  the  angle  which  the  earth's  semidiameter  subtends  at  the  sun  and  moon 
at  the  time :  this  will  give  us  the  apparent  latitude  and  longitude  of  the  moon  as  seen  on 
the  concave  surface  of  the  heavens.  Compute  from  these  and  the  longitude  of  the  sun, 
that  is,  his  distance  from  the  first  point  of  Aries,  the  apparent  distance  of  the  centres  of  the 
sun  and  moon  at  the  instant  of  conjunction ;  whence  we  may  nearly  conclude  the  time  of 
the  beginning  and  ending  of  the  eclipse,  by  taking  into  account  the  apparent  horary  motion 
of  the  moon  in  latitude  and  longitude  at  the  time  of  conjunction,  computed  from  the  tables. 
About  the  conjectured  time  of  the  beginning  of  the  eclipse,  compute  two  or  three  apparent 
latitudes  and  longitudes  of  the  moon,  and  thence,  combined  with  the  longitude  of  the  sun, 
the  apparent  distances  of  the  centres.  From  these  results  the  time  may  be  computed  by 
proportion  when  the  apparent  distance  of  the  centres  is  equal  to  the  sum  o§  the  apparent 
semi-diameters,  that  is,  the  time  of  the  beginning  of  the  eclipse. 

The  magnitude  also  of  the  eclipse  at  any  time  may  be  thus  determined :  let  S  E  (Jig,  28.) 
be  the  computed  apparent  difference  of  longitude  of  die  centres  S,  M,  of  the  sun  and  moon,  ond 
M  E  the  computed  apparent  latitude  of  the  moon.  In  the  right-angled  triangle  M  E  S,  we 
have  therefore  given  Uie  two  sides  to  find  the  hypothenuse  M  S,  which,  being  known,  we 
obtain  m  n  the  eclipsed  part  of  the  sun :  for  m  n=S  m+  M  n — M  S. 

The  ecliptic  limits  of  the  sun  may  be  determined  in  the  following  manner :  let  S  and  M 
(2i^—Jig.  1.)  be  the  sun  and  moon,  seen  firom  E  the  centre  of  the  earm  at  the  moment  of  con- 
junction ;  that  is,  when  their  centres  are  in  the  same  circle  S  B  perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic. 
iiot  tlie  anerle  a  Eh,  formed  by  tangents  drawn  from  E  to  the  adjacent  edges  of  the  solar 
and  lunar  discs,  be  equal  to  the  greatest  difference  between  the  true  place  B  and  apparent 

Vol.  I.  O 


ima 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


'!>St  'iii:-ftJ)Ui 


Part  II. 


.  J^^J..,' 


place  m  of  the  moon,  which  can  arise  from  her  being  viewed  from  the  surface  instead  of  the 
centre  of  the  earth.  It  is  not  dilTicult  to  see  that  this  difference  will  be  greatest  when  the 
moon  is  in  the  horizon,  and  that  its  effect  will  be  to  depress  Her  altitude.  The  distance  of 
the  sun  is  so  great,  that  we  may  at  present  consider  his  true  and  apparent  place  as  coinci- 
dent Suppose  now  an  observer  on  the  earth's  surface  at  A,  whose  horizon  is  at  right  angles 
to  S  B,  to  have  the  moon  in  his  horizon  at  the  moment  of  conjunction ;  it  is  evident  that  to 
him  the  two  discs  would  appear  to  be  in  contact :  but  to  an  observer  on  any  other  point  of 
the  earth's  surface,  the  discs  would  appear  asunder.  In  the  moment  of  conjunction,  there- 
fore, the  penumbr^  must  have  just  touched  the  earth  at  the  point  A ;  and  when  the  centres 
of  the  sun  and  moon  approach  nearest  to  each  other  before  or  after  the  conjunction,  it  will 
spread  over  a  very  small  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  near  A,  so  as  to  produce  barely  an 
eclipse.  Hence  the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  node  at  the  time  of  conjunction  will  be 
the  solar  ecliptic  limit,  nearljr.  In  the  right-angled  spherical  triangle  S  m  N  (Jig.  2.)  lei. 
N  S  be  a  portion  of  the  ecliptic,  and  N  m  a  portion  of  the  moon's  orbit,  N  being  the  node,  and 
let  the  perpendicular  S  m  be  equal  to  S  m  in^^.  1.  The  arc  N  S  is  the  ecliptic  limit  required : 
iind  to  find  it,  we  have  given  ^e  angle  at  N  equal  to  the  inclination  of  the  moon's  orbit  to  the 
itcliptic,  and  S  tn  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  apparent  diameters  of  the  sun  and  moon  together 
with  the  angle  6  E  a,  which  is  equal  toBMmorAME],the  angle  subtended  by  the  semi- 
diameter  of  the  earth's  disc  as  seen  from  the  moon.  The  angle  N  and  the  perpendicular 
S  m  being  known,  tlie  base  N  S  is  easily  determined.  The  three  quantities  to  the  sum  of 
which  S  m  is  equal,  are  variable  in  their  values.  Taking  for  S  m  the  sum  of  the  semi- 
diameters  of  the  solar  and  lunar  disc,  and  of  the  disc  of  tlie  earth  as  seen  from  the  moon 
when  they  are  greatest,  we  find  S  N  equal  to  17°  12'  nearly.  But  if  S  m  be  made  equal 
to  the  sum  of  the  semidiameters  when  they  are  least,  S  N  is  found  to  be  nearly  equal  to 
15"  19'.  Within  the  former  of  these  limits  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  may  happen,  within  the 
latter  it  mtut  happen. 

If  the  moon's  apparent  diameter  be  greater  than  or  equal  to  that  of  the  sun,  the  eclipse 
will  be  total  wherever  the  lunar  shadow  falls.  But  if  the  sun's  apparent  diameter  be  greater 
than  that  of  the  moon,  the  eclipse  will  be  annular  within  the  lunar  shadow. 

Number  of  eclipses.  The  ecliptic  limits  of  the  sun  taken  on  each  side  of  the  node,  give 
an  arc  of  the  ecliptic  exceeding  30°,  so  that  the  sun  will  be  more  than  a  month  in  passing 
tiirouefh  these  limits.  Hence  there  must  be  two  eclipses  of  the  sun  every  year.  Since  the 
ecliptic  limits  of  the  moon,  however,  taken  on  each  side  give  an  arc  only  of  about  23°,  and 
since  through  this  portion  of  the  ecliptic  the  sun  passes  in  less  than  a  month,  there  may  be 
no  eclipse  of  the  moon  in  the  course  of  a  year. 

When  a  total  anr  central  eclipse  of  the  moon  happens,  there  may  be  an  eclipse  of  the 
sun  at  the  preceding  and  following  conjunctions,  because  between  new  and  full  moons  the 
Bun  describes  only  about  15  degrees  of  uie  ecliptic,  so  that  each  conjunction  may  happen 
within  the  solar  ecliptic  limits.  The  same  may  take  place  at  the  opposite  node :  there  may 
therefore  be  six  eclipses  in  the  course  of  a  year.  The  retrogradation  of  the  node  at  the 
rate  of  20°  yearly  renders  it  possible,  when  the  first  eclipse  of  the  year  happens  early  in 
January,  that  Another  eclipse  of  the  sun  may  occur  in  the  end  of  the  year.  On  the  whole, 
there  may  be  seven  eclipses  in  the  course  of'^one  year ;  five  of  the  sun,  and  two  of  the  moon : 
and  there  never  can  be  fewer  than  two,  but  though  more  solar  eclipses  hflppen  than  lunar, 
there  are  fewer  of  the  former  visible  than  of  the  latter ;  because  a  lunar  eclipse  is  visible  nt 
every  place  on  the  earth  which  is  turned  towards  the  moon  during  its  continuance ;  but  in 
a  solar  eclipse  the  sun  continues  visible  at  all  places  over  which  the  penumbra  does  not  pass. 
The  greatest  possible  duration  of  the  annular  appearance  of  a  solar  eclipse  is  12™  24',  and 
the  greatest  possible  time  during  which  the  snn  can  be  wholly  obscured  is  7""  59'. 

As  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  solar  eclipse  can  be  observed  with  considerable  accuracy, 
they  are  usefhl  for  determining  the  longitude,,  though  the  method  which  they  fiirnish  is 
complex  and  laborious. 


BookL 


-.rjf%" . 


ECLIPSES. 


.  rM-f  4**  ft 


1#* 


Effect*  of  atmoapherical  r^  ■'Hitm  and  parallax.  In  the  precedin^f  explanation  of  solar 
eclipses  we  have  had  occ-  ->'  o  refer  to  me  eflbcts  of  atmosphericai.  ritk&otion  ;  also 
to  the  difference  between  th  ^.parent  places  of  the  sun  and  uHJon,  called  their  paraixxx, 
produced  from  their  being  viewed  from  the  surface  instead  of  the  centre  of  the  earth. 
Before  leaving  this  subject  we  shall  state  a  little  more  fhlly  the  effects  arising  from  these 
causes. 

Atmoiphericdl  refraction.  The  earth  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  an  aeriform  elastic 
fluid,  which  is  called  the  atm oaPHXBB.  This  fluid  possesses  weieht,  and  is  compressible ; 
and  hence  the  parts  near  the  surface  of  the  earth  are  more  dense  tnan  those  above  them,  on 
account  of  the  greater  superincumbent  pressure  which  they  sustain.  The  same  thing  holds 
true  of  every  atratutn  when  compared,  m  reference  to  density,  with  that  immediately  below 
it;  so  that  firom  the  surface  upwuds  the  density  gradually  diminishes,  at  a  few  miles'  elevar 
tion  becomes  very  small,  and  at  some  point  may  be  considered  as  altogether  evanescent. 
Now,  it  is  a  well  known  principle,  that  if  a  ray  of  li^t,  after  pa:»ing  through  one  medium 
(air,  for  instance),  enters  another  (say  water)  of  a  duferent  density,  in  a  direction  not  per- 
pendicular to  its  surface,  it  is  bent  out  of  its  course  towards  the  perpendicular  to  the  surface  on 
which  the  ray  is  incident,  if  the  second  medium  is  the  denser  of  the  two ;  but^rom  tliat  per- 
pendicular if  the  second  medium  is  the  rarer.  In  passing  through  the  atmosphere,  therefore, 
a  ray  of  light  will  be  continually  deflected  from  the  rectilineal  into  a  curvilineal  path ;  be- 
cause at  evei^  point  of  its  course  it  is  entering  a  medium  of  a  greater  density.  The  ray  is 
said  to  be  refracted ;  and  as  the  tangent  draws  fh>m  the  eye  to  the  curve  whicii  it  describes 
is  the  direction  in  which  celestial  objects  appear,  it  follows,  that  refraction  renders  the  appa- 
rent altitude  of  all  the  heavenly  bodies  greater  than  the  true.  Hence  they  often  appear 
above  the  horizon  when  they  are  actually  below  it 

The  deviation  of  the  refracted  ray  from  its  original  course  increases  with  the  angle  of 
incidence,  and  vanishes  when  the  direction  of  the  ray  is  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the 
second  medium.  Hence  atmospherical  refraction  is  greatest  when  Uie  object  is  in  the 
horizon,  where  it  may  be  about  34':  at  45°  altitude,  it  is  about  57^":  in  the  zenith  it 
vanfshes. 

Whatever  alters  the  density  of  the  atmosphere  must  affect  also  its  refractive  power.  In 
all  accurate  observations,  therefore,  the  state  of  the  barometer  and  thermometer  must  be 
taken  into  account.  At  the  same  zenith  distances,  the  quantity  of  refraction  varies  nearly 
as  the  height  of  the  barometer,  supposing  the  temperature  to  remain  the  same.  The  effect 
of  a  variation  in  the  temperature  is  to  diminish  the  quantity  of  refraction  about  nv^  part  for 
every  increase  of  one  degree  in  the  height  of  the  thermometer. 

In  passing  through  the  atmosphere  light  is  reflected  as  well  as  refracted.  The  reflective 
power  of  the  atmosphere  produces  the  splendour  of  day  by  diffusing  light  in  every  direction. 
Combined  with  its  refractive  power,  it  causes  that  faint  light  called  twilight,  which  is  per- 
ceived before  sunrise  and  after  sunset ; — beginning  in  the  morning  in  our  latitude,  and  end- 
ing in  the  evening,  when  the  sun's  depression  below  the  horizon  is  about  18°.  Various 
other  phenomena  are  to  be  attributed  to  the  same  cause :  the  red  and  orange  colour  of  the 
morning  and  evening  clouds ;  the  ruddy  appearance  of  all  the  heavenly  bodies  when  near 
the  horizon ;  the  blue  colour  of  the  sky  ;  and  the  bright  azure  of  the  distant  mountains,  are 
all  the  effects  of  the  refractive  powers  of  the  atmosphere. 

Refraction  is  also  the  cause  of  the  oval  appearance  of  the  sun  and  moon  when  near  the 
horizon.  The  diameter  of  the  disc  that  is  parallel  to  the  horizon  remains  unaffected  in  its 
apparent  length,  because  both  extremities  are  equally  refracted ;  but  the  diameter  perpen- 
dicular to  the  horizon  is  shortened  by  about  ^th  of  its  length,  because  the  lower  edge  of  the 
disc,  being  nearer  the  horizon,  is  refracted  nearly  five  minutes  more  than  the  upper. 

The  great  apparent  magnitude  of  the  sun  and  moon  when  in  the  horizon  is  another 
remarkable  phenomenon  which  we  may  here  notice.  This  illusion,  which  is  altogether 
optical,  is  usually  accounted  for  on  this  principle,  that  we  form  an  erroneous  Judgment 
respecting  the  distances  of  these  bodies  when  they  are  in  the  horizon,  compared  with  their 
distances  when  they  have  attained  a  considerable  elevation.  When  we  see  the  moon,  for 
example,  in  the  heavens  at  a  considerable  altitude,  we  intuitively  suppose  her  nearer  than 
when  she  is  in  the  horizon ;  because,  in  the  latter  case,  we  see  a  multitude  of  objects,— 
many  of  them  at  great  distances,  and  the  moon  beyond  them  all ;  but,  in  the  former  case, 
we  have  no  intervening  objects  by  which  to  form  an  estimate  of  her  distance.  The  angle 
under  which  she  is  seen  being  nearly  the  same,  we  infer  a  greater  magnitude  when  we 
imagine  the  distance  greatest,  that  is,  when  the  moon  is  in  the  horizon.  Such  is  the  error 
into  which  we,  in  this  instance,  fell,  in  the  rapid  judgments  of  the  mind  respecting  magni- 
tude and  distance  connected  with  vision.  The  more  deliberate  conclusion  on  this  subject 
drawn  by  reason  is,  that  the  moon  must  indeed  be  at  a  greater  distance  from  an  observer  on 
the  earth,  when  she  is  in  his  horizon,  than  when  she  is  m  or  near  his  zenith ;  but  that,  how- 
ever the  eye  may  be  deceived,  her  apparent  diameter  must,  when  exactly  measured,  be  found 
ess.    This  is  accordingly  the  case ;  for,  when  accurately  measured  with  the  micrometer, 


« 


mrts^} 


KB 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IL 


the  inoon'a  apparent  diameter,  when  she  is  in  the  horizon,  is  actually  found  to  be  leas  than 
when  she  haq  attained  a  considerable  altitude. 

Parallax.  We  have  formerly  shown  that,  in  conparison  with  the  distances  of  the  fixed 
stars,  the  earth  is  but  as  a  point  in  the  universe ;  so  that  their  positions  in  the  heavens  appear 
the  same  when  viewed  from  the  earth's  surface,  as  they  would  if  they  were  viewed  from 
its  centre.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case  with  regard  to  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets.  At 
each  of  these  bodies  the  earth  presents  a  disc  of  an  appreciable  ma^itude :  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  their  positions  among  the  fixed  stars,  when  viewed  from  different  points  of  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  vary,  and  are  different  from  what  they  would  be  were  they  seen  firom 
the  centre  of  the  earth. 

Let  A  B  E  0^.  30.)  be  the  earth,  C  its  centre,  and  M,  M",  M '  (a  heavenly  body,  for 

example)  the  moon  in  the  sensible  horizon,  the  zenith,  and 
any  intermediate  position.  The  true  places  of  the  moon  in 
these  positions,  as  seen  from  the  centre  C,  and  referred  to  the 
starry  hiavens,  will  be  m,  m",  m' ;  and  their  apparent  places, 
as  seen  from  B,  will  be  n,  m",  n'.  It  is  evident,  that  in  the 
zenith  the  true  and  apparent  places  coincide,  so  tliat  there  is 
no  parallax.  In  the  horizon  the  parallax  is  greatest :  it  is 
measured  by  the  arc  tn  n,  and  is  equal  to  the  an^le  BMC, 
under  which  the  semidiameter  of  the  enrth's  disc  appears 
when  viewed  from  the  moon.  At  the  intermediate  position 
M'  the  parallax  is  measured  by  the  arc  m'  n' :  it  is  less  than 
in  tlie  horizon,  and  decreases  as  tlie  body  ascends  until  it 
vanishes  when  the  body  reaches  the  zenith.  From  the  horizon 
to  the  zenitli,  parallax  diminishes  the  apparent  altitude  of  a 
body ;  but  as  the  altitude  increases,  this  diminution  becomes  less  and  less.  Its  effect;  there< 
fore,  is  contrary  to  that  of  refhustion,  which  always  increases  the  apparent  altitude  of  a  body. 


..:     ■;.vCc:<.--..-M,,-  CHAPTER  XI.  ■"■*    -.•;.,.,.  ::-.v 

'  ■•"       ;/        MOTION  OF  THE  PLANETS  ROUND  THE  SUN.  '  i    r 

The  phenomena  of  the  motions  of  the  other  planets  differ  from  those  of  the  moon,  wliich, 
as  we  have  shown,  are  all  easily  accounted  for,  on  the  supposition  that  the  moon  revolves 
round  the  eartli  in  an  elliptic  orbit,  subject  to  various  changes ;  which  are  confined,  how- 
ever, within  certain  limits.  The  attempts  which  the  ancient  astronomers  made  to  explain 
the  celestial  phenomena,  by  supposing  the  earth  to  be  the  centre  of  the  universe,  introduced 
a  system,  the  ptolghaio,  which  was  received  for  about  1500  years,  as  affording  the  true 
explanation  of  the  planetary  motions ;  but  which  the  progress  of  scientific  discovery  has 
proved  to  be  absurd.  Ptolemy,  an  astronomer  of  Egypt,  who  flourished  about  140  years 
after  the  Christian  era,  supposed  the  planets  to  revolve  about  the  earth  in  the  following 
order ;  viz.  the  Moon,  Mercury,  Venus,  the  Sun,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn.  Beyond  the  region 
of  the  planets  he  placed  the  sphere  of  the  fixed  stars.  While  he  thus  accounted  for  the 
proper  motions  of  the  planets  from  west  to  east,  he  conceived  the  whole  to  be  carried  round 
tlie  earth  by  a  diurnal  motion,  in  the  opposite  direction,  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  irregu- 
larities of  the  planetary  motions, — these  being  sometimes  direct,  at  other  times  retrograde ; 
sometimes  swift,  and  at  other  times  slow, — were  imagined  by  him  to  arise  from  each  planet 
moving  in  a  small  circle,  called  an  epicycle,  whose  centre  was  carried  round  a  larger 
circle,  called  the  deferent,  having  the  earth  placed  a  little  to  the  one  side  of  its  centre. 
The  motions  in  these  circles  he  imagined  to  be  produced  by  the  revolution  of  transparent 
globes ;  each  planet  being  supposed  to  be  attached  to  a  globe,  which  carried  it  round  in  its 
epicycle ;  and  this  globe  again  supposed  to  be  contained  in  the  shell  of  another  globe  of 
sufficient  thickness  to  receive  it  within  its  solid  substance,  and  to  allow  it  to  revolve  on  its 
own  centre,  at  the  same  time  that  it  was  carried  in  the  deferent  round  the  earth. 

Setting  aside  the  obvious  objections  to  this  theory,  arising  from  the  extravagance  of  the 
suppositions,  as  well  as  the  awkwardness  and  complication  of  the  machinery  which  it  em- 
ploys, an  insuperable  difficulty  remains ;  viz.  that  the  whole  system  is  entirely  hypothetical, 
and  offers  no  proof  of  the  existence  of  the  agents  to  which  it  attributes  such  mighty  effects. 
It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  instead  of  being  confirmed  by  subsequent  discoveries,  it 
foil  to  the  ground  as  soon  as  the  true  method  of  investigating  the  laws  of  nature  was  under- 
stood  and  twopted. 

Of  the  planets,  two,  Mercury  and  Venus,  always  accompany  the  sun,  never  receding  from 
him  beyond  certain  limits :  the  rest  are  seen  at  all  possible  angular  distances  from  the  sun.  Let 
us  then,  fix  upon  Venus  as  the  most  conspicuous  of  the  two  whicli  accompany  the  sun,  and 
upon  Mars  as  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  among  those  which  recc<Ie  to  all  angular  distances 
from  him;  and  by  tracing  out  the  apparent  motions  of  these  planets,  let  us  endeavour  to 
ascertain  the  centre  about  which  they  revolve. 


Book  I. 


MOTION  OP  THE  PLANETS  ROUND  THE  SUN. 


IW 


When  the  planet  Venus  ia  near  the  sun,  she  is  invisible ;  but  when  she  has  emerged 
Biifiiciently  fh>m  his  rays,  she  is  seen  in  the  twilight  of  the  nuHiiing  or  evening,  accurdiiig 
as  she  is  to  the  west  or  east  of  the  sun.  In  the  former  case  she  is  the  morning  sttak  ;  in  tlie 
latter,  the  evening  star.  When  she  begins  to  be  seen  in  the  evening,  she  is  found  to  be 
receding  firom  the  sun  towards  the  east,  and  thus  disengaging  herself  more  and  more  from 
his  rays.  Having  reached  her  greatest  angular  distance,  or  elongation,  which  is  from  45" 
to  48°,  she  begins  again  to  approach  him,  and  continues  to  do  so  till  her  angular  distance  is 
about  28°.  During  all  this  time  her  motion  is  direct,  that  is,  in  the  order  of  the  signs ;  but 
now  she  becomes  stationary,  and  in  a  short  time  she  is  seen  moving  in  a  direction  contrary 
to  the  order  of  the  signs,  and  has  thus  acquired  a  retrograde  motion ;  but  still  she  continues 
to  approach  the  sun,  until  in  a  short  time  she  is  lost  in  his  light  After  being  invisible  for 
about  six  weeks,  she  is  again  seen ;  but  now  in  the  morning  to  the  west  of  the  Hun,  emerging 
from  the  solar  rays.  Her  motion  is  still  retrograde ;  but  when  she  has  reached  about  28° 
distance  firom  the  sun,  she  a^in  becomes  stationary ;  and  in  a  short  time  resumes  a  direct 
motion,  receding  from  him  night  after  night,  until  her  angular  distance  exceeds  45°.  She 
then  returns  to  the  sun ;  is  for  a  time  lost  in  his  rays ;  and  at  length  is  seen  in  the  evening 
to  th9  east  of  the  sun,  to  repeat  the  same  round  of  phenomena.  While  Venus  thus  appears 
to  have  an  oscillatorymotion  to  the  east  and  west  of  the  sun,  she  is  found,  when  viewed 
through  a  telescope,  to  present  phases  exactly  similar  to  those  of  the  moon,  the  illuminated 
portion  bein^  always  turned  towards  the  sun.  We  may  hence  infer  that  Venus  is  an  opaque 
body,  and  shmes  in  consequence  of  reflecting  the  solar  light  At  the  same  time  her  apparent 
diameter  also  varies,  its  variations  having  an  evident  relation  to  the  position  of  the  planet 
with  regard  to  the  sun.  The  diameter  appears  least  when  the  planet  is  about  to  be  immersed 
in  the  rays  of  the  sun  in  the  morning,  or  immediately  after  her  emerging  from  them  in  the 
evening.  On  the  other  hand,  it  appears  greatest  when  she  is  about  to  be  lost  in  the  solar 
rays  in  the  evening,  or  when  she  emerges  from  them  in  the  morning.  Such  is  a  general 
view  of  the  apparent  motion  of  Venus ;  and  by  attendmg  to  the  phenomena  which  she  ex- 
hibits, we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that  she  revolves  round  the  sun.  When  in  the  morning 
she  begins  to  disengage  herself  from  the  solar  rays,  she  is  seen  to  rise  before  the  sun  in  the 
form  01  a  crescent;  and  it  is  then  that  her  diameter  appears  greatest.  At  that  time,  therefore^ 
she  must  be  nearer  to  us  than  the  sun  is,  and  not  fiir  from  being  in  conjunction  with  him. 
Her  crescent  increases,  and  her  diameter  diminishes,  as  she  recedes  firom  tihe  sun :  when  she 
has  reached  her  greatest  elongation  and  returns  again  towards  him,  she  continues  to  discover 
to  us  more  and  more  of  her  enlightened  hemisphere,  her  diameter  all  the  time  diminishing, 
until  she  is  lost  in  the  morning,  in  the  sun's  rays.  At  the  instant  of  her  disappearing, 
Venus  is  seen  as  a  full  disc ;  and  at  the  same  time  her  diameter  is  least  Hence  we  may 
with  certainty  infer,  that  she  is  then  at  a  greater  distance  from  us  than  the  sun,  and  again 
nearly  in  conjunction  with  him.  After  having  remained  for  some  time  invisible,  she  re- 
appears in  the  evening  to  the  east  of  the  sun ;  and  in  receding  from  and  returning  towards 
him  exhibits,  in  an  inverted  order,  the  same  phenomena,  in  rererence  to  the  changes  in  her 
disc  and  apparent  diameter,  which  she  had  presented  when  seen  in  the  morning,  on  the  west 
of  the  sun :  her  enlightened  hemisphere  turns  more  and  more  firom  us,  and  her  apparent 
diameter  continua,lly  increases,  until  she  again  disappears,  or  is  seen  as  a  black  spot  traversing 
the  disc  of  the  sun. 

From  these  phenomena  only  one  inference  can  be  drawn ;  viz.  that  Venus  revolves  in  an 
orbit  near  the  centre  of  which  the  sun  is  placed.  This  conclusion,  which  rests  on  the  firm 
basis  of  observation,  leads  to  a  natural  and  simple  explanation  of  all  the  peculiarities  of  her 
motion. 

The  planet  Mars,  the  next  to  be  considered,  appears  to  be  carried  round  the  earth  by  a 
motion  which  is  subject  to  great  inequalities.  When  he  begins  to  be  seen  in  the  morning 
emerging  from  the  solar  rays,  his  motion  is  direct  and  at  its  greatest  rapidity ;  but  it  gradu- 
ally diminishes  until  the  planet's  angular  distance  from  the  sun  is  about  137°.  At  that  time 
it  changes  into  a  retrograde  motion,  whose  rapidity  increa^s  till  the  moment  that  the  planet 
comes  into  opposition  with  the  sun,  or  is  on  the  meridian  at  midnight  It  is  then  at  its 
greatest  rate,  and  presently  begins  tp  decrease,  continuing  to  do  so  till  the  planet  becomes 
stationary  when  at  the  angular  distance  of  about  137°  from  the  sun.  The  motion  now 
returns  to  its  direct  state,  after  having  been  retrograde  for  about  seventy-three  days ;  and 
in  that  period  the  planet  describes  an  arc  of  retrogradation  of  about  16°.  Mars  continues 
to  approach  the  sun,  until  he  becomes  immersed  in  his  rays  in  the  evening.  These  pheno- 
mena are  repeated  at  every  opposition  of  the  planet  with  considerable  differences,  however, 
in  reference  to  the  duration  and  extent  of  the  retrogradations.  At  different  points  of  his 
course  round  the  heavens,  the  apparent  diameter  of  Mars  is  very  different :  it  varies  from 
about  13.3"  to  29.1".    It  is  greatest  when  the  planet  is  in  opposition  to  the  sun. 

The  phenomena  now  described  can  be  satisfactorily  explained  in  no  other  way  but  by  sup- 
posing Mars  to  revolve  round  the  sun.  As  he  recedes  from  the  sun  to  all  possible  angular 
distances,  the  earth  must  be  situated  within  his  orbit ;  but  the  increase  of  his  apparent 
diameter  as  he  approaches  his  opposition,  and  its  decrease  when  he  approaches  the  sun,  shuw 

Vol..  I.  10 


no 


Vi  JW    5       PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY.     t<M 


Part  H 


that  tho!  earth  is  not  the  centre  of  hia  motion.  Before  he  reaches  the  point  of  oppoaition, 
his  mjtior  ftom  being  direct,  becomes  retrograde;  after  the  opposition  it  resumes  its  direct 
state,  whet,  the  planet  is  at  the  same  distance  fVom  the  sun,  at  which  he  was  situated  when 
the  motion  became  retrograde ;  and  it  is  at  the  moment  of  conjunction  that  this  last  motion 
is  most  rapid.  Now,  all  these  circumstances  evidently  indicate  that  the  apparent  motion  of 
Mars  is  the  result  of  two  conbined  motions,  which  alternately  conspire  with  and  oppose  each 
other,  and  of  which  one  depends  on  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun.  As  we  nave  found 
that  Venus  revolves  round  the  sun,  and  accompanies  him  in  his  apparent  annual  motion 
round  the  earth,  we  are  led  by  analogy  to  extend  the  same  law  to  MuS(  and  to  conclude  that 
he  also  revolves  in  an  orbit  round  the  sun. 

The  disc  of  Mars  changes  its  figure,  and  becomes  sensibly  oval,  according  to  his  position 
relatively  to  the  suii :  hence  we  may  conclude  that  Mars  is  an  opaque  body,  and  derives  his 
light  fbom  the  sun. 

The  same  reasoning  being  applicable  in  the  case  of  the  other  planets,  we  may  extend  to 
all  of  them  the  conclusion  which  we  have  now  established  in  reference  to  Venus  and  Mars, 
— ^namely,  that  they  are  opaque  bodies,  and  revolve  about  the  sun  in  orbits  nearly  circular ; 
while  that  luminary  of  the  system  either  describes  or  appears  to  describe  an  orbit  about  the 
earth  in  the  course  df  a  year.  Thin  general  law,  which  afibrds  a  simple  and  complete  expli- 
cation of  the  planetary  motions,  receives  additional  confirmation  fipom  the  phenomena  of  the 
satellites  of  Jupiter  and  the  ring  of  Saturn ;  for  these  phenomena  prove  directly  that  Jupiter 
and  Saturn  revolve  about  the  sun  in  nearly  circular  orbits. 


;..,.'.,_    •  •  K.-.    flip. ..  r,     :'!'■<   V, 
I     "I  .».'  1-..'  Jiit.'i!    ■_v"i!i'''','''t     / 


CHAPTER  XIL 


:V<ffl 


■Kl-  ift  ;;Slft<    lift    ic'i   •.■/..-"(  -^iliV  :•. 


,;>  MOTION  OP  THE  EARTH  ROUrro  THE  SUN. 

Ths  conclusion  to  which  we  have  now  been  led, — that  all  the  planets  describe  orbits  that 
have  the  sun  near  to  their  centre, — naturally  suggests  the  question,  whether  the  earth  itself 
f«  not  tubject  to  the  same  law,  and  therefin^  to  be  ranked  among  the  planets  which  revolve 
round  the  sun.  With  regard  to  the  celestial  motions,  every  appearance  would  remain  the 
same  to  us,  whether  the  earth  described  an  orbit  round  the  sun,  or  the  sun  with  his  accom- 
panying planets  revolved  round  the  earth.  To  which  of  these  hypotheses  the  preference  is 
due  will  appear  ftom  the  fi>llowing  considerations : — 

The  immense  masses  of  the  sun  and  of  several  of  the  planets,  combined  with  their  great 
distances  from  the  earth,  render  it  much  more  simple  to  suppose  that  the  earth  describes  an 
orbit  round  the  sun,  than  that  the  whole  planetary  system  revolves  round  the  earth.  What 
an  inconceivable  rapidity  of  motion  is  it  necessary  to  assign  to  Saturn,  almost  ten  times 
more  distant  fixxn  us  than  the  sun,  or  to  Uranus,  at  about  double  the  distance  of  Saturn,  in 
wder  that  these  planets  may  complete  a  revolution  round  the  earth  in  a  year,  at  the  same 
time  that  they  revolve  about  the  sun !  It  is  a  law  which  is  found  to  pervade  the  planetary 
system,  that  the  less  body  revolves  about  the  greater  body  which  is  in  its  neighbourhood ; 
and  by  supposing  the  earth,  in  conformity  with  this  law,  to  revolve  about  the  sun,  which  in 
ma^itude  greauy  exceeds  all  the  planets  taken  together,  we  avoid  all  the  complication  and 
rapidity  of  motion  which  follow  from  the  supposition  of  the  earth  being  at  rest 

The  anal«^  which  subsists  between  the  earth  and  the  planets  confirms  the  hypothesis  of 
the  earth  being  carried  round  the  sun  by  a  motion  of  tnuislation :  Jupiter,  for  example,  is 
known  to  have  a  revolution  on  his  own  axis,  and  to  be  attended  by  four  satellites.  In  these 
particulars  the  earth  resembles  that  planet,  having  also  a  revolution  on  its  own  axis,  and 
being  attended  by  one  satellite,  the  moon.  An  observer  placed  on  Jupiter  would  be  led 
from  appearances  to  imagine  that  the  planetary  system  revolved  round  him,  in  like  manner 
as  an  inhabitant  of  the  earth  supposes  himself  placed  at  the  centre  of  the  celestial  notions : 
and  the  greater  magnitude  of  Jupiter  would  give  to  such  a  conclusion,  when  drawn  by  an 
observer  placed  on  tiiat  planet,  a  greater  resemblance  to  the  truth  than  it  would  have  when 
drawn  by  an  inhabitant  of  the  earth.  With  such  a  close  analogy  in  these  respects  before 
our  eyes,  may  we  not  naturally  conclude  that  it  extends  still  fisher ;  and  that  as  Jupiter 
revolves  in  an  orbit  round  the  sun,  the  earth  must  also  have  a  similar  motion  1 

Let  US  imagine  ourselves  to  be  placed  on  the  surface  of  the  sun,  and  from  that  position  to 
observe  the  earth  and  the  planets.  All  these  bodies  would  appear  to  move  from  west  to  eiist ; 
the  planets  would  be  found  firee  from  all  that  OHnpIication  in  their  motion  to  which  they 
appear  subject  when  viewed  firom  the  earth ;  and  the  motion  of  the  earth  itself  would  in 
every  circumstance  correspond  with  that  of  the  planets.  The  more  distant  a  planet  is  fiom 
the  sun,  the  longer  is  the  time  which  it  requires  to  perform  its  revolution  round  him ;  but 
throughout  the  ^anetary  system  this  remarkable  law  prevails,  connecting  the  periodic  times 
with  the  dJBtanceB, — ^the  squares  of  the  former  are  proportional  to  the  cubes  of  the  latter. 
If  we  compute,  by  this  principle,  what  should  be  the  time  of  revolution  of  a  planet  situated 
at  the  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun,  we  find  the  result  correspond  exactly  with  the 
sidereal  yeai ;  thus,  the  earth's  distance  fi'om  tlie  sun  being  assumed  us  unity,  tlie  distance  ut 


PabtIL 

of  opposition, 
mefl  its  direct 
lituated  when 
is  last  motion 
^nt  motion  of 
id  oppose  each 
te  have  found 
Lnnual  motion 
conclude  that 

to  his  position 
nd  derives  his 

nay  extend  to 
Dus  and  Mars, 
>arly  circular ; 
irbit  about  the 
omplete  expli- 
nomena  of  the 
tly  that  Jupiter 

jji*^  .mil  ,  ,"w' 

■li-Jli   V:S;t '>«)(.•' t) 

I  'm.j''-'.^  i  J  ■ 
if,  <>-,•?  *irt»  : 

fl.?'      .■■?«!  I>?i' 

pibe  orbits  that 
he  earth  itse\f 
which  revolve 
lid  remain  the 
rith  his  accom- 
le  preference  is 

rith  their  great 
Ih  describes  an 

earth.  What 
nost  ten  times 
I  of  Saturn,  in 
r,  at  the  same 

the  planetary 

eighbourhood ; 

sun,  which  in 
[plication  and 

hypothesis  of 

k>r  example,  ia 

Ites.    In  these 

[own  axis,  and 

would  be  led 

In  like  manner 

tial  notions: 

drawn  by  an 

lid  have  when 

[espects  before 

it  as  Jupiter 

[lat  position  to 

I  west  to  eiist ; 
which  they 

self  would  in 
J  planet  is  fiom 
lund  him;  but 
■periodic  times 
1  of  the  latter, 
llanet  situated 
[ctly  with  the 

hs  distance  of 


IIookL 


MOTION  OP  THE  EARTH  ROUND  THE  SUN. 


"Ill 


Mars  Hi  known  to  be  l'&286g6:  his  periodic  time  is  686^9796  dayi.  Hence  we  have 
n ■52693) 3:  l^::  (68fl-9796)«:  (365-256) «.  The  periodic  time  of  a  planet,  at  the  same 
ditttance  from  the  sun  as  the  earth  is,  should  therefore  be  365*256  days,  which  is  the  length 
of  the  sidereal  year.  This  result  leaves  no  doubt  that  the  motion  which  the  eartii  would 
be  seen  to  have,  if  it  were  viewed  fhnn  the  sun,  arises  fVom  the  same  causes,  and  is  regu- 
lated by  the  same  laws  as  the  motions  of  the  planets :  hence  we  may  conclude  that  it  is  no 
less  real. 

The  motion  of  the  earth  in  an  orbit  round  the  sun,  which  the  preceding  considerationa 
render  so  highly  probable,  is  directly  proved  by  the  phenomena  of  the  aberration  of  light 
(t  was  long  supposed  that  light  was  propagated  from  the  sun  and  other  luminous  bodies 
instantaneously ;  but  modem  observations  have  proved  that  this  hypothesis  ia  erjroneons,  and 
that  light,  like  all  other  projectiles,  occupies  a  certain  time  in  passing  fhnn  one  point  of  space 
to  anoUier.  The  fkct  that  light  has  a  progressive  motion  was  first  discovered  \iy  Roemer, 
a  celebrated  Danish  astronomer,  from  observations  made  on  the  eclipses  which  the  satel- 
lites of  Jupiter  undergo  when  they  fkll  into  his  shadow.  He  found  that  these  eclipses 
happened  sometimes  sooner  and  sometimes  later  than  the  time  deduced  fh>m  the  tables  of 
their  motions ;  the  observation  being  before  or  after  the  computed  time,  according  as  the 
earth  was  nearer  to  or  farther  from  Jupiter  than  the  mean  distance.  Repeated  observations 
have  proved,  that  when  the  earth  is  between  the  sun  and  Jupiter,  his  satellites  are  seen 
eclipsed  about  8^  minutes  sooner  than  they  should  be  according  to  the  tables ;  but  that 
when  the  earth  is  on  the  opposite  side  of  tho  sun  from  Jupiter,  the  eclipses  of  his  satellites 
happen  about  8|  minutes  later  than  the  time  shown  by  the  tables.  The  only  conclusion  that 
can  be  drawn  from  these  facts  is,  that  light  occupies  about  16^  minutes  in  traversing  a  space 
equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  earth's  orbit,  which  is  upwards  of  190  millions  of  mUes ;  it 
must  therefore  move  at  the  enormous  rate  of  nearly  210,000  miles  in  a  second. 

Now,  if  the  earth  is  really  in  motion,  it  must  be  moving  at  the  rate  of  about  20  miles  in 
a  second,  in  order  to  accomplish  its  revolution  round  the  sun  in  the  course  of  a  year.  This 
rate  of  motion,  although  small  when  compared  with  the  velocity  of  light,  bears  to  it  a  sensi- 
ble proportion ;  so  that  an  evident  consequence  of  the  earth's  motion  will  be,  that  the  appa- 
rent places  of  the  heavenly  bodies  will  not  be  the  same  as  they  would  be  if  the  earth  were 
at  rest. 

Suppose  A  B  to  be  a  portion  of  the  earth's  orbit,  S  a  fixed  star,  and  S  A  the  direction 
of  light  proceeding  from  the  star  to  the  earth  at  A.    It  is  evident  that  if  the  earth  were  at 

rest  at  A,  a  telescope  presented  in  the  direction  A  S  would 
receive  the  light  of  the  star,  which,  proceeding  along  the  axis 
of  the  telescope,  would  reach  the  eye  at  A,  and  show  the 
star  in  its  true  position.  But  if  the  earth  be  supposed  to 
move  from  A  towards  B  with  a  velocity  that  bears  a  sensible 
proportion  to  the  velocity  of  light,  the  ray  S  A,  which  enters 
^i:  the  telescope  at  C,  cannot  reach  the  eye,  but  must,  in  conse- 

?uence  of  the  motion,  be  lost  against  the  interior  of  the  tube, 
n  order  that  the  light  fVom  the  star  may  reach  the  eye  when 
carried  forward  by  the  earth's  motion,  the  telescope  must 
have  such  an  inclination  to  A  B,  that  S  F  being  supposed  a 
ray  parallel  to  S  A,  and  meeting  the  axis  of  the  telescope  in 
D,  A  F  may  have  to  F  D  the  same  ratio  as  the  earth's  veloci- 
ty in  its  orbit  has  to  the  velocity  of  li^t ;  that  is,  of  1  to 
10,000  nearly.  In  this  position  of  the  telescope,  the  light  entering  at  D  will  pass  along  the 
axis  as  it  moves  from  A  to  F,  and  will  reach  the  eye  at  F ;  but  the  star  will  be  seen  in  the 
direction,  not  of  F  S,  but  of  F  E :  so  that  its  apparent  place  differs  from  its  true  by  a  quan- 
tity measured  by  the  angle  S  F  E  or  A  D  F.  The  angle  D  F  E  is  the  aberration  which  will 
evidently  be  towards  that  part  of  the  heavens  to  which  the  earth  is  moving.  Let  the  axis 
F  E  be  supposed  to  be  produced  to  the  starry  heavens :  it  will  trace  out  on  the  convex  sur- 
&ce  a  circle,  if  the  star  S  is  in  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic ;  but  an  ellipse  in  every  other  posi- 
tion of  the  star.    The  true  place  of  the  star  is  the  centre  of  the  circle  or  ellipse. 

If  Uie  star  be  in  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic,  the  angle  D  A  F  may  be  considered  as  a  right 
angle ;  for  the  line  joining  the  star  and  the  earUi  will  always  be  perpendicular  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  earth's  motion.  In  this  case,  therefore,  the  angle  A  D  F  will  be  the  greatest 
possible  ;  for  the  ratio  of  sin.  A  D  F  to  sin.  D  A  F  is  constant,  being  the  same  with  Sie  ratio 
of  A  F  to  F  D,  or  of  1  to  10,000  nearly :  so  that  sin.  A  D  F  is  greatest,  and  therefore  A  D 
F  is  greatest  when  sin.  D  A  F  is  the  greatest  possible ;  that  is,  when  D  A  F  is  a  right  angle. 
In  the  case  of  any  other  star  the  greater  axis  of  the  ellipse  which  it  appears  to  describe 
round  its  true  place  as  a  centre  will  be  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  circle  which  a  star  in 
~jie  pole  of  the  ecliptic  would  appear  to  describe  about  the  pole  as  a  centre :  for  the  ellipse 
will  be  the  orthographic  projection  of  a  circle  equal  to  that  described  about  the  p«Je,  the 
greater  axis  being  the  diameter,  which  is  perpendicular  to  a  cirele  of  the  sphere  paasing 
*Jirough  the  star  and  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  ecliptic.     When  the 


113 


Vfljf      PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOORAPIfY.  'TOM 


Part  II. 


•tar  ia  in  the  ecliptic,  it  will  appear  to  deacribe  an  arch  equal  to  the  gnrnXet  axis  of  Die 
ellipse  deacribed  by  a  itar  not  in  the  ecliptic,  or  to  the  diameter  of  the  circle  of  aberration 
that  would  be  described  by  a  atar  in  the  pole  of  the  ecli^. 

When  angle  D  A  F  ia  a  right  angle,  we  have  DP:  F  A: :  rod:  ain.  Z  A  D  F;  that  ia, 
10,000  :  1 : :  1 :  0001  =  sine  of  greatest  aberration,  which  will  therefore  be  20"  nearly. 
The  aberration  of  a  planet  will  depend  on  ita  own  motion  aa  well  aa  on  that  of  the  earth. 
If  the  motion  of  the  planet  were  equal  and  parallel  to  that  of  the  earth,  no  aberration  would 
lake  place.  The  aberration  of  a  planet  may  be  fixind  by  firat  ccmaidering  the  effect  of  the 
motion  of  the  earth  on  the  apparent  place,  and  then  the  aberration  ariaing  firom  the  planet'a 
own  motion. 

Such  are  the  effecta  which,  if  the  earth  have 'actually  a  motion  of  tranalation  that  carries 
it  in  an  orbit  round  the  sun,  muat  ariae  ftx}m  that  motion  combined  with  the  progressive 
motion  of  light  To  obtain,  therefore,  deciaive  proof  of  the  earth'a  annual  motion,  it  ia  only 
necessary  to  ascertain  by  accurate  observation  the  existence  of  these  phenomena. 

The  true  ayatem  of  the  world,  which  suppoaea  the  aun  to  be  at  reat  in  the  centre,  and  the 
earth  and  planeta  to  revolve  round  him,  while  the  moon  revolvea  about  the  earth,  and  the 
diurnal  moticui  of  the  heavena  arises  from  the  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  was  taught  by 
several  of  tlie  ancient  philoeophers,  and  particularly  by  Pythagoraa.  It  was  also  held  by 
Archimedes ;  but  after  him  it  waa  neglected,  and  even  rorf^tten  finr  many  agea,  until  at 
length,  in  the  beginning  of  die  aixteenUi  century,  it  was  revived  and  improved  oy  Coperni- 
cus, fyi)m  whom  it  took  the  name  of  the  Copernioam  System.  Notwithstanding  the  beauty 
and  simplicity  which  distinguished  this  theory,  it  was  at  first  coldly  received  or  utterly 
rejected.  Tycbo  Brahe,  an  illustrious  Dane,  was  among  its  adversaries.  He  regarded  the 
doctrine  of  the  earth's  motion  as  untenable,  without  abandoning  the  testimony  of  Scripture : 
hence  he  waa  led  to  imagine  another  system,  which  bears  his  name ;  in  which  the  sun,  with 
all  the  planets  and  comets  revolving  round  him,  is  supposed  to  perform  a  revolution  about 
the  earth  in  a  solar  year,  while  at  Uie  same  time  all  the  heavenly  bodies  are  supposed  to  be 
carried  round  the  earth  from  east  to  west  in  twenty-four  hours. 

The  only  apparent  difficulty  connected  witli  the  Copemican  system  arises  from  the  fact,  that 
the  earth's  axis  ia  always  pointed  to  the  same  star,  and  that  the  stars  preserve  always  the  same 
relative  positions ;  though  by  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth,  a  spectator  on  its  surface  views 
them  at  any  two  instants  of  time  separated  by  the  period  of  about  six  months,  from  two 
points  nearly  200,000,000  milea  asunder.  During  the  seventeenth  century  the  supporters 
of  the  Copernican  system  laboured  to  remove  this  objection,  by  detecting  a  change  in  tlie 
position  of  the  fixed  stars. 

The  minute  and  accurate  observations  instituted  for  this  purpose  led,  in  the  end,  to  the 
important  discovery  made  by  the  celebrated  Dr.  Bradley,  that  the  very  efibcts  which  we 
have  shown,  muat  reault  firom  the  annual  moticm  of  the  earth  combined  with  the  progressive 
motion  of  light  He  found  that  each  star  describes,  round  its  true  place  as  a  centre,  a  small 
ellipse  of  miich  the  greater  axis  is  about  40" ;  and  that  this  ellipse  approaches  to  a  circle 
or  to  a  straight  line,  which  are  its  limits,  according  aa  the  star  is  situated  towards  the  pole 
of  the  ecliptic,  or  towards  the  ecliptic  itself.  No  parallax  is  observable  in  the  fixed  stars 
arising  fixon  the  earth's  annual  motion ;  and  hence  it  must  be  inferred  that  their  distance 
is  so  great,  that  even  the  diameter  of  the  earth's  orbit  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  point  in  the 
universe. 

From  an  attentive  consideration  of  the  celestial  motions,  tre  are  therefore  led  to  reject 
as  erroneous  the  notions  which  appearmwes  at  first  suggest  respecting  the  system  of  the 
vforld.  Instead  of  the  globe  which  we  inhabit  being  at  rest  in  the  centre  of  the  univerHe, 
it  is  a  planet  in  motion  about  its  own  axis  and  about  the  sun.  In  regarding  it  under  tliis 
aspect,  we  find  all  the  celestial  phenomena  explained  in  the  most  simple  manner,  the  laws 
of  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  appear  uniform,  and  every  analogy  subsisting  among 
them  is  preserved  unbroken.  Like  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus,  the  earth  is  accompanied 
by  a  satellite ;  it  revolves  on  its  own  axis  as  Venua,  Mara,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  perhaps  all 
the  planets;  like  them  it  receives  light  firom  the  aun;  and  to  complete  the  analogy,  it 
revolves  about  the  sun  in  tlie  same  direction,  and  according  to  the  same  laws.  By  following 
out  the  results  arising.  fh)m  the  earth's  motion  being  combined  with  the  real  motions  of  the 
planeta  and  of  light,  we  find  all  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens  flow,  as  necessary  conse- 
quences, from  one  great  principle.  Thus  the  motion  of  the  earth  acquires  all  the  certainty 
of  which  a  physical  truth  is  susceptible. 

The  vicissitudes  of  seasons  arise,  as  we  have  already  explained,  fVom  Jie  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic  to  the  equator.  The  ecliptic,  which  we  have  hitherto  considered  as  the  path  of  the 
Bun  round  the  earth,  we  have  now  proved  to  be  the  orbit  of  the  earth  round  the  sun.  I'he 
axis  of  the  earth'a  diurnal  motion  is  inclined  to  the  plane  of  ita  orbit  at  an  angle  of  alnut 
66**  32',  and  remains,  ss  the  earth  revolves  round  the  sun,  nearly  parallel  to  itself.  Hence 
the  circle  which  tlie  sun  appears  to  trace  in  the  heavens  in  the  course  of  a  year  forms  with 
the  equator  an  angle  of  about  23°  28'.  This  produces  the  differences  in  the  distribution  tf 
Uie  solar  l<n[ht  and  heat  which  we  observe  throughout  the  seasons  of  the  year. 


T-:zr' 


in  that  carries 


DookL 


ORBITS  OP  THE  PLANETS 


n.i 


The  parallelinn  of  the  earth  u  not  abaolute ;  for  the  axii  ia  found  to  have  a  alow  motion 
of  revolution  flrom  east  to  west  round  a  line  passing  throuffh  the  centre  of  the  oarth,  and 
perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic ;  its  revolution  beinff  completed  in  the  period  of  25,745  years. 
In  consequence  of  this  motion  the  poles  in  the  sphere  ot  the  starry  heavens  describe  each  a 
:ircle  round  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic,  at  the  distance  of  28°  28'  nearly ;  and  the  two  poiiits 
in  which  the  terrestrial  equator,  when  produced  to  the  starrv  heavens,  cuts  the  ecliptic,  shift 
to  the  westward,  at  the  rate  of  about  50^  seconds  yearly,  which  causes  the  precession  of  tli» 
equinoxes.  A  small  inequality  has  been  observed  in  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  and  in 
the  mean  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  which  arises  from  a  slight  motion  in  the  earth's  axis, 
whereby  its  inclination  to  the  ecliptic  ia  not  always  exactly  the  same,  but  varies  backwards 
and  forwards  some  seconds.  This  is  called  the  nutation  of  the  earth's  axis,  and  was  discovered 
by  Dr.  Bradley  while  employed  in  verifying  his  theory  of  aberration.  The  period  of  the 
clionges  of  this  inequality  is  nearly  nine  yean. 


ORBITS  OF  THE  lOANBTH. 


■}  .wj-i  ■■<t».wjt4if|w  "s**'  ti«l9  JvftK^  al 


To  an  observer  placed  on  the  sun,  all  the  planets  would  appear  to  trace  on  the  concave 
surface  cu-cular  paths,  cuttinf^  each  other  at  various  angles,  but  all  comprehended  within  a 
certain  zone  of  the  heavens  of  some  degrees  in  breadth.  The  angle  which  the  plane  of  the 
orbit  of  a  planet  makes  with  the  ecliptic  is  called  the  ingunation  of  that  orbit;  and  the  line 
of  their  intersection  is  called  the  line  of  the  nodes.  If  a  planet  be  observed  twice  in  the 
same  node,  the  node  being  supposed  to  have  in  the  mean  time  remained  stationarv,  the  posi- 
lion  of  the  line  of  the  nodes  can  be  determined,  and  also  the  distance  of  the  planets  from 
i.he  sun  at  the  times  of  observation. 

Let  a  superior  planet  be  observed  in  its  node  N  from  the  earth  at  E,  (Fi/f.  32)i  and  afler  the 
planet  has  made  an  entire  revolution  let  tho  earth  be  at  E'.  Tlien,  firom  the  time  and  the  theory 
of  the  earth's  motion,  E  E'  is  given,  and  the  angles  S  E  E',  S  E'  E.  But  the  angles  SEN, 
S  E'  N  are  known  by  observation ;  therefore,  in  the  triangle  E  E'  N,  the  angles  E  E'  N,  E'  E  N, 
and  tho  base  E  E'  ore  given ;  and  hence  the  sides  N  E  and  £'  N  may  be  found.  Wherefore 
from  either  of  the  triangles  S  E  N,  S  E'  N  the  distance  S  N  is  determined ;  also  the  angle 
ESN,  which  ascertains  the  position  of  the  node  as  seen  from  the  sun. 

From  observations  of  this  kind,  made  at  times  considerably  distant  ftom  each  other,  it 
found  that  the  nodes  of  ea.?h  planet  have  a  slow  retrograde  motion. 

Again,  the  distance  of  a  planet  from  the  sun,  and  its  place  as  seen  from  the  sun,  may  be 
determined  from  observations  made  at  the  time  of  its  opposition  to  the  sun. 


■'fi\'iy- 


■.#«'  dil'l. 


y''  •'>■"< ''•^■:'i!h; 


ii.i,iii.'-    !'Hi   l';f.j;  ;*>,    '.V'.'-si   ■:■:,'  Vi«i'VA'*,<) 

(Fie,  33).  Let  E  be  the  earth,  S  the  sun,  P  the  planet,  O  its  place  reduced  to  the  eclip* 
tic,  S  N  the  line  of  the  nodes  passing  through  the  sun.  Since  the  planet  is  in  its  opposi- 
tion, the  points  S,  E,  O  are  in  the  same  strai^t  line.  The  angle  T!S  N  is  known  by  the  lajst 
problem,  which  determines  the  position  of  the  line  of  the  nodes ;  therefore  the  arch  O  N  in 
the  heavens,  which  measures  it,  is  also  ^iven.  The  angle  P  N  O  is  equal  to  the  inclination 
of  the  planet's  orbit  to  the  ecliptic,  and  is  therefore  given ;  also  the  angle  P  O  N  is  a  right 
angle.  Hence  in  the  spherical  triangle  P  N  O,  the  perpeindicular  P  O  and  the  hypotenuse 
P  N  may  be  found.  Now  the  arc  P  O  is  the  measure  of  the  angle  P  S  O,  and  P  N  is  the  , 
measure  of  P  S  N ;  therefore  these  two  angles  are  given.  In  the  rectilineal  if  iangle  P  S  E, 
the  exterior  angle  P  E  O  can  be  determined  by  observation ;  the  angle  PSEorPSOis 
given,  and  the  base  E  S  is  known  by  the  theory  of  the  earth's  motion ;  whence  P  S,  tho 
(<i<<tance  of  the  planet  from  the  sun,  may  be  computed. 

Vol..  r.  10*  P 


114  PRINCIPLES  OF  OEOORAPHY.  Past  n 

• 

Orbit  of  a  plantt.  Since  the  anffle  P  S  N  m  alio  known,  the  line  P  8  ia  frivon  in  posi* 
tion  as  well  tm  in  niagniludo.  If  many  oppositions  of  a  planet  are  thus  ofaserveci,  and  it  tho 
iHfiii  obtained  be  laid  down,  the  line  connectinfr  tlieir  extreme  points  will  roprnHont  the  orbit 
nf  the  planet  In  this  manner  it  ia  found  that  the  orbits  of  all  the  planets  are  ellipses,  having 
the  nun  in  their  common  tbcus ;  and  that  the  anffular  motions  of  a  planet  round  the  sun  are 
inversely  as  tho  squares  of  its  distance  from  the  sun:  so  that  the  sectors  described  by  the 
radius  vector  are  proportional  to  the  times.  This  exactly  corresponds  with  what  was  proved 
rof:|)ectiiifr  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun  in  ttie  ecliptic,  and  therefore  the  motion  of  the 
eurtii  is  rofpilated  by  the  same  law. 

The  planets  which  move  immediately  round  the  sun  are  called  pbima»v,  their  satellites 
are  called  bbcondaut  plancts.  Thus,  the  moon  is  a  secondary  planet  to  the  earth.  In 
considering  the  lunar  motion,  we  found  that  the  moon  describes  round  the  earth  an  elliptic 
orbit,  and  that  the  radius  vector  describes  equal  areas  in  equal  times.  The  some  holds  of 
the  BHtcllites  of  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus ;  do  tliat  the  same  principle  runs  through  the 
motions  of  all  the  bodies  of  the  planetary  system. 

When  the  mean  distances  of  the  planets  arc  compare<l,  and  also  their  periodical  times,  it 
is  found  that  the  stjuares  of  the  periodic  times  are  as  the  cubes  of  the  distances. 

The  great  general  facts  which  have  now  been  pointed  out  respecting  the  orbits  of  tho 
planets,  and  their  motions  in  these  orbits,  were  first  discovered  by  Kepler,  afler  he  had 
employed  immense  labour  and  ingenuity  in  the  research,  and  are  usually  called  Ksplu's 
LAWS.    It  may  be  proper  to  bring  them  under  one  point  of  view  :— 

I.  The  primary  planets  all  revolve  in  elliptic  orbits  round  the  sun,  which  occupies  one  of 
the  foci  or  the  ellipse ;  the  plane  of  the  orbit  passing  through  the  centre  of  the  sun. 

II.  The  radius  vector  describes  equal  areas  m  equal  times. 

ni.  The  squares  of  the  times  of  revolution  in  the  planetary  bodies  are  ai  the  cubes  of 
their  distances  from  the  sun.     -   .-.,,.  ,~,r   ,- .5.—1-7.-,;-  .,-,.,,..    «,,.,. 


/f 


»-TJ  1   i?     I" 


UM 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

COMETS. 


/If,;-   1    >;'^ 


The  fixed  stars  and  the  planets  are  always  visible  when  not  obscured  by  the  superior 
light  of  the  sun ;  but  the  class  of  bodies  called  cx>met8  are  seen  only  when  they  arc  in  that 
part  of  their  several  paths  which  lies  nearest  to  the  sun :  at  all  other  times  they  move  through 
regions  of  space  far  beyond  the  reach  of  our  vision,  even  when  assisted  by  the  m"st  powerflil 
telescopes.  The  motions  of  the  comets  are,  like  those  of  the  planets,  performed  in  elliptic 
orbits  according  to  Kepler's  laws ;  but,  unlike  the  planetary  orbits,  tfie  ellipses  which  the 
comets  describe  are  extremely  elongated :  so  that  the  small  portion  of  their  orbits  through 
which  we  have  an  opportunity  of  tracing  them  coincides  very  nearly  with  a  parabola,  the 
curve  of  which  is  the  limit  of  the  ellipse  when  its  greater  axis  is  indefinitely  mcreosed. 
The  inclination  of  the  orbits  of  the  comets  is  very  various ;  some  move  in  planes  almost 
coincident  with  the  ecliptic,  and  othere  in  planes  nearly  perpendicular  to  it  They  move 
also  in  very  diflTcrent  directions ;  the  motion  of  some  being  direct,  and  of  others  retrograde. 

The  comets  differ  widely  from  the  planets  in  their  appearance,  as  well  as  in  the  figure 
and  position  of  their  orbits.  When  a  comet  is  first  seen,  it  is  usually  surrounded  by  a  family 
luminous  vapour,  which  becomes  more  bright  &s  the  comet  approaches  the  sun,  and  at  length 
slioots  out  into  a  long  luminous  and  transparent  train,  very  much  resembling  a  streamer,  and 
extending  in  a  direction  opposite  to  the  sun.  The  dense  part  of  the  comet,  which  both  tc 
the  naked  eye,  and  when  viewed  through  a  telescope,  resembles  much  the  planetary  bodies, 
is  called  the  nucleus ;  the  fiiintly  luminous  vapour  by  which  it  is  surrounded  is  called  the 
coma  ;  and  the  long  luminous  train  proceeding  fVom  the  comet  in  an  opposite  direction  finm 
the  sun  is  called  the  tail.  Between  the  nucleus  and  the  coma  lies  a  part  famter  than  the 
former,  but  brighter  than  the  latter,  and  in  which  the  nucleus  appears  involved :  this  is  called 
the  head  of  the  comet 

The  length  of  the  tail  is  very  various.  Sometimes  it  extends  only  a  few  degrees ;  in 
other  cases  it  has  been  found  to  reach  over  more  than  a  fourth  part  of  the  heavens.  If  a 
comet  does  not  come  ver^  near  the  sun,  the  coma  does  not  shoot  into  a  tail,  but  retains  the 
appearance  of  a  nebulosity  round  the  comet  during  the  whole  period  of  its  being  visible. 
The  tail  sometimes  consists  of  two  or  more  diverging  streams  of  light,  and  is  always  bo 
transparent  that  the  smallest  stars  are  seen  through  it  without  any  eentiible  diminution  of 
their  brilliancy. 

Nature  of  comets.  In  ages  of  ignorance,  comets  have  al^rays,  ftom  their  extraordinary 
appearance,  been  sources  of  superstitious  terror  to  mankind.  This  fear  has  been  dissipated 
Ity  the  light  of  science,  which  has  shown  that  the  appearances  of  comets  are  regulated  by 
the  same  laws  as  other  celestial  phenomena.  We  are  still,  however,  almost  entirely  igno- 
rant of  the  nature  of  these  bodies,  though  a  great  many  hypotheses  have  been  formed  con- 
teming  them.    They  were  considered  by  some  of  the  ancients,  and  particularly  by  Aristotle, 


BOOE  I. 


VfciHvJ  COMETS. 


t<ir  Li/iiii 


115 


I  the  cubes  of 


M  accidental  Area  or  meteon  gfenerated  in  the  atmoaphere  of  the  earth ;  bat  thia  opinion  ia 
nl)viniiijly  poundloM.  If  thoy  were  connected  with  the  earth  or  ita  atmoaphere,  they  would 
piirtjilco  i)t  the  diurnal  motion  on  the  axij,  and  could  not  therefore  appear  to  have  a  diurnal 
revolution  in  tiie  hcavena  along  with  the  other  coleatial  bodioa.  Bnaidea,  their  having  no 
(liiinml  parallax  provea  that  they  are  at  a  great  diatance  from  the  earth;  while  the  fiust  of 
thuir  apparent  motion  being  affected  by  the  annual  motibn  of  the  earth  ahowa  that  they  are 
Dituiited  in  the  planetary  re^iona.  Omervation  haa  demonatnted  that,  like  the  planeta,  they 
art)  |)crmanent  bodiea,  and,  m  all  probability,  derive  their  light  ftam  the  aun. 

From  the  small  portion  of  the  orbit  of  any  comet  which  wo  have  an  opportunity  of  obaerv- 
tni;,  we  cannot  ascertain  with  aufficient  accuracy  the  olementa  neceaaary  for  determining 
till!  porifxl  of  itM  return ;  but  auppoaing  that  their  orbita  are  not  disturbed  by  any  cauae  in 
those  distant  rojfions  of  space  through  which  the  greater  portion  of  the  paths  of  coineta  lie, 
it  is  evident  that  by  accurately  observing  all  the  cometa  that  come  within  view,  and  care- 
fully recording  the  results,  in  the  courae  of  agea  the  return  of  many  comets  may  be  detected 
mill  their  periodic  times  ascertained.  Ilonce  the  greater  axis  of  the  orbit  of  each  may  be 
dotcrminud  by  Kepler's  third  law ;  and  the  comet's  least  diptanco  from  the  sun  being  found 
liy  ol)servation,  the  less  axis  will  also  become  known.  In  this  manner  the  periodic  time  of 
Home  cometa  has  been  found,  and  their  return  predicted. 

The  first  and  most  remarkable  instance  ia  that  of  Dr.  Halley,  who,  by  comparing  hia 
olwervationa  on  the  comet  of  1682,  with  those  of  Kepler  on  the  comet  of  1607,  and  thoae  of 
Apian  on  the  comet  of  1631,  found  reason  to  conclude,  from  the  agreement  of  the  circunip 
.stances  of  each,  that  what  had  been  considered  three  distinct  comets  were  only  re-appear- 
ances of  the  aame  comet  afler  a  period  of  about  76  yeara.  In  all  the  three  caaea  the  di»- 
tjince  of  the  comet  fVom  the  sun  when  nearest  to  him  was  almost  the  aame ;  the  poaition  of 
the  comet  in  the  heavens  at  the  time  of  its  nearest  approach  to  the  sun  likewise  corre- 
sponded ;  as  did  also  the  inclination  of  the  orbit,  the  ^lace  of  the  nodes,  and  tlie  variableneaa 
of  the  motion,  aa  being  direct  or  retrograde. 

These  coincidences  rendered  the  identity  of  the  comet  almost  absolutely  certain.  Hence 
Halley  predicted  ita  return  in  the  end  of  1768  or  the  beginning  of  1769.  It  appeared  about 
the  end  of  December  1768,  and  made  ita  nearest  approach  to  the  aun  on  the  13th  of  March 
1769,  differing  not  many  daya  fVom  the  time  expected.  Again  it  made  ita  appearance,  aa 
predicted,  at  the  completion  of  ita  periotl,  toward  the  end  of  August,  1836. 

Though  there  can  be  no  doubt  of^  the  identity  of  the  comet  of  1631, 1607, 1682, 1769,  and 
1835,  the  appearances  were  considerably  different  In  1531  the  comet  was  of  a  bright 
gold  colour ;  m  1607,  it  was  dark  and  livid ;  it  was  bright  again  in  1682 ;  and  obscure  in 
1759. 

The  mean  distance  of  this  comet  from  the  aun  is  about  eighteen  times  that  of  the  earth ; 
but  in  consequence  of  the  great  eccentricity  of  its  orbit,  its  distance,  when  at  the  farther 
extremity  of  its  greater  axis,  is  nearly  double  that  of  Uranus,  the  most  distant  of  the  planets. 
When  nearest  to  the  sun,  its  diatance  from  him  ia  about  -^th  parts  of  the  earth's  mean 
distance. 

A  very  remarkable  comet  waa  seen  in  the  end  of  1680  and  beginning  of  1681.  Ita  tail 
extended  70°,  and  was  very  brilliant.  This  comet,  of  all  those  which  have  been  observed, 
approaches  nearest  to  the  sun.  Descending  with  immense  velocity  in  a  path  almost  per- 
pendicular to  his  surftce,  it  proceeded  until  its  distance  from  his  centre  was  only  about 
540,000  miles.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  computed  that,  in  consequence  of  so  near  an  approach 
to  the  sun,  it  must  have  received  a  heat  2000  times  greater  than  that  of  iron  almost  going 
into  fiision ;  and  that  if  it  was  equal  in  magnitude  to  our  earth,  and  cooled  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  terrestrial  bodies,  its  heat  would  not  be  expended  in  less  than  50,000  years. 

Three  observations  on  comets  are  recorded  in  history,  agreeing  in  remarkabl  J  circum- 
stances with  the  comet  of  1680  :^ne  in  the  44th  year  before  Christ ;  another  in  the  con- 
sulate of  Lampadius  and  Orestes,  about  the  year  of  Christ  531 ;  and  the  third  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  I.  of^  England,  in  the  year  1106.  These  dates  are  nearly  at  equal  distances  of 
time,  namely,  675  years;  which  is  also  the  period  between  1106  and  1681.  Hence  Dr. 
Halley  conjectured  that  these  might  be  successive  appearances  of  one  and  the  same  comet, 
revolving  about  the  sun  in  the  period  of  about  575  years.  If  thia  conjecture  ia  well 
tbunded,  tliis  comet  may  be  expected  again,  after  finishing  the  same  period,  about  the  year 
2255. 

A  comet  remarkable  for  ita  beauty  appeared  in  1811.  The  tail  of  this  comet  was  com- 
posed of  two  diverging  streams  of  fiiint  light,  slightly  coloured,  which  made  an  angle  of 
tVom  15°  to  20°,  &na  sometimes  much  more,  and  were  bent  outwards.  The  space  between 
was  comparatively  obscure.  When  at  its  greatest  length,  the  tail  subtended  an  angle  cf  at 
least  16° ;  and  was  then  computed  to  extend  about  23,000,000  miles  in  length. 

Besides  Dr.  Halley's  comet  there  are  two  others  whose  returns  have  been  observed,  and 
the  elements  of  their  orbits  determined,  with  such  certainty,  as  to  enable  astronomers  to 
predict  their  re-appearance.  One  of  these  was  recognised  for  the  first  time  in  1819  as  a 
Dcriodic  come*.     Encke,  a  German  astronomer,  has  determined  tlte  time  of  its  revolution 


lie 


PRINCIPI.RS  OF  OF/XJRAPHY. 


Part  II 


tbiitK  Um  Bun  to  bv  llii  ^  vr>iint  nml  lliruu  inoiitliM  tii'urly.     Thn  other  wm  liut  socii  in  lK]'i, 
(tn  p<-i.  'i<no   wttM  I..        >i!ii)'<l  by  Binia,  u  Ikiliuiiimn  Bulronoiiivr,  to  Im)  xix  yi>iiri«  .iiiti 

llire«  quii       ■<.      Mt/)ireUMr«  ttujii   'Jwri)  are  only  Utruo  comoU  wIunk)  ptiriwlii  aru  curbtlnly 
known. 

,     'iffer  from  c<  \»  tin  coineta  Iravariw^  the  planetary  roffiom  in  all  (liroction^  it  in 

natural  to  inquire  whuUui  tlivre  ia  iMt  a  poasibility  that  aoine  uno  of  tliem  may  apprtxK  li 
»>  near  to  the  earlli  aa  ifreatly  to  diaturb  ita  inotinn  •-  by  an  actual  contact  to  producn  Miu 
!  «t  diaaatroua  cirecta.  Upon  thia  Hiihjoct  there  ia  nu  rcnHonublo  uruund  for  fear.  If  it  i:^ 
abaoliitely  impuaaible  tliat  n  comet  may  come  in  contact  witti  the  earth,  the  probabiiir  "i^ 
i^^iiinit  auch  an  event  hap|)cMii:.  are  aa  miliiona  to  one.  Amunj;  bodiea  so  amall  in  com- 
pnrisnn  with  tliu  immenMo  a|)aco  m  v\\\v\\  they  move;  and  moviuff  with  all  velocities,  and 
In  01  that  are  iiu  lined  in  all  directions,  ami  ire  of  all  dimnnMions,  how  small  must  he 
the  ))robabil  *hat  any  two  shall  comu  incontu.il  Small,  however,  as  this  protnbility  iH 
for  any  one  a^u,  t'  we  talio  into  account  a  long  series  of  ages,  the  probability  may  be  greatly 
increaiiied. 

If  wo  iuppow  the  earth  actually  to  receive  such  a  shock,  it  is  easy  to  imagine  the  calami- 
tous oonaequenoea  which  must  liilFow.  The  axis  and  motion  of  rotation  bein^  changed,  the 
waters  of  the  ocean  would  leave  thoir  ancient  position,  and  would  be  precipitated  towards 
the  new  equator.  A  great  part  of  the  human  race,  and  of  the  lower  animals,  would  be 
drowned  by  thia  universal  deluge,  or  dostroytnl  by  the  violent  shock  impressed  on  the  ter- 
restrial globe.  Whole  species  of  animals  mit,'ht  be  annihilated.  All  tlie  monuments  of 
human  industry  and  invention  would  bo  overtlirown.  In  such  a  catastrophe  we  fmd,  too, 
cause  adequate  to  account  for  the  ocean  having  overflowed  lofly  mountains,  on  which  it  huH 
left  incontestable  evidence  of  its  presence ;  and  to  exulain  how  the  animals  and  plant  of 
the  south  may  have  existed  in  the  climates  of  the  north,  where  wo  find  tlie  remains  and  un- 
pressiona  of  them.  Lastly,  such  an  event  accounts  for  the  recentness  of  the  modem  worM, 
the  monuments  of  which  go  back  scarcely  1)000  years.  The  human  race,  reducqd  to  a  small 
number  of  individuals,  and  to  the  mottt  miserable  condition,  would  for  a  long  time  he  mainly 
occupied  in  providing  tor  their  preservation,  amidst  the  wreck  which  surrounded  them,  and 
would  lose  all  remembrance  of  arts  and  sciences ;  and  when,  by  the  progress  of  civilization, 
they  at  length  became  sensible  of  the  want  of  these,  they  would  find  it  necessary  to  recom- 
mence, as  if  man  had  been  newly  placed  upon  the  earth. 

It  seems  impossible  to  contemplate  the  picture  of  calamity  here  drawn,  without  being 
fbrcibly  struck  with  this  singular  coincidence ; — that  if  we  suppose  the  period  of  the  cornel 
of  1680  (which  in  tliat  year  made  a  considerably  -mr  approach  to  the  earth's  orbit)  to  l)e 
675i  years;  and  count  back,  from  the  year  •  /.-J,  seven  revolutions,  or  a  period  of  4028 
vears,  we  reoch  the  year  2349  l)efore  Christ, —the  year  of  the  deluge,  as  fixed  by  chrono- 
logerB. 

if  we  take  into  consideration  the  great  velocity  with  which  the  comets  move  in  approach 
ing  to  and  receding  from  the  sun,  it  is  evident  that  the  mere  approximation  of  a  comet  tu 
the  terreatrial  orM,  wmild  be  productive  of  little  or  no  effect.     Accordingly,  though  a 
comet  is  said  to  have  eclipeed  tne  moon,  in  which  case  it  must  have  been  very  near  the 
earth,  no  sensible  effect  was  produced. 


-■'•■V      ^.-v.,'."^     ..^nv-...    CHAPTER  XV.  <v. I,  ■.-■-.■..;  I  •  -,>,      :-<.„,., 

LAW  OP  UNIVERSAL  GRAVITATION. 

Havino  now  taken  a  brief  view  of  the  planetary  motions,  and  pointed  r  r:.  orentrallv  thei 
laws,  we  may  ner*  '"quire  whether  from  these  wsx^  general  principle  c>u    in.  or  uced  to 
which  the  motions  regulated  by  them  may  be  re!    red  as  to  their  cause. 

The  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  have  been  variously  accounted  f  ..a\    already 

adverted  to  the  rude  mechanism  of  deferent  and  epicyclic  spheres,  by  wnich  some  of  the 
ancient  philosophers  attempted  to  explain  the  celestial  motions.  This  doctrine  originated 
with  Eudoxus  and  Callipus.  But  a  more  sensible  attempt  was  made  by  Cleanthes,  another 
philodopher  <?^'  Greece,  who,  from  observing  that  bodies  are  easily  carried  round  by  whirl- 
pools or  vortif*..  '  water,  imagined  that  the  celestial  spaces  are  filled  with  an  ethereal 
fluid,  which  is  ir>  -<tinua1  i.not!on  round  the  earth,  and  that  it  carried  the  sun  and  planets 
round  with  it.  T*i<  h  His  hy»')thesis  affords  no  real  explanation  of  the  phenomena,  it  was 
revived  in  mod':.'  '.  'U,  cnA  maintained  by  two  of  the  most  eminent  mathematicians  and 
philosophers  in  3urc,'.  nuMi'ly,  by  Dos  Cartes  and  Leibnitz,  and  for  a  lon|f  time  met  with 
^neral  acquieir.'uoe.  But  a  much  ne».er  approximation  to  right  conceptions  on  this  sub- 
ject was  made  by  many  philosophers,  both  of  ancient  and  modem  times,  who  supposed  that 
the  pl^Acts  were  deflected  from  uniform  rectilineal  motions,  by  forces  similar  to  what  we 
observe  in  the  motions  of  mognetical  and  electrical  bodies,  or  in  the  motion  of  common  heavy 
bodies ;  where  one  body  seems  to  infiuence  the  motion  of  another  at  a  distance  from  it,  with- 
out any  intervening  impulsion.    Femiat  was  the  first  who  suggested  that  the  weight  of  a 


of  the 


Part  (I 

!tn  ill  I'^iW. 
K  yimrn  .iimI 
iru  cerbiiiily 

ectioni,  it  ia 
lay  appriMuli 
product!  'Ill) 
;ar.  If  it  i* 
probnbiii'.'M 
mil  in  com- 
)l()citin8,  and 
lall  muttt  Im 
irolmbility  ifl 
ly  bo  gruutly 

i  the  calami- 
changed,  the 
itod  towardii 
It,  would  bo 
on  the  ter- 
onuments  of 
e  find,  too, 
which  it  huH 
nd  plant-  of 
lains  and  im- 
lodem  world, 
qd  to  u  Biimll 
[ic  be  mainly 
}d  them,  and 
'  civilization, 
iry  to  recom- 

'ithout  being 
of  the  comet 
I  orbit)  to  be 
!riod  of  4028 
d  by  chrono- 

in  approach 
"  a  comet  to 
though  a 
"ery  near  the 


BnoR  1 


iJiW  OP  UNTVF.RMAT,  GRAVITATION. 


117 


"■allv  thei 
(ir  meed  to 

.av  ilready 
Bome  of  i.\ie 
originated 
hes,  another 
by  whirl- 
an  ethereal 
and  planets 
nena,  it  wa^ 
aticians  and 
ne  met  with 
on  this  sub- 
ipposed  that 
to  what  we 
nmon  heavy 
om  it,  with- 
weight  of  a 


L 


boiiy  it  the  mim  of  the  tendnncief  of  iinch  pui  ''le  of  matter  in  the  boely  to  every  particle  of 
thf  eiirth.  Kepler  mndo  another  approxiinatii  n  ii.  tho  truth  when  he  said,  that  if  there  were 
t\vi>  IkkIioh  |>liuu<d  out  of  tiio  reacii  of  all  I'xii  riuil  ton  ,  "'xl  at  perfect  hlM'rty  to  move,  they 
would  approach  each  other  with  volocitiew  inv.  '^Iv  proportuiiiHl  to  timir  iiuaiititieH  of  matter  • 
wlicii  ho  oDMortcd  that  the  earth  and  the  m(M)ii  uun n/illy  attract  e»(;h  otiior,  and  are  prcvou'eo 
from  meeting  by  their  revolution  round  flxir  coiimiou  i  "ntrc  of  attraction ;  and  when  lie 
Httriltuted  the  tidea  to  the  attractive  inHiion  of  tlie  muiii  m  heaping  up  the  waion«  imme- 
diuU'ly  under  her. 

Rut  Dr.  Ilooke  made  the  mont  precine  HurmiHo  to  t\\\»  purpose.  At  a  ut^^cting  of  tho 
Royiil  Society,  Ma^  3,  1068,  he  expresHod  himwlf  i  tho  tollowiug  manner :  "  I  will 
t'.x[>liiin  a  Byntem  of  the  world  very  diilerciit  fVoin  any  yet  received,  and  it  ia  tbundod  on  the 
three  fbllowinir  propoaitiona : 

"  I.  That  all  tho  hoavtinly  bodies  have  not  only  a  gravitation  of  their  partu  to  their  own 
pnijwr  centre  ,  bui  that  they  also  mutually  attract  each  other  within  their  npherea  of  iK;tion. 

"3.  Irk  i  al  hodiea  having  a  simple  inntion  will  continue  to  move  in  a  straight  lini>  iinleaa 
cotividuullv  de  'tod  from  it,  by  nome  extraneous  force  causing  them  tf)  descrtbo  a  circle,  an 
'    iptij,    r»K    ■  other  curve. 

;!,   Inat  thi:'  attraction  is  so  much  the  greater  as  tho  bodies  are  nearer.     As  to  the  pro- 
i   'ti-  which  thoseforcea  diminlNli  by  on  incrcnxe  of  dJHlonce,  I  own  I  have  not  yet  dis- 

covnreii  it^  although  I  have  made  Komc  cxperirrtcnts  to  that  purpose.  I  leave  this  to  others 
who  have  time  and  knowledge  suthciont  for  the  ta«k." 

The  iruly  philoHophicnl  views  stAte<l  in  these  propositions  relatively  to  the  celestial  motions 
wrn  Mudtrated  by  a  very  pretty  experiment,  which  Ilooke  ha<l  nome  time  betbro  Rxhiliifed 
to  the  Society.  A  bnll,  miBpiindod  by  o  long  thread  from  tho  ceiling,  was  made  to  swinnf 
roiiiul  another  ball  laid  on  a  table  immediately  bolow  the  point  of  MUHpension.  V  '\en  the 
impulse  given  to  the  pendulum  was  very  nicely  adjusted  to  its  deviation  fVom  the  ;  rpendi- 
cnlar,  it  described  a  perfect  circle  round  the  Imll  on  tho  table;  but  when  tho  impi'se  was 
very  great  or  very  little,  it  described  an  ellipHo  having  the  other  ball  in  its  centra  The 
force,  under  the  influence  of  which  this  circular  or  elliptic  motion  was  pro»luced,  IcKike 
showed  to  be  a  deflecting  force,  proportional  to  tho  distance  from  the  other  ball.  I  ut  he 
aii'led,  that  although  this  illustrated  the  planetary  motions  in  some  degree,  yet  it  wn  not 
mitjiblo  to  their  case;  for  the  planets  describe  ellipses,  having  tho  sun  not  in  their  ct  iitre 
but  in  thcii  focus,  so  that  they  are  not  retained  in  their  orbits  by  a  Ibrce  proportional  to  the 
distance  from  the  sun. 

Thus  we  see  that  certain  points  of  resemblance  between  the  motions  of  the  planets  nnd 
the  motions  of  magnets  and  heavy  bodies,  had  attracted  the  attention  of  many  philosophers; 
but  these  observers  failed  to  deduce  from  the  principles  which  they  so  dimly  perceived  any 
satisfactory  conclusion. 

At  length  tho  powerful  genius  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton  was  directed  to  the  subject,  and  by 
his  penetrating  sagacity  the  law  of  universal  gravitation  was  broujojht  fully  into  view,  and 
successfully  applied  to  explain  the  celestial  phenomena.  He  had  retired  from  Cambridge  tt 
tho  country  on  account  of  the  plague,  and  while  walking  in  his  garden  he  was  led  to  meditate 
on  tho  planetary  motions,  and  on  tho'  nature  of  that  central  force  which  retains  the  planets 
in  their  orbits.  The  thought  happily  occurred  to  him  that  the  some  force,  or  some  modifica- 
tion of  the  same  force,  which  causes  a  heavy  body  to  descend  to  the  earth,  might  extend  to 
the  moon,  and  might  retai  i  that  body  in  its  orbit  by  deflecting  it  from  the  rectilineal  path. 
However  plausible  this  conjecture  might  appear,  tho  mind  of  Newton  was  too  deeply  imbued 
witli  t'l"  true  spirit  of  philosophy  to  adopt  it  as  the  groundwork  of  a  theory,  unless  it  could 
be  shown  by  calculation  to  bo  coincident  with  fact.  But  before  it  could  be  brought  to  this 
test,  it  was  necessary  that  he  should  fttrm  smne  conditional  hypothesis  respecting  the  inodi- 
(icntion  of  the  force  as  the  distance  increased,  and  also  that  he  should  know  nearly  the 
nrijrnitude  of  the  earth.  The  hypothesis  which  he  assumed  with  'ogard  to  the  modification 
of  the  force  accordiiiir  to  the  increase  of  the  distance  was  correct;  namely,  that  the  force 
decreases  as  tho  square  of  the  distance  increases.  But  he  made  a  fiilse  estimation  of  the  bulk 
of  the  earth;  so  that  his  calculations  showed  that  his  conjecture  did  not  agree  with  the  phe- 
nomenon :  he  accordingly  abandoned  it.  A  few  years  afterwards  he  was  induced,  however, 
to  renew  his  calculations,  havinir  in  the  interval  obtained  more  correct  data,  in  consequence 
of  the  measurement  *"  a  degree  in  France  by  Picard.  The  attempt  now  succeeded ;  and  it 
is  said  that,  as  his  calculations  drew  to  a  close,  he  be(  me  so  agitated  that  he  was  obliged  to 
request  a  hiend  to  finish  them.  His  former  conjecturt  was  found  to  agree  with  the  pheno- 
mena with  the  utmost  precision ;  and  in  exploring  the  grand  scene  which  was  now  laid  open 
before  him,  he  was  led  to  an  explanation  of  the  system  of  the  world,  consisting  simply  in  an 
accurnte  narration  of  facts,  and  such  a,".  .Trrangement  of  tiium  as  showed  their  mutual  depen- 
rlencc,  and,  at  the  same  time,  their  reference  to  one  great  fact  of  which  they  were  all  neccs- 
sarv  consequences. 

Wo  are  now  to  explain  briefly  the  theory  of  gravitation ;  but  our  account  of  it  must  ot 
course  be  verv  limited. 


yf( 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


'M^■'■fim:■ 


There-  is  no  phenomenon  in  nature  mure  fiuniliar  to  us  than  motion ;  and  although  it  be 
greatly  diversified  according  to  the  causes  by  which  it  is  produced,  yet  all  motions  are  sub- 
ject to  the  three  following  Taws : — 

Ist  Law.  Every  body  continues  in  a  state  of  rest,  or  of  uniform  rectilinear  motion,  unless 
affected  by  some  mechanical  force. 

2d  Law.  Every  change  of  motion  is  proportional  to  the  force  impressed,  and  is  made  in 
the  direction  of  that  force. 

dd  Law.    Every  action  is  accompanied  by  an  equal  and  contrary  re-action. 

It  is  a  consequence  of  the  first  two  laws,  that  if  a  body  or  particle  of  matter  be  subjected 
at  the  same  time  to  the  action  of  two  moving  forces,  each  of  which  would  separately  cause 
it  to  describe  the  side  of  a  parallelogram  uniformly  in  a  given  time,  the  body  will  describe 
the  diagonal  uniformly  in  the  same  time.  By  thnse  very  simple  laws,  the  result  of  expe- 
rience, and  by  the  principles  of  geometry,  Newton  established  the  sublime  doctrines  of  Uie 
planetary  motions. 

It  will  not  be  expected  that  we  should  enter  at  any  considerable  length  into  the  recondite 
doctrines  of  physical  astronomy.  This  subject  requires  for  its  fiill  discussion  ample  space, 
and  ail  the  resomces  of  the  higher  mathematics :  the  mere  elements  of  geometry,  however, 
are  sufBicient  to  indicate  generally  some  of  the  fundamental  principles.    Let  us  suppose  that 

S  (Jig.  34.)  is  a  fixed  point, 

^  .  ,  „.    •. , .,       and  that  a  body  moves  in 

-^.-''   '\  the  direction  ABwitli  an 

■  ,..-.         -ml.  -  >?'-r'*«>^  **v  _        «  uniform  velocity,  at  siicli  a 

'■A^,i  ••-..  /  '^^   ^^^'       '  ^    '  disturbed 

"'    '  ^  ^       ^'^       <  |jy  j^jjy  external  cause,  it 

would  move  from  B  to  6  in 
..j^  a  second  of  ^ime.  Let  us 
;  also  suppose  that  when  the 
body  arrives  at  B,  it  re- 
ceives an  impulse  in  tlie 
direction  B  S,  and  of  snc\\ 
intensity,  that,  if  acting 
alone,  it  would  cause  the 
body  to  move  uniformly 
fi-om  B  to  H  in  a  second. 
Complete  thp  parallelo- 
gram H  B  6  C,  and  draw 
the  diagonal  B  C :  the  impulse  at  B,  combined  with  the  tendency  to  continue  its  motion  <n 
the  line  B  b,  will  cause  the  body  to  move  along  the  diagonal  B  C ;  bo  that  at  the  end  of  a 
second  it  will  actually  be  at  the  point  C ;  and  if  no  external  cause  acted  on  the  body,  by  the 
first  law,  it  would  continue  to  move  uniformly  ever  after  in  the  direction  B  C  c ;  so  that  in 
the  next  second  it  would  describe  a  line  C  c,  equal  to  B  C.  But  now  suppose  that  the  body, 
when  at  C,  receives  a  second  impulse  in  the  direction  C  S,  by  which  it  would  bo  carried 
uniformly  trom  C  to  I  in  a  second :  then,  completing  the  parallelogram  D  I  C  c,  the  actual 
patli  of  the  body  will  be  the  diagonal  C  D,  which  will  be  uniformly  described  in  a  second; 
and  if  undisturbed,  the  motion  would  be  continued  uniforn'ly  in  the  straight  line  C  D  d,  tlie 
distance  D  d  described  in  the  ne.\t  second  being  equal  to  C  D.  A  third  impulse  at  D,  in  the 
direction  D  S,  such  as  would  carry  the  body  uniformly  from  D  to  K  in  a  second  of  time. 
would,  when  combined  with  the  tendency  to  move  in  the  direction  D  d,  produce  a  motion 
along  D  E,  the  diagonal  of  the  parallelogram  E  K  D  rf,  and  a  fourth  impulse  in  the  direction 
E  S,  would,  when  combined  with  the  motion  in  the  direction  E  e,  produce  a  motion  ulonij 
the  diagonal  E  F,  and  so  on.  In  tb*  j  way,  by  successive  instantaneous  impulses,  a  body  may 
be  made  to  describe  the  path  A  B  C  D  E  F,  &c.,  which  will  be  all  in  one  plane. 

Since  the  lines  A  B,  B  6  are  equal,  the  triangles  A  S  B,  B  S  6  are  equal ;  but  because 
C  6  is  parallel  to  S  B,  the  triangle  B  S  6  is  equal  to  the  triangle  B  S  C ;  therefore  the  triai 
gle  B  S  C  is  equal  to  A  S  B.  In  like  manner,  it  may  be  proved  that  C  S  D  is  equal  to  P 
S  C,  and  D  S  E  to  C  S  D,  and  so  on :  thus  it  appears  that  the  triangles  A  S  B,  B  S  C,  C  S 1), 
D  S  E,  &c.  are  all  equal.  If  we  suppose  a  straight  line  to  be  drawn  from  the  moving  body  to 
the  fixed  point  S,  and  to  be  continually  carried  along  with  it,  it  is  evident  that  this  line  will 
pass  over  or  generate  the  equal  areas  A  S  B,  B  S  C,  C  S  D,  D  S  E,  &c.  in  equal  intervals 
of  time  :  it  is  also  evident  that  the  shorter  the  interval  between  the  impulses  communi- 
cated to  the  moving  body,  the  greater  will  be  the  number  of  sides  of  the  figure  formed  by 
the  diagonals  of  the  parallelograms,   and   the   neq,rer  will  the  line  composed  of  these 

If  we  supirase,  therefore,  that  the  body  is  urged  towards  F 


flmrrnni 


lala  • 


M^jy, 


'luui^ii  Mi  a  cui'vt;. 


by  a  force  acting,  not  at  intervals,  but  incessantly,  the  body  will  move  in  that  curve  to 
which,  as  its  limit,  the  line,  composed  of  the  diagonals  continually  approaches,  while  the 
line  drawn  fi«m  the  moving  body  A  S,  or  radius  vector,  will  continue  to  describe  areas  pro- 
portional to  the  times. 


Book  I. 


LAW  OP  UNIVERSAL  GRAVITATION. 


Hi) 


The  force  which  urges  the  body  towards  S,  is  called  a  oentripbtal  roROC  If  the  action 
of  tliat  force  were  to  cease,  the  body  would  proceed  in  a  straight  line, — a  tangent  to  iU 
curvilinear  path.  The  tendency  of  the  body  to  proceed  in  the  direction  of  the  tangent,  is 
called  its  centrifuoal  force. 

From  the  important  conclusion  to  which  we  have  now  been  led,  we  may  infer,  conversely 
that  if  a  body  revolve  in  a  curvilinear  path  about  a  point,  and  if  the  radius  vector  drawn 
irom  that  pomt  describe  round  it  areas  proportional  to  the  times,  the  body  is  deflected  from 
the  rectilineal  path  by  a  force  directed  to  that  point.  Now,  this  is  exactly  the  case  of  the 
planets,  both  primary  and  secondary.  The  former  describe  curvilinear  orbits  round  the  sun 
and,  according  to  the  second  of  Kepler's  laws,  the  radius  vector  describes  areas  proportional 
to  the  times.  Hence  we  may  infer,  that  each  is  retained  in  its  orbit  by  a  centripetal  force 
directed  towards  the  sun ;  and  that  this  force  is  counteracted  by  a  centrifugal  force  genera- 
ted by  the  planet's  motion  in  its  orbit.  In  like  manner,  each  secondary  planet  revolves 
about  its  primary,  the  areas  described  by  the  radius  vector  following  the  same  law ;  so  that 
the  secondary  must  be  acted  upon  by  a  centripetal  force  directed  towards  the  primary 
planet.  ' 

The  next  thing  to  be  determined  is  the  law  of  the  centripetal  force  when  a  body  moves 
in  an  elliptic  orbit,  the  force  being  directed  towards  one  of  the  foci.  First,  let  us  suppose  a 
body  to  revolve  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle  ADC  (Jig.  35.),  about  any  point  S,  as  the 
centre  of  its  motion,  and  let  us  inquire  into  the  law  of  tlie  centripetal  force  in  that  case. 
35  Draw  the  chord  A  S  C,  and  let  A  D  be  so  small  an  arc,  that 
it  may  be  considered  coincident  with  its  chord.  Draw  D  £ 
parallel  to  the  tangent  A  B,  and  join  C  D.  Then  A  D  will 
measure  the  velocity  of  the  body  in  its  orbit  at  the  point  A, 
and  A  E  the  space  over  which  the  centripetal  force  directed 
towards  S,  if  acting  alone,  would  cause  the  body  to  move  in 
the  time  in  which  it  moves  from  A  to  D.  Put  v  to  denote  the 
velocity,  and  /  the  centripetal  force.  Since  the  triangles  A 
DC,  A  E  D,  are  equiangular  and  similar,  we  have  A  C  : 
AD=AD:  AE;  that  is, 

AC  :  v  =  v  :f:  therefore/^  j^ 
Next,  let  A  P  B  (jfig-.  36.)  be  the  elliptic  orbit  of  a  planet, 
S  the  focus  in  which  the  sun  is  placed,  A  the  point  at  which 
the  planet  is  at  its  greatest  distance  firom  the  sun,  and  P  any  other  point  in  its  orbit.  Join 
P  S ;  draw  the  tai)gent  P  D,  and  draw  S  D  perpendicular  to  P  D.  Let  v  and  v'  denote  the 
velocities  of  the  planet  at  A  and  P  respectively ;  and  c  and  c'  the  chords  of  the  equicun'e 
circles  at  A  and  P  which  pass  through  the  point  S,  and  let  /  be  the  deflecting  force  at  A, 
and/'  the  deflecting  force  at  P.  Then  from  what  we  have  proved  respecting  a  body 
moving  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle  round  any  point  F  as  the  centre  of  its  motion,  we 
have/;/'  =  -^  :  ■^  =  v'c'  :  d''c.  But  since  the  small  arcs  which  represent  the  velocities 
at  A  and  P  must  be  supposed  to  be  described  in  equal  times,  the  corresponding  areas  described 

by  ^he  radius  vector  will  also  be  equal.  Hence  it  is  not 
difficult  tc  see  that  d  X  A  S  t=  v'  X  S  D,  and  «  :  d'  = 
S  D  :  S  A.  We  obtain,  therefore,  /:  /'=  S  D"  X  c': 
S  A'  X  c.  Draw  P  E  perpendicular  to  the  tangent 
P  D,  meeting  the  axis  in  E,  and  draw  E  G  perpendicular 
to  P  E,  and  E  H  perpendicular  to  P  G.  From  the  pro- 
]A-  perties  of  the  ellipse,  P  H  is  equal  to  half  the  principal 
parameter,  and  consequently  to  half  of  c,  the  chord  of  the 
circle,  of  equal  curvature  at  A,  which  passes  through  S. 
Also  P  G  is  half  of  c',  the  chord  of  the  equicurve  circle 
at  P,  which  passes  through  S.    Therefore, 

/:  /'=  2  S  D'  X  P  G:  2  S  A'  X  P  H. 
=  SD' X  PG:  SA'X  PH. 
Now,  from  the  similar  triangles  G  P  E,  E  P  H,  we  have  GP:PE  =  PE:PH;  hence 
G  P  :  P  H  =  G  P* :  P  E'.     But  the  triangles  G  P  E,   PSD  being  also  similar,  G  P' :  P  E' 
=  P  S' :  S  D';  therefore,  G  P  :  P  11  =  P  S" :  S  D';  and  P  S'xP  H  =  S  D'xG  P:  and 
since  it  was  shown  that/:/'=  S  D'XP  G  :  S  A'xP  H,  wherefore/:/'=PS'xP  H:  S  A' 
X  P  H ;  or  leaving  the  common  factor  P  H  out  of  the  two  consequents  we  have 
/:/'=:PS':  SA'. 
Thus  we  have  arrived  at  this  important  conclusion ;  that  the  force  by  which  the  planet* 
evolve  round  the  sun  in  elliptical  orbits,  the  sun  being  in  one  of  the  foci,  and  the  radius 
vtctor  describing  areas  proportional  to  the  times,  is  always  inversely  as  the  sqiuf^s  of  the 
distances. 


Vtfm 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PahtII. 


There  remains  yet  another  point  to  be  deternnned  respectinp  the  forces  which  retain  the 
different  planetg  in  their  orbitt ;  namely,  whether  there  is  any  analogy  between  them 
Prom  Kepler's  third  law,  we  know  that  the  squares  of  the  periodical  times  of  any  two 
of  the  planets  are  proportional  to  the  cubes  of  their  mean  distances  from  the  sun.  This  law 
is  independent  of  the  eccentricities  of  the  orbits ;  and  the  same  relation  would  subsist 
between  the  mean  distances  and  the  periodic  times,  though  the  eccentricities  were  to 
become  infinitely  small ;  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  the  orbits  were  to  become  circles.  Let 
us  then  suppose  the  planets  to  move  with  uniform  velocities  in  circular  orbits,  having  the 
sun  in  the  centre.  This  supposition  differs  very  little  from  the  truth.  Put  v,  v'  to  denote 
the  velocities  of  two  of  the  planets,  r,  r'  the  radii  of  their  oriiits,  /,  t'  their  periodic  times, 
nnd/,/'  the  forces  by  which  they  are  retained  in  their  orbits.  From  what  we  have  already 
bhown  respecting  a  body  moving  in  a  circle  round  any  point  as  the  centre  of  its  motion,  we 
have/=  ^  and/'  =)p,  therefore/:/'  =—  :  ^.  But  since  the  circumferences  of  circles 
are  to  one  another  as  their  radii,  and  the  velocity  or  the  space  passed  over  by  the  planet  in 
the  unit  of  time  is  equal  to  the  c  rcumference  of  its  orbit,  divided  by  the  periodic  time 

r"       ,  t2         v'i         r  r" 


that 


smce  t 


r'S" 


V  : 
I 
It 


I 
:-p5=r 


t   •  c 


"—  Ml   •    f-o ,  or, 


1-2  » 


hence  — 
I"".    Wherefore  we  obtain/:/' 


expressed  in  that  unit,  it  is  evident 

.   #'3_-3    .  -'3      ^    .  '^ 1 

■  *     —^      •  ^     »     r     •    r-    —  rS 

=r'* :  r'. 

This  result  shows  that  the  forces  which,  acting  on  two  planets,  would  cause  them 
to  describe  circular  orbits,  agreeing  with  Kepler's  third  law,  are  inversely  as  the  squares 
of  the  distances.  Hence  we  may  infer  the  sameness  of  the  force  which  retains  the  planets 
m  their  respective  o^hits ;  since  it  varies  from  orbit  to  orbit,  according  to  the  very  same  law 
which  regulates  its  intensity  at  different  distances  in  the  same  orbit.  This  conclusion  is 
fully  esto»'jashed  by  the  fact,  that  the  force  which  acts  upon  the  comets  during  their  descent 
to  the  sun,  varies  exactly  according  to  thfe  law  which  we  have  now  assigned. as  the  law  of 
the  planetary  force.  The  comet  of  1759,  which  was  predicted  by  Dr.  Halley,  came  from 
regions  far  beyond  the  most  distant  of  the  known  planets,  and  approached  nearer  to  the 
sun  than  Venus ;  and  when  it  arrived  at  'the  same  distance  from  the  sun  as  any  of  the 
planets,  its  deflection  from  the  rectilineal  course  by  the  action  of  the  centriptal  force,  was 
the  very  same  as  that  of  the  planet.  We  may,  therefore,  conclude,  that  it  is  one  and  the 
same  force  which  deflects  all  the  planets  as  well  as  the  comets. 

From  what  has  now  been  shown,  it  is  evident  that  if  all  the  planets  were  placed  at 
the  same  distance  from  the  sun,  they  would  all  be  deflected  equally  by  the  centripetal  force 
independently  of  the  quantity  of  matter  in  each.  Hence  it  follows  that,  at  equal  distances, 
the  centripetal  force  must  act  equally  on  every  particle  of  matter  of  which  the  planets  are 
composed ;  so  that  if  one  planet  contain  exactly  double  tho  quantity  of  matter  that  another 
planet  contains,  and  if  both  are  placed  at  exactly  the  same  distance  from  the  sun,  the  former 
will  receive  a  double  impulse.  We  may  infer,  therefore,  that  another  law  of  the  force 
which  retains  the  planets  in  their  orbits  is,  that,  at  equal  distances,  it  is  proportional  tc 
the  mass  on  which  it  acts ;  and  that  if  two  bodies  act  on  the  same  particle  of  matter,  the 
forces  which  they  exert  are  proportional  to  their  masses.  The  force  may  be  supposed  to 
be  produced  either  by  a  cause  residing  in  the  body  which  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  motion, 
or  by  a  cause  residing  in  the  revolving  body.  In  the  former  point  of  view,  it  is  called  a 
force  of  ATTRACTION ;  in  the  latter,  a  force  of  gravitation.  The  truth  is,  however,  that  the 
cause  of  this  force  is  absolutely  unknown.  We  see  only  the  effects  produced,  and  from  these 
wc  investigate  the  laws  which  connect  them  with  each  other,  and  the  general  principles  on 
which  they  depend. 

Thus,  from  the  facts  discovered  by  Kepler  respecting  the  planetary  motion,  we 
have  shown  that  each  planet  has  a  tendency  towards  the  sun,  in  consequence  of  which 
from  a  state  of  rest  it  would  move  towards  him,  acquiring  at  every  instant  an  increase  o*" 
velocity  according  to  a  fixed  and  determinate  rule  or  law  which  applies  alike  to  all  the 
planets.  This  tendency,  if  not  counteracted,  would  bring  the  matter  of  the  sun  and  planets 
into  one  mass.  This,  however,  is  prevented  from  taking  place,  in  consequence  of  an  impulse 
having  been  originally  communicated  to  each  planet,  giving  it  a  constant  tendency  to  move 
in  a  straight  line  with  an  uniform  velocity.  'The  effects  arising  frcm  these  two  tendencies 
are  so  adjusted,  as  to  produce  elliptic  orbits.  But  the  law  which  regulates  the  effects  arising 
from  the  tendency  of  the  planets  towards  the  sun  remaining  the  same,  such  a  velocity 
mifrlit  have  been  communicated  to  each  planet,  by  the  original  impulse  which  gave  it  ita 
tendency  to  move  uniformly  in  a  straight  line,  as  would  have  produced  parabolic  or  hyper- 
bolic orbits.  In  a  circular  orbit,  if  the  centre  of  motion  coincide  with  the  centre  of  the 
firbit,  the  velocity  of  a  planet  is  uniform,  and  of  such  rapidity  as  at  every  point  to  produce  a 
fe.".dency  to  move  in  a  tangent  to  the  orbit,  exactly  sumcient  to  counterbalance  the  tendency 
to  move  towards  the  centre  of  the  orbit.  If  the  orbit  be  elliptical,  and  one  of  the  foci 
the  centre  of  motion,  the  motion  of  the  planet  is  variable,  and  its  tendency  to  move  uni- 
formly in  a  tangent  to  the  orbit  sometimes  exceeds,  and  at  oUier  times  faHs  short  of,  that 


Rook  I. 


LAW  OP  UNIVERSAL  GRAVITATION. 


121 


which  would  be  necessary  to  cause  it  to  revolve  in  a  circle  at  the  same  distance  from  the 
centro  of  motion. 

l^et  A  D  B  E  be  the  elliptic  orbit  of  a  planet  revolving  about  the  sun,  which  iA  supposed 
to  be  placed  in  the  focus  S.  Suppose  the  planet  to  set  out  from  A  in  the  dircctit  >  A  P, 
A  being  the  point  of  its  greatest  distance  from  the  sun.  At  A  the  direction  of  the  p.anet's 
motion  is  at  right  angles  to  the  radius  vector,  and  if  the  velocity  were  such  as  to  produce 
a  tendenc^  to  move  in  the  direction  of  the  tangent  A  G,  exactly  equivalent  to  the  tendency 
of  the  planet  to  move  towards  the  sun,  the  planet  would  revolve  in  u  circle  of  which  S  is 
tiie  centre,  and  S  A  tlie  radius.  But  the  velocity  being  supposed  less,  the  patli  of  the 
planet  will  fall  within  the  circle,  and  the  angle  S  P  H  contained  between  the  radius  vector 
and  the  tangent  P  H,  which  shows  the  direction  of  the  planet's  motion,  changes  from  a  right 
angle  to  an  acute  angle.    The  tendency  of  tlie  planet  towards  the  sun  is  now  exerted  partly 

in  accelerating  its  velocity  in  its  orbit,  and  partly  in- 
curvating  its  p8,th.  While  the  planet  describes  the 
quadrant  A  P  D,  its  velocity  is  always  less  than  that 
which  would  produce  a  circular  motion ;  until  it  is  at 
tlie  point  D,  and  then  the  velocity  is  precisely  what 
would  be  sufficient  for  a  circular  motion  about  S,  if  its 
direction  were  perpendicular  to  the  radius  vector :  the 
direction,  however,  being  oblique,  the  planet  is  brought 
still  nearer  to  S.  The  tendency  towards  the  sun  is,  in 
a  great  measure,  still  exerted  in  accelerating  the  motion, 
and  as  soon  as  the  planet  passes  D,  its  velocity  becomes 
greater  than  what  might  produce  a  circular  motion 
about  S.  The  angle  SDK  is,  therefore,  the  least  angle 
which  the  radius  vector  makes  with  the  direction  of  the  planet's  motion,  and  from  the  moment 
when  the  planet  passes  the  point  D,  that  angle  begins  to  increase ;  and  the  effect  of  this  is 
to  cause  the  tendency  of  the  planet  towards  the  sun  to  be  principally  exerted  in  incurvating 
the  orbit.  Its  influence  in  accelerating  the  planet's  motion,  though  it  still  exists,  is  gradually 
diminished,  until  the  planet  arrives  at  the  point  B,  where  it  ceases  altogether,  in  consequence 
of  the  radius  vector  being  at  right  angles  to  the  tangent  B  L. 

As  the  velocity  of  the  planet  at  B  is  greater  than  what  is  sufficient  to  produce  a  motion  in 
a  circle  of  which  the  radius  is  S  B,  the  path  of  the  planet  falls  wholly  without  that  circle ; 
and  consequently,  it  is  now  receding  from  the  sun.  The  angle  which  tlie  radius  vector 
makes  with  the  direction  of  its  motion  becoming  obtuse,  the  tendency  of  the  planet  towards 
the  sun  is  now  partly  employed  in  retarding  its  motion,  so  that  its  velocity  is  diminished. 
The  angle  contained  between  the  radius  vector  and  the  direction  of  the  planet's  motion 
increases  while  the  planet  is  moving  from  B  to  E,  and  decreases  from  E  to  A,  when  it  be- 
comes a  right  angle,  as  it  htid  formerly  decreased  from  A  to  D,  and  increased  from  D  to  B. 
The  velocity  of  the  planet  in  its  orbit  must,  therefore,  decrease  from  B  to  A,  as  it  had  for- 
merly increased  from  A  to  B ;  at  the  point  E  it  will  be  equal  to  what  it  was  at  D,  and  from 
E  to  A,  the  influence  of  the  planet's  tendency  towards  tlie  sun  to  diminish  its  velocity  will 
become  less  and  less,  until  when  the  planet  has  arrived  at  A,  it  will  cease  altogether.  The 
velocity  is  then  the  same  as  at  first,  and  the  motion  goes  on  in  this  way  for  ever. 

Whatever  has  now  been  deduced  from  Kepler's  Laws  respecting  the  orbits  of  the  pri- 
mary planets,  and  the  law  of  the  force  by  which  they  are  described,  will  apply  equally  to 
the  orbits  of  the  secondary  planets ;  tor  in  each  of  these  little  systems,  there  is  the  same 
analogy  between  the  periodic  times  and  the  distances,  which  takes  place  in  the  general 
system;  the  figure  of  the  orbits  is  also  elliptic,  and  the  areas  described  by  the  radius  vector 
is  proportional  to  the  times.  We  may  legitimately  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  satellites 
revolving  about  any  planet,  are  retained  in  their  orbits  by  a  force  inversely  proportional  to 
the  squares  of  their  distances  from  their  primary  planet ;  so  that  all  the  celestial  motions 
are  produced  by  forces  regulated  by  this  general  law. 

The  force  that  keeps  the  Moon  in  her  orbit  is,  then,  the  attraction  of  the  earth,  or  her  gra- 
vitation towards  the  earth.  But  we  find  that  the  earth  attracts  all  the  bodies  near  its  surface 
by  a  force  which  is  proportional  to  the  mass  of  the  body  attracted.  Whatever  be  the  weight 
of  a  body,  it  falls  to  the  earth  fi*om  the  same  height  in  the  same  time,  and  with  the  same 
velocity.  Thus,  if  the  resistance  of  the  atmosphere  be  removed,  it  is  found  by  experiment 
that  the  lightest  feather  falls  to  the  earth,  from  a  given  height,  in  the  very  same  time,  and 
with  tlie  very  same  velocity,  as  a  stone,  however  great  its  weight.  I^et  us  inquire  whetlier 
the  force  which  retains  the  moon  in  its  orbit  may  not  be  identified  with  this  attractive  force 
which  caiisoH  thfi  descent  of  heavv  bodies  to  the  snrfhce  of  the  earth. 

We  may  without  great  error  suppose  the  lunar  orbit  to  be  circular,  and  its  semidiameter 
fo  be  equal  to  sixty  semidiameters  of  the  earth.     Let  it  be  represented  by  the  circle  C  M  A, 
tlie  earth  being  supotMed  to  be  placed  at  the  centre  £ ;  and  let  M  C  be  the  small  portion 
Vou  I  11  Q 


123 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  1j. 


■»'i»  *fff^..        __         oa  of  the  orbit  which  the  moon  describes  in  a  second  of  time. 

Draw  M  B  a  tangent  to  the  orbit  at  M :  draw  also  C  D  paral- 
lel to  M  B,  aud  C  B  parallel  to  M  A,  the  diameter  of  the  orbit. 
The  arch  M  C  may  be  regarded  as  coincident  with  its  chord ; 
therefore,  joining  A  C,  it  is  evident  that  in  the  right  angled 
triangle  A  C  M  we  have  A  M  :  M  C=M  C  :  M  D.  Hence, 
since  A  M  and  M  C  are  known,  M  D  or  B  C,  the*  deflection 
of  the  moon  from  the  tangent  in  a  second,  by  the  attraction  of 
the  earth,  may  be  found. 

The  moon  describes  her  orbit  round  the  earth  in  about  27<< 
T""  48"'  or  2,860,580  seconds ;  the  circumference  of  her  orbit  is 
about  60  times  the  circumference  of  the  earth,  that  is,  if  we 
reckon  69^  English  miles  to  a  degree,  7,926,336,000  feet ; 
therefore  the  length  of  the  arc  M  C,  which  the  moon  describes 
in  a  second,  will  be  found  nearly  equal  to  3358  feet  Again,  A  M,  the  diameter  of  the 
moon's  orbit,  is  about  2,523,081,140  feet  Hence  we  obtain  M  D  equal  to  00447  feet  nearly. 
This  small  fhictional  part  of  a  foot  is  the  space  which  a  body,  placed  at  the  distance  of  the 
moon,  and  falling  from  a  state  of  lest  by  the  action  of  the  force  which  retains  the  moon  in 
her  orbit  would  pass  over  in  the  first  second  of  time.  Observmg,  now,  that  this  force  increases 
as  the  squares  of  the  distances  decrease,  we  may  determine  the  space  which  a  body  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  (or  at  the  distance  of  one  semidiameter  from  the  earth's  centre),  and  falling 
from  a  state  of  rest,  would  pass  over  in  the  first  second  of  time,  if  urged  by  the  same  force. 
For,  since  the  moctn's  distance  from  the  earth  is  equal  to  about  sixty  times  the  semidiameter 
of  the  earth,  we  have  1*:  60*  =00447:  the  space  required,  which  is  found  to  be  16'09  feet. 
Now,  this  is  exactly  the  space  which  a  body,  falling  from  rest  by  its  own  weight  is  found 
by  experiment  to  pass  over  in  the  first  second  of  time.  Hence  we  may  infer,  that  the  moon 
is  retained  in  its  orbit  by  the  very  same  force  which  produces  pressure  in  a  body  supported, 
or  causes  a  btydy  when  unsupported  to  fall  to  the  ground. 

Though  the  attraction  of  the  earth  on  bodids  near  its  surface  is  only  a  particular  case  of 
a  general  principle,  which  produces  all  the  planetary  motions,  the  effects  are,  to  appearance, 
considerably  modified.  At  all  the  heights  to  which  we  are  able  to  ascend  above  the  general 
surface  of  the  earth,  or  to  which  we  can  project  a  body,  the  force  of  gravity  acta,  as  to  sense, 
uniformly :  it  also  acts  in  the  direction  of  straight  lines,  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  and 
therefore  parallel  to  one  anotherf  for  the  greatest  range  that  can  be  given  to  a  projectile. 
Hence  the  phen  tmena,  which  depend  on  the  force  diminishing  in  intensity,  as  the  square 
of  the  distance  increases,  and  on  its  emanating  in  the  direction  of  straight  lines  drawn  to 
the  centre  of  the  attracting  sphere,  become  imperceptible.  In  consequence  of  the  compa- 
ratively small  velocity  with  which  human  power  can  project  a  body,  its  path  always  meets 
the  earth,  and  its  motion  terminates.  But  if  the  whole  matter  of  the  earth  were  collected 
into  a  point  at  the  centre,  a  body  projected  from  a  point  4000  miles  distant  from  the  centre, 
and  with  such  a  velocity  as  human  power  can  communicat.e,  would  be  acted  upon  by  the 
same  forces,  with  a  body  similarly  projected  from  the  surface  of  the  earth.  But  on  the  sup- 
position now  made,  the  body  would  meet  with  no  obstacle,  but  would  approach  within  a  cer- 
tain distance  of  the  centre,  and  would  then  recede  from  it  until  it  reached  another  limit, 
when  it  would  again  approach,  and  go  on  in  this  manner,  approaching  and  receding  alter- 
nately, for  ever.  The  path  of  the  b«dy  would  be  an  ellipse,  resembling  in  figure  the  orbit 
of  a  comet  The  extreme  portions  of  the  path  would,  as  to  sense,  be  portions  of  a  parabola. 
Hence  it  is  usually  laid  down  as  a  law  regulating  the  motion  of  projectiles,  that  tf  a  heavy 
body  he  projected  in  a  straight  line,  not  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  it  will  describe  a 
parabola  situated  in  the  vertical  plane  passing  through  that  straight  line,  and  having  its 
axis  perpendicular  to  the  horizon.    This  physical  truth  was  first  discovered  by  Galileo. 

The  force  of  gravity  near  the  surface  of  the  earth  being  uniform  in  its  action,  it  is  found 
that  the  motion  which  it  produces  corresponds  in  all  its  circumstances  with  that  which 
mathematical  reasoning  shows  should  result  from  the  action  of  a  constant  force.  The  spaces 
through  which  the  body  falls  are  proportional  to  the  squares  of  the  times,  and  the  velocity 
is  proportional  to  the  time  during  which  the  body  has  been  falling. 

From  the  third  law  of  Kepler,  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  the  periodic  time  of  a  planet 
in  jts  orbit  is  determined  entirely  by  the  mean  distance,  that  is,  half  the  transverse  axis; 
and  is  not  at  all  affected  by  the  increase  or  decrease  of  the  conjugate  axis.  By  supposing, 
then,  the  conjugate  axis  to  be  continually  diminished,  we  are  led  to  this  conclusion,  that  tiie 
time  in  which  a  body  would  descend  to  the  sun,  if  allowed  to  fall  from  a  state  of  rest  at  any 
distance  from  him,  is  equal  to  half  the  time  of  revolution  in  an  ellipse  the  semitransverse 
axis  of  which  is  half  of  that  distance.  Let  T  be  the  time  of  revolution  of  a  planet  at  nny 
distance,  and  t  the  time  of  revolution  at  half  that  distance ;  then,  by  the  third  law  of  Kepler, 

T  T 

T* :  <* :  2' :  1' ;  hence  we  have  t  =  ^/F  and  ^t  =  ^p^.    But  U  is  the  time  in  which  a  body 
would  fall  from  the  distance  corresponding  to  T.     Hence  the  time  in  which  a  planet  would 


Book  I. 


LAW  OF  UNIVERSAL  GRAVITATION. 


128 


fall  to  the  sun  by  the  action  of  the  centripetal  force  is  equal  to  the  periodic  time  divt^Ud 
hy  y/^'^  \  at  (what  amounta  to  the  same  thing)  to  the  periodic  time  multiplied  by  0"176770, 
the  reciprocal  of  the  square  root  of  32.  By  this  general  rule,  the  tinios  in  which  tlie  dif- 
ferent planets  would  reach  the  sun,  if  the  action  of  their  centrifugal  force  entirely  ceased 
at  the  moment  when  they  are  at  theur  mean  distances,  are  as  follow : 


Dayg.  Hri. 

Mercuryin 11  13 

Venui '.    39  17 

TheEarth 64  13 

Mara ISI  10 

Cnret r....  397  6 

Fallal 301  4 


Dayi.  Hra. 

Juno 3S4  19 

Vema SOS  0 

Jupiter 764  19 

Saturn inoi  0 

Oeorgiiiin  Si(lu8 S4iU  0 

Tlic  Moon  would  fbll  to  the  Earth  in..  4  20 

The  principle  in  the  Newtonian  philosophy,  that  the  effects  produced  by  the  attruction 
of  a  body  depend  very  much  upon  the  quantity  of  matter  which  it  contains,  Aimishcs  the 
means  of  resolving  a  problem  which  at  first  sight  may  appear  of  such  difficulty  as  to  tran- 
scend the  powers  of  the  human  mind ;  namely,  to  determine  the  quantity  of  matter  in  the 
sun  and  planets.  Let  /  and  /'  denote  the  forces  by  which  two  bodies  revolve  in  circ\iliir 
orbits  round  two  central  bodies,  of  which  the  masses  are  denoted  by  m  and  m'.  Let  r  and 
r  be  the  radii  of  the  orbits,  and  t  and  t'  the  periodic  times.  From  what  we  have  already 
proved  with  regard  to  a  force  that  retains  a  body  in  a  circular  orbit,  we  have 

r         f'  '  mm'  m         m'  r  r 

f :  f  =  — :  —    But  we  have  also/  :  /'  = —  :  — ;  therefore,  —  :  —  =  —  :  — ;  and 
<2     ri  r<      n  T»      ra       is      ra 

rt      f  s 
consequently,  wi  :  m' =  — : —  ,»•.."        ..,-..         »    ■< 

ti         f2 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  masses  of  matter  in  the  bodies  which  compose  the  solar  system 
are  directly  as  the  cubei  of  the  mean  distances  of  any  bodies  which  revolve  round  thcvu 
and  inversely  as  the  squares  of  the  times  in  which  the  revolutions  are  performed.  By 
means  of  this  principle,  the  masses  of  the  sun  and  of  the  planets  which  have  satellites  may 
be  compared  with  one  another.  With  regard  to  the  planets  which  have  no  satellites,  the 
quantity  of  matter  contained  in  them  can  only  be  guessed  from  the  efliects  they  produce  on 
the  motions  of  the  other  planets.  The  quantity  of  matter  in  the  moon  can,  however,  be 
determined  with  greater  certamty,  by  comparing  together  the  influence  of  the  sun  and  moon 
in  producing  the  tides  and  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes.  Hence  we  learn,  that  tlie  mat- 
ter in  the  moon  is  about  Vir  o(  the  matter  in  the  earth. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  masses  of  the  planets,  that  of  the  sun  being  considered 
as  unity : 

.  ,.^    '.  •  -  TABLE.  ''!"■.       •■    -    :     • 

Jupiter       .--.-. 
Saturn        .-.-.- 


Mercury 
Venus 
The  Ea^th 
Mars 


I 


TSTH'STO' 
TTTTTT 
TTJTTTJr 


Uranus 


■HTTA 
TT5T5 


J 


If  we  add  together  the  numbers  given  in  this  table,  it  will  be  found  that  the  whole  matter 
in  all  the  planets  is  not  one-six-hundredth  part  of  the  matter  in  the  sun. 

Knowing  the  masses  of  the  planets  and  their  diameters,  we  can  determine  the  force  of 
gravity  at  their  surfaces ;  for,  supposing  them  to  be  spherical  bodies,  and  to  have  no  rot^ition 
on  tlielr  axes,  the  forces  with  which  a  body  placed  on  their  surfaces  gravitates  to  them  will 
he  proportional  to  their  masses,  divided  by  the  squares  of  their  diameters. 

From  the  masses  of  Jupiter  and  the  earth,  La  Place  calculates  that  if  we  suppose  them 
to  have  no  rotation,  a  body  which  at  the  earth's  equator  weighs  one  pound  would,  if  carried 
to  the  equator  of  Jupiter,  weigh  2.509  pounds,  supposing  the  weights  to  be  measured  by 
tlie  pressures  exerted  in  the  two  situations.  If  the  centrifugal  force  produced  by  the  rota- 
tion of  the  planets  be  taken  into  account,  however,  this  weight  must  be  diminished  by  iibout 
one-ninth  part.  The  same  body  would  weigh  about  97.65  pounds  at  the  surface  of  the  sun. 
Hence  it  follows  that  a  heavy  body  would  there  descend  about  425  feet  in  the  first  second 
of  time. 

We  have  hitherto  attended  chiefly  to  the  action  of  the  central  body  upon  that  which 
revolves  round  it ;  but,  in  reality,  the  action  is  mutual.  The  planets  attract  the  sun  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  sun  attracts  the  planets ;  and  the  same  action  and  rc-action  have  place 
among  the  primary  planets  and  their  satellites.  Indeoa,  the  gravitation  of  all  the  great 
bodies  of  the  system  towards  one  another,  appears  only  to  be  a  consequence  of  a  similar 
action  between  every  particle  of  matter  and  every  other  particle  of  matter.  This  great 
fact,  to  which  all  the  celestial  phenomena  are  ultimately  to  be  referred — that  the  particles 


-    .,j      ■■■■ 


Dj  maiitr  inuiuuny  aiifuCi  t 

distances — is  commonly  called  the  principle  of  Universal  Gravitation. 

The  mutual  attraction  of  the  bodies  composing  the  planetary  system  gives  rise  to  a  train 
of  consequences  which  it  has  required  the  utmost  efforts  of  human  ingenuity  to  unfold. 
We  have  already  remarked  that  the  planetary  motions  are  liable  to  a  variety  of  irregulari- 


124 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHV 


Past  11 


ties  witli  which  accurate  observation  has  made  us  acquainted.  Now,  here  we  see  the  cause 
lo  which  all  these  irrefirularities  are  to  be  referred.  It  the  sun  were  fixed  immovable  in  the 
centre,  and  only  one  planet  revolving  round  him,  then  the  path  of  that  planet  would  be  an 
ellipse,  from  which  there  would  not  be  the  least  deviation ;  and  that  focus  which  is  the 
coiitre  of  motion  would  coincide  with  the  centre  of  the  sun,  supposing  that  body  to  be 
spherical  and  composed  of  matter  of  uniform  density.  But  since  the  planet  attracts  the  sun 
as  well  as  tlie  sun  attracts  the  planet,  with  a  force  dii'ectly  proportional  to  the  mass  and 
inversely  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  distance,  it  follows  that  the  sun  must  also  move 
in  an  elliptic  orbit  round  that  point  of  w^ich  the  condition  is  in  no  way  disturbed  by  the 
mutual  action  of  the  revolving  bodies,  namely,  their  centre  of  gravity.  It  is  with  this 
point  that  the  focus  of  tlie  orbit  of  the  planet,  and  that  di  the  solar  orbit,  would  coincide, 
and  about  which  the  radius  vector  of  each  would  describe  areas  proportional  to  the  times. 
In  reference  to  this  point  also,  the  squares  of  the  periodic  times  would  be  proportional  to  the 
cubes  of  the  distances. 

If  we  suppose  two  or  more  planets  to  revolve  about  the  sun,  it  is  evident  that  the  motions 
of  all  would  be  disturbed  by  their  mutual  gravitation.  The  immense  magnitude  of  the 
sun  compared  with  that  of  any  of  the  planets,  or  of  all  the  planets  taken  together,  might, 
however,  give  to  his  attraction  such  a  preponderance  as  would  preserve  all  the  planetary 
orbits  nearly  elliptical ;  while  his  own  orbit  would  become  a  more  complicated  curve,  but 
such  as  to  nimish  a  centrifugal  force  in  respect  of  each  planet,  just  able  to  counterbalance 
the  gravitation  towards  it.  The  centre  of  gravity  of  the  whole  system  would  be  a  point  to 
which  all  their  motions  are  to  be  referred.  Now  this  is  actually  the  case  of  the  planetary 
system.  Accurate  observation  proves  that  the  sun  is  not  at  rest  in  the  centre,  though  his 
motion  is  very  small.  His  centre  is  never  distant  from  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  system 
so  much  as  his  own  diameter ;  and  hence  the  orbit  which  he  describes  must  be  very  incon- 
siderable, when  compared  with  the  orbits  of  the  planets.  With  regard  to  those  planets 
which  are  accompanied  by  satellites,  it  is  not  the  centre  of  the  primary  which  traces  the 
elliptic  orbit  round  the  sun,  but  the  common  centre  of  gravity  of  the  primary  planet  and 
secondary  planets  which  revolve  round  it. 

The  perturbations  which  the  mutual  attraction  of  the  planets  produce  in  each  other's  mo- 
tions are  divided  into  two  classes.  The  one  class  affect  the  figure  and  position  of  the  elliptic 
orbits,  and  increase  with  extreme  slowness :  these  are  called  secular  inequalities.  The 
otlier  class  depend  on  the  mutual  situation  of  the  different  planets,  and  acquire  the  same 
amount  whenever  the  same  relative  positions  occur :  these  are  called  periodic  inequalities. 
Both  these  classes  of  inequalities  have  been  demonstrated  to  be  periodical ;  that  is,  they 
increase  only  to  a  certain  extent,  and  then  decrease.  Amidst  all  the  changes  which  arise 
from  the  mutual  actions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  there  are  two  things  which  remain  perpetu- 
ally the  same ;  namely,  the  greater  axis  of  the  orbit  which  the  planet  describes,  and  its 
periodic  time.     Thus  the  jrermanency  of  the  planetary  system  is  secured. 

To  subject  to  calculation  the  perturbations  of  the  system,  requires  the  solution  of  the 
following  problem :  three  bodies  of  given  magnitudes,  as  the  sun,  the  earth,  and  the  moon, 
being  projected  into  space  with  given  velocities,  and  in  given  directions,  and  attracting  each 
other  according  to  a  given  law,  namely,  inversely  as  the  squares  of  their  distances  from  each 
otlier,  and  directly  as  their  masses ;  it  is  required  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  curve,  that 
one  of  them,  as  the  moon,  describes  about  one  of  the  other  two,  as  the  earth.  This  is  the 
celebrated  problem  of  the  three  bodies,  stated  in  all  its  generality,  but  under  this  aspect 
its  solution  is  beyond  the  reach  of  the  most  refined  methods  of  analysis  which  the  mathe- 
matical sciences  m  their  present  state  furnish.  In  its  application  to  the  purposes  of  physical 
astronomy,  there  are  certain  conditions  which  render  the  problem  less  difficult:  viz.  1. 
That  the  sun  greatly  exceeds  in  magnitude  the  other  two  bodies,  and  is  nearly  at  rest.  2. 
Its  distance  from  the  earth  and  moon  is  so  great,  that  it  may  be  considered  the  same  for  both. 
This  condition  fails,  however,  in  reference  to  the  action  of  the  primary  planets  on  one 
anotlier,  a  circumstance  which  augments  the  difficulty  of  investigating  the  perturbations 
nrisiuor  from  their  mutual  gravitation.  3.  The  planetary  orbits  are  nearly  elliptical,  and 
tlie  aberrations  from  the  ellipses  in  reference  to  each,  are  all  that  is  required.  Even  wit! 
tlipse  limitations  the  problem  is  sufficiently  difficult,  and  has  engaged  the  attention,  anJ 
exercised  the  sltill  of  the  most  celebrated  mathematicians  of  modern  times. 

The  general  view  which  we  have  now  given  of  the  planetary  disturbances  is  all  that  ou. 
prpscnt  object  requires.  We  shall  only,  therefore,  farther  advert  to  the  explanation  which 
he  theory  of  gravitation  affords  of  the  figure  of  the  earth,  and  of  the  tides. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

PinUKE  AND  constitution  OP  THE  EARTH  DEDUCED  FROM  THE  THEORY  OF  GRAVITATION 

in  the  begirning  (Chap.  III.)  we  proved  that  the  earth  must  bo  nearly  spherical,  in  ordci 
lo  account  for  the  general  phenomci^a  which  we  constantly  observe.    As  soon,  howevei, 


Book  I. 


FIGURE  OP  THE  EARTH. 


lito 


as  the  general  law  of  gravitation  was  diacovered,  it  was  a  necessary  consequence  that  tlio 
earth  could  nut  be  a  perfect  sphere,  but  must  rather  be  an  oblate  spheroid  flattened  ul  tliu 
poles,  and  swelled  out  at  the  equator,  and  this  inference  is  independent  of  all  actual  meatiuro- 
ment,  but  may  be  confirmed  by  observation,  and  in  fact  has  been  so,  as  will  be  afterwards 
fully  proved.  This  deviation  from  the  spherical  figure  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  influence 
of  the  centrifugal  tbrce,  arising  fVom  the  earth's  diurnal  rotation,  in  diminishing  the  force  of 
gravity  from  the  pole  towards  the  equator,  where  the  centrifugal  force,  in  reference  to  tlie 
surface,  is  the  greatest  possible.  This  tendency  which  every  particle  of  matter  in  the  eurth 
has  to  fly  off  in  the  direction  of  a  tangent  to  the  circle  in  which  the  particle  is  carried  by 
the  earth's  motion  of  rotation  would  be  increased  if  that  motion  were  to  be  accelerated : 
and  may  be  conceived  to  be  increased  to  such  power  as  not  only  to  overcome  the  force  of 
gravity,  but  also  the  force  by  which  tlie  particles  adhere  to  one  another,  and  so  to  cause  the 
earth  to  separate  into  fragments.  Suppose  a  small  satellite  to  revolve  round  the  earth  close 
to  its  surface  at  the  equator ;  its  periodic  time  may  be  deduced  from  that  of  the  moon,  on 
tlie  principle  that  the  squares  of  their  periodic  times  would  be  to  one  another  as  the  cubes 
of  their  distances.  For  we  have  (since  the  moon's  distance  is  about  sixty  times  the  semi* 
diameter  of  the  earth,  and  the  time  of  her  periodic  revolution  39343  minutes),  vi?'  -^y 

60*:  1"=39343':  sq.  of  the  periodic  time  of  the  satellite. 
Hence  we  obtain  the  periodic  time  nearly  equal  to  84j  minutes.  If  the  earth  revolved 
about  its  axis  in  84j  minutes  while  such  a  satellite  described  a  circular  orbit  close  to  its 
surface,  the  satellite  would  therefore  appear  to  be  at  rest  on  the  surface,  but  would  not  in 
the  least  degree  press  upon  it,  because  the  force  of  gravity  would  be  exactly  counterbalanced 
by  the  centrifugal  force  produced  by  tlie  motion  of  the  satellite  in  its  orbit.  Now,  all  the 
objects  on  the  surface  at  the  equator  would  be  in  the  very  same  circumstances  with  tlio 
satellite ;  for  they  actually  describe  circles  in  consequence  of  the  earth's  motion,  and  if  the 
earth  revolved  in  84^  minutes,  their  centrifugal  force  would ,  become  exactly  equal  to  the 
force  of  gravity ;  so  Uiat  they  would  no  longer  have  weight  If  the  earth's  motion  of  rota- 
tion became  still  more  rapid,  they  would  fly  off  from  the  surface. 

At  the  equator  a  body  describes  a  circle  of  which  the  circumference  is  about  132,10.5,600 
feet  in  23''  56""  nearly :  it  must  therefore  describe  an  arc  of  about  1528  feet  in  a  second 
of  time.  From  what  we  have  sliown  already  respecting  central  forces,  it  is  evident  that,  by 
dividing  the  square  of  this  arc  by  the  diameter  of  the  earth,  we  shall  And  the  deflection 
from  the  tangent  in  a  second,  which  will  be  the  measure  of  the  centrifugal  force.  This 
deflection  amounts  to  about  yVo  of  an  inch,  or  ijj,  of  lO,^  feet,  the  space  through  which  a 
body  would  fall  in  a  second  by  the  force  of  apparent  gravity.  Thle  centrifugal  force  at  the 
equator  is  therefore  the  jbb  part  of  the  sensible  weight  of  a  body,  or  j^^  pait  of  its  real 
weight.  Suppose,  then,  a  body,  when  weighed  at  the  equator  by  a  spring-steel  yard,  to  be 
found  capable  of  drawing  out  tlie  spring  to  tlie  division  288 :  if  that  body  were  weighed  ut 
the  pole,  where  the  centrifugal  force  vanishes,  it  would  draw  out  the  spring  to  tho 
division  289. 

It  admits  of  being  demonstrated  that,  proceeding  from  the  equator  where  the  centrifugal 
force  is  the  greatest  toward  eitlier  pole,  where  it  vanishes,  the  increase  of  gravity  in  different 
latitudes  is  as  the  square  of  the  sine  of  the  latitude. 

Such  being  the  nature  of  the  forces  that  act  upon  every  particle  of  matter  of  which  tlie 
earth  is  composed,  the  determination  of  its  figure  from  physical  principles  involves  the 
solution  of  the  two  following  problems : — 

1.  What  is  the  law  according  to  which  a  particle  will  gravitate  towards  a  solid  of  a 
given  form  and  constitution,  the  particle  being  supposed  situated  either  within  or  without 
the  solid  1 

2.  What  figure  will  a  mass  of  matter,  either  wholly  or  partly  fluid,  assume  in  conse- 
quence of  the  joint  effect  of  the  attraction  of  its  particles  (thai  attraction  varying  inversely 
as  the  squares  of  their  distances),  and  a  centrifugal  force  arising  from  the  rotation  of  the 
mass  about  an  axis  1  Both  these  problems  involve  a  great  degree  of  difiiculty ;  and  tl^ 
second  is  even  more  intricate  than  the  first,  in  consequence  of  the  reciprocal  relations 
subsisting  between  the  figure  of  the  attracting  body  and  the  law  of  gravitation  at  its  surface, 
which  renders  a  knowledge  of  the  one  necessary  to  the  determination  of  the  other. 
Assuming  that  an  hcsnogeneous  fluid  of  the  Bar"e  mean  density  with  the  earth  has  the 
figure  of  an  oblate  spheroid,  and  revolves  on  its  axis  in  23'  56"  4"  of  solar  time,  it  would  be 
in  equilibrio,  if  the  axis  of  revolution  were  to  the  equatorial  diameter  in  the  proportion  of 
229  to  230.  This  is  the  figure  which  Newton  ascribed  to  the  earth;  and  though  th 
assumption  which  he  made  of  such  a  figure  was  certainly  gratuitous,  the  result  of  his  inves- 
ligation  is  almost  the  same  as  later  writers  have  obtained  by  a  more  rigorous  as  well  as 
direct  mode  of  reasonmg  than  that  which  he  employed.  Again,  it  has  been  demonstrated  by 
La  Place,  that  a  fluid  and  homogeneous  mass,  of  the  mean  density  of  the  earth,  cannot 
remain  in  equilibrium  and  possess  at  the  same  time  an  elliptic  figure,  if  the  time  of  its 
rotation  be  less  than  2""  25""  IT".  If  the  time  of  revolution  exceed  this,  there  may  always  be 
two  elliptic  spheroids,  and  not  more,  in  which  the  equilibrium  may  be  maintained.    In  the 

11* 


196 


PRINCIPLES  Of  GEOGRAPHY. 


pAirn. 


Book 


case  of  the  maai  revolvingf  in  28''  56"  4',  the  one  spheroid  is  that  which  has  already  been 
mentioned ;  the  other  is  one  in  which  the  polar  diameter  is  to  the  eqaatorial  in  the  ratio  of 
1  to  681.  The  extreme  flatness  of  this  spheroid  must  render  the  force  of  mvity  at  the 
equator  almost  nothing ;  the  fluid,  therefore,  would  be  so  easily  dissipated  that  thu  equilibrium 
can  scarcely  be  resaraed  as  stable. 

Another  conclusion  on  this  subject,  deduced  by  Clairault,  is,  that  if  the  fluid  mass  supposed 
to  revolve  on  its  axis,  instead  of  being  homogeneous,  be  composed  of  strata  which  increase 
in  density  towards  the  centre,  in  order  to  reniam  in  equilibrium,  it  must  still  possesB  the  figure 
of  an  elliptic  spheroid,  but  the  oblateness  will  be  diminished. 

The  oblateness  of  the  earth  at  its  poles  is  a  phenomenon  which  the  measurements  that 
have  been  made  of  arcs  of  the  meridian  have  placed  beyond  all  doubt ;  but  there  is  still  an 
uncertainty  as  to  the  exact  quantity  of  the  compression.  The  results  obtained,  however, 
render  it  highly  probable  that  it  is  less  than  ^^ir,  which  Newton,  proceeding  on  the  supposition 
of  a  uniform  densib^,  assigned  for  the  compression.  Hence  we  may  conclude,  that  if  the 
earth  is  a  spheroid  of  equilibrium,  it  is  denser  in  the  interior  than  at  its  surface.  This 
inference  has  been  verified  by  verr  accurate  experiments  made  b^  the  late  Dr.  Maskelyne 
on  the  sides  of  the  mountain  Schehallien,  in  Perthshire.  The  object  was  to  determine  the 
derangement  of  the  plummet  by  the  vicinity  of  this  lofty  and  solid  mountain ;  and  the  results, 
obtained  from  observation  made  at  two  stations  on  the  south  and  north  sidos  of  it,  showed 
that  the  plummet  deviated  from  the  direction  of  gravity  towards  the  mountain  more  than 
7".  The  quantity  of  this  change  of  direction  gives  the  ratio  of  the  attraction  of  the  mountain 
to  that  of  the  whole  earth,  or  to  the  force  of  gravity,  equal  to  the  ratio  cf  1  to  17804.  But 
the  bulk  and  figure  of  the  mountain  being  also  obtained  by  a  trigonometrical  survey,  its  mean 
density  was  found  to  be  to  the  mean  density  of  the  earth  nearly  as  5  to  9.  Thus  it  appears 
that  the  mean  density  of  the  earth  is  not  much  less  than  double  the  density  of  the  rocks 
which  compose  the  mountain  Schehallien ;  and  these,  again,  seem  considerably  more  dense 
than  the  mean  of  those  which  form  the  exterior  crust  or  the  earth. 

It  may  appear  an  objection  to  this  mode  of  reasoning  concerning  the  figure  of  the  earth, 
that  it  is  not  evident  how  a  centrifingal  force  should  produce  the  same  efiect  on  a  solid  body, 
like  the  earth,  that  it  does  upon  a  fluid  maai.  But  the  &ct  that  the  earth  has  made  an 
approximation  to  the  spheroid  of  equilibrium,  is  an  indication  that  either  the  entire  mass 
was  originally  fluid,  firom  whatever  cause ;  or  the  repeated  waste  and  reconsolidation  of  the 
parts  near  the  surfiice  has  gradually  produced  the  spheroidal  figure.  In  either  of  these 
modes  the  power  of  cohesion,  which  in  the  solid  body  resists  the  eflfects  of  the  centrifugal 
force,  may  nave  been  overcome.  However  irregular  a  body,  whose  surface  is  composed  of 
land  and  water,  may  be  in  its  primitive  form ;  by  the  process  of  constant  waste,  the  more 
prominent  parts  are  gradually  worn  down,  and  the  matter  which  composed  them  is  depcraited 
m  the  lower  parts  which  are  occupied  by  the  water :  here  it  acquires  a  horizontal  stratifica- 
tion ;  and  having,  by  certain  mineral  operations,  under  the  transforming  hand  of  nature,  been 
consolidated  into  stone,  the  water  being  removed,  it  may  again  form  a  part  of  the  solid  crust 
of  the  earth.  In  this  manner  the  primitive  irregular  form  will  gradually  disappear,  and  the 
surface  in  the  course  of  ages  acquire  a  position  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  gravity ; 
so  that,  by  the  action  of  the  centrifugal  force,  there  will  be  a  constant  approximation  made 
to  the  spheroid  of  equilibrium.  The  irregukr  distribution  of  the  heterogeneous  materials 
which  compose  this  terraqueous  globe  may,  perhaps,  prevent  the  coincid^oe  from  ever 
being  complete. 

It  admits  of  being  demonstrated,  that  if  the  earth  were  a  perfect  sphere,  and  composed  of 
matter  of  uniform  density  at.  equal  distances  from  its  centre,  the  action  of  the  solar  and 
lunar  attraction  upon  it  would  be  the  same  as  if  the  whole  terraqueous  mass  we^e  condensed 
into  a  point  at  the  centre.  Hence  the  position  of  its  axis  would  not,  in  that  case,  be  iii  the 
least  degree  afl'ected  by  its  gravitation  towards  the  sun  and  moon,  but  would  remain  parallel 
to  itself  while  the  earth  pei%rmed  its  annual  revolution.  In  consequence  of  the  spheroidal 
figpure,  however,  the  earth  may  be  considered  as  composed  of  a  sphere  of  which  the  radius  is 
half  the  polar  axis,  and  of  a  quantity  of  redundant  matter,  which  is  distributed  over  it  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  swell  out  the  equatorial  regions.  The  action  of  the  solar  and  lunar 
attraction  on  this  redundant  matter  produces  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  and  the  nutation 
of  the  earth's  axis.  The  complete  explanation  of  these  phenomena  affords  one  of  the  hap- 
piest illustrations  of  the  Newtonian  doctrine  of  attraction ;  but  requires  at  the  same  time 
^he  aid  of  some  of  the  most  abstruse  theories  both  in  pure  mathematics  and  mechanics. 


hii'iiVi-'   ..ii.:^ 


it-:f-it''    ^jf'j?!    .pffi'VV 


CHAPTER  XVIL 

THE  TIDES. 


Thk  alternate  rise  and  fell  of  the  surface  of  the  sea,  or  it  flux  and  reflux,  known  by  the 
name  of  the  tides,  is  a  phenomenon  which  has  attracted  the  attention  of  mankind  from  tho 
earliost  periods.     Herodotus  and  Diodorus  Siculus  take  notice  of  the  daily  flux  and  reflux 


Book  I. 


.y;^»i/vHt*THE  TroES.vnr,wkii*} 


197 


of  the  waters  of  the  Red  Sea  or  Arabian  Gulf,  the  latter  historian  deacribing  it .  as  a  jreat 
nnd  rapid  tide ;  but  neither  of  these  writers  fbrms  any  conjecture  respecting  itd  cause.  Ob- 
sRrvation  must  soon  have  shown,  that  this  periodical  ebbing  and  flowing  of  the  waters  of  thit 
ocean  liad  an  intimate  connexion  with  the  position  of  the  sun  and  moon  in  the  heavens  I, 
accordingly,  we  find  that  Pliny  not  only  describes  the  phenomena  of  tides,  but  exprt. 
attributes  them  to  the  action  of  these  luminaries. 

It  was  not,  however,  until  Newton  applied  the  principle  of  universal  gravitation  to  explain 
these  phenomena  that  the  theory  of  the  tides  was  fully  understood.  The  weight  of  a  bo(}y 
on  the  surfiice  of  the  earth  arises  from  the  tendency  which  the  particles  composing  it  have 
to  the  centre  (or  to  a  point  near  the  centre),  in  obedience  to  the  law  of  gravity.  But  as 
every  object  on  the  earth's  sur&co  gravitates  towards  the  sun  and  moon,  as  well  as  towards 
the  earth,  it  follows  that  the  solar  and  lunar  attraction  must  affect  the  weight  of  terrestrial 
objects.  Upon  solid  bodies,  between  the  particles  of  which  adhesive  force  is  powerflil,  no 
discerniblQeffecta  are  produced  by  this  attraction.  But  the  case  is  altogether  oifTerent  with 
regard  to  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  the  component  particles  of  which  yield  to  the  slightest 
impulse;  so  that  any  alteration  in  their  weight  that  does  not  equally  affect  the  whole  must 
be  followed  immediately  by  a  motion  of  the  parts  of  the  fluid  mass,  which  will  continue 
until,  by  a  new  arrangement  of  the  particles,  the  equilibrium  is  restored. 

To  see  what  must  oe  the  general  effect,  arising  fVom  the  action  of  the  sun,  if  tho  whole 
surface  of  the  globe  were  covered  with  water ;  let  A  C  B  O  (Jig.  39.)  be  the  watery  sphere,  S  tiie 

39 


gun,  and  E  the  centre  of  the  earth.  Let  the  gravitation  of  the  central  particle  E  to  the  sun 
be  represented  by  the  line  E  S,  and  the  gravitation  of  any  other  particle  M  by  the  line 
M  S  D.  Let  the  force  M  D  be  resolved  into  two  forces,  M  H  equal  and  parallel  to  E  S,  and 
M  G.  The  force  M  H  does  not  in  the  least  degree  affect  the  gravitation  of  the  particle  M 
towards  the  centre  E ;  and  M  G  is,  therefore,  the  (mly  disturbing  force.  If  S  M  be  pro- 
duced to  meet  the  circle  A  C  B  O  in  the  point  m,  the  action  of  the  sun  on  a  particle  situated 
at  in  is  less  than  its  action  on  the  central  particle  E ;  so  that  if  m  d  represent  the  gravita- 
tion of  tlie  particle  m  towards  the  sun,  the  point  d  will  fall  on  the  opposite  side  of  S  from 
the  point  D ;  and  the  force  m  d  being  resolved  into  two  forces,  m  h  equal  and  parallel  to  E  S, 
and  the  disturbing  force  m  g,  it  is  evident  that  the  tendency  of  the  force  m  ^g^  is  to  diminish 
the  gravity  of  the  particle  m,  in  like  manner  as  the  force  M  G  diminishes  the  gravity  of  the 
particle  M.  When  the  point  M  coincides  with  A,  the  angle  E  S  M  is  the  angle  under 
which  the  semidiameter  of  the  earth  is  seen  from  the  sun;  therefore  E  S  M  can  never  ex- 
ceed 8J" :  whence,  in  determining  the  direction  and"  quantity  of  the  disturbing  tbrce  from 
tlie  geometrical  relations  of  the  lines,  we  may  consider  the  lines  D  G.  S  L,  and  D  M  oa 
coincident,  and  M  L  may  be  taken  for  the  disturbinjj  force.     Again,  the  difference  between 


128 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


P*iir  If. 


S  M  and  S  E  is  jfre*te»t  when  the  point  M  coincide!  with  C  or  O.  But  if  we  L-imt'ider 
lliat  C  E,  the  diH'eroiico  between  8  K  and  8  M  when  ffreateat,  is  only  about  j,,|,«  pjirt  (if 
S  E,  it  ifl  evident  that  we  cuniinit  but  a  very  small  error  in  auppoBin^r  H  M,  S  N,  and  S  E 
'i  every  position  equal.  Now,  since  S  E  and  D  M  reprcient  the  gravitation  of  Uie  parti- 
nlea  E  and  M  towards  the  sun  respectively,  we  have  SE:DM  =  SM'':  S£';  therefore, 

SN* 
since  S  E  and  S  N  may  be  considered  equal,  D  M  =  gjj-,.   But  S  N  =  S  M  +  M  N,  there- 

fore  S  N»  =  S  M*  +  3  S  M"  X  M  N  +  3  S  M  X  M  N»  +  M  N*.  The  ouantity  M  N  is  so 
small,  compared  with  S  M,  that  the  two  last  terms  of  this  expression  for  S  N*  may  be  ne- 

8N» 
glected :  we  have,  therefore,  8N='  =  SM»+8SM»XMN,  and  g^«  =  8  M  +  3  M  N ; 

wherefore,  also,  DM  =  SM  +  3MN;  and  taking  8  M  fVum  each,  we  And  8  D  ==  3  M  N. 
Now,  since  G  D  may  bo  considered  equal  to  L  8  +  S  D,  and  E  8  is  by  construction  equal 
to  G  D,  it  is  evident  that  ES  =  L8+8D,  or  taking  L  8  from  each,  E  L  =  8  D.  Hence 
E  L  =  3  M  N,  and  the  disturbing  force  for  any  point  M  is  determined  both  in  direction  and 
magnitude. 

Suppose  now  that  A  C  B  O  {Jig.  40.)  ia  the  terraqueous  globe,  E  S  a  lino  directed  to  the 
sun,  and  A  E  B  a  section  by  that  circle  which  separates  the  enlightened  fVom  the  dark 
hemisphere.  Let  M  be  any  particle  on  or  within  the  mass.  Through  the  point  M  draw  a 
straight  line  M  N  perpendicular  to  the  plane  A  E  B,  and  in  E  8  take  E  L,  equal  to  3  M  N : 
join  L  M ;  then  L  HI  represents  the  direction  and  intensity  of  the  disturbing  force  which 
the  sun  exerts  on  the  particle  M.  Let  t'  force  L  M  be  resolved  into  two  forces,  onp,  M  V,, 
directed  towards  the  centre  of  the  earth,  and  the  other,  M  R,  tending  from  the  plane  ^  E  B 
towards  the  sun.  Suppose  the  same  construction  to  be  made  for  every  point  of  the  spiiere, 
the  whole  being  supposed  covered  with  water,  it  is  evident  that  the  forces  represented  by 
M  E  will  balance  one  another,  and  therefore  need  not  be  considered.  But  the  force  repre- 
sented by  M  R  will  diminish  the  gravity  of  every  particle  M,  reckoned  in  the  direction  of 
a  line  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  that  great  circle  of  the  earth  which  separates  the  illu- 
minated from  the  dark  hemisphere.  The  force  thus  diminishing  the  gravity  will  be  propor- 
tional to  throe  times  the  distance  of  the  particle  from  the  same  plane ;  for  R  M  is  equal  to 
L  E  or  3  M  N.  Every  particle  in  any  column  M  N  being  thus  acted  on  by  a  force  which 
evidently  tends  to  destroy  the  equilibrium  of  the  fluid  mass,  the  water  in  that  column  can- 
not remain  at  rest  Its  equilibrium  may  be  restored,  however,  by  the  addition  of  a  small 
portion  M  m,  which,  by  restoring  the  weight  of  the  column,  enables  't  to  resist  the  pressure 
of  the  adjacent  columns.  A  similar  addition  may  be  made  to  each  ".iumn,  perpendicular 
to  the  plane  A  E  B :  and  the  result  will  be  that,  from  being  spherical,  the  fig.ire  of  the  globti 
will  be  changed  into  that  of  an  oblong  elliptical  spheroid,  having  its  axis  directed  towards 
the  sun,  and  its  poles  in  those  points  of  the  surface  which  have  the  sun  in  the  zenith  and 
nadir. 

Let  the  figure  into  which  the  watery  sphere  would  be  transformed  by  the  solar  action  be 
represented  by  the  ellipse  acbo  {fig.  41.) :  the  points  o  and  c  are  the  poles  of  the  spheroid ; 
and  at  these  points  the  •  /aters  are  highest  above  the  sphere  A  C  B  O  of  equal  capacity,  while 
all  round  the  circumference  B  E  A  the  waters  are  below  their  natural  level.  By  calculation 
it  is  found  that  the  difference  between  E  c  and  E  a  is  about  twenty-four  and  a  half  inches ; 
so  that  the  deviation  from  the  spherical  figure  is  not  great. 

The  figure  which  the  watery  spheroid  assumes  must  be  in  a  slight  degree  influenced  by 
the  spheroidal  figure  of  the  earth ;  but  the  deviation  from  the  spherical  figure  is  so  smiiil, 
that  its  effect  in  changing  the  spheroidal  figure  of  the  waters  on  the  surrace  of  the  earth 
must  be  quite  inconsiderable.  If  the  earth  were  at  rest,  the  watery  spheroid  would  acquire 
that  form  which  would  produce  an  equilibrium  among  all  its  particles.  This,  however,  can 
neves  happen  under  the  actual  circumstances  of  the  case,  because  some  time  must  elapse 
before  an  accelerating  force  can  produce  a  finite  change  in  the  disposition  of  the  waters ; 
but,  by  the  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  the  disturbing  force  is  every  instant  applied  to  a 
different  part  of  the  surface,  so  that  the  position  of  equilibrium  con  never  actually  be  attain- 
ed. Such,  then,  is  the  general  effect  which  the  solar  action  would  produce  if  the  whole 
globe  were  fluid,  or  a  spherical  nucleus  covered  with  a  fluid  of  equal  density.  To  explain 
the  phenomena  of  the  tides,  however,  it  is  indispensably  necessary  to  take  into  account  tl'ie 
action  of  the  moon. 

It  is  with  the  moon  that  the  tides  are  principally  connected ;  anu  the  sun's  influence  is 
known  only  by  its  increasing  or  diminishing  the  effects  of  her  mere  powerful  action.  This 
greater  influence  of  the  moon  in  producing  the  tides  arises  from  her  vicinity  to  the  earth, 
when  compared  with  the  sun,  her  distance  being  only  about  jiw  part  of  his.  It  must  be 
carefully  kept  in  view,  that  it  is  not  the  mere  action  of  the  sun  ana  moon  that  produces  the 
tides  in  the  ocean,  but  the  inequalities,  m  the  action  of  each;  and  the  gravitation  of  the 
waters  of  the  ocean  to  the  moon  is  much  more  unequal  than  their  gravitation  to  the  sun. 
Whatever  has  been  proved  with  regard  to  the  influence  of  the  sun  in  producing  tides  in  the 


BnoK  I. 


'i'l^W  »HE  TIT)R8. 


;»M 


i)(;ean  in  oqually  applicabin  to  the  moon.  The  watnni  will  be  acciimiitated  immertiiu.  ,^ 
iiniier  hnr,  and  on  tho  op()OHite  side  of  the  ((lobe,  producinff  a  Hnlinmid  ot't.lio  same  kind  with 
lliat  which  we  have  shown  must  be  produced  by  tlio  unequal  action  of  tho  sun,  but  more 
riunifated ;  and  this  spheroid,  directed  toward  the  moon,  will  follow  her  in  her  apptirenl 
diiiy  revolution  about  the  earth.  In  consequence  of  this  simultaneous  jpravitation  towards 
hoth  luminaries,  tho  ocean  must  assume  a  t\guTo  diftbrent  fVom  both  of  tlioso  spheroidH; 
which  will  become  blended  and  undistin^ishable.  The  resulting  Hffure  resembles  each  of 
the  spheroids  in  boinj;  elonja^ated,  and  its  most  elevated  parts  are  found  to  tbllow  the  more 
powerful  of  the  diHtiirbin(f  bodies,  namely,  tho  moon,  in  her  apparent  diurnal  revolution  about 
tho  earth.  We  may,  without  sensible  error,  suppoHO  that  tho  chun^^e  producnd  in  any  part 
ot'  tho  ocean  by  the  combined  action  of  the  sun  and  mooti,  is  the  sum  or  tho  ditferenco  ot  the 
clianffes  which  tiiev  would  have  produced  if  acting;  separately. 

Wo  have  already  remarked  that  the  rapid  motion  of  the  waters,  in  consequence  of  the 
diurnal  motion,  prevents  them  from  ever  assuming  tlie  figure  which  would  be  rcauisite  for 
the  equilibrium  of  the  forces  acting  on  thnm ;  so  that  thoy  oscillate  continually,  alternately 
approaching  to  that  figure  and  receding  fVom  it.  The  motion  thus  communicated  to  them 
'a  one  not  of  transference,  but  of  undulation,  one  part  rising  and  another  sinking,  unloau 
when  from  want  of  depth  of  water  tho  balance  between  tho  adjacent  columns  is  destroyed. 
We  may,  therefore,  rejE^ard  tho  two  elevations  produced  in  the  ocean  by  tho  inequalities  in 
the  solar  and  lunar  actions  as  two  vast  waves  which  follow  the  moon  in  her  apparent  diurnal 
motion.  The  line  joining  the  tops  of  these  two  waves  is  not  directed  to  the  moon,  as  would 
be  the  case  if  the  earth  and  moon  were  at  rest,  but  is  directed  to  a  point  about  <M)°  to  the 
eastward  of  the  moon.  This  arises  from  the  innrtia  of  the  water,  which  causes  it,  when 
once  put  in  motion,  to  continue  to  rise  for  a  time  atler  the  impulse  communicated  has  coased. 
If  we  consider  the  tides  relatively  to  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe,  there  is  a  meridian,  there- 
fore,  about  30°  eastward  of  the  moon  where  it  is  always  hioh  water,  both  in  the  hemisphere 
where  the  moon  is,  and  the  opposite  hemisphere.  On  the  west  sido  of  the  meridian  tho  tide 
IS  flowing,  and  on  the  east  side  of  it  tho  tide  is  ebbitiff.  On  the  meridian  which  is  at  right 
angles  to  tho  former,  it  is  everywhere  low  water.  If  we  suppose,  then,  tho  sun  and  mocn 
to  be  in  the  equator,  and  an  observer  to  be  situated  on  the  surface  of  the  water  under  the 
equator ;  when  the  moon  has  risen  30°  above  his  horizon,  the  state  of  the  tide  to  that  observer 
will  be  low  water.  As  the  moon  advances  towards  his  zenith,  the  tide  will  flow ;  and  when 
she  has  reached  a  point  about  30°  to  the  westward  of  his  zenith,  the  summit  of  the  wave  will 
reach  him,  and  then  the  state  of  the  tide  will  be  high  water.  As  the  moon  approaches  the 
western  horizon,  the  observer  will  see  the  water  gradually  subside  as  it  had  formerly  risen ; 
and  when  she  has  descended  30°  bolow  the  horizon,  it  is  again  low  water.  As  the  moon 
continues  her  course  below  the  horizon,  the  waters  again  gradually  rise  by  the  approach  of 
the  other  wave  until  its  summit  arrives  at  the  observer,  and  again  produces  high  water ; 
when  the  moon  has  passed  the  opposite  meridian,  and  reached  a  point  30°  beyond  it,  the  tide 
again  begins  to  ebb  as  the  wave  rolls  on,  and  the  same  phenomena  are  repeated  in  the  same 
order.  Thus,  in  the  space  of  time  in  which  the  moon  performs  her  diurnal  revolution,  which 
may  be  called  a  lunar  day,  and  consists  of  nearly  24"  50"*,  there  occur  two  tides  of  flood  and 
two  of  ebb.  The  time  between  one  high  water  to  the  next  ia  about  12"  25",  and  the  instant 
of  low  water  is  nearly  but  not  exactly  the  middle  of  this  interval,  the  tide  in  general'  taking 
about  nine  or  ten  minutes  more  in  ebbing  than  in  flowing. 

Uprinff  and  neap  tides.  As  the  magnitude  of  the  two  waves  which  produce  the  rise  and 
tall  of  the  tide  depends  on  the  action  of  the  sun  as  well  as  on  that  of  the  moon,  it  is  evident 
tliat  the  height  to  which  tho  water  rises  and  falls  must  be  affected  by  the  relative  position 
of  the  two  luminaries.  At  new  moon  and  full  moon  the  actions  of  the  sun  and  moon  are 
combined,  but  at  the  quadratures  they  counteract  each  other.  In  the  former  case,  the  two 
spheroids  produced  by  the  solar  and  lunar  actions  have  their  axes  coincident  or  nearly  so ; 
in  the  latter,  their  axes  are  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  Hence,  at  new  and  full  moon  the 
flood  tide  will  rise  higher,  and  the  ebb  tide  will  sink  lower,  than  usual.  The  reverse  of  this 
will  happen  when  the  moon  is  in  either  of  her  quadratures:  the  flood  tide  will  not  rise  so 
hipfh  as  usual,  nor  will  the  ebb  tide  sink  so  low.  This  is  exactly  coincident  with  experience ; 
and  we  here  perceive  the  cause  of  what  are  called  sprino  tides  and  neap  tides.  About 
the  time  of  full  moon  and  change  the  tides  rise  higher  than  when  the  moon  presents  any 
other  phasis.  The  highest  tide  does  not  happen,  however,  the  first  after  the  opposition  or 
conjunction,  though  the  disturbing  forces  are  then  united,  but  some  time  after;  and  the 
cause  of  this  is  the  same  which  prevents  the  time  of  high  water  of  any  one  tide  coinciding 
with  the  time  of  the  moon  being  on  that  meridian  under  which  the  tide  happens ;  namely, 
the  inertia  of  the  water,  or  that  tendency  which  all  matter  has  to  retain  its  state  whether 
of  rest  or  motion.  At  Brest,  where  an  accurate  register  was  kept  of  the  phenomena  of  the 
tides  about  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  it  was  found  that  the  highest  tide  happened 
about  a  day  and  a  half  after  the  new  and  full  moon.  If  the  time  of  high  water  coinciae  with 
tte  very  time  of  conjunction  or  exposition,  the  third  high  water  after  that  is  the  highest  of  all. 
This  is  called    le  sprino  tide.     From  this  period  the  tides  gradually  decrease,  until  the  third 

Vor,.  T.  '^  '  R 


lao 


PRINCIPIJSS  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paet  II. 


hi|;h  water  after  the  monn'a  (juarirature,  which  i*  tlie  lowont  of  all,  and  in  ealltHl  the  NiiAr 
riUK.  Hilt  liaviii|{  rnachmi  their  iitiiKwt  (Inpritmion,  the  tiilfH  aKain  incrtmiio  until  the  occur- 
reiico  of  the  next  ipriii^  title ;  nnil  ho  on  coiitiniially.  'I'hn  hi(f her  the  title  of  tlixMl  riaoH,  the 
lower  the  ebb  tide  f(en<  'nllv  ainlcM  on  that  ilay.  The  total  niaifiiitutleot'  the  tide  ia  ealiinated 
by  the  iliifurence  betwonii  liifch  niul  low  water.  At  Brest  ttie  medium  spring  tide  ia  about 
lU  t'eut,  and  the  m«!diiini  neap  title  about  U  feet. 

tl/frct  ind\ferml  hemiipherfu,  IM  iia  next  suppose  the  sun  and  moon  to  bo  situated  in 
one  ot'  the  tropica ;  the  two  wavea  raiacd  in  the  tx^enii  bv  their  actions  on  oppoaite  sides  of 
tlio  iflobe  will  now  roll  alonf;  undi^r  Uie  tmpica.  it'  an  ubatsrver  bo  placml  on  the  surthce  of 
the  water,  and  under  the  aamo  tropic  in  which  the  aiin  and  moon  are  aituntod,  he  will  nIIII 
see  two  tides  of  flooti  ami  two  of  ebb;  but  they  will  not  corri!a|iond  in  all  their  circumatancos, 
an  thoy  did  on  the  former  HU|)po«ition.  The  depth  of  tlie  hi^h  water  prtMiucod  by  the  wavo 
sittintetl  in  Uio  same  hcinisphoro  with  the  moon,  will  evidently  bo  gr<"it<)i^  tl""'  ^'"^t  of  tlio 
hiffh  water  produced  by  tlie  wavo  which  rolls  aluiif^  under  Uie  other  tropic  in  the  opposite 
hemisphere  from  tlie  moon ;  for  the  obaorver  will  aoe  the  very  summit  of  the  one  wave,  hiuI 
only  the  alopinff  side  of  the  other.  To  an  olinervor  aituated  iiniler  the  tropic  on  the  opixwite 
aide  of  the  equator  from  the  aun  and  moon,  the  coae  woiiltl  be  reversed ;  and  if  ho  were  no 
far  remove*!  from  the  etpiator  aa  to  be  aituutt^l  under  the  polar  circle,  no  [lert  of  the  wnvo 
accumulated  in  the  same  homiMpliere  with  the  m(x)n  would  roach  him ;  ho  that  ho  would 
see  only  one  tide  of  flood  and  one  tide  of  ebb  daily  produced  by  the  motion  of  the  other 
wave. 

This  also  is  consistent  with  what  we  know  rcspectinir  the  tides  fVom  observation.  All  the 
phenomena  are  found  to  be  motlifind  by  the  latitutle  of  the  place  of  observation;  and  some 
phenomt^na  are  found  to  occur  in  Kigh  latitudea,  which  arc  not  at  all  seen  when  the  place 
of  observation  is  under  the  ci)iiator.  In  particular  when  the  moon  and  the  observer  are  on 
the  same  siilo  of  the  equator,  that  tide  in  which  the  moon  is  above  the  horizon  is  prater 
than  the  other  tide  of  tlio  same  day  which  happens  when  the  moon  is  below  the  horizon. 
The  contrary  takes  place  when  the  moon  and  the  observer  are  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
equator :  in  this  latter  case,  if  the  polar  distance  of  the  observer  be  equal  to  the  inoon'g 
declination,  he  will  see  but  one  tide  in  the  day,  continuing  to  flow  for  twelve  hours  and  to 
ebb  for  twelve  hours.  We  have  supposed  for  simplicity  the  sun  and  moon  to  be  in  the  equa- 
tor, or  in  one  of  the  tropics ;  but  it  is  evident  that  this  can  seldom  be  the  case.  The  two 
luminaries  are  capable  of  an  infinite  variety  of  positions  in  reference  to  each  other,  as  well 
as  in  reference  to  any  particular  point  of  the  earth's  surface.  The  phenomena  with  regard 
to  particular  places  must,  theretore,  be  endlessly  diversified ;  but  by  tracing  the  general 
features,  the  principles  become  apparent  upon  which  all  the  phenomena  depend. 

The  influence  oi^  the  sun  and  moon  in  producing  tides  in  the  ocean  will  evidently  be  aug- 
mented when  these  bodies  are  nearer  to  the  earth,  and  diminished  when  their  distances  are 
increiised.  From  this  cause  it  arises,  that  when  the  moon  is  in  that  part  of  her  orbit  where 
alie  approaches  nearest  to  the  earth,  the  spring  tide  which  happens  at  that  time  is  the  highest, 
and  the  next  spring  tide  is  the  smallest ;  because  the  moon  is  then  nearly  at  her  grentest 
distance  from  the  earth.  This  makes  a  difference  of  2{  feet  from  the  mean  height  of  the 
spring  tide  at  Brest ;  and  consequently  of  double  that  quantity,  or  5if  feet,  between  the 
greatest  spring  tide  and  the  least.  The  neap  tide  which  happens  between  these  two  very 
une(|iial  spring  tides  is  regular,  because  the  moon  is  then  nearly  at  her  mean  distance.  The 
reverse  of  this  takes  place  when  the  moon  is  at  her  mean  distance  at  the  time  of  the  change : 
the  spring  tide  is  regular,  but  the  two  neap  tides  differ  considerably  in  height.  The  increnifed 
distance  of  the  sun  is  the  reason  why  the  spring  tides  in  our  summer  are  not  so  great  as  in 
our  winter.  At  the  mean  intensities  of  the  disturbing  forces,  the  sun  tends  to  raise  the 
waters  about  24^  inches,  and  the  moon  about  58.  Hence  the  spring  tide  should  be  about 
58-1-24^=82^  inches,  and  the  neap  tide  about  .58 — ^24^=33^  inches. 

Variations  caused  by  continents,  islands,  <!^c.  We  have  hitherto  supposed  the  two 
waves  which  produce  the  phenomena  of  the  tides  to  meet  with  no  interruption  in  their  pro- 
gress round  the  world.  This  is,  however,  far  from  being  the  case ;  they  are  interruptetl  by 
continents  and  islands,  and  may  be  propelled  or  retarded  by  the  action  of  the  wind ;  their 
velocity  and  direction  may  also  be  changed  by  irregularities  in  the  bed  of  the  ocean :  so  thnt, 
to  explain  all  the  phenomena  at  any  particular  place,  the  eflect  of  local  circumstances, 
which  is  often  great,  must  be  taken  into  the  account.  The  great  Pacific  Ocean  is,  pcrlnpn, 
the  only  part  of  the  terraqueous  globe  in  which  all  the  forces  have  room  to  nperate.  Bui 
the  wave  which  they  form  must,  in  rolling  westward,  encounter  the  coosts  of  Asic  and  Now 
Holland,  with  the  interjacent  islands ;  and  amidst  these  obstacles  it  must  force  its  way  to  the 
Indian  Ocean.  Its  figure  will  thus  be  changed,  and  the  phenomena  of  the  tides,  which  it 
produces,  powerfully  modified.  On  its  eastern  side  the  Pacific  is  bounded  by  a  vast  stretch 
of  coast,  extending  without  interniption  from  Cape  Horn  to  Behring's  Straits,  Thjs  barrier 
prevents  all  supply  from  the  na-ttward  for  making  up  the  wntnry  spheroid,  and  mu.st  be 
equally  effectual  in  arresting  the  progress  of  the  waters  accuniulntod  to  the  eastward  of  the 
American  continent.     So  far  ns  wo  have  information  resp'^cting  the  tides  in  the  Pacifij 


Pa»t  II.    I    Boo«  t 


TIDES. 


181 


Ocran,  they  appear  to  be  very  unlikn  tho  Kiipqiean  tiiiei,  until  we  reach  about  40**  or  fiO' 
wi'Ht  tVom  thfl  coait  of  America.  In  tho  iiciKhbuurhond  of  that  coaat,  acarceiy  any  tido 
iirciirH  when  the  moon  ia  below  tho  horizon.  Even  in  tho  middle  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  the 
tiilcM  arn  vory  amall,  but  at  the  wiiiio  time  very  roffular. 

Am  a  Kroat  extent  of  mirfkce  is  necoMary  in  order  that  tho  aea  ahould  be  aenaibly  affected 
by  thn  innqiialities  in  the  actionit  of  the  aun  and  moon,  the  tiden  which  are  expononcHl  in 
imrniw  houii,  and  on  Nhorc*  tkr  romovctl  f^om  tho  main  body  of  the  ocean,  are  not  pro«tuced 
III  tliiw*))  aeuii,  but  aro  wavea  prujuiirated  tVom  tho  fftont  diurnal  undulation,  and  movin^f  with 
iiiiich  U>M  velocity.  The  tidt<H  ^^  uich  viait  tho  coaata  of  England,  muHt,  in  a  great  mcaaure, 
b(;  Hii|)pliod  tVom  the  accumulat  a  of  water  in  the  Indian  and  Kthiopio  Ocean,  fVoni  the  eaat- 
wnni,  und  by  what  ia  brought  or  kept  back  from  tlio  Idouth  Hea.  The  undfilationa  will  be 
ilitiiixi'd  aa  proceeding  tVom  a  collection  coming  round  the  Capo  of  Uood  Hope, -and  round 
l'n|H>  Morn.  ConaiMtontly  with  tliia  aupntwition,  it  ia  found  that  high  water,  wliich  occura  at 
llio  Cnpe  of  Good  IIopo  at  new  and  full  moon  about  three  o'clock,  ia  later  and  later  oa  we 
procttod  northward  along  tho  coaxt  of  AtVica ;  later  and  later  still  aa  we  follow  it  along  the 
woHtnni  couHta  of  Spain  and  Franco,  until  wo  reach  the  mouth  of  the  Englifth  Channol,  The 
uavn  now  dividoa  itself  into  three  branchea ;  one  part  paaaing  up  8t.  Qeor|re*a  Channel, 
aiuitlicr  proceeding  northward  along  the  wcatem  coast  ot  Ireland,  and  the  third  passing  up 
tlio  I'lngliah  Channel,  between  the  British  and  French  coasts.  The  two  branches  that  pro- 
reed  along  the  oast  and  west  sides  of  Ireland  unite  and  form  one  ridge  or  wave,  which  com 
liniicH  its  progress  along  the  western  coasts  and  islands  of  Scotland,  and  then  difAisea  itself 
piistwanl  towards  Norway  and  Denmark,  and  circling  round  tho  eastern  coasts  of  Britain, 
comes  southward  through  the  German  Ocean,  until  it  reaches  Dover,  where  it  meeta  the 
branch  which  passes  up  the  English  Channel.  It  ia  to  be  remarked,  however,  that  this  tide 
which  comes  up  the  channel  is  not  the  same  with  that  which  meets  it  from  tho  north,  but  ia 
H  whole  tide  earlier  if  not  two,  as  appears  firom  the  fact  of  the  spring  tide  at  Rye  being  a 
tide  earlier  than  the  spring  tide  at  the  Nore :  it  even  seems  two  tides  earlier,  for  it  appean 
Ihc  one  as  often  as  th  3  other.  By  tracing  the  hour  of  high  water  from  the  Lizard  up  St 
George's  Channel,  and  along  the  west  coasts  of  Scotland,  it  appears  that  the  two  tides  which 
pftfs  along  the  er  "t  Pnd  west  sides  of  Ireland  and  unite  into  one  wave  to  tlie  north  of  it, 
travel  round  Britain  in  about  twenty-eight  hours,  in  which  time  the  primitive  ti<le  has  gone 
round  the  whole  circumference  of  the  earth,  and  nearly  45  degrees  more.  By  attending 
aim  to  tho  successive  hours  of  high  water  along  the  western  coasts  of  Africa  and  Europe, 
it  appears  that  the  wave,  which  divides  into  three  branches  at  the  mouth  of  tlie  English 
Channel,  takes  up  nearly*  tnu  days,  or  between  four  and  five  tides,  in  travelling  thither  ih)m 
tlie  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  A  similar  proj^osH  of  the  same  high  water  from  the  southward  ia 
observed  along  the  eastern  shores  uf  South  America ;  but  beyond  Brazil  and  Surinam  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  is  sufficiently  extensive  to  contribute  greatly  to  the  formation  of  the  regular 
epheroid ;  so  that  the  effect  of  this  high  water  from  the  southward,  being  blendsd  with  the 
tide  raised  in  the  Atlantic  itself,  becomes  inuensible.  In  an  ocean  of  such  a  breadth  fh)m 
eaet  to  west  as  the  Atlantic,  the  water  con  rise  on  the  one  shore  only  by  descending  on  the 
other.  In  the  middle,  therefore,  it  will  retain  nearly  the  mean  height  between  its  elevations 
on  the  two  opposite  coasts :  this  appears  to  be  the  reason  why  the  tides  are  small  in  islands 
timt  aro  very  far  distant  from  the  shores. 

The  reflection  of  the  tide  from  shore  to  shore  is  a  great  cause  of  irregularity  in  the  tides. 
The  coasts  may  be  so  situated  that  tho  time  in  which  the  undulation  that  constitutes  the 
tide  would  of  itself  vibrate  backward  and  forward  from  shore  to  shore,  may  be  so  exactly 
arcommodated  to  the  recurring  action  of  the  moon  that  the  succeeding  in;pulses,  being 
always  added  to  the  natural  undulation,  may  raise  it  to  a  height  altogether  disproportioned 
to  what  the  action  of  the  moon  can  produce  in  the  open  sea,  where  the  undulation  difllises 
itaelf  to  a  vast  distance. 

The  inequalities  which  undoubtedly  obtain  in  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  affect  the  tides,  by 
chinfjing  the  direction  of  the  waters ;  also  their  velocity  either  absolutely  or  in  respect  of 
particular  places.  They  may  also  influence  the  height  by  causing  the  tide  to  rush  with 
increasing  velocity  towards  a  particular  point,  where  the  waters  must  at  length  be  suddenly 
checked,  and  therefore  be  accumulated  in  an  extraordinary  degree :  this  appears  to  be  the 
cause  of  the  astonishingly  high  tides  which  occur  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  The  high  water  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  at  St.  Helena  does  not  exceed  four  or  five  feet ;  but,  setting  in  obliquely 
on  the  coQBt  of  North  America,  it  seems  to  range  along  that  coast  in  a  channel  or  bed, 
praaunlly  narrowing  till  it  is  stopped  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  where  the  accumulation  of  the 
waters  becomes  tremendous.  The  tide  approaches  with  a  prodigious  noise  in  one  vast  wave, 
thac  is  seen  many  miles  off,  and  the  waters  rise  to  the  height  of  more  than  seventy  feet  in 
the  gulf  of  Cumberland  basin ;  the  rapidity  of  the  waters  is  so  great  as  to  overtake  animals 

fRPnincr  nn  Iho  ahnrpo 
■-\ o  — • 

in  consequence  of  the  length  of  time  required  for  a  tide  to  propagate  itself  up  a  great 
rivef,  one  or  two  succeeding  tides  may  reach  the  mouth  of  the  river  before  the  first  tide  has 
i^ived  at  the  higb«>st  point  to  which  it  ranges  up  the  stream.     The  second  tide  will  also 


vu 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


nivve  propafrated  itself  so  far  up  the  river,  by  the  time  that  the  third  tide  reaches  the  tnoutli ; 
and  tiius  there  may  be  three  co-existent  high  waters  in  the  river.  The  two  interveninpr  low 
waters  in  the  ocean  will  also  produce  two  corresponding  low  waters  in  the  river :  tliose 
changes  in  the  depth  of  the  stream  are  produced  by  the  high  waters  which  arrive  at  its 
mouth  checking  its  velocity,  uid  the  low  waters  accelerating  it.  To  cause  high  water  at 
tny  particular  point,  it  is  by  no  mepus  necessary  that  the  water  should  bn  raised  to  that  levoi 
all  the  way  from  that  point  to  the  mouth  of  the  river.  Before  such  an  accumulation  could 
take  ploce,  in  many  instances,  places  farther  dovn  the  stream  would  be  inundated.  At  many 
places  that  are  &r  firom  the  sea,  the  stream  at  the  moment  of  high  water  is  down  the  river, 
and  sometimes  it  is  considerable.  At  Quebec,  the  current  in  the  St  Lawrence  nms  at  the 
rate  of  not  less  (ban  three  miles  per  hour :  this  is  a  clear  proof  that  the  water  is  not  heaped 
up,  for  there  can  be  no  stream  without  a  declivity.  The  phenomenon  termed  the  bore  of  a 
river,  which  occurs  chiefly  in  large  rivers  that  have  a  wide  outlet,  and  where  the  greatest 
tides  are  experienced,  arises  fromthe  waters  accumulated  in  the  gulf  or  outlet  by  one  tide 
not  being,  in  such  circumstances,  discharged  before  the  approach  of  the  ensuing  tide. . 
These  accumulated  waters  encounter,  therefore,  the  waters  of  the  ocean  flowing  in  an  op- 
posite direction ;  so  that  the  re-action  of  the  conflicting  waves  produces  an  elevation  of  the 
water  fiir  above  the  natural  level.  The  surge  formed  m  this  manner  rolls  up  the  river  with 
irresistible  force,  overwhelming  every  thing  which  it  encounters ;  until,  exhausted  by  the 
resistance  which  it  has  to  overcome,  it  at  length  sinks  into  a  feeble  undulation.  The  vio- 
lence and  elevation  with  which  the  bore  rushes  along  in  some  rivers  is  almost  incredible :  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Severn  the  flood  comes  up  in  one  head  about  ten  feet  in  height;  but  in  tlie 
great  rivers  of  America,  and  particularly  in  the  Amazon,  it  becomes  a  rolling  mountain  of 
water,  which  is  said  to  attain  the  height  of  180  feet 

In  confined  seas  of  small  extent,  such  as  the  Caspian,  the  Euxine,  the  Baltic,  and  the 
great  lakes  of  North  America,  the  tides  must  necessarily  be  almost  insensible ;  the  dis- 
turbing forces  in  such  situations  have  not  room  to  act  to  any  extent :  the  greatest  height  to 
which  the  waters  of  the  Caspian  can  rise  above  their  level  on  the  shore,  i  i  consequence  of 
a  spheroidal  shape  being  given  to  them  by  the  lunar  action,  does  not  exceed  seven  inches; 
an  accumulation  which  a  slight  breeze  of  wind  is  suflicient  to  counteract  Even  in  cases 
where  a  confined  sea  is  connected  with  the  ocean  by  a  narrow  channel,  no  sensible  tide  can 
happen ;  for  the  tide  in  the  ocean  cannot  difiuse  itself  through  the  contracted  inlet  during 
the  period  that  elapses  between  two  consecutive  tides. 

The  Mediterranean  is  a  confined  sea  of  considerable  extent ;  and  the  tides  there  might  be 
very  sensible  L'  the  eflccts  of  the  solar  and  lunar  actions  were  not  diminished  by  its  distance 
from  the  equator.  As  the  moon  approaches  the  meridian  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, there  is  a  considerable  elevation  of  the  waters  on  the  Syrian  coast,  and  a  con- 
siderable depression  at  Gibraltar.  In  the  middle  of  the  length  the  water  is  at  the  mean 
height ;  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  an  open  and  extensive  surfiice  of  water,  the  regular  spheroid- 
al form  is  nearly  attained,  and  the  water  stands  considerably  higher  on  the  outside  of  the 
straits  than  on  the  inside  ;  it  is  nearly  low  water  within,  while  it  is  about  one  third  or  one 
half  flood  without  Notwithstanding  this  accumulation,  the  communication  is  too  narrow 
to  allow  the  tide  of  the  ocean  to  diflSise  itself  in  a  regular  manner  into  the  basin  of  the 
Mediterranean.  As  the  moon  moves  westward,  toward  Gibraltar,  the  water  will  begin  to 
rise,  but  slowly,  within  the  straits,  while  without  it  is  flowing  very  rapidly.  The  accu- 
mulation within  increases  with  the  progress  of  the  moon  westward,  until  it  reaches  high 
water ;  but  by  this  time  the  tide  has  been  ebbing  for  some  hours  without  the  straits.  It  will 
now  be  low  water  on  the  coast  of  Syria ;  and  during  all  this  time  the  water  at  the  middle 
between  the  eastern  and  western  extremities  will  not  have  sensibly  altered  its  depth. 

The  singular  currents  which  prevail  in  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  appear  in  a  great  measure 
explained  by  these  peculiarities  with  regard  to  the  tides  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and 
Atlantic  Ocean.  Changes  of  tide,  always  different  and  frequently  quite  opposite,  are 
observed  on  the  east  and  west  sides  of  the  narrow  neck  which  connects  the  rock  with  Spain ; 
and  the  general  tenor  of  those  changes  has  a  very  great  analogy  with  what  has  now  been 
described. 

It  is  a  feet  which  strikes  the  attention,  upon  the  most  cursory  observation  of  the  pheno- 
mena of  the  tides,  that  they  fall  later  every  day.  This  variation  in  the  interval  of  the  tides 
is  called  the  priming  or  lagging  of  the  tides,  according  as  we  refer  them  to  lunar  or  solar 
time.  If  we  suppose  the  sun  and  moon  to  be  in  the  equator,  and  the  watery  spheroid  to 
attain  instantaneously  the  form  suited  to  its  equilibrium,  then  the  line  joining  the  summits 
of  the  two  waves  produced  in  the  ocean  by  their  combined  actions  will  always  be  directed  t(. 
a  point  situated  between  their  centres;  except  in  the  case  of  the  sun  and  moon  being  in  con 
junction  or  opposition,  when  it  will  be  directed  towards  their  centres.  The  tbllowing  table 
calculated  on  the  above  supposition,  and  for  the  mean  distances  of  the  sun  and  moon  froir 
the  earth,  exhibits  the  minutes  of  solar  time  that  the  moment  of  high  water  precedes  or  fol- 
lows the  moon's  southing,  corresponding  to  every  tenth  degree  of  the  moon's  elongation  (oast 
ward)  frc»n  the  sun  or  firom  the  point  opposite  to  the  sim.    It  shows  also  the  hour  and  minut£ 


Book  I. 


THE  TIDES. 


lis 


of  the  day,  nearly,  when  it  ia  high  water ;  and  the  height  of  the  tide,  suppoaing  the  height 
of  a  spring  tide  to  be  1000: — 


§ 

It 

1 

Time  of  High  W  ater. 

Height 

of 
Tide. 

Time  of  High  Water. 

I 
It 

l! 

g  to 

as 

Before 

Moon's 

Bouthlng. 

Afternoon 
or  Midniglit. 

Afternoon 
or  Midnight. 

After 
Moon'i 
southing. 

Deg. 

Min. 

Ho.  Min. 

1000 
987 
049 
887 
800 
715 
GIO 
518 
453 
429 

Ho.  Min. 

Min. 

Deg. 

0 

10 

so 

30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
1)0 

0 

33 

3H 

40 

45 

1^ 

35 

0 

0     0 
0   281 

0  58 

1  381 
3     0 
3    35 

■     3    131 

3  5n, 

4  55 
6      0 

13     0 

11    31 

11     3 

10    31 

10     0 

9   35 

8    461 

8      01 

7     5 

0     0 

0 

"i 
32 
311 
40 
45 
401 
401 
35 
0 

180 
170 
160 
150 
140 
130 
130 
110 
100 
00 

If  we  note  the  exact  time  of  high  water  of  spring  tide  for  any  harbour,  and  the  exact 
position  of  the  sun  and  moon  at  that  time,  we  can  easily  make  a  table  of  the  monthly  series 
for  tliat  port,  by  noticing  the  difference  of  that  time  from  the  table,  and  making  the  same 
diflerence  for  every  succeeding  phasis  of  the  tide. 


CHAPTER  XVni. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OP  THE  BOLAR  SYSTEM. 

Ten  stars,  among  the  countless  number  with  which,  in  a  clear  night,  the  heavens  appeal 
so  resplendent,  have  been  proved,  by  the  observations  and  reasonings  of  which  we  have  now 
given  a  brief  outline,  to  be  planets  revolving  about  the  sun,  and  deriving  their  light  from 
him.  The  earth  which  we  inhabit  has  been  proved  to  have  a  similar  motion,  and  to  belong 
to  the  same  class  of  bodies.  Several  of  these  primary  planets  are  accompanied  by  satellites; 
and  the  whole  are  preserved  in  their  respective  orbits  by  a  centripetal  combined  with  a 
centrifugal  force.  Thus  there  subsist  among  these  bodies  relations  which  are  regarded  as 
uniting  them  in  one  system,  having  the  sun  in  the  centre ;  and  which  is  therefore  called  the 

SOLAK  SYSTEM. 

In  regard  to  the  other  planets,  as  we  have  employed  the  obvious  analogy  subsisting 
between  them  and  our  earth,  in  proving  its  annual  and  diurnal  motion ;  so,  on  the  other 
hand,  from  the  same  grounds,  it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude  that,  like  the  earth,  they  are 
desifrned  and  fitted  by  Infinite  Wisdom  for  the  accommodation  of  inhabitants,  and  that  in 
all  probability  millions  of  beings  are  placed  upon  them.  Though  our  observations  in  relation 
to  the  subserviency  of  the  arrangements  of  nature  to  the  enjoyment  of  sentient  beings  is 
confined  to  this  narrow  scene ;  yet,  seeing  this  small  portion  of  the  universe  crowded  with 
examples  of  utility,  why  should  we  imagine  that  Divine  Goodness  has  not  throughout  the 
system  in  like  manner  diffused  its  bounty  1  As  our  knowledge  of  the  celestial  phenomena 
is  extended,  the  probability  becomes  proportionably  stronger  that  the  other  planets  are  stored 
with  inhabitants  who  share  in  the  blessings  of  rational  and  sentient  existence.  Their  rota 
tion,  their  atmospheres,  of  which  the  telescope  has  enabled  us  to  detect  the  existence,  and 
the  clianges  which  we  see  going  on  in  these  atmospheres,  so  much  resemble  what  we  expe- 
rience on  the  earth,  that  no  man  who  clearly  conceives  them  can  divest  his  mind  of  the 
thouEfht  that  this  is  not  the  only  part  of  the  system  where  the  Creator  has  displayed  his 
bounty  by  giving  existence  to  sentient  beings.  There  is  nothing  that  forbids  us  to  suppose 
that  m  each  of  the  other  planets  there  is  the  same  inexhaustible  store  of  subordinate 
contrivances  that  we  see  here  for  living  creatures  in  every  situation,  possessing  appropriate 
forms,  desires,  and  abilities.  Before  abandoning  such  an  opinion,  there  may  surely  '"e 
t^xijocted,  from  those  who  require  us  to  do  so,  some  good  reason  for  its  rejection. 

In  regard  to  the  fixed  stars,  as  the  sun,  if  viewed  from  a  sufficient  distance,  would  be 
diminished  into  a  luminous  point,  while  the  planets  that  revolve  round  him  would  become 
invisible;  so,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  highly  probable  that  each  fixed  star  is  itself  a  sun,  and 
the  centre  of  a  particular  system,  being  surrounded  with  a  certain  number  of  planets  nnd 
comets,  which,  at  different  distances  and  in  different  periods,  perform  their  revolutions 
aroiiiul  it. 

There  appeiirs  strong  reason  to  suppose  that  the  sun,  with  his  accompanyinfr  planets,  has 
a  mniion  among  the  fixed  stars,  round  a  centre.    From  a  comparison  of  ancient  and  modern 

Vol.  I.  12 


^^184 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  IL 


obeervations,  it  appears  that  while  the  stars  in  one  quarter  of  the  heavens  are  receding  from 
each  other,  those  in  the  opposite  region  are  gradually  approaching.  Dr.  Herschel  has 
found  that  these  motions  of  the  stars  are  nearly  in  the  direction  that  would  result  from  a 
motion  of  the  sun  towards  the  constellation  of  Hercules.  It  is  the  opinion  of  Lalande  that 
there  is  a  kind  of  equilibrium  among  all  the  systems  of  the  universe,  and  that  they  have  a 
periodic  circulation  about  their  common  centre  of  gravity. 

•  TABULAR  VIEW  OP  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM.    . 

^;     ■  L    SECONDARY  PLANETS. 

1.    Thk  Moon.         ' 


Revolutioni. 


D.  H.  K.  a. 

Synodical SO  1!2  44  3.9 

AnomaliBtie 37  13  18  .U4 

Sidereal S7  7  43  11.5 

Tropical 37  7  43  4.7 

Nodical 37  S  S  36.0 


Inclination  of  Orbit  to  { 
plane  of  Ecliptic. . . .  t 
Greater  semi-axis  of  Orbit  = 
Eccentricity  »  .054844 


50  8' 47"  .9 
1.000000 


Semidiameter  of  Terrestrial  Eqi  ator  >—  1. 
Moon's  mean  distance  »  59.964.' 5. 

in  miles  >~  337000. 
Moon's  mean  diameter  •—  3160  miles. 
Her  volume  —  ^  of  volume  of  the  Eartb. 
Her  mass  =—  ^^  of  mass  of  the  Eartb. 
Her  density  —  —^  ~  .615  of  density  of  the  Earth. 
Her  light  is  =Smth  of  the  light  of  the  Sun. 


S.  Satkllitd  of  Jupiteb. 


1 

1 

Sidereal 
Bevolution. 

Mean  distance 

in  semidiame- 

ten>  of  Jupiter's 

Equator. 

1 

3 

3 

4 

D.     H.      M. 

I    18    38 

3    13    14 

7     8    43 

16    16    33 

6.049 

0.623 

15.350 

30.098 

3. 

Satelutes 

OF  SATtTRN. 

i 

Mean  distance 

s 

Sidereal 

in  semidiame- 

"3 

Revolution. 

ters  of  Saturn's 

& 

Equator. 

D.     H.     M. 

1 

0    33    38 

3.351 

3 

1     8   53 

4.300 

3 

1    21    18 

5.284 

4 

3    17    45 

6.819 

5 

4    13    45 

9.524 

6 

15    22    41 

33.081 

7 

79      7    55 

64.359 

4.  Satellitim  of  Uranus. 


i 

Mean  distntice 

Sidereal 

in  semiiliaiiu" 

» 

Bevolution. 

ters    of    Ura. 

k 

nus's  Equator. 

1 

D.      H.     M. 

1 

5    31    35 

13.120 

3 

8    16    58 

17.022 

3 

10    23     4 

19.845 

4 

13    10    56 

32.752 

5 

38      1    48 

45.507 

6 

107    16    40 

41.U08 

n.    PRIMARY  PLANETS  AND  SUN. 


Fluelt. 

Sidereal  Period. 

Moil 

Diilance. 

Eaenlricity. 

Meu  Longitude. 
Jan  1, 1801. 

LODi.  Ferhelion. 
Jau.  1, 1801. 

IneiiikofOitlt 
Jan.  1, 1801. 

Lone.  Nodei. 
Jan.  1, 1601. 

Mem  Da!l7 
MolioD  in  (libit 

D. 

O    1      It 

0   '      /' 

O  1     II 

0   1      II 

O  '     " 

MCTCUIT       *      t 

87.g69'25«0 

0.3870681 

.205'i1494 

166    0  48.6 

74  21  46.9 

1   0   9.1 

4S  67  30.9 

4    5  32.6 

Venoi    .    .    . 

224.7007^9 

0.7233116 

.00686074 

II  33    3.0 

138  43  53.1 

.123  28.5 

74  54  128 

1  36    78 

Earth     .    .    . 

363.2363612 

i.oooooao 

.0167sai7 

lOO  39  10.2 

99  30    5K) 

... 

0  59    8.3 

Man.    .    .    . 

e86.979««S8 

1.5236923 

.093.10700 

64  22  55.S 

332  23  566 

1  SI    6.2 

48    0    3.5 

0  31  26.7 

VMt»       .     .     . 

1325.7431 

2.3678700 

.OS9J3000 

(-278  30    0.4 

r 249  23  44.4 

(•7    8    90 

flOO  13  1H.2 

0  16  17.9 

Judo  .... 

1593.6608 

2.8690090 

.2S78JS00 

a  J  200  16  19.1 
si  123  16  11.9 

S  I    53  33  46.0 
2  I  147    7  31.5 

a  J  13    4    9.7 
2  i  10  37  26.2 

film     7  40.4 
S  i    FO  41  24.0 

0  13  ,12.9 

Cem     .    .    . 

1681.3931 

2.76724tO 

.07843900 

0  12  50.9 

Plll.'U     .     .     . 

16IS8  53S8 

2.7:2fS«) 

.24164  MX) 

.108  24  67.9 

ll2l    7    43 

134  34  6^0 

172  39  26.8 

0  12  4«  4 

Jupiler   .    .   . 
ttifum    .    .    . 

4332.5848211 

S.202776O 

.04816210 

112  15  23.0 

13    8  34.6 

1  IS  51.3 

98  26  19.9 

0    4  593 

10759.2199174 

9.5387S61 

.096I6CS0 

133  20    6.5 

89    9  29.8 

2  29  36.7 

111  56  37.4 

0    2    0.6 

Umu  .    .    . 

90686.920^96 

19.1823900 

.04667938 

177  48  23.0 

167  31  16.1 

0  46  28.4 

72  69  36.3 

0    0  42.4 

Planets 
and 
Sun. 

True 
Diameter. 

Volume. 

Mass. 

Density. 

Gravi. 

Sidereal  Ro- 
tation. 

Inclinntinn  of  Axis 
to  AxiB  of  Ecliptic. 

Lifiht 

ami 

Heat. 

h.     m.  6. 

0           '           " 

Mercury 

0.398 

0.398 

inr5TflTJ7 

•     • 

1.03 

24    5  28 

not  known 

6.680 

Venus 

0.975 

0.927 

TT?»TT 

.     - 

0.98 

23  21    7 

not  exactly  known 

1.911 

Eartli 

1.000 

1.000 

3TTTirir 

3.9326 

1.00 

24    0    0 

23    27    56.5 

um\ 

Mars 

0.517 

0.139 

-itJUTSIS 

. 

.33 

24  39  21 

30    19    10.8 

Q.m 

Jupiter 

10.860 

1280.900 

iTIO.S 

.9924 

2.72 

9  55  50 

3      5    30.0 

O.0S7 

isaiurn 

9.962 

wy.j.inw; 

.OfXH) 

1.01 

10  29  17 

31    19      0 

0.011 

Uranus 

4.332 

80.490 

mrv 

1.1000 

. 

unknown 

not  known 

0.003 

Sun 

111.454 

1384472.000 

1 

1.0000 

27.90^5  12    0 

7    30      0 

Moon 

.0275 

.000  inn>?irf  FIT 

2.4185 

0.16|27    7  43 

1    30    10.8 

1.0C0 

Part  1L 

ire  receding  iroin 
>.  Herschel  has 
luld  result  from  a 
of  Lalande  tliat 
that  they  have  a 


BookL 


irth. 


nu 

OF  Uranos. 

Mean  distnnce 

si 

in  semiiliauK" 

on. 

tere    of    Ura- 

nus's  Equati>r. 

1 

M. 

sa 

13.120 

58 

17.022 

4 

ia.845 

50 

22.752 

48 

45.507 

40 

91.U0H 

Noda. 

Mem  Daily 

,1801. 

MolioDinOibit 

f     n 

0  t     II 

S7  30.9 

4    5  92.6 

54  12.9 

1  36    7.8 

. 

0  59    8.3 

0    3.IS 

0  31  26.7 

13  IS.2 

0  16  17.9 

1  4M 

0  13  .12.9 

41  24.0 

0  12  50.9 

39  26.8 

0  12  484 

28  18.9 

0    4  59.3 

56  37.4 

0    2    0.6 

59  36.3 

0    0  42.4 

, 

>  of  Axis 

Lipht 

Ecliptic. 

Heat. 

\ 

6.680 

f  known 

i.nii 

56.5 

l.tKWi 

10.8 

0.4.MI 

30.0 

0.(W7 

0 

o.Oii 

1 

0.003 

0 

10.8 

1.0CO 

FIGURE  AND  MAGJNiTUDE  OP  THE  EARTH. 


V       -  '       CHAPTER  XIX. 

FIOURB  AND  MAGNITUDE  OP  THE  EARTH. 


185 


We  have  sufficiently  established  the  important  proposition  that  the  earth  is  a  round  txKJy ; 
and  liave  inferred  from  the  figure  of  its  shadow,  as  seen  on  the  moon's  disc  in  lunar  eclipses, 
that  it  must  be  a  sphere,  or  at  least  that  it  approaches  to  that  figure.  Th<j  hypothesis  of  its 
being  exactly  spherical  is  sufficient  to  explain,  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  heavens,  as  seen  from  different  points  of  its  surface ;  and  before  the  true  doctrine 
(if  motion  and  the  law  of  gravitation,  which  connects  the  most  remote  bodies  in  the  univer?  j, 
were  discovered,  a  sphere  was  considered  to  be  an  exact  representation  of  its  shape,  and  the 
ingenuity  of  matliematicians  was  exerted  to  discover  its  magnitude. 

The  determination  of  the  magnitude  of  the  earth  might  appear,  to  one  altogether  ignorant 
,if  mathematical  science,  as  a  problem  of  insuperable  dilSculty,  and,  indeed,  as  too  sublime  to 
be  resolved  by  a  human  being.  It^  however,  we  suppose  the  earth  an  exact  sphere,  the 
theory  of  the  solution  is  by  no  means  difficult ;  it  is  within  the  bounds  of  elementary  geome- 
try, and  has  been  known  from  the  earliest  ages :  but  the  case  is  very  different  with  the 
practice.  In  the  actual  resolution,  instruments  of  the  greatest  nicety  are  required ;  and  to 
produce  these,  the  ingenuity  of  man  has  been  tasked  to  the  utmost  during  the  last  two 
liundred  years ;  besides,  the  application  of  them  demands,  in  addition  to  the  principles  of 
geometry,  some  of  the  most  refined  theories  in  physics :  so  that,  on  the  whole,  tew  problems 
present  a  more  ample  field  for  the  exertion  of  the  mind  of  man,  or  have  more  extensively 
called  forth  the  assistance  of  arts  and  sciences. 
It  is  now  about  two  thousand  years  since  Eratosthenes  attempted  to  resolve  this  important 

problem.  He  knew  that  on  the  day  of  the  summer  tolstice 
the  Sim  illimiinated  the  bottom  of  a  well  at  Syene.  At  tiie 
same  instant  he  observed  at  Alexandria  that  the  sun  was  7° 
12'  from  the  zenith :  and  it  was  supposed  that  Syene  was  due 
south  from  that  place,  and  therefore  tliat  botli  were  under  the 
same  meridian.  Let  C  (Jig.  42.)  be  the  earth's  centre,  A 
Alexandria,  Z  its  zenith  in  the  heavens,  B  Syene,  and  S  the 
sun  at  the  instant  when  it  illuminated  the  bottom  of  the  well, 
and  consequently  was  in  the  zenith  of  that  place.  The  angu- 
lar measure  of  the  celestial  arc  Z  S,  or  the  corresponding  ter- 
restrial arc  A  B,  is  the  "•aigle  Z  C  S  at  the  earth's  centre. 
Eratosthenes  observed  the  angle  Z  A  S,  which  by  the  elements 
of  geometry,  is  less  than  the  former  by  the  angle  A  S  C. 
However,  this  difference  is  so  small,  that  it  may  be  altogether 
neglected  in  the  present  case ;  and  thus  the  angle  A  C  B  will 
be  nearly  7°  12',  that  is,  one  fiftieth  part  of  360° ;  and  conse- 
quently the  arc  A  B  of  the  terrestrial  meridian  one  fiftieth  of 
the  earth's  circumference.  The  distance  between  Alexandria  and  Syene  had  been  deter- 
mined to  be  5000  stadia.  Hence  it  immediately  followed  thett  the  eartli's  circumference  was 
250,000  stadia.  As  it  could  not  be  supposed  that  this  result  was  very  accurate,  Eratos- 
thenes reckoned  the  circumference  to  be  252,000  stadia,  which  give  in  round  numbers  700 
stadia  to  the  length  of  a  degree. 

Tlie  geometrical  principle  here  employed  was  quite  correct,  and  indeed  was  the  same 
whicli  is  used  at  this  time ;  but  the  data  were  very  inaccurate  and  uncertain,  for  Syene, 
instead  of  being  exactly  south  from  Alexandria,  lies  considerably  to  the  east;  and  it  may 
well  be  supposed  that  the  assigned  distance  between  Alexandria  and  Syene  was  not  an 
accurate  measurement,  but  merely  a  rude  approximation.  It  is  impossible,  however,  now  to 
determine  how  near  Eratosthenes  came  to  the  truth,  for  want  of  a  knowledge  of  the  exact 
length  of  Ihe  stadium  by  which  the  distance  was  reckoned. 

The  principles  by  which  Eratosthenes  was  directed  in  his  measurement  of  the  earth 
appear  to  have  been  aflerwards  employed  by  Posidonius.  This  astronomer  had  remarked, 
tliat  at  Rhodes  the  sttir  Canopus  was  just  visible  in  the  horizon,  but  never  rose  above  it ; 
while  at  Alexandria  it  attained  an  altitude  of  7J°,  or  ^'jth  part  of  the  circumference  of  a  great 
circle.  Tlio  direct  distance  between  these  two  places,  which  were  supposed  to  be  on  the 
•sime  .neridion,  was  accounted  to  be  5000  stadia ;  and  therefore,  according  to  this  observa- 
tion, tlie  circumference  should  have  been  240,000:  but  here  the  uncertainty  of  a  distance 
reckoned  by  a  sea- voyage,  not  to  speak  of  other  causes  of  error,  renders  the  conclusion  of 
no  valiift. 

About  the  year  800  of  the  Christian  era,  the  caliph  Almaman  directed  that  his  astro- 
iiomers  should  measure  a  degree  of  the  meridian  in  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia.  The  method 
which  they  employed  was  susceptible  of  greater  accuracy  than  that  of  the  Greeks.  They 
divided  themselves  into  two  parties :  afler  observing  the  altitude  of  the  pole,  one  went 
directly  north  and  the  other  south,  measuring  as  tliey  proceeded,  and  taking  from  time  to 


136 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


time  the  altitude  of  the  pole,  until  each  party  had  changed  its  latitude  by  a  degree.  Thug 
the  measure  of  two  degrees  was  obtained ;  but,  at  the  present  time,  our  ignorance  of  the 
exact  length  of  the  unit  of  measure  renders  all  their  labour  useless  to  us,  even  if  (what  is 
very  unlikely)  its  accuracy  might  have  been  relied  on.  It  appears,  however,  that  their 
eijtiihation  of  the  earth's  magnitude  was  less  accurate  than  that  of  the  astronomer  of 
Alexandria. 

The  method  of  Erotosthenes  was  practised  in  modem  times,  first  by  Femel,  a  Flemisli 
pliysician.  He  travelled  from  Paris  towards  Amiens,  which  places  are  nearly  under  the 
sajne  meridian,  until  he  had  passed  over  a  degree  of  latitude ;  and,  by  a  contrivance  attaciied 
to  tJie  wheel  of  his  carriage,  he  ascertained  the  number  of  revolutions  it  made  in  that  dis- 
tance.   In  this  way  he  found  the  length  of  the  degree  to  be  57,070  French  toises. 

The  same  degree  was  afterwards  measured  by  La  Caille,  and  found  to  be  57,074  toises. 
The  near  agreement  of  Fernel's  result  with  this  last,  obtained  by  a  more  accurate  and 
scientific  process,  is  very  remarkable 

The  Dutch  astronomer  Snellius  was  the  first  who  attempted  to  resolve  this  most  inter- 
esting and  diflicult  problem  in  practical  geometry  with  those  scientific  aids  which  its  import- 
ance required.  In  the  year  1617  he  published  his  Eratosthenes  Batavus,  in  which  he  has 
detailed  the  whole  process.  The  extreme  points  of  his  meridional  arc  are  terminated  in  the 
parallels  of  Alcmaer,  in  lat.  52°  40^',  and  Bergen-op-Zoom,  lat.  51°  29',  the  arc  between 
them  being  1°  11^'.  He  formed  a  series  of  triangles  between  these  places  along  the  earth'H 
surface,  and  determined  (as  well  as  the  imperfect  instniments  of  the  time  enabled  him  to 
determine)  their  angles ;  and  by  several  base  lines,  actually  measured,  he  found  their  side?. 
He  reduced  tiie  positions  of  his  stations  to  the  meridian ;  and  he  concluded  that  a  degree  of 
the  meridian  was  28,500  perches,  which  were  equivalent  to  55,100  toises  of  that  period ; 
which,  however,  were  rather  longer  than  the  toise  as  it  is  now  estimated.  The  error  of 
Snellius  appearalo  have  been  about  2000  toises  on  the  length  of  a  degree,  of  which  1900 
may  have  arisen  firom  the  error  in  measuring  the  celestial  arc,  and  the  rest  from  the  imper- 
fection of  his  geodetical  measurements.  Snellius  measured  his  original  base  over  again, 
and  corrected  his  conclusion :  he  died,  hoM^dver,  before  he  could  publish  the  result.  Cassini 
made  certain  corrections  in  his  calculations,  by  which  the  length  of  the  degree  came  out 
56,675  toises ;  and  Muschenbroek,  by  an  examination  of  Snellius's  papers,  found  that  the 
degree  ought  to  have  been  reckoned  57,0J33  toises. 

Richard  Norwood  made  a  remarkable  approximation  to  the  true  length  of  a  degree  in 
1635,  by  apparently  inadequate  means.  He  measured  the  distance  between  London  and 
York,  observing  the  bearings  as  he  proceeded,  and  reducing  all  to  the  direction  of  the 
meridian  and  the  horizontal  plane.  He  determined  the  difference  of  latitude  to  be  2°  28' ;  and 
from  the  whole  distance  he  determined  the  degree  to  be  367,176  feet  English,  or  57,800  toises. 

As  far  as  pure  mathematical  theory  was  concerned,  the  method  of  Snellius  was  excellent ; 
tlie  chief  imperfection  was  in  his  instrument?, :  but  an  immense  improvement  was  made  by 
Picard,  in  the  application  of  the  telescope  and  the  micrometer  to  the  measurement  of 
angles ;  and,  with  the  assistance  of  instruments  constructed  on  the  new  principle,  this  astro- 
nomer, by  the  direction  of  the  French  Academy,  began  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the 
..■ridian,  taking  for  its  extremities  the  parallels  of  Sourdon  near  Amiens,  and  Malvoisine. 
ills  general  manner  of  conducting  the  process  was  the  same  as  that  of  Snellius.  He  con- 
nected the  extreme  parallels  by  a  series  of  triangles,  the  sides  of  wliich  were  determined 
from  a  base  of  5663  toises,  measured  twice  with  great  care  at  one  extremity  of  the  series. 
There  was  a  base  of  verification  of  3902  toises  measured  at  the  other  extremity.  The 
horizontal  angles  were  measured  by  a  quadrant  of  thirty-eight  inches'  radius ;  and  the 
celestial  arc,  which  was  about  1°  12',  by  a  sector  ten  feet  in  radius.  He  concluded  the 
length  of  a  degree  to  be  57,060  toises. 

This  was  the  first  measurement  in  which  confidence  could  be  placed.  It  is  true  there 
were  several  elements  wanting  in  the  detennination  of  the  celestial  arc,  owing  to  the  iinjmr- 
fpct  state  of  astronomical  science  at  that  time ;  but,  by  a  fortunate  compensation,  the  errors 
thence  arising  corrected  each  other.  This  measurement  of  Picard  was  of  service  to  Newton, 
in  verifying  his  happy  thouglit  of  the  law  of  universal  gravitation. 

The  measurement  begun  by  Picard  was  continued  northward  to  Dunkirk  by  La  Hire, 
and  in  the  opposite  direction,  as  far  as  Perpignan,  by  the  second  Cassini,  wlio  publislicd  the 
whole  in  1718,  in  a  work  on  the  magnitude  and  figure  of  the  earth. 

The  labour  of  the  French  astronomers  determined  the  magnitude  of  the  earth  with  a 
degree  of  accuracy  sufficient  for  the  general  purposes  of  geography ;  but  science  was  now 
proceeding  with  rapid  strides,  and  a  new  question  was  agitated, — Is  the  earth  an  exact 
spliere,  as  had  been  hitherto  supposed  1  or,  if  it  be  not  a  sphere,  what  is  its  true  figure ; 

Huygens  and  Newton  had  established  the  doctrine  of  the  centrifugal  force  of  bodies 
revolving  in  circles  ;  ai:  from  this  it  was  justly  inferred  that  the  earth,  in  consequence  of 
its  rotation  on  an  axis,  must  necessarily  deviate  from  a  spherical  figure,  and  assume  tiiat  of 
an  oblate  spheroio ;  that  is,  a  solid  generated  by  tlie  revolution  of  an  ellipse  on  its  'esser 
axis,  the  extremities  of  which  in  this  case  were  the  poles.      , 


Book  I. 


FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Mr 


This  opinion  received  support  from  some  astronomical  observations  mode  by  Richer,  who 
was  sxAit  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  in  1672,  to  Cayenne.  He  there  found  that  his  clock, 
wliicli  liad  been  regulated  to  mean  time  at  Paris,  went  slower  by  a  sensible  quantity.  This 
interesting  observation  showed  that  the  weight  of  tlie  pendulum  was  less  at  the  equator  than 
it  had  been  at  Paris ;  and  hence  the  increase  of  the  force  of  gravity  in  proceeding  from  the 
e(in.itor  towards  the  pole,  as  shown  theoretically  by  Newton,  was  completely  established ; 
an.  I  consequently  also  the  oblateness  of  the  earth  at  the  poles,  and  its  elevation  at  the  equator 
whicii  are  the  consequence  of  this  diminution. 

If  tlie  earth  were  a  p»>rfect  sphere,  then  all  the  degree 
of  the  terrestrial  meridian  from  the  equator  to  the  pole 
would  be  equal  in  lengtli.  But  this  will  by  no  means  be 
the  case  if  tlie  earth  be  a  spheroid.  For,  supposing  the 
earth  to  be  an  oblate  spheroid  {Jig.  43.),  of  which  the 
lesser  axis  is  P  P',  tliat  diameter  of  the  eartli  which 
passes  ttirough  P  P'  the  poles.  Let  £  Q  be  any  cqua< 
torial  diameter,  and  E  P  Q,  P'  a  section  of  the  earth, 
througii  the  axis  P  P',  which  will  therefore  be  a  terres- 
trial meridian.  Because  tlie  direction  of  gravity  is  always 
in  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  earth's  aurtace ;  at  the 
poles  and  equator,  tlie  direction  of  gravity  will  pa^ 
throuffh  the  centre.  It  will  be  otherwise,  however,  at  any  point,  D,  between  the  equator 
end  [loles;  for,  by  tVe  nature  of  the  ellipse,  a  line,  I)  F,  drawn  perpendicular  to  the  curve 
at  D  will  pass  on  one  side  of  the  centre.  Now  let  us  suppose  tiiat  D  F,  H  F,  are  two  straight 
Hues  perpendicular  to  ihe  earth's  surface  at  D  and  H,  which  meet  in  F,  and  contain  on 
angle  D  F  H,  of  one  degree ;  also  let  G  K,  L  K,  be  other  two  lines  perpendicular  to  the 
earth's  surface  at  points  nearer  the  pole ;  and  suppose  these  also  to  contaitf  an  angle  G  K  Ij, 
of  one  degree.  The  nlliptic  arc  D  H,  because  of  its  smallness,  may  be  considered  as  an  arc 
ol'  u  circle  of  which  1)  F  or  H  F  is  the  radius;  and  similarly  the  elliptic  arc  G  L  may  be 
considered  as  an  arc  of  a  circle  whose  radius  is  G  K  or  L  K.  The  curvature  of  the  ellipse 
is  greatest  at  E,  the  extremity  of  the  greater  axis,  and  gradually  decreases  to  P,  the 
extremity  of  the  leaner  axis,  where  it  is  least  Hence  the  arc  D  H  will  be  more  incurvated 
than  G  F ;  and  since  the  angles  at  F  and  K  are  equal,  each  being  one  degree,  tlie  almost 
equal  lines  G  K,  li  K,  will  be  greater  than  tlie  almost  equal  lines  D  H,  H  F ;  and  the  arc 
G  L  must  therefore  be  greater  than  the  arc  D  H.  Thus,  if  the  earth  is  an  oblate  spheroid, 
a  degree  of  tlie  terrestrial  meridian  will,  by  actual  measurement,  be  found  to  be  least  at  the 
equator ;  and  the  degrees  will  gradually  increase  as  we  proceed  towards  either  pole. 

It  is  manifest  that  the  case  would  be  just  tlie  reverse  if  the  earth  were  an  oblong  spheroid, 
generated  by  the  rotation  of  an  ellipse  on  its  greater  axis  E  Q„  Hence  the  important  question, 
What  is  the  figure  of  tlie  terrestrial  meridian  I  may  be  resolved  by  measuring  arcs  of  tlie 
meridian  in  different  latitudes. 

None  of  the  measurements  before  that  begun  by  Picard  were  made  with  such  accuracy 
as  to  enable  mathematicians  to  resolve  the  question.  But  it  was  then  supposed  that  this 
liiid  been  performed  with  such  care  as  to  afford  the  necessary  data.  Such,  however,  appears 
not  to  have  been  the  case.  The  degrees  actually  measured  were  found  to  be  unequal ; 
but,  instead  of  increasing  in  going  from  south  to  nortli,  the  reverse  was  supposed  to  be  tlie 
fact ;  and  h»d  this  been  really  true,  the  polar  axis  would  have  been  greater  than  the  equa- 
torial,— a  conclusion  quite  in  opposition  to  that  derivable  from  the  doctrine  of  centrifusral 
force. 

To  determine  this  most  important  question,  the  Academy  of  Sciences  resolved  that  degrees 
of  tlie  meridian  should  be  measured  in  various  latitudes  which  might  differ  as  much  iis 
possible ;  and  it  was  determined  that  one  party  should  be  sent  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
equator,  and  another  to  tiie  polar  circle.  Two  scientific  expeditions  were  accordinuiy 
undortiiken.  Maupertuis,  Clairaut,  Comus,  Lemonnier,  and  Outhier,  went  to  Lapland,  wiiere 
the  Swedish  astronomer  Celsius  joined  them ;  and  there  they  measured  an  arc  of  fifty-seven 
minutes  of  a  degree,  from  which  they  concluded  that  a  degree  under  the  polar  circle,  viz.  in 
lat.  66°  20',  was  57,419  toises,  that  is,  about  349  toises  greater  than  that  of  Paris.  This 
degree  has  been  since  remeasured  with  great  care  by  Svanberg  and  other  Swedish  mathe- 
maticians, who  found  it  to  be  ."37,196  toises.  This  is  223  toises  less  than  the  determination 
of  the  French  academicans ;  but  it  is  certainly  more  correct. 

The  other  party,  composed  of  Godin,  Bouguer,  and  La  Condamine,  performed  a  similar 
but  more  extensive  operation  'a  Peru.  After  ten  years'  labour,  they,  with  the  assistance  of 
two  Spanish  officers,  Don  Jorge  Juan  and  Antonio  de  Ulloa,  accomplished  the  measurement 
of  an  arc  of  about  3"  7''.  From  this  they  concluded  tliat  the  length  of  a  degree  was  .56,7.'58 
toises,  which  was  shorter  than  the  French  degree  by  302  toises.  These  measurements  set 
the  question  completely  at  rest.  There  could  no  longer  be  any  doubt  that  the  polar  diame- 
ter of  the  er.rth  was  shorter  than  the  equatorial. 
The  measurement  of  different  degrees  has  been  since  performed  many  times  in  different 
Vol  I.  12*  ,  S 


1»9 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II 


countries',  as  a|rain  in  France,  and  also  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  by  La  Caille ;  in  Italy,  bjf 
Maire,  Boscovich,  and  Beccaria;  in  Pennsylvania,  by  Mason  and  Dixon;  in  Hungary,  by 
Liesganiff ;  in  India,  by  Lambton. 

There liave  been,  in  addition  to  these,  two  admeasurements  of  arcs  of  the  meridian  which 
deserve  particular  notice,  on  account  of  their  extent,  the  excellence  of  the  instrumenta 
employed,  and  the  skill  with  which  the  operations  have  been  conducted.  We  are  indebted 
to  the  spirit  of  reform  and  improvement  which  sprung  out  of  the  French  revolution  for  one 
of  these,  and  to  the  liberal  and  enlightened  views  of  the  English  govenunent  for  the  other. 

The  great  diversity  in  the  units  of  a  measure  is  an  evil  which  has  been  long  felt  and  com- 
plained of  in  eveiT  commercial  country.  The  French  Constitutional  Assembly  took  np  thiB 
most  important  subject  in  the  year  1790 ;  and,  at  the  suggestion  of  Talleyrand,  it  was  decreed, 
that  the  king  should  request  his  Britannic  majesty  <^o  engage  the  parliament  of  England  to 
concur  with  the  National  Assembly  in  fixing  a  natural  unit  of  weights  and  measures ;  that, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  two  nations,  commissioners  of  tlie  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  an 
equal  number  of  members  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  should  determine  the  lengtli  of 
the  pendulum  in  the  latitude  of  45°,  or  other  preferable  latitude,  and  from  this  deduce  an 
invariable  standard  for  all  weights  and  measures. 

The  Academy  named  a  commission,  composed  of  Borda,  Lagrange,  Laplace,  Monge,  and 
Condorcet,  who  gave  a  report,  which  is  prmted  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  for  1768. 
Three  different  fundamental  units  were  suggested  in  their  report  The  first  is  the  pendulum 
which  beats  seconds  in  a  given  parallel.  That  of  45°  was  thought  preferable  to  any  other, 
because  there  the  pendulum  is  a  mean  among  all  those  which  beat  seconds  in  the  difi'erent 
latitudes  between  the  equator  and  the  pole.  They  obeeived,  however,  that  the  pendulum 
contains  a  heterweneous  element,  namely,  time ;  and  an  arbitrary  element,  viz.  the  division 
of  the  day  into  8^400  seconds.  They,  therefore,  considered  it  to  be  less  proper  as  a  standard 
unit  of  lineal  measure,  than  another  which  they  regarded  as  unexceptionable.  .This  is  the 
length  of  a  quadrant  of  the  meridian,  a  linear  magnitude  of  the  same  kind  as  the  thing  to 
be  determined,  and  therefore  more  natural  than  the  pendulum,  which  involved  the  considera- 
tion of  time.  There  is  yet  another  linear  upit,  namely,  the  circumference  of  the  earth's 
equator.  But  this  is  not  better  known  than  the  elliptic  meridian ;  nor  does  it  admit  of  being 
determined  with  so  much  precision.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  was  recommended  that  the 
quadrant  of  the  meridian  should  be  taken  as  the  primary  unit,  and  that  its  ten-millionth  part 
(a  lineal  space  about  39^'^  English  inches)  should  be  th>3  ordinary  unit  for  the  measurements 
which  occur  in  the  affairs  of  life.    This  was  named  a  mitre. 

Although  in  the  beginning  it  had  been  proposed  to  invite  the  English  philosophers  to  assist 
in  establishing  a  standard  unit,  yet,  as  the  object  to  be  attained  could  be  accomplished  per- 
fectly by  the  French  mathematicians,  without  any  foreign  aid,  it  was  recommended  to 
commence  immediately  the  measurement  of  the  arc  of  the  meridian  between  Dunkirk  and 
Barcelona,  an  extent  of  nearly  9i  degrees.  The  operations  necessary  for  this  labour  were, 
1.  To  determine  the  difference  of  latitude  between  Dunkirk  and  Barcelona ;  and,  in  general, 
to  make  such  astronomical  observatitns  on  tlie  whole  line  as  might  be  thought  useful.  2.  To 
measure  again  the  bases  which  had  served  for  the  measurement  of  the  degree  made  at  Paris, 
and  the  construction  of  the  map  of  France.  3.  To  verify  by  new  observations  the  series  of 
triangles  which  had  formerly  been  employed  for  the  measurement  of  the  meridian,  and  to 
prolong  them  to  Barcelona.  4.  To  make,  at  the  45th  degree,  such  observations  as  iniirht 
determine  the  number  of  vibrations  which  a  pendulum  equal  in  length  to  one  ten-millionth 
part  of  the  meridian  would  make  in  a  day,  in  a  vactium  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  at  the 
temperature  of  melting  ice,  in  order  that,  this  number  being  once  known,  the  metre  might  be 
determined  at  any  time  by  the  length  of  the  pendulum.  In  this  way  the  advantages  of  the 
two  methods  of  forming  a  standard  would  be  united.  5.  To  verify  by  new  experiments  the 
specific  gravity  of  pure  water  in  a  vacuum,  and  at  the  temperature  of  water  just  beginning 
to  freeze.  6.  And  lastly.  To  reduce  all  the  old  measures  of  every  kind  employed  in  com- 
merce to  the  new  standards. 

To  accomplish  these  objects,  it  was  recommended  that  six  distinct  commissioners  shoiild 
be  appointed.  This  was  done  by  a  decree  of  the  National  Assembly,  dated  26th  March, 
1791 ;  only  it  was  thought  to  be  better  to  commit  the  astronomical  and  geodetical  obser\  a- 
tions  to  a  single  commission.  Immediately  directions  wore  given  for  the  construction  of  the 
necessary  instruments.  Lenoir,  a  celebrated  Frencli  artist,  was  e.nployed  to  make  repnatiiig 
circles,  long  rules  of  platina  for  the  measurement  of  the  bases,  and  a  shorter  rule ;  also,  balls 
of  platina  and  ^old  for  the  pendulum  observations. 

About  the  middle  of  the  year'  1792,  Cassini  and  Borda  began  a  series  of  experiments  on 
the  pendulum ;  and,  in  the  following  year,  Lavoisier  was  engaged  in  experiments  on  the 
expansion  of  metals.  And  about  the  same  time  Mechain  besyan  his  operations  for  the  dctcr- 
miiialion  of  the  portion  of  the  meridian  between  Rodez  and  Barcelona,  an  extent  of  170,0(10 
tois«;s.  Delambre  had  undertaken  the  portion  of  the  arc  between  Dunkirk  and  Rodez, 
38,000  toises  in  extent.  This,  however,  had  been  twice  measured  before:  and  for  this 
reason  the  labour  was  expected  to  be  less  than  was  requisite  ff  the  other  portion,  which 


Booil. 


nOURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTR 


189 


was  entirely  new.  Besides  the  privations  and  hardships,  the  ordinary  accompaniments  if  a 
servico  which  requires  thoee  who  perform  it  to  live  in  elevated  situations,  with  little  shi  Iter, 
with  few  of  the  comforts  to  which  thoy  have  been  accustomed,  and  exposed  to  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  heat  and  cold,  and  the  influence  of  the  nocturnal  dews,  they  had  to  encounter  the 
perils  arising  from  a  disorganized  state  of  society.  Mechain  was  stopped  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Pans ;  but  when  he  pursued  his  labours  at  a  distance  from  the  capital,  lie  mot 
with  no  farther  interruption ;  while  Delombre,  in  the  north  of  France,  was  often  exposed 
to  the  most  imminent  danger.  In  the  heat  of  the  French  revolution,  the  people  were 
jealous  of  what  they  did  not  understand ;  and  the  astronomers  were  at  once  exposed  to  the 
machinations  of  their  enemies  at  Paris,  and  to  the  brutality  of  the  ignorant  peasants  in  the 
provinces. 

In  the  course  of  their  operations  they  measured  two  bases,  on  the  accurate  determination 
of  which  the  utility  of  all  their  labours  was  to  depend.  One  base,  of  6075.0  toises,  waa 
measured  by  Delamb-e  at  Melun ;  and  the  other,  of  60U6.2478  toises,  at  Perpignan.  The 
distance  between  thcin  was  360,330  toises,  about  436  English^miles.  They  were  connected 
by  a  chain  of  triangles,  the  sides  and  angles  of  which  were'all  known ;  so  that  the  length 
of  one  base  being  luiown,  that  of  the  other  might  be  found  by  computation.  It  is  a  remark- 
able fact,  that  when  the  base  of  Perpir'^'un  was  inferred  by  calculation  from  tliat  of  Molun, 
the  result  was  found  to  be  only  ten  o.  leven  inches  less  than  that  obtained  by  actual  mea- 
surement. This  striking  agreement  afibrds  a  strong  presumptive  proof  of  the  accuracy  with 
which  the  operations  had  ^en  conducted. 

The  determination  of  the  latitudes  of  the  two  extremities  of  the  arc  was  also  a  matter 
of  the  utmost  importance.  The  pains  which  the  astronomers  took  to  arrive  at  true  results 
are  almost  incredible.  Delambre  made  800  observations  to  ascertain  the  true  latitude  of  the 
DunkirV  extremity ;  and  a  corresponding  degree  of  attention  was  bestowed  on  different 
intermediate  points. 

This  most  important  undertaking  was  at  last,  after  seven  years*  labour,  brought  to  a  con- 
clusion in  the  year  1709.  Although  the  result  was,  in  its  first  application,  to  be  directed  to 
the  establishment  of  a  standard  unit, of  lineal  measure  for  the  French  nation,  yet  the  advan- 
tages which  may  be  deduced  fkim  it  extended  much  ferther,  and  were  available  to  every 
nation  enlightened  by  science.  For  this  reason,  the  states  living  in  peace  with  France  hod 
been  invited  to  send  eminent  mathematicians  and  astronomers  to  assist  in  a  rigorous  exami- 
nation of  every  step  of  the  operation.  The  astronomical  and  geodetical  o&iervationH,  in 
particular,  were  subjected  to  the  examination  of  Tralles,  the  deputy  of  the  Helvetian  republic; 
Van  Swinden,  the  Batavian  deputy ;  and  the  two  French  philosophers  Laplace  and  Legcndre. 
They  entered  into  all  the  details  of  the  measurement  of  the  bases ;  and  they  examined  the 
three  angles  of  every  triangle,  and  determined  their  values.  The  calculations  were  then 
separately  performed  by  four  different  persons — Tralles,  Van  Swinden,  Legendre,  and  De- 
lambre ;  and  this  last  astronomer  calculated  the  length  of  the  meridian  by  rour  different  and 
independent  methods ;  and  a  report  was  made  to  the  National  Institute  at  Paris,  in  June 
1799,  in  the  name  of  the  Class  of  Physical  and  Mathematical  Sciences,  on  the  Measure  of 
the  Meridian  of  France,  and  its  Results. 

The  general  fact,  that  the  degrees  of  the  meridian  increase  as  we  recede  from  the  equator 
towards  the  pole,  was  again  fully  confirmed ;  so  that  the  oblateness  of  the  earth  in  the 
direction  of  the  polar  axis  is  a  truth  now  placed  beyond  all  controversy.  Notwithstanding, 
however,  the  almost  incredible  care  with  which  the  operations  were  conducted,  the  exact 
quantity  of  this  compression  was  still  left  in  some  uncertainty.  The  limits  between  which 
the  true  measure  of  the  oblateness  is  contained  are,  however,  narrower ;  and  it  is  likely 
that  the  problem,  What  is  the  exact  proportion  of  the  polar  to  the  equatorial  axis  ?  does 
not,  fi'om  its  natws,  admit  of  a  nearer  approximation  to  the  truth  tlian  has  been  already 
obtained. 

If  we  could  suppose  the  measurements  of  lines  and  angles  to  be  perfectly  correct,  it 
would  follow,  that  although  on  the.  whole,  taking  considerable  intervals,  the  length  of  arcs 
of  the  meridian  corresponding  to  equal  celestial  arcs  go  on  increasing  from  south  to  north, 
yet  the  law  of  the  increase  is  irregular,  and  not  that  which  ought  to  result  from  an  exact 
elliptic  meridian.    The  result  of  the  measurement  will  be  seen  in  the  following  table : — 


■  ■-■     1 

Latitudes. 

IntervulB. 

Intervals  in 
Tuises. 

Length  of  a 
Degree. 

Mean 
Latitude. 

Arc  of  one 
Scconil. 

1 

Dunkirk 

Psneheon 

Eviiiix 

Cnrcnssone 

Montjouy 

O       '           (' 

51     S     9.30 
48   ."in   4ft  :n 

40  to    43.54 
43    13    54.30 

41  31    44.96 

0  '           ft 

2  11    19.83 
■3    40      C.83 

3  57    48.24 

1  51      9.34 

134944.8 
13255  i3.1 

105499.0 

Toises. 
57083.63 
57Ki;n.31 
56977.80 
50940.68 

O       1          II 

49    56    39.30 
47    30    45.81 
44    41    48..37 
43    17    19.00 

Toises 

13.R3C.',>ai 
35.f5',\'SHe 
15.iwTir,7 
1S.H1H50H 

1#' 


Book  L 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  n. 


•  Prom  this  table  we  see  that  the  length  of  a  degree  in  the  ibur  mean  latitudes  goes  on  in- 
creasing. Also,  fVom  the  column  of  mean  latitudes,  and  that  of  the  length  of  a  degree,  it 
appears  that  a  diminution  of  2'  25'  43".89  in  the  first  mean  latitude  corresponds  to  ii 
dmiinution  of  13.13  toises  in  the  terrestrial  meridian:  this  gives  5.5  toises  to  a  degree. 
Again,  that  a  farther  diminution  of  2°  49'  57".54  produces  a  diminution  of  91.51  toises, 
which  is  at  the  rate  of  32.4  toises  to  a  degree.  Lastly,  that  a  third  diminution  of  2°  24' 
28".77  gives  a  diminution  of  31.17  toises,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  about  12.9  toises  to  a 
degree.  These  changes  of  5.5,  02.4,  and  31.17  toises  in  the  length  of  a  degree  in  going 
southward  evidently  do  not  follow  a  regular  law,  such  as  should  resiilt  from  a  continuous 
increase  of  curvature.  We  may,  therefore,  reasonably  suppose  that  all  the  observations 
have  not  been  equally  perfect,  or  that,  in  addition  to  unavoidable  errors  in  the  estimation  of 
lines  and  angles,  some  disturbing  cause  must  have  operated :  probably,  an  inequality  of 
density,  in  the  density  of  the  strata  over  which  the  measurement  was  performed,  may  have 
had  great  influence  in  producing  the  irregularity. 

The  small  'discrepancies  ip  the  results  of  the  observations  must  produce  corresponding 
uncertainty  in  the  determination  of  the  great  objects  to  be  attained.  On  the  whole,  how- 
ever, it  was  concluded  that  the  length  of  the  terrestrial  meridian  between  the  pole  and  tlie 
equator  was  5,130,740  toises ;  and  hence  the  mdtre,  or  ten-millionth  part  of  the  meridian, 
was  .513074  of  a  toise,  which  is  443.295986  lines. 

Another  most  important  result,  deducible  from  these  observations,  was  the  ratio  of  the 
polar  axis  of  the  earth  to  the  equatorial  axis.  This  must  partake  of  the  uncertainty  of  the 
data  by  which  it  is  to  be  determined.  We  may,  however,  assume,  without  sensible  error, 
that  the  equatorial  axis  is  to  the  polar  as  334  to  333.  The  diflerence,  therefore,  of  the 
eeir.i-axes,  compared  with  the  equatorial  radius,  will  be  one  part  in  334.  The  fraction  ^if— 
that  is,  the  difference  of  the  semi-axes  divided  by  the  equatorial  radius, — is  called  the  cofn- 
pression  of  the  earth  at  the  poles. 

The  astronomer  Mechain  had  contemplated  the  extension  of  the  measurement  of  the 
meridian  beyond  the  limit  at  first  proposed ;  but  he  did  not  live  lo  carry  his  views  into  execu- 
tion. However,  the  undertaking  was  resumed}  after  a  cessation  of  three  years,  by  Biot  aiid 
Arago,  French  astronomers,  with  whom  were  associated  MM.  Chaix  and  Rodriguez,  Span- 
iards, all  eminently  distinguished  for  their  talent  and  devotedness  to  the  object  to  be  ac- 
complished. By  their  exertions,  a  train  of  triangles  wat  carried  southward  tiiom  the  point 
where  Mechain  and  Delambre  had  stopped,  to  Formentera,  a  small  island  near  Ivica,  in  the 
Mediterranean.  This  is  the  southern  limit  of  a  most  interesting  labour:  but,  if  ever 
European  civilization  extends  into  Africa,  the  measurement  may  be  extended  to  Cape  de 
Gata,  and  thence  across  the  Mediterranean  to  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  continued  to  the  city 
of  Algiers,  which  is  nearly  in  the  meridian  of  Paris ;  so  that  in  time  the  southern  extremity 
may  be  actually  carried  to  the  summit  of  Mount  Atlas. 

The  other  measurement  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  earth,  to  which  we  have  alluded, 
was  begun  under  the  auspices  and  at  the  expense  of  the  British  government  as  long  ago  as 
the  year  1784.  At  that  time  a  memoir,  drawn  up  by  Cassini  de  Thury,  was  presented  to 
the  minister  (Mr.  Fox)  by  the  French  ambassador.  It  stated  the  advantages  which  would 
accrue  to  geography  and  astronomy  by  determining  the  difference  of  longitude  between  the 
observatories  of  Greenwich  and  Paris,  by  means  of  a  series  of  triangles  from  the  former  to 
Dunkirk,  to  which  place  the  meridian  of  Paris  had  previously  been  extended.  The  proposal 
was  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society ;  and  having  been  approved  of,  the  execution  wiis 
Committed  to  general  Roy.  "The  first  step  was  to  measure  a  base,  from  the  length  of  which 
the  sides  of  all  the  triangles  might  be  inferred ;  and  a  line  rather  more  than  five  miles  in 
length  was  traced  out  on  Hounslow  Heath,  and  measured  with  the  most  scrupulous  care. 
It  may  at  first  sight  appear  a  very  simple  matter  to  measure  a  straight  line  on  the  ground ; 
but  if  the  utmost  exactness  is  required,  the  operation  must  be  performed  with  instruments 
constructed  with  the  greatest  ingenuity,  and  the  application  of  much  physical  knowledge. 
<  renerally  all  solid  bodies  expand  by  heat,  and  contract  by  cold ;  and,  moreover,  some  change 
their  dimensions  by  moisture  and  dryness.  To  counteract  or  to  estimate  precisely  these 
changes,  so  as  to  allow  for  them  in  the  final  result,  is  a  matter  of  great  difliculty,  and  only 
to  be  accomplished  by  infinite  care  and  perseverance. 

The  measurement  of  the  base  was  first  undertaken  with  deal  rods,  twenty  feet  in  length. 
The.se,  however,  were  found  to  be  much  affected  by  the  changes  m  the  atmosphere  from 
moisture  to  dryness :  they  were  therefore  laid  aside ;  and  insteaid  of  them  glass  rods,  of  the 
fciinie  length  in  frames,  were  employed.  This  substance  was  chosen,  from  a  belief  that  it 
wiH  less  affected  by  changes  of  temperature  than  the  metals.  The  measurement,  which 
hid  been  begun  about  the  middle  of  June,  was  completed  in  the  end  of  October ;  and  it  was 
found  that  the  base  measured  exactly  27404.08  feet,  or  5.19  miles. 

The  work  in  the  field  was  not  carried  farther  at  that  time :  it  was,  however,  resiimed  m 
1787.  A  theodolite  of  greater  dimensions  than  had  ever  been  employed  in  geodctical  opera- 
tions was  constructed  by  the  celebrated  artist  Ramsden.  The  series  of  observations  was 
\ieg\m  at  the  base  m  the  beginning  of  August,  by  General  Roy,  assisted  by  Isaac  Dalby,  an 


BooE  L 


WOURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OP  THE  EARTH 


HI 


excoUent  mathematician,  and  most  veracious  astronomical  obsorver.  After  continiiinff  to  a 
certain  length,  it  wan  Judged  to  be  cx^iedient  to  break  off,  and  proceed  witli  tlie  instruments 
to  Dover.  A  series  of  oliiervations  was  there  made,  in  conjunction  with  the  French  acaile- 
Diicians  Cassini,  Mechain,  and  Legendro,  by  which  the  triangulation  between  Paris  and 
Dunkirk  might  be  connected  with  that  between  Dover  and  Greenwich.  As  a  check  on  the 
operations,  a  base  of  verification  w^as  also  measured  on  Ronrney  Marsh ;  and  in  this,  instead 
of  the  glass  rods,  a  steel  chain,  constructed  for  the  purpc°j  ^>v  Ramsden,  was  employed  ;  it 
having  been  found  by  experience  that  there  wa  •  sensible  du.brence  in  point  of  accuracy 
between  this  and  the  glass  rods,  while  the  chain  manifestly  was  more  convenient  Alter- 
wards,  when  the  two  bases  were  connected  by  calculating  the  sides  of  the  triangles,  it  was 
found  tiiat  the  measured  base  differed  from  its  computed  value  by  only  twentv-eight  inches, 
although  Romney  Marsh  is  more  th:ui  aixty  miles  from  Hounslow  Heath.  The  junction  of 
the  ob^rvatories  of  Greenwich  rind  Paris,  by  a  series  of  triangles,  was  completed  in  1788, 
and  an  accoun^  of  the  operations  communicated  to  the  Royal  £>ciety ;  but  the  death  of  Gene- 
ral Roy  again  suspended  the  survey  until  the  year  1791. 

At  this  tunc,  by  the  exertions  of'^the  Duke  of  Richmond,  Master-general  of  the  Ordnance, 
the  survey  was  resumed  with  great  vigour.  A  new  tlieodolitc,  and  various  other  instruments, 
in  addition  to  those  formerly  employed,  were  liberally  supplied,  and  placed  under  the 
direction  of  Captain  (afterwards  Colonel)  Mudge  of  the  Royal  Artillery,  and  Mr.  Dalby. 
Begiiming  thnir  labours  by  a  re-measurement  of  the  base  on  Hounslow  Heath  with  steel 
chains,  they  found  the  dinerence  between  this  and  the  former,  in  which  glass  rods  were 
employed,  to  be  no  more  than  two  inches  and  three  quarters.  They  also  measured  another 
base  of  verification,  36574.4  feet  in  length,  on  Salisbury  Plain.  When  this  was  connected 
by  a  chain  of  triangles  with  the  base  on  Hounslow  Heath,  and  its  length  computed,  tlie 
result  did  not  differ  more  than  an  inch  from  the  actual  measurement ;  a  convincing  proof  of 
the  accuracy  with  which  all  the  operations  had  been  conducted. 

Although  an  accurate  survey  of^^the  island  was  the  main  object  for  which  all  this  labour 
was  undertaken,  yet,  as  its  complete  accomplishment  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  figure  and 
dimensions  of  the  earth,  no  opportunity  of  solving  this  grand  problem  is  to  be  neglected.  The 
tA  two  stations  of  Beachy  Head  in  Sussex,  and  Dunnoee  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  are  visible  from  each  other,  and  more  than  sixty-four  miles 
asunder,  nearly  in  a  direction  from  east  to  west :  their  exact  distance 
was  found  by  the  geodetical  operations  to  be  339397  feet  The  azi- 
muth, or  bearing  of  the  line  between  them  with  respect  to  the  ireri- 
dian,  also  the  latitude*  of  Beachy  Head,  were  determined  by  astro- 
nomical observations.  From  these  data  the  length  of  a  degree  per- 
pendicular to  the  meridian  was  computed ;  and  this,  compared  with 
the  length  of  a  meridional  degree  in  the  same  latitude,  gave  the  pro- 
portion  of  the  polar  to  the  equatorial  axis. 

The  result  thus  obtained,  however,  differed  considerably  from  tha» 
obtained  by  meridional  degrees.  It  has  been  found  impossible  to  ex- 
plain the  want  of  agreement  in  a  satisfactory  way ;  and,  for  this  reason, 
it  has  been  thought  better  to  rest  the  solution  of  the  problem  entireljf 
on  the  measurement  of  degrees  of  the  meridian  m  different  lati- 
tudes, which,  on  the  whol6,  give  results  more  consistent  with  one 
another. 

Without  noticing  in  detail  all  the  steps  by  which  the  survey  has 
advanced,  we  shall  next  advert  to  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the 
meridian  between  Dunnoee,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  Cliflon,  near 
Doncaster;  the  former  in  lat  50°  37'  5",  and  the  latter  in  53°  27' 30". 
To  accomplish  this,  the  ingenuity  of  the  artist  Ramsden  was  again 
exercised  m  the  construction  of  an  instrument,  a  zenith  sector,  for 
finding  the  latitude  of  the  different  points  of  the  arc :  this  was  almost 
the  last  work  of  a  man  to  whose  genius  astronomy  and  geography  are 
highly  indebted ;  and  it  was  superior  to  any  thmg  of  the  kind  ever 
before  constructed. 

To  give  the  reader  a  distinct  notion  of  this  most  important  operation,  we  here  present  a 
sketch  (Jig.  44.)  of  the  series  of  triangles,  twenty-two  in  number,  which  connect  the  extreme 
points  together  wiUi  the  angles  contained  by  the  straight  lines  which  join  the  different 
stations,  and  the  length  of  thiir  sides.  The  numbers  marked  on  the  diagram  indicate  the 
names  of  the  statioru,  by  referring  to  the  following  table.  The  northern  extremity  of  the 
base,  Beacon  Hill,  or  Cliflon,  is  marked  No.  3. ;  and  the  southern  extremity,  Dunnose,  is  23 
The  names  of  the  intermediate  points  may  be  seen  in  the  table.  ...,., . 


149 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  n 


No.  of 
rriaii|lei. 


10. 


II. 


NaoiM  of  Btationi. 


Biitwr  Hill . 
Dimn  Hill,., 
DuniioM..., 


D»anHIII... 
Butscr  Hill  . 
Highelcro . , . 

Hind  Head. 
HighclBfe  •  ■ . 
Highclere , 


(81 
(93) 


Tar 

(93 
,(1«) 


(80 
(19 


Hind  Head. 
Bagatiot  Hwath. 


(90 


BagRhol  Heath. . . 

Hivhr.lnre 

Niitfield 

WHitfllloraaHlll. 

Highclere 

Nuffield 


White  Hone  Hill  . 

Nuffield 

Brill 


Itrlll 

White  Horse  Hill  ■ 
Blow  on  the  Weld 


Brill  

Stow  on  the  Weld 
Epwell 


inir 

Epwell 

Arhury  Hill. 


Arbiiry  Hill. 

Epwell 

Corley 


Anilfli  cnrreeted 
(br  Ualculation. 


-S~T — n 

76  13  91 .5 
48    4  31.73 
55  43    A.7S 


48  98  40 

60    8  33 


11  31  U.i 
(W  15  54,95 
90  19  91.95 


34  46 
83  90 
61  53 

46  10 
78  17 


17.73 
17 


63  7 
ai  18 
53  33 


17 
49.5 


38  48 
86  4 
55    7 


193^ 

15 

33.5 


50  14 
64  45 

64  59 


43i 

49.5 

33.5 


33  34 
60  56 
86  30 


43.35 
5.5 
13ii5 


34  93 
85  0 
60  35 


37.5 
17.5 
43 


DiitanM. 


V^om  DiinnoM  to 

Butter  Hill 

to  Dean  Hill 

Wan  HillTIruin 

ButierHill 

HiRliclere 


"Butier  Hill  ttom 

Hind  Head 

Highclure 


llighckire  (Vom 
Bagihnt  Heath . 
Hind  Head  


Nuffield  (yom 
Bagihnt  Heath  , 
Highclere 


mite  Horiie  Hill  Oom 

Nuffield 

Highclere 


Brill  ftoin 
While  Hone  Hill. 
Nuffield 


BTow  ttam 
White  Hone  Hill. 
Brill 


Epwell  flrom 

Stow 

Brill 


Arbury  Hill  IVom 

Epwell 

Brill 


8»  57 

54  ir, 

35  17 


3.3 
18.35 
36.35 


Corley  (Vom 
Arbury  Hill . 
Epwell 


ra«t. 


140580.4 
183496.9 


136133,1 
195084.0 


78003.7 
148031.0 


149039.0 
160979,3 


103381.9 
190374. 


190357? 
108363.*. 


146603.9 
0380S.3 


134363.0 
146.196.3 


78038.3 
138140 


83008.4 
J46530 


117463 
143897.8 


The  distance  of  Butser  Hill  (22.)  from  Dunnose,  140580.4  feet,  had  been  previously  found, 

S'  a  series  of  triangles  connecting  these  stations  with  the  bases  measured  on  Hounslow 
eath  and  Salisbury  Plain ;  but,  for  greater  security  against  error,  a  new  base  of  26342.7 
feet  was  measured  on  Mistcrton  Carr,  in  the  northern  part  of  Lincolnshire.  JVom  this  the 
sides  of  the  triangles  proceeding  from  the  north  to  the  south  were  computed,  as  exhibited 
in  the  remainder  of  the  table. 


No.  of 
Triangle*. 

Namei  of  Btationa. 

Angles  corrected 
for  Calculation. 

Distance. 

Feet. 

13. 

Beacon  Hill (3) 

O     f      " 

90  47  30 
60  17  13 
98  55  97 

Beacon  Hill  from 

North  end  of  Base 

64461.7 
733S1.9 

North  end  of  Base (1) 

Bouth  end  of  Base 3) 

South  end  of  Base 

13. 

Beacon  Hill i  3\ 

34  44  43 

74  46  56 
70  98  93 

Gringley  flrom 

North  end  of  Base 

44338.9 
73068.0 

North  end  of  Base (1) 

Gringley 4) 

14. 

Beacon  Hill 3) 

Gringley (4) 

South  end  of  Base 9) 

13  47  33 
51  11    3 
114  51  53 

Gringley  from 

Beacon  Hill 

73068.3 

15. 

18  40  38 
138    0  16 
33  10    6 

Heatheraedge  fVom 

npBcon  Hill 

93337.3 
156384.8 

Beacon  Hill. 3 

Gringley 4 

Gringley 

16. 

Button  Ashfield 6' 

78  47    1 
54  53  35 
46  90  34 

Sutton  Ashfleld  flrom 

130300.7 
113339.0 

Heathenodge 3) 

Gringley (4) 

Heathersedge 

17. 

Orpit f7 

Heatheraedge (5) 

Sutton  Ashfleld (0) 

80  98  57 
30    8  38 
60  93  33 

Orpit  from 

Heathersedge 

Sutton  Ashfleld 

101660  3 
73838,6 

18. 

Hnllan  Hill 8 

44  43  31 

113  49    7 
91  27  93 

Holinn  Hill  from 

38375.2 
95973.3 

Orpit (7) 

10. 

Bardon  Hill (10) 

Hollan  Hill ffi) 

43  58  50 
74  52  37 
63    834 

Bardon  Hill  flrom 

Hnllan  Hill 

134454,7 
135805,3 

Orpit (7) 

Orpit 

90. 

Castle  Ring (9) 

Bardon  Hill (10) 

Crpit (7) 

53  39  43 
6894    3 
56    3  14 

Castle  Ring  flrom 

15383.5.3 
136717.8 

SI. 

Cnrley (11) 

Castle  Ring (9) 

Bnrdon  Hill (10) 

72  33  48 
47  54  43 
.ra  32  32 

Corley  flrom 

106.137.3 
133439.7 

Castle  Rrng 

S3. 

Arbury  H'H... (13) 

Corlcv (11) 

Bardon  Hill (10) 

34  14  M 

107  90  14 

38  25  13 

Arimry  Hill  from 

Bardon  Hill 

1R0436.O 
117457.1 

Corley 

From  t 
fool.     Tl 
(li'ducod 
l.'iOmilus 
wo  iiiivo 
coiiiUictet 
proceed, 
caro  in  tl 
By  obs 
the  azini 
and  by  li 
ed.    By 
of  the  m 
sum  gav 
Dunnose 
between 
length  of 
gives  36 
between 
In  the 
Dunnose 
latitude  < 
of  Greer 
Duke  of 
lories  wt 
and  theii 
By  CO 


Pa«t  n 


Door  I. 


FIGURE  AND  MAGNITUDE  OP  THE  EARTH. 


148 


iMssai 
i8a«06.a 

1S0I33.1 

_i«.wm.9 

7890a.7 
_  148031.0 

149nS3.6 
JB0»7a.8 

101391 J9 
190374. 


From  the  last  triangle  the  distance  between  Corley  aiui  Arbury  Hill  comen  out  117467.1 
fool.  'I'hia  rcHult  haji  been  found  i'rom  the  boae  on  Mistorton  Ciirr :  but  the  wiine  dJHtnice, 
(Iciluced  from  the  bases  on  HounHlow  Iluath  and  HaliHbury  I'liiin,  either  of  which  is  more  than 
150  iniios  distant  from  Misterton  Carr,  was  found  to  be  117,40i)  fuot,  only  six  feet  ditfercnt.  Here 
wt!  have  a  remarkable  proof  of  the  extreme  accuracy  with  which  the  operations  have  been 
cciuilucted;  so  that,  fVom  whatever  cause  any  uncertainty  in  the  cunclusion  sought  may 
proceed,  it  can  hardly  be  found  either  in  the  want  of  perfection  in  the  instruments,  or  of 
cure  in  thone  who  used  them. 

l\y  observations  on  the  pole  star,  the  exact  bearing  of  Butser  Hill  iVom  Dunnose  (that  is, 
tlie  azimutli  or  angle  which  the  line  joining  them  makes  with  the  meridian,)  wns  found : 
and  by  like  observations  the  bearing  of  the  station  at  Gringley  from  Clitlon  was  determin- 
ed, by  these  data,  and  bv  the  known  lengths  of  the  sides  of  the  triangles,  the  portions 
of  the  meridian  intercepted  bv  perpendiculars  on  it  fVom  the  stations  was  obtained.  Their 
sum  gave  1,080,337  feet  for  the  meridional  distance  on  tbj  fcurface  of  the  earth,  between 
Dunnose  and  Cliflon.  Moreover,  by  the  zenith  sector,  the  arc  of  the  celestial  mcri^'ian 
between  tliem  was  found  to  be  2'  50'  23  "  .38,  or  2.8396  of  difference  of  latitude.  The 
leiii^th  of  the  measured  iirc  of  the  meridian,  viz.  1,036,337  feet,  divided  by  this  number, 
irivcs  364,033  feet,  or  6082  fathoms  for  the  length  of  a  degree  in  the  parallel  midway 
between  Dunnose  and  Clifton,  which  is  60°  2'  20. 

In  the  same  way  that  the  length  of  a  degree,  at  the  middle  point  between  Clifton  and 
Dunnose,  was  determined,  the  length  of  degrees  at  other  intermediate  points  was  found.  The 
latitude  of  the  station  at  Arbury  Hill  was  carefully  observed  with  the  sector.  The  latitude 
of  Greenwich  was  well  known ;  and  that  of  Blenheim,  an  observatory  belonging  to  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough,  had  been  determined  iVom  five  years'  observations.  The  two  observa- 
tories were  assumed  as  stations,  in  addition  to  those  in  the  meridional  chain  of  triangles, 
and  their  position  in  respect  of  the  others  was  found. 

By  comparing  the  celestial  with  the  terrestrial  axes,  the  length  of  degrees  in  various 
parallels  was  determined,  as  in  the  following  table : — 


Arbury  Hill  nnd  (■  Ifton 

Blenheim  and  Clilt  m 

Grnonwich  and  Clilton 

U.innow  and  Clinon 

Arbury  Hill  and  Oreenwich. 
Dunnoie  and  Arbury  Hill... 

Rlnnheim  and  Dunnoae 

OunnoM  and  Oreenwich  ... 


Latitude  of  Middle 
Point. 

Fatliomi. 

«ao 

80'   89". 8 

60,7116 

S3 

a&     S6.] 

60,760 

S3 

38       3.7 

60,794 

S3 

3      10.8 

60,830 

SI 

SI       41 

60,840 

SI 

3S      18.3 

(>0,864 

SI 

13      18.3 

60,800 

SI 

9     S4.3 

60,884 

This  table  presents  a  singular  deviation  from  the  common  rule ;  for,  instead  of  the  degrees 
increasing  as  wo  proceed  from  north  to  south,  they  appear  to  decrease,  as  if  the  earth  were 
an  oblong  instead  of  an  oblate  spheroid.  The  oblatenoss  of  the  earth  at  the  poles  is,  how- 
ever, a  fact  so  well  established  by  more  extensive  measurements,  that  we  must  suppose 
either  that  some  error  has  been  committed  in  the  observations,— a  thing,  however,  not 
probable ;  or  else,  what  is  more  probable,  that  by  inequality  in  the  density  of  the  strata, 
producing  a  local  attraction,  the  plumb-line  of  the  sector  has  suffered  a  deflection  at  some 
of  the  stations. 

Notwithstanding  the  discrepancy  of  the  results  of  the  measurements  in  this  particular 
arc,  the  length  of  a  degree  at  the  middle  station  (viz.  lat.  62°  2'  20")  agrees  ver;  well  with 
the  measurements  of  the  meridian  in  France  and  other  places.  Indeed,  the  meoaurements 
of  the  small  arcs  of  the  meridian  in  other  countries  nave  presented  similar  anomalies, 
although  in  general  not  so  remarkable.  It  is,  therefore,  only  by  comparison  of  the  measures 
of  extensive  arcs  at  considerable  intervals  that  we  can  arrive  at  certain  conclusions.  The 
Britisli  survey  has  now  been  extended  from  the  southern  parts  of  the  island  to  Unst,  the 
northernmost  of  the  Shetland  Islands.  At  present  the  engineer  officers  who  carried  it  on 
are  employed  in  the  survey  of  Ireland ;  but  wa  may  expect  that  at  no  remote  period  they 
\Vill  resume  the  British  survey,  and  supply  the  observations  still  wanting.  When  this  is 
done,  and  the  complete  triongulation  is  published,  it  will  then  appear  how  far  local  attrac- 
tion may  have  disturbed  the  plummet  in  passing  over  the  variety  of  rocks  throughout  the 
island. 

Although  the  compression  of  the  earth  be  small,  yet  an  exact  knowledge  of  its  quantity 
is  of  ^reat  importance,  because  of  the  deductions  which  are  to  bp  mode  fVom  it  It  has 
been  explained,  that  the  direction  of  a  plumb-line  is  always  perpendicular  to  the  earth' 
surface ;  therefore,  and  because  of  the  continual  change  of  curvature  of  the  meridian  m 
going  ftom  north  to  south,  the  direction  of  gravity  can  only  pass  through  the  earth's  centre 
?t  the  poles  and  equator.  Thus  it  appears  that  there  is  a  necessary  connexion  between  tlie 
»forin  of  the  earth  and  terrestrial  gravity ;  so  thai  the  small  variations  in  the  latter,  wliich 
are  owing  to  the  deviations  from  the  exact  spherical  figure,  being  known,  that  deviation 
itself  may  be  determined. 


144 


PRINCIPLES  OP  (JEOORAPIIY. 


Part  M. 


It  thA  earth  wera  aphoncul  and  homotfennui*,  the  attraction  of  itM  mam  ii|K)ii  iliiiiTint 
poiiita  of  ila  Murtiicu,  or  thu  t'orcu  which  MilicitH  ovory  imrticlo  of  inatttT  at  iIm  i«iirtii<-e 
tuwurilH  the  ctnitru,  would  b«t  uvery  whero  th»  aiiiiio.  Diit  thn  olliptic  form  producer  a  hihiiII 
doviatiun  tVom  thia  ocpmlity,  which  increnaoii  in  K<>>nif  '^<''"  ^'><'  o<piator  towardii  th«i  |kiI<-s, 
aw  tlie  wpiare  of  the  mine  of  thu  latitude ;  and  ttiia  woukl  bo  tnin  even  if  the  earth  wcrr  iit 
rest :  but,  by  ita  revolution  about  ita  nhorter  axia,  there  ia  protluccd  a  contrifu^fal  forco, 
which  acta  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  that  axia,  and  therefore  diminiahea  the  forro  of 
gravity  numt  of  nil  at  the  equator,  Iwcauso  there  the  two  forcea  act  in  contrary  directions. 
At  the  pole  ita  direction  ia  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  g^ravity,  and  producea  no  eti'cct. 
By  the  united  operation  of  thcao  two  cauHUH,  in  ffoin);  fVom  the  equator  towanlH  the  poloH, 
ia  produced  a  variation  in  tlie  degree  of  quicknem  o(  doticent  of  a  heavy  body,  which  incrouKca 
aa  the  Mpiare  of  the  aino  of  the  latitude. 

The  oHcillationa  of  a  pendulum  uHord  a  Mimplo  meana  of  verifying  this  fact.  The  incroiiMO 
of  weight  in  a  heavy  body, — Uiat  ia,  tiiu  force  of  gravity  in  proceeding  fVom  the  cqiiutor  to 
the  poles, — will  be  mdicatcd  by  a  diminution  of  the  time  in  which  an  invariable  pondulnni 
performa  a  vibration.  Accordingly  the  pen<Iulum  haa  been  employed  to  determine  the  figure 
of  the  earth ;  and  the  reaults  obtained  have  been  found  to  accord  perfectly  with  the  gco- 
detical  meaauremonta  which  wo  hvve  deacribed. 

The  British  and  French  govornmontH  have  l>oth  instituted  obaervations  on  the  penduhun. 
The  latter,  on  the  recommendation  «)f  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  directed  that  the  intensity 
of  the  force  of  gravity  should  t)e  determined  at  dincront  points  of  the  arc  of  the  meridian 
between  Dunkirk  and  Formentera;  and  committed  the  labour  to  MM.  Biot,  Arago,  Mathi<Mi, 
Bouvard,  and  Chaix :  subsequently,  Biot  extended  his  obaervationa  to  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  British  islands.  These  operations  were  begun  in  the  year  1807,  At  a  somewhat 
later  period  the  British  government,  with  the  assistance  nf  the  Royal  Society,  cmploynl 
Captain  Kater,  an  eminent  observer  and  experimenter,  in  the  same  labour ;  and  also  sonl 
Captain  Sabine,  a  British  artillery  otiicer,  with  invariable  pendulums,  to  the  eeuator  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  highest  accessible  latitudes  of  tlie  northern  hemisphere  on  the  other.  It 
was  expected  that,  by  thus  multiplying  the  places  of  observation,  the  combination  of  results 
would  aestroy  the  irregular  influences  of  local  density,  and  give  the  true  variations  of  the 
force  of  gravity,  which  are  owing  to  the  earth's  ellipticity.  From  a  mean  of  all  the  obser- 
vations made  by  the  British  and  French  experimenters,  it  was  found  that  the  compression  or 
ellipticity  of  the  earth  was  about  j^Vt  ot  ^^In  Laplace  had  previously  concluded,  from 
the  combined  measurements  of  terrestrial  degrees  and  pendulum  experiments,  and  the  lunar 
inequalities  dependent  on  the  figure  of  the  earth,  that  the  same  important  clement  was 
sni-fTf.  There  is  a  difference  between  the  two  conclusions;  but,  on  the  whole,  all  the  results 
which  have  been  obtained  are  comprehended  within  limits  which  may  be  deemed  moderate, 
considering  the  difficulty  of  the  inquiry. 

The  following  tables  exhibit  numerical  values  of  the  magnitudes  of  the  degrees  of  latitude 
and  longitude,  and  their  proportion  to  each  other. 

The  first  is  from  a  valuable  collection  of  astronomical  tables  and  formulne  by  F,  Baily, 
Esq.,  President  of  the  Astronomical  Society  of  Lon(k)n.  It  shows  the  lon^^'th  of  a  degroo 
of  latitude  and  longitude  on  the  earth's  surface,  asBviming  the  compression  to  be  ^ln,  to<re- 
ther  with  the  length  of  the  pendulum  beating  seconds  there,  supposing  the  compression  to 
bo  jj!.,  the  measures  at  tlie  equator  being  considprwi  as  unity;  also  the  increase  in  tlie 
number  of  vibrations  of  an  invariable  pendulum  beating  spcondsattho  equator  on  proceeding 
towards  the  pole.     This  merely  shows  the  relative  values  of  the  quantities  thereih  stated. 

The  second  and  third  tables  are  fVum  Mendoza'b  Tables  for  Navigation  and  Nautical 
Astronomy.  And  the  fourth  is  fi"om  the  very  valuable  Introduction  to  Practical  Astronomy 
by  Dr.  Pearson,  where  it  is  stated  to  be  computed  from  a  Formula  given  by  Lieut.-Col. 
Lambton  in  the  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  xii. 

The  tables  are  constructed  from  different  values  of  the  earth's  compression  at  the  poles. 
The  uncertainty  of  this  important  element,  m  all  qup«tions  of  geography  and  astronomy,  is 
an  inconvenience  which  cannot  yet  be  got  nd  of. 

In  Tables  II,  and  III,,  the  dinionsions  of  the  degrees  of  latitude  and  longitude  are  given 
in  minutes  of  the  equator.  To  change  these  into  feet  or  taithoms,  we  must  know  the  number 
of  them  in  a  degree  of  the  equator. 

According  to  Puissant  and  Svanberg,  the  equatorial  degree,  or  60  geographical  miles,  is 
60,847  fathoms, 

Cagnoli  has  assumed  =  60,893  fathoms. 

Lieut.-Col,  Lambton  reckoned  it  to  be  60,857  fathoms. 

General  Mudge  concluded  it  to  be  60,845  fatiioms. 

Mr.  Baily,  aa  an  accompaniment  to  his  table  (Table  I.),  assumes  the  equatorial  diameter 
of  the  earth  to  be  7924  miles,  and  ttie  polar  =  7916  miles.  A  degree  of  longitude  at  the 
equator  will,  on  this  supprwition,  be  60.15  miles,  —  60,852  iatfrnms,  =  365,110  feet:  so  one 
aecond  of  time,  or  filleen     coiids  of  a  degree  of  longitude,  will  be  1521  feet. 

Table  IV.  gives  the  measure  of  each  degree  of  latitude  and  longitude  in  fathoms. 


12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 
21 


Part  »f. 

'>'■  (liiii>ri-iit 
'Iw  Kiirtiire 
'cuaHiimll 
t'««  itriliM, 
rth  wiTP  (It 
fii«(nl  torn., 
ho  t'orco  of 
dinjctiorw. 
'■  no  oHi'ct. 
"  tho  p()|PH, 
h  increuHca 

ho  incroiiKo 
equator  to 
pondiihirii 
the  flpiire 
the  /reo. 

pendulum. 
3  intensity 
J  meridiiin 
1,  Mathi.iii, 
extremity 
somewhat 
employ  (vj 
I  aluo  Hcnt 
tor  on  the 
other.     It 
of  roHults 

un.s  of  the 

the  ob-ser- 

>re88ion  or 

ided.  from 
the  lunar 

ment  waa 

ho  results 

moderate, 

f  latitude 

''.  Baily, 

I  deproo 

«fl»  to^'e- 
essioii  to 
'e  in  the 
weeding 
itated. 
Nautical 
trononiy 
ut..Col. 

e  poles, 
omy,  is 

J  g:iven 
lumber 

iles,  is 


meter 
It  the 
uone 


8001  I. 


FKJUllK  AND  MAONITUDK  OF  THE  EAIITH. 
Tablv  I. 


Compronion  ■■ 

=  ,ii.. 

Compreaa 

Lfnglh  of  tliu 

ion  =a  si,. 

I.al 

Dairira  of 

V  'f  riio  iif 

IncraaM  of 

Lon|ilu()a. 

I  Ditud*. 

Paiidulum. 

VIbratlont. 

0 

0 

l.OOflOO 

1.000000 

1.00000 

tf 
0.0 

i 

0.»!)6!i3 

1.000076 

100004 

1.77 

10 

.98490 

1.000301 

1.00016 

7.09 

16 

.96614 

1.000f)69 

1.00036 

15.60 

90 

Mwm 

1.001 1(W 

1.00063 

S7i24 

95 

.906H5 

1.001783 

1.00096 

41.69 

30 

.86675 

1.009496 

1.00135 

58J21 

35 

.89005 

1.003984 

1.00177 

76.60 

40 

.76710 

1.004196 

1.00993 

96^21 

45 

.70898 

1.004992 

1.00969 

116.49 

50 

.6'i404 

1.006858 

1.00316 

136.64 

M 

.67485 

1.0066<.)9 

1.00369 

156.95 

60 

.60196 

1.007487 

1.00404 

174.63 

65 

.42377 

1.008200 

1.00443 

19156 

70 

.34309 

1.008815 

1.00476 

906.61 

75 

J96960 

1.00«>315 

1.00503 

917.25 

80 

.17421 

1.009689 

1.00593 

226.89 

85 

.08764 

1.009i)07 

1.00535 

231.08 

90 

.00000 

1.0U0983 

1.00539 

932.85 

III' 


Tablb  II. 

The  Measure  of  a  Degree  of  Longitude,  on  each  Parallel  of  I/ttitude  in  Minutes  of  the 

Equator,  on  the  Sphere  and  Spheroid.    Ckimpreasion  =  jfr* 

Por. 
of 

Degree  on  ibe 
Sphere 

Degree  on  the 
Spheroid. 

Par. 

of 

Degree  on  the 

Degree  on  the 

Par. 

nf 

Degree  on  tba 
Sphere. 

Degree  on  tha 
Spheroid. 

Lat. 

Lat. 

Sphere. 

Spheroid. 

Lat. 

0 
0 

f 
60.000 

/ 
60.000 

0 
30 

/ 
51.969 

62.009 

0 
60 

30.000 

30.070 

1 

59.991 

59.991 

31 

51.4.10 

51.473 

61 

29.089 

99.158 

2 

59.963 

59.964 

32 

^     ,63 

60.927 

62 

28.168 

28^237 

3 

59.918 

59.918 

33 

uu.320 

60.367 

63 

97.239 

27.307 

4 

59.854 

59.855 

.14 

49.749 

49.791 

64 

96.309 

26.369 

5 

59.779 

59.773 

36 

4'},149 

49.199 

65 

26.357 

25.422 

6 

59.671 

59.673 

M 

48,541 

48.693 

66 

24.404 

34.468 

7 

59.553 

59J56 

37 

47.918 

47.972 

67 

23.444 

23.606 

8 

59.416 

59.420 

38 

47.281 

47.336 

68 

22.476 

22.537 

9 

59i26i 

69i2G(.. 

39 

46.629 

46.686 

69 

91.502 

21.669 

10 

59.088 

69.094 

40 

46.963 

46.022 

70 

20.521 

20.578 

11 

58.898 

59.904 

41 

45.283 

45.343 

71 

19.534 

19.589 

12 

68.689 

68.697 

42 

44.589 

44.661 

72 

18.641 

18.593 

13 

58.462 

58.471 

43 

4.1881 

43.946 

73 

17.542 

17.592 

14 

S9M8 

58528 

44 

43.160 

43.226 

74 

ir,:.:ts 

16.586 

15 

57.966 

57.963 

46 

42.426 

42.493 

75 

IJ.529 

16.674 

16 

57.676 

57.689 

46 

41.680 

41.747 

76 

14.515 

14.658 

17 

57.378 

67.394 

47 

40.920 

40.988 

77 

1:1.497 

13.637 

18 

57.063 

67.080 

48 

40.148 

40.217 

78 

rj.475 

12.612 

19 

66.731 

66.750 

49 

39.364 

39.434 

79 

11.449 

11.483 

20 

56.382 

56.402 

60 

38.567 

,     38.638 

80 

10.419 

10.450 

21 

66.015 

66.037 

51 

37.769 

37.831 

81 

9.336 

9.414 

22 

55.631 

55.665 

69 

36.940 

37.011 

82 

8.360 

8.376 

23 

55.230 

55.257 

53 

36.109 

"     36.181 

83 

7.312 

7.335 

24 

54.813 

.i4.841 

54 

35.267 

36.339 

84 

6.272 

6iJ9a 

26 

64.378 

64.409 

55 

34.415 

34.487 

85 

5J229 

5.246 

26 

63.928 

53.960 

66 

83.552 

33.624 

86 

4.185 

4.193 

27 

63.460 

63.495 

67 

32.678 

32.750 

87 

3.140 

3.149 

28 

59.997 

63.013 

58 

31.795 

31=866 

88 

2.094 

S.100 

29 

52.477 

52.009 

59 

30.902 

30.973 

89 

1.047 

1.050 

30 

51.969 

62.009 

60 

30.000 

30.070 

90 

0.000 

0.000 

Vol.1 


13 


:46 


H'V       PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 

— ^*" --""■-■ — ■--      Tabu  III. 


n 


PaetII 


The  Measures  of  difTerent  Arcs  of  the  Meridian  in  the  Spheroid  from  the  Equator  to  tlie  Pole; 
and  olsr  the  respective  Degrees  of  Latitude  in  Minutes  of  the   Equator.     Ck>mpre8- 
8ion  =  ^. 

o 
0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 

e 

t 

0.000 
50.038 
119.257 
178.887 
S3a518 
398.150 
357.784 
417.490 
477.058 
536.600 

1 

50.638 
59.639 
59.630 
50.631 
50.633 
50.6.34 
50.636 
50.638 
59.641 

59.644 

50.647 
59.651 
59.655 
59.659 
59.C63 
59.668 
59.673 
59.679 
59.685 

59.691 

50.697 
50.T03 
59.710 
59.717 
59.734 
59.732 
59.739 
59.747 
59.755 
59.764 

0 

30 
31 
33 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
30 

1 
1790.303 
1850.074 
100B.855 
1969.044 
3039.443 
3089.349 
3149.065 
9306.801 
3263.726 

2:talB.570 

/ 
59.773 
59.781 
49.789 
59.798 
59.807 
59.818 
59.836 
59.835 
59.844 

59.854 

50.863 
59.873 
59.883 
59.893 
59.903 
59.913 
59.933 
59.931 
59.941 

59.951 

59.960 
59,970 
59.079 
59.989 
59.998 
60.007 
60.016 
60.035 
60.0.34 
G0.043 

0 
60 
01 
62 
63 
64 
65 
66 
67 
68 
69 

1 
3587.515 
3647.566 
3707.635 
3767,698 
3827.767 
3887.840 
3947.939 
4008.036 
4068.140 
4138.351 

60.051 
60,059 
60,067 
60.075 
60,083 
60,090 
60.097 
60.104 
60.111 

60.117 

60.134 
60130 
60,135 
60,141 
60,146 
60,151 
60.155 
60,160 
60.164 

60.167 

60.171 
60.174 
60.176 
60,179 
60,181 
60.183 
60.184 
60.185 
60185 
60.186 

10 

11 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
10 

596.343 

655.990 

715.641 

775.396 

834.955 

894,618 

954.386 

1013.950 

1073.638 

1133.333 

40 
41 
43 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 

2388.424 
9448.287 
2508.160 
2508.043 
2627.936 
9687.8.3a 
2747.750 
2807.673 
3867.603 
8937.544 

70 
71 
72 
73 

74 
75 
76 
77 
78 
79 

4188.368 
4348.493 
4308.632 
4368.757 
4438.898 
4489.044 
4549.195 
4609.350 
4669.510 
4729.674 

20 
21 
23 
23 
34 
35 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

1193.014 
1353.711 
1313.414 
1373.134 
1431841 
1491.565 
1551.397 
1611.036 
1670.783 
1730.538 
1790.303 

50 
51 
53 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 

^987.495 
3C47.455 
31J7.425 
3167.404 
3227.393 
3287.391 
3347.398 
3407.414 
3467.439 
3537.473 
3587.515 

80 
81 

82 
83 
84 
85 
86 
87 
88 
89 
90 

4789.841 
4850,012 
4910.186 
4970.369 
5030,541 
5090.792 
5150,904 
5311,088 
5271.273 
5331.458 
5391.644 

Table  IV. 


The  Measure  of  each  Degree 

of  Latitude  and  of  a  Degree  of 

Longitude  in  each  Parallel  of 

Latitude  from  the  Equator  to  either  Pole.    Compres 

sion  slj. 

Par. 

Degree  of 

Degree  of 

Par. 

Degree  of 

Degree  of 

Par. 

Degree  of 

Degree  of 

of 

Latitude  in 

Longitude  in 

of 

Latitude  in 

Longitude  in 

nf 

Latitude  in 

Longitude  in 

Lat. 

Fathoma. 

Fathoms. 

Lat. 

Fathoma. 

Fathoma. 

Lat. 

Fathoms. 

Fathoms, 

0 

0 

60458.6 

60857.1 

0 

30 

60607,4 

52746,0 

0 

60 

60906.6 

30503,5 

I 

60458.8 

60847.8 

31 

60616,5 

52310.0 

61 

60915.7 

29578,2 

3 

60459.8 

60820.3 

32 

60625,8 

51657.2 

62 

60934,5 

28043,8 

3 

60460,3 

60774.3 

33 

60635,2 

51088.6 

63 

60933.1 

27700,6 

4 

60461.5 

60709.8 

34 

60644,8 

56.504.5 

64 

60!m.4 

26748.8 

5 

60463.3 

60627.0 

35 

60654,5 

49H04.9 

65 

00949.6 

25788.7 

6 

60465.1 

60.525.8 

36 

60664,4 

49290,3 

60 

00957,5 

24820.7 

7 

60467.5 

■  60406.4 

37 

60674,3 

48660,3 

67 

60905,3 

2.3845.0 

8 

60470.1 

60268.6 

38 

60684,4 

48015,0 

68 

60973,7 

22861.9 

9 

60473.2 

60112.6 

39 

60694,6 

47355.3 

69 

60979,8 

21871.7 

10 

60476.5 

599.38.4 

40 

60704,8 

46683,4 

70 

60986,7 

20874.8 

11 

60480.3 

59746.1 

41 

60715,1 

45994,3 

71 

60993,4 

19H71.4 

13 

60484.3 

59535.6 

42 

60725,4 

45293.0 

73 

60999,7 

18861,8 

13 

60488.7 

59307.1 

43 

60735.8 

44570.0 

73 

61005,7 

17P4(i,4 

14 

60493.4 

."iOOOO.O 

44 

60746,3 

43846.2 

74 

61011,5 

168S5.4 

15 

60498  4 

58796.3 

45 

60756.7 

43103.0 

75 

01016,8 

15799.3 

16 

60503.8 

58514.1 

46 

60767.2 

43.346.6 

76 

61023,0 

14768.2 

17 

60509.4 

58214.2 

47 

60777.6 

41577.3 

77 

61090,7 

13732.6 

18 

60515.4 

57890.6 

48 

60788.0 

40795,1 

78 

61031,2 

12692.7 

19 

605S1.6 

57561.4 

49 

60798.4 

40000,5 

79 

61035,3 

11648,9 

30 

60528.3 

57208,8 

50 

60R08.7 

3ni93J5 

80 

61039.1 

10601.4 

21 

0OS35.O 

56838.9 

51 

60819,0 

38374.5 

81 

610425 

9550,7 

22 

60542.0 

5<i451.6 

SH 

00829.2 

37543.7 

83 

61045,6 

8497.0 

33 

60549.4 

56047.2 

53 

60839,3 

36701.4 

83 

61048.3 

7440,6 

34 

60557.0 

55625.8 

54 

60849,3 

35847.8 

84 

6ia50.7 

6382.0 

25 

60S64.8 

55187.5 

55 

60859,3 

3498:).  1 

85 

01052,7 

5321.4 

36 

60572.9 

54733.4 

.56 

60869,0 

34lt)7.6 

80 

61054.3 

4259.1 

37 

60581.2 

54360,6 

57 

60878.7 

3*»1.5 

87 

61G5o,6 

3195.5 

OQ 

e0583.7 

0.-)772.4 

58 

60888,3 

33335.5 

88 

61056.5 

2130.9 

39 

B0.'598.4 

5,1267.8 

59 

60897,5 

31419,4 

89 

6ia57.1 

1065.6 

30 

60C07.4 

52746,0 

00 

00906,6 

30503.5 

90 

61057,2 

0000,0 

^^^i^^^^^^^^^^^f^^^^^^^^f^w^^^^^'^^. 


PabtII 


BookL 


LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDR 


Ml 


tor  to  tlie  Pole; 
or.     Compres. 


60.051 
60.059 
60.067 
60.075 
60.082 
60.090 
60.097 
60.104 
60.111 

60.117 

60.134 
60130 
60.135 
60.141 
60.146 
60.151 
60.J55 
60.160 
60.164 

60.167 

60.171 
60.174 
60.170 
60.179 
60.181 
60.182 
60.184 
60.185 
60185 
60.166 


CHAPTER  XX. 

DETERMINATION  OF  LATITUDE  AND  LONOITITDE. 


'^.J^ 


h  Parallel  of 


I     Degree  of 
Longitude  in 
FathoniB. 


30503.5 

29578.2 
28643.8 
87700.6 
2C748.8 
25788.7 
24820.7 
23845.0 
22861.9 
S187I.7 

20874.8 
19871.4 
18861.8 
1784(14 
168S5.4 
15799.3 
147C8.2 
13732.6 
12692.7 
11648.9 


10601.4 
9550.7 
8497.0 
7440.6 
6382.0 
5321.4 
4259.1 
3195.5 
2130.9 
1065.6 

oono.o 


There  are  three  important  problems  in  geography  which  require  for  their  solution  the 
doctrines  of  astronomy.  The  first  requires  to  find  the  direction  of  the  meridian  at  any  point 
of  the  earth's  surface ;  the  second«  to  find  the  latitude  of  any  place ;  and  the  third,  to  find 
the  longitude.  J""''"":' 

Problbm  I.— 7\>  determine  the  Meridian,  or  to  draw  a  Meridian  lAw- 

This  problem,  like  many  others  in  practical  astronomy,  admits  of  a  comparatively  easy 
solution,  if  no  great  degree  of  accuracy  is  required ;  but  to  obtain  a  very  accurate  result, , 
much  care,  and  instruments  of  the  most  perfect  construction,  are  indispensable. 

The  general  principle  of  the  solution  is  the  &ct,  that  the  celestial  bodies  which  do  not 
sensibly  change  their  declination  in  the  course  of  a  day,  have  the  same  apparent  altitude  at 
equal  mtervalB  of  time  before  and  after  passing  the  meridian :  also,  that  liieir  altitude  is 
greatest  or  least  when  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian;  that  is,  when  they  are  due  south  or  due 
north. 

About  the  time  of  the  summer  and  winter  solstice,  the  sim  changes  his  declination  very 
little  in  the  course  of  a  day :  and  hence  it  happens  that  the  shadow  of  an  upright  rod  or 
common  is  almost  exactly  of  the  same  length  when  the  sun  is  at  equal  distances  from  the 
meridian.  To  determine  the  position  of  the  meri^an,  then,  let  a  number  of  concentric 
circles  be  described  on  a  horizontal  plane,  and  let  a  wire  or  rod  be  placed  directly  over 
tiieir  common  centre,  and  perpendicular  to  the  plane ;  and,  the  sun  shming  on  the  plane,  let 
the  two  points  in  which  the  extremity  of  the  shadow  of  the  wire  crosses  each  circle  be 
exactly  noted.  Then,  through  any  point  of  the  plane  which  is  at  equal  distances,  from  each 
pair  oi'^intersections  draw  a  straight  line  through  the  centre  cS  the  circle ;  and  this  will  be 
in  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  or  will  be  a  merMian  line.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  one  circle, 
and  one  pair  of  intersections  of  the  path  of  the  extremity?  of  the  shadow  and  the  circle, 
would  be  sufficient :  but  several  circles  will  fulfil  the  object  with  greater  accuracy  and 
more  certainty  ;  because  a  mean  position  of  the  meridian  Ime  may  be  found  among  all  the 
results ;  and  besides,  one  of  a  pair,  or  both,  may  be  lost  by  clouds  interceptuig  the  light  of 
the  sun. 

The  imperfection  of  this  method  of  finding  the  meridian  arises  from  the  indistinctness  of 
the  termination  of  the  shadow  of  the  upright  wire,  and  from  the  change  of  the  sun's  decli- 
nation between  the  observations.  There  is,  however,  another  as  simple  and  exact  as  can 
be  expected,  without  the  assistance  of  a  telescope.  It  is  known  that  the  pole  star  and  the 
star  Alioth,  or  t  of  the  Great  Bear,  pass  the  meridian  within  about  nine  minutes  of  each 
other.  If,  therefore,  we  suspend  two  plummets  by  threads  to  fhe  ends  of  a  rod  which  turns 
horizontally  on  a  pivot,  and  by  moving  the  rod,  keep  the  two  plumb-lines  exactly  between 
the  eye  and  Alioth  when  neaj:  the  meridian,  then,  at  the  moment  when  the  pole  star  is  also 
seen  along  the  two  plumb-' 'nes,  the  two  stars  and  the  plumb-lines  will  be  all  nearlv  in  the 
plane  of  the  meridian.  To  keep  the  plumb-lines  steady  in  the  vertical  plane,  the  plummets 
may  hang  in  Vessels  filled  with  water. 

If  we  could  determine  the  position  of  a  star  when  its  altitude  is  greatest  or  least,  we 
would  then  have  a  point  of  the  heavens  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian :  but  that  position  cannot 
be  found  with  certainty,  because  the  change  of  altitude  is  imperceptible  to  a  sensible  distance 
on  each  side  of  the  meridian. 

The  exact  determination  of  the  meridian  requires  the  aid  of  the  telescope,  a  well-regulated 
clock,  and  an  instrument  for  determining  the  altitude  of  the  sun  or  a  star :  Hadley's  sextant, 
or  a  reflecting  circle,  are  the  proper  instruments  for  this  purpose.  By  the  sextant  we  can 
determine  two  instants  of  time  when  the.star  has  the  same  altitude;  the  clock  will  give  the 
interval  of  time  between  them :  and  half  this  interval  will  be  the  time  between  each  obser- 
vation and  the  passage  of  the  star  over  the  meridian.  If  we  next  day  note  the  time  by  the 
clock  when  the  star  again  attains  that  altitude,  and  add  to  that  time  the  above-mentioned 
half  interval,  we  shall  have  the  time  by  the  clock  when  the  star  will  be  on  the  meridian. 
If  at  tiiat  instant  a  telescope,  moveable  in  a  vertical  plane,  be  directed  to  the  star,  so  that  in 
passing  the  meridian  the  star  may  be  in  the  axis  of  the  telescope,  the  position  of  the  plane 
of  tlie  meridian  will  be  obtained ;  and  if  the  telescope  be  fixed  to  a  horizontal  axis  which  is 
perpendicular  to  that  plane,  it  will  have  a  vertical  motion  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  and 
will  be  what  is  called  a  transit  instrument.  By  this  instrument  the  exact  instant  when 
any  celestial  phenomenon  is  on  the  meridian  is  known.  It  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  most 
essential  instruments  in  an  observatory. 

In  a  variable  climate,  it  may  happen  that  the  observations  necessary  to  determine  tiie 
meridian  may  be  interrupted  by  cloudy  weather.  This,  however,  is  an  inconvenience  to 
which  all  astronomical  observations  are  liable.  It  must  also  be  observed,  that  a  single  set 
of  observations  will  not  give  so  perfect  a  result  as  a  considerable  number  of  sets,  from 
which  a  moan  may  be  deduced. 


148  PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY.  Pa»t  U 

If  the  celestial  object  change  its  position  otherwise  than  by  the  diurnal  motions  of  the 
earth,  as  happens  when  it  is  tlie  sun,  still  the  problem  may  be  resolved,  as  lias  been  explained, 
by  making  allowance  for  tlie  change  of  position,  by  applying  the  principles  of  spherical  trigo* 
nometry  to  the  laws  of  the  motion.  mMii^m,^^^  n^a^w^f 

,  Pboblkh  n. — Tb  determine  the  Latituie. 

In  treating  of  the  doctrine  of  the  sphere,  it  has  been  already  shown  that  the  distance  of 
the  pole  of  ue  world  (that  is,  the  point  of  the  heavens  about  which  all  the  stars  turn)  from 
the  horizon  of  any  place  is  equtii  to  its  latitude.  Now,  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours, 
every  star  passes  the  meridian  twice,  at  equal  distances  from  the  pole,  and  on  opposite  sides 
of  it  When  the  star  passes  the  meridian  below  the  pole, — ^that  is,  between  the  pole  and 
the  horizon, — its  altitude  is  the  hast  possible ;  and  when  it  crosses  the  meridian  above  the 
pole,  or  between  the  pole  and  the  south  part  of  the  horizon,  its  distance  from  the  north  point 
of  the  horizon  wUl  be  the  greatest  possible.  If,  therefore,  with  a  suitable  instrument,  (a 
quadrant  for  instance,)  we  take  the  star's  altitude  when  it  is  least,  and  also  when  it  is  greatest, 
and  correct  these  for  refraction,  it  is  manifest  that  half  their  sum  will  be  the  latitude  of  the 
place  where  the  observations  were  made. 

We  have  supposed  the  star  to  pass  the  meridian  between  the  pole  and  the  zenith,  and  then 
its  greatest  altitude  will  be  its  distance  from  the  north  point  of  tiie  horizon :  but  it  may  pass 
to  the  south  of  the  zenith,  and  then  its  altitude,  reckoned  from  the  south,  must  be  subtracted 
firom  180°  to  get  its  distance  fh>m  the  4^ orth  point  of  the  horizon ;  and  half  the  sum  of  the 
two  distances,  as  before,  will  be  the  latitude. 

Any  one  star  that  never  sets,  the  pole  star  for  instance,  will  serve  to  determine  the  latitude : 
but  it  will  be  proper,  if  circumstances  allow,  to  observe  various  stars,  and  the  mean  of  all 
the  observations  may  be  expected  to  be  more  correct  than  a  single  pair. 

If,  instead  of  the  greatest  and  least  altitudes  of  a  star,  its  greatest  and  least  distances  from 
the  zenith  be  found,  then  half  their  sum  will  be  the  complement  of  the  latitude;  that  is,  the 
difference  between  the  latitude  and  ninety  degrees. 

For  example,  by  observations  made  on  tiie  pole  star  at  the  Dublin  Observatory,  it  was  found 
that 

Its  greatest  zenith  distance,  corrected  for  refraction,  was  .    ■    ■    38"  19'  43".ll 
.      Least 34    53  49.55 

,      The  sum 73    13  82.66 

^      Half  the  sum,  or  co-latitude  of  the  observatory  ------36    36  46. S3. 

,      Thelatitiide 53    23   13.67 

■  When  the  latitude  of  one  place  is  known,  the  latitude  of  another  place  may  be  found  by 
observing  with  a  quadrant,  or  other  suitable  instrument,  the  zenith  distances  of  any  star  at 
both  places.  The  difierence  of  these  zenith  distances,  when  Corrected  for  refraction,  will  bo 
the  difference  of  latitude  of  the  two  places. 

Thus,  for  example,  to  determine  the  difference  between  the  latitudes  of  Greenwich  Ob- 
servatory and  Dunnose  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  it  was  found  that 

At  Dunnose  the  z.  d.  of  (3  Draconis  was  ..-..-...    l*)  50'  5".24 

And  at  Greenwich 0    58  33.13 

'       Difference  of  latitude 0    51   32.11 

The  latitude  of  Greenwich  was  known  tobe      -------  51    28  30.05 

The  latitiide  of  Dunnose  is ^  50    37     8.39 

The  navigator  has  daily  occasion  to  determine  his  latitude  at  sea.    For  this  purpose,  he 
finds  the  sun's  zenith  distance,  or  its  altitude  at  noon,  by  Kadlec's  sextant     The  Nautical 
Almanac  gives  him  the  sun's  declination,  or  distance  from  the  equator  at  the  time  he  makes 
his  observation :  the  sum  or  difference  of  these  is  his  latitude,  according  as  the  ship  and  the 
sun  are  on  the  same  or  opposite  sides  of  the  equator. 

Ex.    On  July  24, 1783,  at  a  place  in  longitude  54°  (&"  36"")  west  of  Greenwich,  the  alti- 
tude of  the  sun's  lower  limb,  when  cleared  from  refraction  and  parallax,  waj?  observed  by  a 
sextant  to  be  59°  15'  30".     By  the  Nautical  Almanac,  the  sun's  semidiameter  was  15'  ^", 
and  his  declination  at  the  time  of  noon  in  that  longitude  19°  51'  N.    The  cidculation  for 
the  latitude  will  stand  thus : — 

Altitude  of  the  sun's  lower  limb      --------...    59°  15'  30" 

f       Add  sun's  semidiameter     ----..-.......  15  48 

'       Subtract  r'titude  of  sun's  centre     --.---.....    59    31   13 

From - 90     0     0 

To  sun's  zenith  distance  -^^  =  ----«---.-30  28  42 
'  Add  sun's  declination  -•••-••••>....  .ig  51  Q 
,j      The  latitude  of  the  place  u->->-.>......    50    19  42 


Book  L 


LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE. 


148 


T)ie  navigator  cannot  always  obtain  an  obeervation  of  the  sun  or  a  star  when  on  the  me- 
ridian.  He  may,  however,  be  able  to  observe  two  latitudes  out  of  the  meridian,  and  the 
inter\'al  of  time  between  them.  With  these  data,  and  the  aid  of  spherical  trigonometry  and 
the  Nautical  Almanac,  he  may  find  his  latitude  by  rules  given  by  writers  on  navigation  and 
astronomy.  It  is,  in  general,  by  one  or  other  of  these  methods  that  the  recorded  latitudes 
of  all  pi .  :''s  have  been  obtained,  and  arranged  in  a  table  for  the  use  of  the  geographer  and 
navigatoi.  ;        .  , 

Problem  m. — To  determine  the  Longitude. 

The  interval  of  time  between  two  successive  passages  of  the  sim  over  the  meridian  of  any 
place  is  twenty-four  hours.  If,  therefore,  we  suppose  a  number  of  meridians  to  be  drawn 
at  equal  intervals, — that  is,  to  form  successively  with  each  other  equal  angles  at  the  poles, — 
then,  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours,  each  of  these  meridians  (supposing  their  planes 
produced)  will  pass  through  the  sun.  Therefore  twenty-four  hours  of  mean  solar  time  will 
correspond  to  360  degrees  of  longitude ;  for  the  whole  scale  of  longitude  must  be  contained 
between  the  eastern  and  western  sides  of  the  meridian  at  the  same  place.  At  places  situated 
on  the  meridian  opposite  that  on  which  ths  sun  was  at  0",  or,  in  civil  reckoning,  at  12  at 
noon,  the  time  would  be  12\  or  12  at  night ;  and  12"  would  correspond  to  180  degrees  of 
longitude.  At  places  situated  on  the  meridian  at  right  angles  to  the  former,  the  time  would 
be  6'  or  18",  or,  in  civil  reckoning,  six  in  the  mornmg  or  six  in  the  evening ;  and,  accord- 
ingly, six  hours  and  eighteen  hou/s  of  mean  solar  time  will  correspond  to  90°  or  270°  of 
longitude ;  and  so  on  for  intennediate  meridians. 

The  selection  of  a  meridian,  from  which  the  longitude  is  to  be  reckoned,  is  entirely  arbi- 
trary. The  English  take  the  meridian  passing  through  Greenwich  Observatory  for  thejirat 
meridian,  and  reckon  its  longitude  to  be  0°  or  0".  The  first  meridian  of  the  Irench  is  that 
which  passes  thi  ough  the  observatory  of  Paris.  An  interval  of  9"  21'  elapses  between  the 
passages  of  tl..i  n"  "ver  the  meridians  of  Paris  and  Greenwich:  the  longitude  of  Paris 
Observatory  it,  •  ■  f  'e,  by  English  geographers,  accounted  to  be  9"  21"  east  in  time;  or 
in  degrees,  2°  '  '.•    ■  't 

Since  it  is  n^x.  &.,  all  places  on  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  from  pole  to  pole  at  the  same 
instant,  it  will  be  an  hour  past  noon,  or  1",  at  all  places  on  the  meridian  15°  to  the  east  of 
tliat  of  Greenwich ;  and  two  hours  past  noon,  or  2\  at  all  places  on  the  meridian  30°  east 
from  that  of  Greenwich ;  and  so  on.  On  the  other  hand,  it  will  want  an  hour  to  noon,  or 
will  be  11",  at  all  places  on  the  meridian  15°  west  from  that  of  Greenwich ;  and  it  will  be 
two  hours  before  noon,  or  10",  at  places  on  the  meridian  30°  west  from  that  of  Greenwich ; 
and  so  on,  reckoning  an  hour,  or  sixty  minutes  of  time,  to  correspond  to  fifteen  degrees,  and 
four  minutes  of  time  to  one  degree. 

Since  it  appears  that  all  places  on  the  same  meridian  have  noon,  or  any  assumed  hour, 
ut  the  same  instant,  and  that  the  instant  of  noon  is  difierent  at  places  on  difiTerent  meridians, — 
being  earlier  or  later  on  meridians  having  west  longitude,  according  as  they  are  nearer  to 
or  farther  from  the  first  meridian,  and  the  reverse  on  meridians  having  east  longitude ;  aiid 
moreover,  that  the  difference  between  the  time  of  noon  on  two  meridians  is  proportional  to 
the  difference  of  their  longitude,  and  therefore  a  measure  of  that  difference ;  it  follows  that 
if,  luiowing  the  hour  of  the  day  at  any  place,  we  can  at  the  same  instant  by  any  means  know 
tlie  hour  at  a  place  on  any  other  meridian,  then  we  can  determine  the  difference  of  longitude 
between  the  meridians :  for  it  will  be  the  difference  between  the  times  of  the  day,  as  esti- 
mated on  the  two  meridians,  reckoned  in  hours,  minutes,  &c. ;  and  this  may  be  converted 
into  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds,  by  reckoning  fifteen  degrees  to  an  hour,  and  proportionally 
for  minutes  and  seconds  of  time. 

Tlie  practical  methods  of  determining  the  longitude  are  the  following : — 

1.  By  a  Chronometer  or  Time-keeper.  ' 

Let  us  suppose  that  a  traveller  departs  from  any  place,  (St.  Paul's,  London,  for  example,) 
and  carries  with  him  a  wateh  regulated  to  mean  solar  time,  and  which  indicates  12"  at  the 
instant  of  mean  noon  at  London :  then,  supposing  the  watch  to  go  with  perfect  regularity, 
if  he  go  to  Edinburgh,  and  compare  the  estimated  solar  time  there  with  that  shown  by  hig 
watch,  he  will  find  that  they  differ  by  twelves  minutes  twenty-one  seconds ;  so  that  when  it  \9 
12'  at  Edinburgh  Observatory,  it  will  be  12"  12""  21'  by  his  wateh.  He  may  therefore  con- 
chide,  that  the  difference  of  longitude  between  Ixindon  and  Edinburgh  is  12™  21'  west ; 
and  since  St.  Paul's  is  twenty-three  seconds  of  time  west  from  Greenwich,  the  longitude  of 
Rdinburgh  Observatory  is  12"  44'  west,  which  corresponds  to  3°  11'.  If,  leaving  Ixindon,  he 
ii;i(l  crone  to  Paris,  he  would  there  have  found  the  estimated  time  to  be  9™  44'  earlirr  than 
that  shown  by  his  wateh :  hence  the  difference  between  the  meridians  of  London  and  Paris 
IS  9'"  44",  and  the  longitude  of  Paris  (from  Gr-enwich)  9""  21'  east. 

In  the  same  way  the  navisjator  nt  sea  may  determine  his  longitude  by  a  good  chronLmeter. 
He  can  determine  the  hour  of  tlie  day  by  the  sun's  altitude,  and  the  principles  of  fpherical 

13* 


160 


PiyUVCTPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  11. 


trigonometry.  Or  he  may  take  equal  altitudes,  noting  the  times ;  the  middle  point  of  time 
between  them  will  be  the  instant  of  noon,  aa  shown  by  the  watch :  he  must,  however,  niEikc 
a  correction  for  the  c^iuige  of  the  sun's  declination,  and  the  distance  run  by  the  ship  in  the 
interval.  Supposing  now  the  chronometer  to  have  been  set  to  the  true  time  at  the  port  from 
whence  he  sailed,  and  to  have  gone  uniformly  with  a  small  known  daily  acceleration  ot 
retardation,  called  its  rate ;  this  correction  being  applied,  he  will  have  the  time  at  the  port 
corresponding  to  his  observed  time  of  noon,  and  their  difference  will  be  the  longitude  of  the 
ship  eastward  or  westward  from  the  meridian  whence  she  sailed. 

The  longitude  of  any  point  on  tlie  earth,  either  at  sea  or  on  land,  may  be  determined  by 
a  good  chronometer;  in  the  latter  case,  however,  the  jolting  it  must  suffer  by  carriage  will 
disturb  its  motioi  >ind  render  the  result  sought  uncertain.  At  sea,  the  mode  of  transport  is 
not  so  liable  to  madden  jerks;  and,  therefore,  the  chrononreter  may  be  expected  to  go  witli 
more  regularity.  If  several  be  employed,  considerable  accuracy  may  be  obtained.  The 
Board  of  Admiralty  sent  ten  or  twelve  chronometers  from  Greenwich  to  Falmouth,  and 
thence  in  a  vessel  to  Madeira,  and  in  this  way  determined  the  longitude  of  Funchal  from  a 
mean  of  their  results. 

The  facility  of  this  mode  of  determining  the  longitude  makes  perfection  in  the  construc- 
tion of  chronometers  an  object  of  high  importance  in  a  maritime  nation  like  Britain.  It  was, 
therefore,  for  mainr  years  encouraged  by  acts  of  parliament  offering  high  rewards  for  pre- 
scribed degrees  of^^excellence.  These,  however,  are  now  repealed ;  but  the  government  haa 
not  Ipst  sight  of  this  important  subject 


2.     The  Longitude  by  Eclipses  of  Jupiter's  Satellites. 


F,v' 


^  If  a  celestial  phenomenon  can  be  seen  at  the  same  absolute  instant  of  time  in  two  dif- 
ferent places  of  the  earth,  this  appearance  gives  the  means  of  determining  the  difference  of 
their  longitudes ;  for  if  the  phenomenon  be  seen  at  both  places,  and  the  times,  according  to 
their  reckoning,  be  noted,  it  is  manifest  that  their  diffe'  )nce  will  be  the  difference  cf  longi- 
tude, in  time,  of  the  two  places. 

Now  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's  moons  are  phenomena  of  this  kind.  They  may  be  seen, 
almost  at  the  same  instant,  everywhere  in  the  hemisphere  in  which  Jupiter  is  visible :  and 
such  is  the  perfection  of  astronomy,  that  the  times  at  which  they  will  happen  can  be  pre- 
dicted with  considerable  accuracy.  These  are  computed  according  to  Greenwich  time,  and 
published,  along  with  various  other  matters,  in  the  Nautical  Almanac,  several  years  before 
they  happen,  for  the  benefit  of  travellers.  This  method  of  finding  the  longitude  can,  liow- 
ever,  only  be  applied  on  land ;  for  at  sea  the  rolling  of  the  ship  makes  it  next  to  impossible 
to  direct  a  telescope  so  steadily  to  Jupiter  as  to  view  the  eclipse  of  a  satellite. 

Example. — Suppose  an  immersion  of  the  first  satellite  should  be  observed  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  April  16, 1805,  ai  IS*'  25""  35"  mean  time ;  the  predicted  time  given  by  the 
Ephemeris  being  12''  12""  2"  "X  Greenwich.  Here  the  difference  is  l*  13"  33' ;  whence  the 
longitude  of  the  Cape  should  be  18°  23'  15"  east  of  Greenwich. 

h^  this  example,  tlie  observed  time  at  the  Cape  is  compared  with  the  computed  time  of 
the  eclipse  at  Greenwich.  If,  instead  of  this,  the  observed  time  at  Greenwich  had  been 
used,  greater  accuracy  might  have  been  expected. 

This  method  is  easy,  and  therefore  much  practised ;  but  it  is  liatle  to  uncertainty :  for 
two  observers  in  the  same  room,  but  using  different  telescopes,  will  sometimes  differ  in  noting 
the  time  of  an  eclipse  of  the  first  satellite  by  as  much  as  fifteen  or  twenty  seconds.  Delam- 
bre  thinks  that  the  time  of  an  eclipse  of  the  fourth  satellite  may  be  doubtful  to  the  amount 
of  four  minutes. 

3.    Longitude  by  an  Eclipse  of  the  Moon.  -   . 

An  eclipse  of  the  moon  has  exactly  the  same  aj-iearance,  at  the  same  instant,  wherever 
seen ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  be  quite  sure,  by  observation,  of  the  exact  time  of  their  be,fi:in 
ning  or  end,  because  of  the  penumbra  which  bounds  the  earth's  shadow.    The  results  to  be 
obtained  from  them  are  therefore  uncertain,  to  perhaps  two  minutes  of  time ;  and  therefore 
only  to  be  regarded  as  approximations  to  the  truth. 

Example.  An  eclipse  of  the  moon  was  observed  Aug.  28.  1729,  by  the  astronomer  Cos- 
sini  at  Paris,  and  by  Mr.  Stephenson  at  Barbadoes. 

At  Paris,  Imm.  )        -    12*'   IQ""  13"       Emer.  ) 
At  Barbadoes,  Imm.  >       8    11      0        Emer.  ) 


13" 
9 


59" 
51 


4      8    13 


4      8 


By  the  mean  of  the  two,  the  difference  of  longitude  is  4''  8"  6"5 ;  that  is,  Barbadoes  in 
62°!' 30"  west  of  Paris. 


■^r.ri'^^Vr:^yy^ift '  ■ 


Pabt  II.    I     Book  L 


LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDR 


le  point  of  time 
however,  moke 
the  ship  in  the 
at  the  port  from 
acceleration  oi 
ime  at  the  port 
ongitudeofthe 

determined  by 
y  carriage  will 
J  of  transport  is 
cted  to  go  with 
)btained.  The 
Falmouth,  and 
''unchal  from  a 

the  construc- 
ritain.  Itwaa, 
wards  for  pre- 
Dvemment  has 


may  be  seen, 
3  visible :  and 
n  can  be  pre- 
rich  time,  and 

years  before 
ide  can,  Iiow- 
to  impossible 

1  at  the  Cape 

given  by  the 

whence  the 

ited  time  of 
ch  had  been 

Jrtainty:  for 
Fer  in  notin/jr 
ids,  Delam- 
the  amount 


t,  wherever 
Jieir  ben;ir 
Bsults  to  be 
i  therefore 

lomer  Cas- 


4  Longifndc  by  Lunar  Dutancea,  or  by  OceultatioTU  of  Start  by  the  Moon. 

The  moon  is.  of  all  the  celestial  bodies,  the  most  convenient  for  determining  the  longi- 
tude, because  o.  *'i(  greater  quickness  of  her  apparent  motion  among  the  stars.  She  makes 
the  complete  c'l-cuit  of  the  heavens  in  2?*  T""  43"  4'.7  (this  is  her  mean  sidereal  revolu- 
tion) :  therefore  she  changes  her  place  among  the  stars  more  than  half  a  degree,  or  her  own 
apparent  diameter,  in  an  hour ;  so  that  in  two  minutes  of  time  she  pabses  over  one  minute 
of  a  degree.     This,  or  even  its  half,  is  quite  a  measurable  quantity  by  a  good  sextant. 

By  the  theory  of  the  moon's  motion,  her  place  among  the  stars  is  known  at  any  time 
that  is,  knowing  the  time  of  the  day  at  Greenwich,  the  place  of  the  moon  is  known ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  knowing  the  place  of  the  moon,  the  time  at  Greenwich  is  known.  The 
Nautical  Almanac  gives  the  distance  of  the  moon's  centre  from  the  sun,  aiid  some  of  the 
brighter  stars,  as  it  would  be  seen  from  the  earth's  centre,  for  every  third  hour  of  the  day, 
Greenwich  time.  If,  therefore,  the  Almanac  show  that  the  moon,  considered  as  seen  from 
the  earth's  centre,  will  be  10°  from  a  certain  fixed  star  at  six  o'clock  in  the  evening  at 
Greenwich ;  and  we  make  an  olservation  at  a  distant  place,  and  find  that  the  moon's  dis- 
tance firom  the  same  star,  reduced  by  computation  to  what  it  would  be  if  seen  at  the  earth's 
centre,  is  10°,  we  immediately  conclude  that  at  that  mstant  it  is  six  o'clock  at  Greenwich. 
Thus  the  moon,  with  the  brighter  fixed  stars  near  her  path,  serve  the  purpose  of  a  chrono- 
meter. 

To  determine  the  longitude  in  this  way,  one  observer  measures  the  moon's  distance  from 
the  sun  or  a  bright  star  (one  of  those  in  the  Ephemeris) ;  another  observer  at  the  same  time 
finds  the  altitudes  of  the  moon  and  star ;  and  a  third  should  observe  the  exact  timc^  by  a 
chronometer  or  good  watch  at  which  the  observations  were  made.  These  observatiors, 
corrected  for  reflection,  give  data  for  finding  what  would  be  the  apparent  place  of  the  moon 
in  the  heavens,  if  it  could  be  seen  from  the  centre  of  the  earth  at  that  time.  The  Nautical 
Almanac  enables  the  observer  to  find  the  hou'  at  Greenwich,  when  the  poiiition  of  the  moon 
in  the  heavens  was  such  as  he  observed  it,  and  the  interval  between  the  Greenwich  time 
and  his  own  gives  him  his  longitude. 

This  method  of  finding  the  longitude  is  commonly  practised  in  the  service  of  the  East 
India  Company,  and  in  the  navy.  By  it  the  longitude  may  be  generally  known  to  within 
twenty  miles,  and  very  often  much  nearer.  This,  although  less  accurate  theji  the  latitude, 
is  yet  an  invaluable  acquisition  to  the  navigator.  A  striking  proof  how  much  it  may  be 
depended  on  has  been  given  by  a  distinguished  navigator  (Capt.  Basil  Hall,  R.  N.).  After 
a  voyage  of  8000  miles,  occupying  eighty-nine  days,  he  arrived  off"  Rio  de  Janeiro,  having 
paused  through  the  Pacific  Ocean,  rounded  Cape  Horn,  and  crossed  the  South  Atlantic, 
without  making  any  land.  When  within  a  week's  sail  of  Rio,  he  set  about  detemining, 
by  lunar  observations,  the  ship's  course  and  place  at  a  determinate  moment ;  and  having 
found  this,  within  from  five  to  ten  miles,  he  trusted  to  the  ordinary  and  more  compendious 
way  of  finding  his  position,  such  as  is  used  in  short  trips,  for  the  remainder  of  his  voya're. 
When  he  arrived  withui  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  of  the  coast  (pccording  to  his  estimation), 
he  hove  to  at  four  in  the  morning,  waiting  for  day-break.  He  than  proceeded,  although  the 
weather  was  hazy ;  but  about  eight  it  become  so  foggy  that  he  did  not  like  to  stand  in 
farther.  The  fog  suddenly  cleared  off",  and  then  he  had  the  satisfiiction  to  see  the  Great 
Sugar-loaf  Rock,  which  stands  on  one  side  of  the  harbour,  so  nearly  right  a-head,  that  lie 
had  not  to  alter  his  course  above  a  point  in  order  to  hit  the  entrance  of  Rio. 

Occultations  of  stars  by  the  moon  serve  exactly  the  same  purpose  as  a  distance  of  the 
moon  from  a  star :  these,  however,  are  not  so  generally  observed  at  sea  as  on  land.  They 
?lve  the  distance  of  the  moon  from  the  star  with  almost  perfect  accuracy,  and  therefore  are 
an  excellent  method  of  determining  the  longitude.  When  an  occultation  has  been  observed, 
we  can,  by  the  lunar  tables  or  the  Nautical  Almanac,  which  is  a  species  of  lunar  and  solar 
tables,  compute  the  distance  between  the  centre  of  the  moon  and  star  as  it  would  appear  at 
tiie  earth's  centre  at  the  moment  the  occultation  was  observed,  provided  we  know  the  lon- 
gitude of  the  place  where  the  observation  was  made :  but  this  longitude  is  the  very  thing 
we  want;  therefore  we  cannot  proceed  by  a  direct  process.  However,  v*e  may  know  the 
longitude  nearly  by  some  other  means;  an  eclipse  of  one  of  Jupiter's  satellites,  for  exam- 
ple. With  this,  as  if  it  were  the  true  longitude,  we  may  calculate  the  apparent  distance 
between  the  star  and  centre  of  the  moon  reduced  to  the  earth's  centre  at  the  time  the  occul- 
tation was  seer  If  the  longitude  had  been  correctly  assumed,  this  would  have  been  exactly 
the  moon's  semidiameter ;  but  it  will  differ  more  or  less,  according  to  the  magnitude  of  the 
error  we  have  made  in  the  assumed  longitude.  There  will,  however,  be  such  a  determi- 
nate connexion  between  tlie  envr  of  the  longitude  and  the  difference  between  the  moon's 
semidiameter  and  computed  distance  of  the  star  and  moon's  centre,  that  the  one  will  be  dedu- 
cible  firom  the  other  by  calculation.  In  this  way,  then,  the  erroif  may  be  estimated,  and  a 
nearer  approximation  to  tlie  longitude  obtained ;  and  a  repetition  of  the  procesB  will  give  a 
■(ill  more  correct  result  ■  .     r 


ISa  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  H 

i/V'   iiwi!        6.  Longitude  by  the  Tranrit  of  the  Moon  over  the  Meridion.  *  '■ 

Let  T  be  the  time  by  the  clock  when  the  iroon  is  observed  on  the  meridian  of  any  place, 
(  the  time  of  transit  of  a  known  fixed  star,  24  -t  'the  interval  between  two  successive 
transits  of  the  same  star :  then  iH  +  x:T-t::',i  ' :  diilerence  of  riffht  ascension  of  the 
moon  and  star  at  the  instant  the  moon  was  on  the  meridian ;  to  which  addin^f  the  known 
ri^rht  ascension  of  the  star,  the  right  ascension  (A)  of  the  moon  when  on  the  meridian  ig 
determined.  Now  the  moon's  right  ascension  when  on  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  is  given 
m  the  Nautical  Almanac  for  every  day  of  the  year,  from  whence  the  daily  increment  of  her 
right  ascension  may  be  determined :  let,  therefore,  a  be  the  moon's  right  ascension  when  on 
the  meridian  of  Greenwich,  E  the  mcrement  of  right  ascension  in  me  tL.  between  twc 
successive  transits  over  the  same  meridian;  then,  considering  the  change  of  right  ascension 
as  uniform, 

E :  a  -  A  : :  960P  :  the  required  longitude.       ^-    -i ' 

*4  .1  ■,■  .*. 

k..  J,  !..,  6.  Longitude  by  Signals. 

The  most  accurate  way  of  determining  small  differences  of  longitude  is  by  signals  made 
on  the  earth's  sur&ce.  A  rocket  lired  irom  an  elevated  spot  on  a  clear  night  may  be  seen 
distinctly  with  a  telescope  at  the  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty  miles :  therefore,  by  observmg 
the  times  at  which  the  same  explosion  is  seen  at  two  places,  the  difference  of  longitude  of 
thu  places  may  be  found. 

The  same  method  will  apply  to  places  at  any  distance,  if  they  be  connected  by  a  cliain 
of  stations  sufficiently  near  to  each  other  to  admit  of  a  rocket  to  be  seen  irom  every  two 
adjoining  stations.  The  difference  of  longitude  between  Greenwich  and  Paris  was  deter- 
mined in  1825  in  this  way.  Rockets  were  exploded  at  Wrothom,  and  seen  simultaneously 
at  Greenwich  and  Fairlight  Down :  also  at  La  Canche  on  the  French  coast,  which  were 
seen  at  Fairlight  and  Ligniers;  and  at  Mont  Javoult,  which  were  observed  at  Ligniers  and 
Paris. 

In  the  same  way  t^.e  difference  of  longitude  between  Geneva  and  Milan  has  been  deter- 
mined b^  signals  made  by  illumination  on  th«  tops  of  intennediate  mountains. 

The  mtensely  brilliant  light  which  Lieutenant  Drummond,  of  the  Royal  Engineers,  has 
proposed  for  light-houses,  and  which  is  producec  by  placing  a  ball  of  lime,  about  the  size  of 
a  pea,  in  a  flame  supported  by  oxygen  gas,  may  be  employed  in  determining  differences  of 
longitude.  We  believe  that,  in  fevourable  weather,  this  light  exhibited  on  the  top  of  Ben 
Lomond  may  be  seen  at  the  same  time  at  Edinburgh  and  in  Ireland :  indeed,  we  know  that 
it  has  actually  been  seen  in  the  north  of  Ireland.  Here,  then,  we  have  the  means  of  deter 
mining  with  great  exactness  the  difference  between 'the  longitude  of  Dublin  and  Edinburgh. 

,-,.1      .  .   r.     'r.  ,  7.  Longitude  by  TViarigulation,  , 

The  trigonometrical  survey  of  Britain  has  determined  the  longitude  of  all  the  principal 
points  on  the  coast,  as  well  as  the  mountains  and  (iities  in  the  interior,  particularly  in  Eng- 
land. At  present  the  survey  is  suspended  in  Britain,  but  is  going  on  in  Ireland.  When 
this  is  completed,  the  British  survey  will  doubtless  be  resumed,  and  the  geography  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  island  made  as  perfect  in  its  minute  details  as  the  southeni,  which, 
from  its  proximity  to  the  continent,  is  more  necessary  to  be  known  in  preparing  plans  of 
national  defence. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

,  -  .  REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 

Thb  most  natural  and  correct  representation  which  can  be  given  of  the  geographical  divi- 
sions of  the  earth's  surface  is  that  which  is  made  on  a  sphere  or  glob«.  In  this  way  tlie 
different  countries  may  be  truly  delineated,  so  as  to  exhibit  perfectly  to  the  eye  their  relative 
position,  their  magnitude,  and  boundaries;  and  by  such  a  representation  of  the  earth,  all  the 
problems  in  geography  may  be  resolved  with  elegance  and  facility. 

But  although  the  surfiice  of  a  solid  having  the  exact  figure  of  the  earth,  or  differing  but 
little  from  it,  affords  in  theory  the  most  complete  and  the  only  perfect  representation  of  any 
considerable  tract  of  country,  yet  there  is  a  limit  in  practice  to  this  precious  advantage.  A 
globe  of  a  moderate  size  serves  very  well  to  give  a  distinct  notion  of  the  figure,  the  majmi- 
tude,  the  position,  and  general  features  of  the  great  continents  and  islands :  but  the  largest 
glol>e  that  can  conveniently  be  constructed  is  insufficient  for  minute  details ;  and  then  we 
must  have  recourse  to  the  more  simple,  although  less  perfect,  representations  of  Maps. 

It  is  impossible  to  represent  on  a  plane  a  large  extent  of  the  earth's  surface,  so  that  the 
distances  of  places  in  the  plane  map  shall  have  to  each  other  precisely  the  same  proportion 
as  their  distances  on  the  globe.  To  obviate  this  difficulty,  geographers  have  had  recourse 
to  different  methods  of  representing  portions  of  the  glot)e  on  a  plane. 


PahtH 


of  any  place^ 
two  successive 
scension  of  the 
ingr  the  known 
the  meridian  is 
nwich  is  given 
crement  of  her 
nsion  when  on 
between  twc 
ight  ascension 


signals  made 

may  be  seen 

by  observing 

f  longitude  of 

»<1  by  a  chain 
om  every  two 
ris  was  deter- 
niuitaneously 
.  which  were 
Ligniers  and 

ts  been  deter- 

ngineera,  has 
It  the  size  of 
lifferences  of 
»e  top  of  Ben 
i'e  know  that 
«ns  of  deter 
d  Edinburgh. 

;he  principal 
arly  in  Eng- 
md.  When 
i^phy  of  the 
'lein,  which, 
ng  plans  of 


Book  L 


REPRESENTATION  OP  THE  EARTH. 


'W 


phical  divi- 
lis  way  the 
eir  relntive 
rth,  all  the 

ffering  but 
ion  of  any 
ntage.  A 
he  magni. 
fie  largest 
i  then  we 

^APS. 

'   uiat  mo 

Jroportion 
recourse 


By  one  method  the  countries  are  represented  by  the  rules  of  perspective,  as  they  would 
appear  to  an  eye  that  should  view  them  on  the  surface  of  a  sphere  from  a  given  point.  The 
(liHcrent  positions  which  may  be  assumed  for  the  point  iVom  which  the  sphere  is  viewed  give 
rJHC  to  dinerent  projections,  which  all  answer  very  well  when  the  surface  to  be  represented 
is  of  small  extent,  and  the  point  of  view,  or  projecting  point,  is  nearly  over  its  centre. 
However,  when  the  surface  is  of  great  extent,  a  whole  hemisphere  for  instance,  those  places 
which  lie  near  the  border  of  the  projection  are  in  thorn  all  much  distorted. 

According  to  another  method,  the  spherical  surface  to  be  represented  is  supposed  to  be  % 
cone  whose  vertex  is  somewhere  in  the  polar  axis  produced,  and  its  curved  surface  eithtr 
touches  the  sphere  at  the  middle  parallel  of  the  map,  or  falls  within  the  sphere  at  the  mid- 
dle parallel,  and  without  it  at  the  extreme  parallels.  The  surface  of  the  cpne  is  then  sup- 
posed to  be  extended  into  a  plane.  This  way  of  constructing  maps  is  called  the  method  of 
devflopment. 

There  are  other  mathematical  hypotheses  accordiiig  to  which  maps  are  delineated,  and 
one  in  particular  by  which  marine  charts  are  constructed.  In  this,  the  parallels  of  latitude 
nnd  circles  of  longitude  are  all  repreHcnted  by  straight  lines  (that  is,  a  Ime  making  always 
the  same  angle  with  the  meridian),  and  tlie  course  of  a  ship  sailing  always  on  the  same 
rhomb  is  also  a  straight  line.  A  representation  of  the  earth  in  Uiis  way  is  commonly 
called  Mercator's  chart,  although  the  invention  is  due  to  an  English  mathematician,  Edwara 
Wright.    Charts  of  this  construction  are  of  great  importance  in  navigation. 

•.    .:"7^i:.  I.   CONSTBUCTION  OF  MAPS  BY  PBOJECrriON.  f,       '    '^.Z 

There  are  two  projections  of  the  sphere  by  which  portions  of  its  surface  may  be  truly 
delineated  by  the  rules  of  perspective :  the  orthographic  and  the  stereooraphio.  In  each, 
the  plane  on  which  the  projection  is  made  is  called  the  plane  of  projection. 

1.  ORTHOORAPHIO  PROJECTION.  / 

■"  ,.  ./I 

To  project  any  point  in  space  orthographically  on  a  plane,  a  perpendicular  is  to  be  drawn 
from  the  point  on  the  plane  and  the  bottom  of  the  perpendicular ;  that  is,  the  point  in  which 
it  meets  the  plane  is  the  orthographic  projection  of  the  point. 

The  orthographic  projection  of  a  line  of  any  kind  on  a  plane  is  found  by  supposing  peN 
pendiculars  to  be  drawn  from  every  point  in  the  line,  and  that  line  on  the  plane  which  passes 
through  the  bottom  of  all  the  perpendiculars  in  the  orthographic  projection  of  the  proposed 
line. 

It  is  easy  to  sec  that  the  orthographic  projection  of  a  straight  line  must  be  a  straight  line, 
because  the  perpendiculars  drawn  from  every  point  in  it  to  ttie  plane  of  projection  will  all 
lie  in  a  plane,  and  the  common  section  of  two  planes  is  a  straight  line.  It  is  also  apparent 
that  the  projection  of  a  rectilineal  figure  will  be  a  ractilineal  figure. 

If  a  circle  be  parallel  to  the  plane  of  projection,  its  orthographic  projection  or  representor 
tion  will  be  a  circle :  for  the  perpendiculars  supposed  to  be  drawn  from  every  point  in  the 
circle  to  the  plane  of  projection  will  all  be  on  the  curve  surface  of  a  cylinder,  and  they  may 
be  considered  as  constituting  that  surface.  The  circle  and  its  projection  will  be  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  cylinder ;  and  since  they  are  parallel,  they  will  bn  alike  and  e(}ual. 

If  the  plane  in  which  a  circle  lies  be  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  projection,  its  projec- 
tion will  manifestly  be  a  straight  line,  which  will  be  equal  in  length  to  the  diameter ;  and 
the  projection  of  any  arc  reckoned  from  the  extremities  of  the  diameter  will  be  projected 
into  its  versed  sine;  also  the  complement  of  the  arc,  or  what  it  wants  of  ninety  degrees,  will 
be  projected  into  its  sine. 

But  if  a  circle  be  in  a  plane  which  is  neither  parallel  nor  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of 
projection,  then  its  projection  will  neither  be  a  circle  nor  a  straight  line ;  it  will  be  an  oval 
fiffuro.  The  boundmg  line  will  be  an  ellipse,  a  curve  formed  by  cutting  a  cylinder  by  a 
plane  oblique  to  its  axis ;  and  it  is  also  one  of  the  conic  sections. 

An  exact  notion  may  be  formed  of  the  orthographic  projection  of  any  line  or  figure  by 
holding  it  in  the  light  of  the  sun,  and  observing  its  shadow  formed  on  a  plaiit,  "  "ih  is  per- 
pendicular to  the  direction  of  the  solar  rays.  The  rays  which  pass  close  to  the  figure  are 
the  perpendiculars  to  the  plane,  and  the  shadow  is  the  projection  of  the  fijOfure, 

The  plans  and  sections  by  which  artificers  execute  different  constructions 
than  orthographic  projections  of  the  things  to  be  constructed 
familiar. 

The  orthographic  projection  of  any  object, — the  terrestrial  globe,  for  example, — with  nil 
its  circles,  and  the  continents  and  islands  on  its  surfiice,  is  nearly  the  representation  or  pic' 
ture.  which  an  artist  would  delineate  on  a  plane  surface,  if  he  meant  to  represent  the  globe 
at  a  great  distance  firom  the  eye ;  and  it  is  exactly  the  appearance  which  the  globe  would 
have,  supposing  an  eye  could  view  it  at  an  infinite  distance. 

From  the  nature  of  this  projection,  it  appears  that  the  orthographic  representation  of  half 
the  surface  of  the  globe  will  show  nearly  the  true  figure  and  proportions  of  countries  about 
the  middle ;  that  is,  directly  opposite  to  the  supposed  position  of  the  eye :  but,  towards  the 

Vol.  I.  U 


are  no  other 
with  theK'O  all  workmen  are 


iR4 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY.      « 


Part  H 


7*t 


nxtremitiefl  of  the  map,  the  (|rraphic  repreaentationB  of  places  will  imperfectly  exhibit  their 
true  iiffure  and  poaition.  For  this  reason  it  is  seldom  employed  in  geography,  altliough  its 
use  is  frequent  in  astronomy. 

(A.)     To  project  the  Sphere  orthographicaUy  on  the  Plane  qfthe  Equator. 

About  any  point,  C,  as  a  centre  {fig.  46),  with  any  radius,  C  A,  describe  a  circle  B  A  00 

to  represent  the  e<iuator.  Draw  two  diameters, 
AC  180,  BC  00,  perpendicular  to  each  other: 
these  will  be  the  projections  of  meridians  distant 
90°  from  each  other,  and  C  will  be  the  projection 
of  the  pole. 

Divide  each  quadrant  into  six  equal  parts,  and 
let  A  15,  15  30  be  two  of  these ;  draw  diameters 
through  15  and  30,  and  these  will  be  the  projec- 
tions  of  meridians  15°  and  30°  from  A  C  180;  and, 
in  this  way,  meridirins  dividing  the  equator  into 
twenty-four  equal  parts  may  be  represented.  Of 
these,  any  one,  C  A,  may  be  assumed  as  the  first 
meridian. 

To  project  the  parallels  of  latitude:  divide  A  B, 
one  of  the  quadrants,  into  nine  equal  parts ;  let  80, 
70,  60  be  the  three  of  these  points  of  division  ud- 
joiniug  to  B :  draw  perpendiculars  from  these,  and 
...  .1  all  the  other  points  on  the  radius  A  C  meeting  it 
in  80,  70, 60,  &c.  About  C  as  a  centre  at  the  distances  C  80,  C  70,  C  60,  &c.  describe 
circles,  and  these  will  be  the  projections  of  parallels  of  latitude  at  the  distance  of  ten 
degrees. 

The  polar  circles  and  tropics  may  be  found  by  laying  off  an  arc  of  28i°  from  A  towards 
B,  and  from  B  towards  A,  and  drawing  perpendiculars  from  the  points  thus  determined  on 
C  A  circles  described  about  C,  tbrou^  the  bottoms  of  the  perpendiculars,  will  bo  the  pro- 
jections of  the  polar  circle  and  tropic.    In  this  way,  the  projection  may  be  completed. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  regions  within  the  polar  circle  may  be  represented  by  this  pro- 
jection so  OS  to  give  a  tolerable  notion  of  their  poeition  and  magnitude,  judging  by  the  eye; 
but  that  the  appearance  of  the  equatorial  regions  will  be  altogether  distorted. 

(B.)  To  project  the  Sphere  orthographicaUy  on  the  Plane  of  the  Meridian. 
Describe  any  circle,  N  E  S  Q  {fig.  46.),  to  represent  the  meridian,  and  draw  two  diame- 
ters, E  C  Q,  N  C  S,  perpendicular  to  each  other; 
the  former  may  be  taken  as  the  projection  of  the 
equator,  and  then  the  latter  will  represent  a  meri- 
dian 90°  from  the  meridian  N  E  S. 

To  represent  other  meridians :  divide  a  quadrant 

S  E  into  six  equal  parts,  as  at  15,  30,  &c. ;  from 

^^°  these  points  of  division  draw  perpendiculars  15  a, 

\io  30  6,  &c.  on  E  Q.     Describe  ellipses  N  a  S,  N  6  S, 

Iq  having  a  common  transverse  axis  N  S,  and  the  lines 

C  a,  C  6,  &c.  for  their  semiconjugate  axes;  and 

these  will  be  the  projections  of  meridians  which  pass 

through  every  fifteenth  degree  of  the  equator.    Or, 

by  dividing  E  S  into  nine  equal  parts,  they  may  be 

made  to  pass  through  every  tenth  degree. 

For  the  parallels  of  latitude :  divide  the  quadmnts 

E  N,  N  Q  each  into  nine  equal  parts  at  10,  20,  30, 

&c. ;  join  the  corresponding  numbers  by  Btraiffh* 

fines,  and  theae  will  be  the  projections  of  parallels  of  latitude  at  distances  of  10°,  20°,  30' , 

<tc.  from  the  equator.    The  tropics  and  polar  circles  are  to  be  drawn  in  the  same  way  ;  tlio 

•'n<?T  at  234°  on  each  side  of  the  equator,  and  the  latter  23^°  from  the  poles. 

i4iis  projection,  the  polar  regions,  and  all  places  near  the  meridian  N  E  S  Q,  arc  very 
much  distorted  in  appearance  to  me  eye :  it  is  only  towards  the  centre  that  there  is  any  con 
siderabld  resemblance  of  a  projected  portion  of  ttie  earth's  surface  to  its  appearance  on  u 
globe. 

2.   8TEEBOOBAPHIO  FROJBCTIOR. 

In  the  stereographic  projection,  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  situatefl  ai  a  point  in  the  surfiice 
of  the  sphere,  and  the  plane  on  which  the  projection  is  to  be  made  is  the  plane  of  that  great 
cijTcle,  which  is  everywhere  90°  distant  from  the  position  of  the  eye :  hence  it  must  be  evi< 


Paiit  n. 

ly  exhibit  their 
ly,  altlwu(fh  iu 

'(/uator. 

circle  B  A  90 
two  diameters, 
'  each  other: 
Indians  distant 

the  projection 

qual  parts,  and 
raw  diameters 
be  the  projec- 

AC  180;  and, 
equator  into 

resented.    Of 

Jd  as  the  first 

> :  divide  A  B, 
parts;  let 80, 
if  division  ud- 
rom  these,  and 
i  C  meeting  it 
[i  &c.  describe 
istance  of  ten 

cm  A  towards 
letermined  on 
11  be  the  pro- 
npleted. 
i  by  this  pro- 
?  by  the  eye; 

ndian. 

w  two  diame- 
I  each  other; 
ection  of  tJie 
esent  a  meri- 

le  a  quadrant 
),  «fcc. ;  from 
iculars  15  o, 
'  o  S,  N  4  S, 
md  the  lines 
>  axes;  and 
8  which  pass 
}uator.  Or, 
they  may  be 

5. 

le  quadmnts 
t  10,  20,  30, 

by  straifrh* 
'°,  20°,  30', 
e  way ;  tlio 

i,  are  very 
is  any  con 
irance  on  a 


the  surftice 
that  great 
ust  be  evi< 


BookL 


REPRESENTATION  OP  THE  EARTH. 


ltd 


iiTi,  'Ml' 


(lent  that  the  eye  can  see  only  the  inside  or  concave  surface ;  however,  we  may  suppose  the 
rpliere  to  be  transparent,  and  its  various  circles,  and  the  islands,  continents,  &c.  delineated 
on  its  surface  to  be  seen  through  it.  If  we  now  conceive  a  line  to  bo  drawn  fVom  ti.e  eye 
U)  any  point  on  the  concave  surface,  the  point  in  which  that  line  cutt  tlie  plane  of  projection 
will  be  the  projection  of  the  point  on  the  spherical  surfiice. 
To  illustrate  what  has  been  said,  let  E  A  C  B  (Jig.  47.)  be  a  great  circle  of  the  sphere, 

59  r  «  a  plane  passing  through  ita  centre,  and  perpen* 
icular  to  the  plane  of  the  great  circle ;  let  C  E  be  a 
diameter  of  the  sphere  perpendicular  to  the  plane ;  then 
assuming  p  q  r  s  aa  the  plane  of  projection,  E,  one  end 
of  that  diameter,  may  be  taken  as  the  place  of  the  eye 
or  projecting  point.  If,  now,  straight  lines  E  A,  E  B, 
EC,  ED,  &c.  be  drawn  to  A,  B,  C,  D,  any  points  on 
ihe  surface  of  the  sphere,  the  points  a,  b,  c,  d,  &c.  in 
which  these  lines  meet  the  plane  p  r,  will  be  the  pro- 
jections of  the  corresponding  points  on  the  surface  of 
the  sphere.  Let  A  D  B  be  any  cuAle  of  the  sphere : 
conceive  a  straight  line  to  be  drawn  from  E,  the  place 
of  the  eye,  to  D,  any  point  in  the  circumference.  If  D, 
the  end  of  this  line,  be  now  carried  round  the  circle, 
supposing  it  always  to  pass  through  the  fixed  point  E,  the  line  will  generate  the  surface  of 
a  cone  wnoee  base  is  the  circle,  and  vertex  the  place  of  the  eye ;  and  the  curve  line  adb, 
which  is  the  common  section  of  the  plane  p  r,  and  the  sur&ce  of  the  cone  will  be  the  pro- 
jection of  the  circZe. 
It  will  now  >  e  sufficiently  obvious,        ''  , '  iv,-.  ^Js,!''' S5_  ^   ■^,. 

1.  That  ev  ry  circle  which  passes  through  the  eye  ttntt  be  profeeted  into  or  Represented 
by  a  straight  line  on  the  plane  of  projection. 

2.  That  every  circle  whose  plane  is  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  circle  wUl  be  projected 
into  a  circle. 

These  two  properties  hold  true  wherever  the  eye  be  situated.  The  assumption,  however, 
that  it  is  in  the  sur&ice  of  the  sphere  gives  rise  to  geometrical  })roperties  which  are  peculiar 
to  this  projection,  and  which  by  their  simplicity  ana  elegance  give  it  great  value. 

One  geometrical  property  is  this :  whatever  be  the  position  of  the  circle  A  D  B  (or  base 
of  the  cone)  on  the  surface  of  the  sphere,  the  portion  of  the  cone  between  the  projecting 
point  E  and  the  plane  of  projection  p  r  is  always  similar  to  the  whole  cone.  If  the  plane 
of  the  base  be  parallel  to  the  plane  of  projection,  the  truth  of  this  proposition  is  obvious ; 
but  writers  on  geometry  prove,  t'lat  when  it  is  oblique,  still  the  cones  whose  bases  are  ADB 
and  adb,  and  common  vertex  E,  are  similar;  only  they  have  contrary  jjositions.  Prom  the 
similarity  of  the  whole  cone  to  the  part  cut  off,  it  follows  that, 

3.  In  the  stereographical  p.'ojection  of  the  sphere,  the  representation  of  any  circle  that 
does  not  pass  through  the  eye  will  always  be  a  circle. 

There  is  anotlier  proposition  demonstrated  by  writers  on  spherical  geometry  which  is  of 
great  importance  in  this  projection;  viz.  if  two  straight  lines  be  drawn  from  any  point  on 
tiie  surface  of  the  sphere  to  touch  it  in  that  point,  their  representation  on  the  plane  of  pro- 
jection will  contain  an  angle  exactly  equal  to  the  angle  contained  by  the  lines  themselves. 
Since  straight  lines  touching  the  surface  of  a  splier^  at  any  point  may  be  regarded  as  tan- 
gents to  any  circles  of  the  sphere  passing  through  that  point,  we  have  this  other  remarkable 
property : — 

4.  The  angle  made  on  the  surface  of  the  sphere  by  two  circles  which  cut  each  other,  and 
the  angle  made  by  circles  which  are  their  representations,  are  in  all  cases  equal. 

This  projection  is  extremely  convenient  in  practice,  because  a  circle  may  be  easily  de- 
scribed when  three  points  in  its  circumference  are  given,  or  when  two  points  and  its  radius 
are  known ;  also,  the  property  of  lines  making  angles  at  their  intersection  on  the  surfar.n  of 
the  sphere  equal  to  those  formed  by  their  projections,  is  of  great  value  in  the  representation 
of  the  surface  of  the  sphere  of  a  plane.  Moreover,  the-  contraction  of  the  map  towards  the 
extremities  of  an  hemisphere  is  n»t  so  great  as  in  the  orthographical  projection ;  on  all  these 
accounts,  the  stereographical  projection  deserves  a  preference. 

Supposing  E  to  be  the  projecting  point,  or  place  of  the  eye,  and  p  r  the  plane  of  projection, 
let  C  be  the  point  of  the  sphere  opposite  to  E,  and  therefore  90°  everywhere  from  the  circle, 
which  is  the  common  section  of  the  sphere  and  plane  of  projection ;  it  is  evident  that  any 
are,  A  C,  of  a  great  circle  passing  through  C  and  E  will  be  projected  into  a  straight  line  a  c: 
now  ^his  line  is  manifestly  the  tangent  of  the  angle  A  E  C  to  the  radius  E  c,  and  the  measure 
of  this  angle  is  half  the  arc  A  C. 

5.  Hence  it  follows,  that  if  a  great  circle  pass  through  the  prelecting  point,  any  arc  of 
that  circle,  reckoned  from  the  opposite  point  of  the  sphere,  is  projected  into  a  straight  /tne 
vassing  through  the  centre,  and  equal  to  the  tangent  of  that  arc. 


166 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY.      ' 


PabtIL 


•xti  wi»'  ^^)  7\,  project  the  Sphere  etereographically  on  the  Plane  of  the  Kquaior. 

Describe  a  circle,  A  B  D  (Jig.  48.)«  to  represent  the  equator,  and  draw  any  diametor 

A  C  D  and  a  radius  C  B  perpendicular  to  A  D. 
Supposing  now  that  the  panulels  of  latitude  to  every 
tenth  doerce  are  to  be  represented  in  the  map, 
divide  A  U,a  quadrant  ct'tlio  circle,  into  nuie  equal 
partii,  as  at  the  points  10,  20,  SiO,  &c.  and  draw 
straight  linea  {torn  the  points  of  division  to  D,  the 
extremity  of  the  diameter  A  C  D,  meetincr  the 
radius  B  C  in  th(<  points  10,  20,  30,  &c.  Then, 
about  the  centre  ( '  describe  circles  to  pass  through 
the  )X)int8  lU,  20,  HO,  &c.,  and  these  will  represent 
the  pamllelH  of  10,  20,  30,  Slc.  decrees  of  lati- 
tude. In  this  way,  all  the  parallels  of  latitude  may 
bo  found,  as  aleto  the  tropic  and  polar  circle,  by  lay- 
ing off  arcs  of  231°  and  66  J°  from  B  towards  A. 

N(  A '  livide  the  circumference  of  the  circle  into 

into  24  ecjual  part"!,  and  draw  radii  from  the  centre 

These  will  represent  the  meridians  which  differ  in  longitude  by 


kd  the  pomta  of  division. 
3«e  hour. 


(B)  To  project  the  Sphere  strreographu-ally  on  the  Plane  qf  a  Meridian. 
Describe  any  circle  N  Q  S  E  ifig,  49.),  to  represent  the  meridian  on  which  the  projection 

is  to  be  made ;  which  should  be  so  chosen  as  to  include 
nearly  one  of  the  continentb, — the  eastern,  for  in- 
stance :  this  will  be  accomplished  if  N  E  S  be  the 
meridian  20°  west  from  London.  Draw  the  diameter 
N  C  S,  which  will  represent  the  meridian  that 
passes  through  the  projecting  point,  and  therefore  ia 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  projection.  Then  N 
will  represent  the  north,  and  S  the  south  pole ;  draw 
another  diameter,  E  C  Q,  which  will  rppresent  the 
equator. 

Since,  by  the  nature  of  the  projection,  all  the 
meridians  will  be  represented  by  circles  which  pass 
through  the  poles  N,  S,  it  will  be  sufficient  if  we 
determine  the  points  in  which  they  cut  th  equator ; 
we  shall  suppose  the  meridians  to  pass  through  every 
tenth  degree  of  longitude :  the  points  where  they  cut 
the  equator  will  be  found  by  dividing  one  of  the 
quadrantal  arcs,  N  Q,  into  nine  equal  parts,  as  at  10,  20,  30.  &c.,  and  drawing  straight 
lines  from  S  to  the  points  of  division,  meeting  C  Q,  in  1,  2,  3,  &c.  Then,  a  circle  described 
through  the  points  N  1  S  will  represent  the  meridian  which  cuts  the  equator  10°  from  Q, 
and  a  circle  through  N  2  S  will  be  the  meridian  that  cuts  the  equator  20°  from  Q.  The 
remaining  meridians  N  3  S,  &c.  will  be  determined  exactly  in  the  same  way ;  and  it  appears 
from  the  construction,  that  the  centres  of  the  circles  will  be  in  the  diameter  E  Q  and  its 
prolongation,  and  their  distances  from  the  centre  will  be  the  tangents  of  10°,  20°,  &c. ;  viz. 
the  inclination  of  the  circles  to  the  plane  of  the  primitive ;  also,  that  their  radii  will  be  the 
secants  of  the  same  inclinations. 

To  describe  the  parallels  of  latitude,  divide  the  four  quadrants  each  into  nine  equal  parts, 
as  at  80,  70,  60,  &c.,  and  draw  straight  lines  from  E,  one  end  of  the  diameter  E  Q,  to  tlie 
points  of  division,  meeting  N  S  in  8,  7,  6,  &c.  Then  circles  described  through  80,  8,  80 ; 
70,  7,  70,  &c.,  will  represent  the  parallels  of  80°,  70°,  &c.  The  centres  of  all  the  circles 
will  be  in  the  line  N  S,  and  distant  from  it  by  the  secants  of  the  distances  of  the  parallels 
from  the  pole :  also,  the  radii  will  be  the  tangents  of  the  same  distances.  The  polar  circles 
and  tropics  being  descrit..  .  by  the  same  rules  at  the  distances  23^°  and  66^°  from  the  poles, 
the  projection  will  be  completed. 

(C.)  To  project  the  Sphere  stereographically  on  the  Plane  of  the  Horizon  for  u  given 

Latitude. 

In  this  projection,  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  in  the  nadir  of  the  place  for  which  the 
jection  is  mode. 


so- 


on r 


50.)  and  C  {fg. 


51.)  iuj  centres  wirh  any  radius,  describe  circles  W  N  E  S, 
W'N'E'S',  of  wiiich./i^.  .50.  is  to  be  the  primitive  or  horizon;  the  other, ^/^.  .51.,  is  to  serve 
for  determining  the  position  of  the  circles  to  be  described  on  fig.  50.  Draw  the  diametors 
N  S,  W  E,  N'S',  W'E'  in  both  circles  perpendicular  to  one  another;  then  N  S  infig.  50.  wil; 
be  the  projection  of  the  meridian,  and  W  E  the  projection  of  the  circle  passing  through 


Root  L 


REPRESENTATION  OP  THE  EARTH. 


107 


tan. 

he  projection 
fts  to  include 
tern,  for  in- 
ESbe  the 
the  diameter 
eridian  that 
therefore  is 
.     Then  N 
'  pole ;  draw 
'present  the 

ion,  all  the 
which  pass 
cient  if  we 
h    equator: 
rough  every 
3re  they  cut 
one  of  the 
ng  straight 
B  described 
0°  from  Q, 
1 .0.     The 
I  it  appears 
'  Q  and  its 
&c. ;  viz. 
vill  be  the 

inal  parts, 

Q,  to  the 
30,8,80; 
he  circles 

parallels 
ar  circles 
the  poles, 

» given 
the   to. 

'NES, 
to  serve 
iametprs 
50.  wil; 
throujfh 


the  cast  and  we«t  pointi  of  the  horixon  and  the  zenitli, — that  is,  the  prime  vortical ;  N  will 
be  the  north  point  of  the  horizon,  S  the  wuth,  and  E  and  W  the  eaat  and  went  pom'Ji 


Make  the  arc  NT',  or  the  angle  N'  C  P',  fig.  61.,  equal  to  the  latitude  of  the  place ;  join 
W'P'  cutting  C  N'  in  P;  make  C  Pin  Jig.  60.  equal  to  C  P  inflg.  51.,  and  F,fig.  50.,  will 
be  the  proiectiwi  of  the  north  pola.  Draw  the  diameter  E  Q,  Jig.  61.,  perpendicular  to 
VCp';  jom  W'Q' meeting  C  S'  in  Q,'.  Take  C  Q,  Jig.  50.,  equal  to  C  Q',  Jig.  51. ;  de- 
scribe a  circle  through  the  points  W,  Q,  E,  and  the  arc  W  Q,  E  will  represent  the  equator. 
Next,  to  project  the  parallels  of  latitude, — for  example,  those  which  are  40°  and  20°  from 
the  pole, — from  P',  Jig.  51.,  take  P'  40  and  P'  40,  each  arcs  of  40°  on  opposite  sides  of  P' ; 
also,  P'  20,  P'  20,  arc8  of  20°.  Join  W  40,  W  40,  meeting  C  N'  in  m  and  n ;  also  W  20, 
W  20,  meeting  C  N'  in  r  and  ».  In  N  C  S,  Jig.  50.,  take  C  m,  C  n,  C  r,  C  »,  equal  to  C  m, 
C  n,  C  r,  C  'fMg.  51. ;  describe  circles  on  tr.  n,  r  «  as  diameters,  and  these  will  be  projections 
of  parallels  of  latitude  at  the  distances  of  40°  and  20°  from  the  pole.  In  this  way  may  all 
the  parallels,  also  the  tropics  and  polar  circle,  be  projected. 

To  project  the  meriditm :    in  Jig.  51.  draw  8'  B  perpendicular  to  N'  S',  meeting  P'  p 

S reduced  in  B;  take  C  A,  Jig.  50.,  equal  to  S'  B,  Jig.  51.,  and  through  A  draw  a  perpen- 
iciilar  to  C  A.  Let  Os  suppose  that  the  meridians  are  to  make  with  each  other  angles  of 
15° :  at  P,  in  the  line  P  A,  draw  P  15  and  P  15  on  each  side  of  P  A,  making  angles  with 
it  of  1.5° ;  and,  in  like  manner,  P  30,  P  30,  making  angles  of  30°,  and  so  on  to  angles  of 
75°.  On  A,  as  a  centre,  describe  a  circle  to  pass  through  P ;  this  will  pass  through  W  and 
E,  and  will  be  the  projection  of  the  six  o'clock  hour  circle  in  the  heavens,  or  that  meridian 
on  the  globe  that  is  perpendicular  to  the  meridian  of  the  place  for  which  the  projection  is 
made.  On  the  points  15, 15  describe  arcs  a  P  o',  o  P  a'  to  pass  through  P,  and  meet  the 
projection  of  the  horizon  in  a,  a' ;  fl,  a' ;  and  in  like  manne'-  on  30,  30  as  centres  describe 
the  arcs  6  P  6',  6  P  b',  &c.  all  passing  through  P :  these  will  be  the  projections  of  meridians 
on  the  terrestrial  sphere,  or  of  hour  circles  on  the  celestial  sphere.  In  this  way,  the  pro- 
jection may  be  completed. 


8.   OLOBULAB  PROJECTION. 

In  the  orthographic  projection,  equal  portions  of  the  earth's  spherical  surface  are  repre- 
sented by  unequal  plane  surfaces ;  and  the  deviation  from  equality  in  the  surface  to  be 
represented,  and  its  plane  representation,  increases  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference  of 
theprojection. 

.  Ine  same  is  true  of  the  stereographic  projection,  but  with  this  difference,  that  the  dis- 
tortion in  tho  representation  of  th§  figure  of  any  portion  of  the  spherical  surfaces  proceeds 
in  a  contrary  direction :  in  the  former  case,  the  degrees  of  longitude  and  latitude  are  gra- 
dually contracted  ftom  the  centre  to  the  circumference ;  but  in  flie  latter,  they  are  enlarged. 

In  the  stereographic  projection,  the  projecting  point,  or  point  of  view,  is  the  pole  of  the 
circle  on  which  the  projection  is  made ;  and  in  the  orthographic,  it  may  be  supposed  in  the 
axis,  and  at  a  very  great,  or  rather  indefinitely  great,  distance.  It  is  this  change  of  position 
of  the  point  of  view  that  produces  the  change  in  the  direction  in  which  the  degrees  of  lati- 
tude or  longitude  are  contracted.  Hence  it  may  bs  supposed,  that,  by  taking  a  point  of  view 
at  some  finite  distance  greater  than  the  radius  of  the  sphere,  a  perspective  representation  will 
be  obtained,  in  which  the  degrees  in  the  representation  will  be  nearly  equal,  and  the  deviation 
horn  equality  in  the  representation  of  equal  portions  of  the  spherical  surfkce  in  some  mea- 
sure correcte  » 

Vou  L  14 


ise 


PRINCIPLES  OF  QEOORAPHY. 


Part  0 


Let  A  D  B  (Jff.  68.)  ba  t  Mctino  of  Jie  iphnt 
by  a  plane  pawing  throuffh  E,  the  point  of  view, 
and  C  tlin  centre ;  draw  tno  dianiotor  F  D  to jpui 
throti^h  E,  and  draw  A  C  B  perpendicular  to  D  F. 
Since  the  whole  quadrant  A  F  la  to  be  projected 
into  the  radiua  A  C|  if  it  bo  poaaible  to  make  he 
reprnsentationa  of  emial  portions  of  it  nearly  equal, 
its  halvev  A  K  and  iC  F  may  do  aasumcd  aa  ropro- 
■entcd  by  A  H  and  H  C,  halves  of  the  radius : 
thorofore,  a  line  drawn  fW)in  K  to  E  must  bisect 
the-  radius  in  H.  This  determines  D  E,  the  dit- 
tance  qf  the  projecting  point,  to  be  eaual  to  K  G, 
a  perpendicwar  from  the  middle  q/*  tne  quadrant. 
To  prove  this  geometrical  proposition,  draw  A  F 
and  K  C  intersecting  in  I,  and  join  H  I.  Then  A 
1=1  F  and  A  I :  I  F  : :  A  H:  H  C;  therefore  H  I 
is  parallel  to  C  F:  hence.K  I:  IC : :  K  H:  HE:: 
G  C :  C  E.  Now,  K  I=F  Q  and  I  C=Q  C ;  there- 
fore  F  G:  G  C: :  0  C:  C  E:  honce  F  G'C  E=Q 
C»=K  G'=F  GO  D;  therefore  C  E=G  D,  and, 
taking  away  the  line  C  D  common  to  both,  D  E  is 
equal  to  C  G  or  to  K  G. 
Honce  it  appears  that  the  distance  D  E  is  the  sine  of  45";  and  tli  refore  nearly  71  of 
such  parts  as  the  radius  C  A  contains  100.  This  projection  was  first  suggested  by  i\I.  Dela 
hire,  and  is  now  commonly  called  the  Globular  projection.  If  we  suppose  the  quadrant  A 
F  divided  into  ten  equal  parts,  then  Uie  projections  of  the  arcs  of  0°,  reckoning  fiom  F  to  A, 
will  be  as  in  this  table,  in  which  the  radms  C  A  is  supposed  to  be  10.       .-  r,  ^  ;,|^  .  >.^ .., 


■I  •}.■  ,..;,.  . 

:^,r»»»»  ■•/.  -f'  '■>  <" 


Arc. 

Repreientatlon. 

Arc. 

Kepreientation. 

OO...    90 

.901 

4«o.. 

340 

1.017 

9  ...  18 

.994 

M  .. 

63 

1.090 

18  ...  97 

.099 

63  .. 

72 

I.OIS 

97  ...  36 

1.004 

79  .. 

81 

.007 

Se  ...  45 

1.013 

81  .. 

OO 

.950 

:  '1 , 

1    V'.- 


From  this  table  it  appears,  that  the  approximation  to  equality  in  the  projection  of  equal  arcs 
of  a  circle  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  projection  is  considerable. 

According  to  the  principles  of  perspective,  in  this  mrojection  the  circles  of  the  sphere  will 
be  represented  by  ellipses ;  and  they  have  been  so  delineated  in  two  hemispheres,  projected, 
drawn,  and  beautifully  engraved  by  Mr.  Joseph  Lowry,  of  London.  He  has  placed  London 
at  the  centre  of  the  noruiem  hemisphere,  and  insteaid  of  .707,  Delohire's  aistance  of  the 
projecting  point,  he  has  made  it  .68  of  the  radius. 

In  general,  however,  the  projection  is  made  on  a  meridian,  and  the  circles  of  the  sphere 
are  represented  by  circles,  and  without  any  regard  to  the  distance  of  a  point  of  view.  Also, 
the  degrees  of  longitude  on  the  equator,  and  of  latitude  on  a  meridian,  ore  made  all  equal. 
With  uiese  simplincations,  the  meridians  and  parallels  on  a  hemisphere  of  the  earth's  sur- 
fece  may  be  represented  bv  the  followmg  construction : — 

Let  us  suppose  the  parallels  of  latitude  to  be  traced  through  every  tenth  degree,  and  that 
the  meridians  ore  to  be  an  hour  from  each  other. 

Describe  a  circle,  E  N  Q,  S  (Jig.  63.),  for  the 
representation  of  the  meridian.  Draw  the  diame- 
ters E  Q,  N  S  perpendicular  to  each  other ;  one,  E 
Q,  to  represent  the  equator,  and  the  other,  N  S,  the 
meridian,  which  is  90°  from  that  on  whicb  the  pro- 
jection is  made ;  N  being  the  north,  and  S  the  south 
pole. 

Divide  the  quadrants  E  N,  Q  N,  and  the  radius 
C  N,  each  into  nine  equal  parts ;  let  N  80,  80  70, 
&c.  be  the  equal  divisions  of  the  quadrants,  and  N  c, 
c  d,  &c.  the  equal  divisions  of  the  radius :  describe 
a  circle  through  the  three  points  80,  c,  80,  and  it 
presentation  of  the  parallel  of  80°  of 


N  80 


r. 


e  manner  a  circle  described  through 


will  be  the 

latitude : 

Uie  points  70,  d,  70  will  represent  the  parallel  of 

70° ;  the  remaining  parallels,  the  tropics  and  polar 

circles,  on  both  sides  of  E  Q,  the  equator,  are  to  be 

found  in  the  .-saine  manner. 


Book  L 


REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


IN, 


Next  for  Uio  meridiaiw:  divide  the  radii  C  £2,  C  Q  etch  into  fix  equal  parts  at  the  point* 
a,  h,  6w; :  dencribo  circlei  through  the  |K)int«  N  a  8,  N  A  S,  &.c.  and  tJieio  will  be  the  reprm 
•entutioim  of  the  meridiana,  any  one  of  wtticli,  in  laying  down  the  poaitioiifl  of  places  by 
ttioir  latitude  and  longitude,  may  be  assumed  as  tlie  nritt  meridian.  .^j  i|.|.   , .  ,i^  ^/x 

II.   CONSmUOTION  or  maps  by  OCVIIiOPKMENT. 

The  three  methods  of  projection  which  have  been  explained  are  usually  employed  ib 
the  repreHOutation  of  a  hemisphere,  but  are  seldom  used  in  delineating  the  geograpliical 
features  of  a  single  country.  For  Uiese,  the  method  of  devtlopemenl  is  commonly  onti 
ployed. 

A  perfect  geographical  representation  of  a  country  should  reprosont  .11  its  parts  in  just 
proportion,  and  should  exhibit  its  true  figure.  This  is  exactly  done  on  the  spnere ;  but  it 
can  only  be  nearly  accomplished  on  a  plane  surface. 

The  purposes  of  civil  government  ruquire  maps  tliat  give  the  true  figuro  and  dimensions 
of  territory.  Military  aflairs  require  such  as  give  correct  distances ;  and  navigation  demands 
the  exact  bearing  of  one  place  from  another.  Ordinary  maps  ful^l  approximately  tlie  two 
flret  purposes.  Tho  last  is  completely  satiKfled  by  a  map  of  a  peculiar  construction,  called 
Morcator's  chart;  but  this  is  not  immediately  applicable  to  the  other  purpoeeSb 

It  is  a  knoMm  property  of  a  cone  tliat  its  curve  surface  con  be  expanded  into  a  plane : 
hence  any  figure  delineated  on  it  can  always  be  exhibited  exactly  in  all  its  dimensions  r  i  a 
plane  surikce.  Now,  a  part  of  tlio  surface  of  a  sphere  contained  between  two  parallels  of 
latitude,  not  very  remote,  will  not  diflfer  much  from  the  surfiuie  of  a  frustum  of  a  cone  that 
touclies  the  sphere  in  the  parallel  midway  between  them;  and  this  will  also  be  tri")  if  it 
pasa  along  tho  chord,  or  if  it  pass  partly  within  and  partly  without  the  sphere,  cutting  <t  be- 
tween the  middle  and  extreme  parallels :  in  each  case  the  length  of  the  slant  side  of  the 
frustum  must  be  supposed  equal  to  the  lenf^th  of  the  meridian  between  the  extreme  paral- 
lels. On  this  principle,  different  constructions  have  been  given  for  representing  the  surtiice 
of  a  sphere  on  a  plane. 

n    /rr  ^.llf  !;•:  ;    i  •>      1.  Conical  Develnpetnetit, 


(.!'( 


•^•.rl 


Let  P  A  Q  (Jif^.  54.)  be  a  section  of  the  meridian,  P  Q  the  axis,  C  the  centre,  E  C  the 
radius  of  the  eciuator,  B  D  any  arc  of  the  meridian,  and  A  tlie  middle  point  between  B  and 
D :  draw  the  tangent  A  O,  meeting  the  axis  in  O.  Suppose  now  the  plane  figure  O  A  E 
to  revolve  about  the  axis  P  Q ;  the  semicircle  P  A  Q  will  generate  a  sphere,  and  the  tangent 
0  A  will  generate  the  surface  of  a  cone  which  touches  the  sphere  in  A.  The  points  B,  A,  D 
will  generate  the  parallels  of  latitude  B  i,  A  H  a,  D  <{,  of  which  the  middle  parallel  A  H  a 
will  be  a  section  of^  the  cone  perpendicular  to  its  axis. 
Take  H  any  point  in  the  parallel  A  II  a;  draw  F  H  to  its  centre,  and  join  H  O.  Con- 
ceive now  the  cone  to  be  expanded  into  a 
plane,  and  tliat  the  surface  O  A  H  be- 
comes, by  developement,  O'  A'  H'.  The 
expansion  of  A  H,  the  arc  of  the  parallel 
of  latitude  on  the  sphere,  whose  radius  ia 
F  H,  the  cosinr  .^f  the  latitude,  will  now 
become  A'  H',  s"  >>..:  of  a  circle  whose 
radius  is  A'  O'  -  -  ii  O,  the  cotangent  of 
the  latitude  of  the  parallel. 

In  O'  A'  take  A'  B'  and  A'  D',  each 
equal  to  /  B  or  A  D,  and  with  the  radii 
O'  B',  O'  D'  describe  arcs  B'  m,  D'  n. 
II'  The  plane  figure  W  mnJ)'  may  now  be 
taken  as  nearly  equal  to  the  spherical  sur- 
11  fece  bounded  by  meridians  passing  through 
A  and  H,  and  the  portions  of  the  paral- 
lels B  6,  A  a  intercepted  between  them : 
and  any  tract  of  country  delineated  on  the 
'  sphere  may  be  nearly  shown  by  a  delinea- 
tion on  the  plane ;  Uie  approximation  be- 
ing the  more  accurate  as  the  breadth  of 
the  spherical  zone  is  less. 
Let  the  middle  latitude  E  A  and  the  angle  A  F  H,  or  breadth  in  longitude  of  the  spheri- 
cal surftce,  be  supposed  given,  to  determine  the  radius  O'  A'  and  the  apgle  O'  A'  H' 
Because  the  middle  latitude  is  Imown,  its  cotangent  O  H  is  given  in  parts  of  the  radius  by 
the  trigonometrical  tables,  or  it  may  be  expressed  in  minutes  of  latitude,  by  considering  that 
half  the  circumference  (to  radius  =  1)  is  8.1416;  therefore,  the  radius  in  minutes  will  be 
expressed.      _  e0xJI80_  ,  „ _ 

•    Vjii'./   i>  :    i      ..      ,    ...:;    ..;:    ^    ..    .      o    141fi   —  3437.7.       t       '   .  ,,■,-,, 


160 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II 


111 


Hence  O'  A',  the  radius  of  the  middle  parallel  in  the  developement,  will  be  expressed 
minutes  of  latitude  by 

.  *^^--!!t  ;■      3437.7'  X  cot  middle  lat  'ikmrn  -M  '!  ■«  «f /-^.W.'av; .s' 

Next,  to  find  the  angle  A'  O'  H'.  The  arc  A  H  on  the  sphere  and  the  arc  A'  H'  on  the 
plane  being  equal ;  by  the  principles  of  geometry,  the  angle  A  F  H  will  be  to  the  angle 
A'  O'  H'  as  J '  O'  to  A  F:  now,  A'  O'  =  A  O  is  the  cotangent  of  tlie  middle  latitude,  and 
A  F  is  its  cosine,  and  the  cotangent  is  to  the  cosine  as  radius  to  the  sine ;  therefore,  putting 
L  to  denote  the  degrees  of  longitude  between  two  meridians  on  the  sphere,  the  angle  A'  O'  H , 
contained  by  the  8tra:^t  lines  which  represent  them  in  the  developement,  will  ^  in  degrees 

L  X  Sine  middle  lat 
The  angle  O',  and  the  lines  O'  A',  A'  B',  A'  D',  in  the  developement,  are  now  known ;  it 
remains  only  to  divide  B'  D',  the  representation  of  the  arc  of  the  meridian,  and  B'  m,  D'  n, 
the  parallels  of  latitude,  into  equal  parts  to  form  scales  of  latitude  and  longitude :  then, 
circles  described  about  O'  as  a  centre,  through  the  proper  divisions  of  B'  D',  will  fbrm  the 
parallels  of  latitude ;  and  straight  lines  drawn  joining  corresponding  degrees  on  the  extreme 

Sarailels  B'  m,  D'  n,  will  represent  the  meridians  on  the  map ;  which  is  now  ready  for  the 
elineation  of  the  geographical  features  of  the  tract  it  is  to  represent    This  is  the  way  in 
which  the  common  maps  are  constructed. 

Example.  Let  it  be  required  to  construct  a  map  to  coniprehend  the  British  islands, 
which  extend  from  50"  to  about  61°  of  noilih  latitude,  and  from '2°  east  toll^west,  about  13' 
of  lonj^tude.  The  middle  latitude  is  55°  30',  of  which  the  cotangent  in  the  tables  is  .68728 
and  sine  =  .8?413.  From  these  data,  O'  A',  the'  radius  of  the  middle  parallel,  is 
3437.7  X  .68728  =  2382'  .7 :  the  length  of  the  arc  B  D  is  11°  =  660' ;  therefore,  A'  B'  = 
A'  D',  its  half,  is  330,  and  hence 

O  B  =  2362.7  X  330  =  2692'.7 
»    V  .     ■ '  r- ;iii        o  A  =  2362.7  —  330  =  2032'.7. 

The  number  of  degrees  of  longitude  (L)  in  this  case  is  13°;  therefore,  angle  A'  O'  H' 
=  13°  X  .82413  =  10*42. 

Knowing  now  the  radii  O'  B',  O'  D',  and  the  angle  O',  we  can  find  the  arcs  B'  m,  D'  n ; 
or  we  can  find  their  chords. 
^  Thus  we  have, 

rj  chord'ofarcB'n»  =  2  0BSin.  iO'  =  875'.6. 

^  chord  of  arc  D'  n  =  2  O  D  JBin.  i  O'  =  502'  .1. 

We  have  now  obtained  the  chords  of  13°  of  longitude  on  the  extreme  parallels,  and  the 
meridians  which  form  their  extremities  in  minutes  of  a  degree  of  the  meridian ;  also  the 
radii  of  the  parallels  of  latitude :  with  these,  the  intelligent  student  of  geography  will  find 
no  difficulty  in  constructing  a  map  of  Britain. 

Pfitti  ].»Z':t:^^ii>f''■>lt''^\'■^^    2.  MwdocVa  Conicdl  Developement. 

There  have  been  various  modifications  of  the  conical  developement :  of  these,  one  was 
given  by  the  Rev.  Patrick  Murdoch,  in  the  Lond.  Phil.  Trans.  1758.  Let  M  denote  the  are 
of  the  meridian  which  is  to  be  represented  in  a  map:  he  pruposed  to  make  O'  A',  the  radius 
of  the  middle  parallel,  equal  to 

chord  of  arc  M  J      I      ■■ 

j^ X  Cot  mid.  lat 

the  cotangent  being  supposed  expressed  by  the  radius  of  the  sphere.    The  remainder  of  the 
construction  is  the  same  as  the  ordinary  conical  projection. 

By  Murdoch's  method,  the  surface  of  the  developement  is  exactly  equal  to  the  spherical 
surface  which  it  represents,  and  the  cone  passes  through  points  of  the  meridian  between  the 
middle  latitudes  and  the  extremities  of  the  projected  arc,  its  side  being  parallel  to  the  tangent 
at  the  middle  latitude. 

•!  »; ''yslwyfe^i  '     ftii-'      S.  De  lAsle's  Ckmical  Developement. 

The  astronomer  De  Lisle  employed  the  conical  projection  in  constructing  a  general  chart 
of  the  Russian  empire,  which  extended  from  40°  to  70°  of  north  latitude.  He,  however, 
supposed  the  cone  to  enter  the  sphere  so  as  to  cut  it  in  two  parallels  midway  betv^een  the 
mean  and  extreme  parallels :  these,  in  the  developement,  had  the  same  dimensions  as  the 
corresponding  circles  of  the  sphere,  and  its  whole  extent  differed  but  little  from  that  of  the 
tract  it  was  meant  to  represent ;  because  the  excess  at  the  two  extremities  of  the  chart  was 
compensated,  at  least  in  part,  by  tlie  opposite  error  in  the  middle. 

■'i^'f^^"  '  '-  4.  Euler's  Method.  .T;iv^i' •.,■..-  -  „.,...■ 
Euler  was  also  occupied  with  this  projection :  but  he  substituted  for  the  determination  of 
parallels  which  should  be  common  with  the  sphere,  that  of  the  point  of  concourse  of  straight 
lines  which  represent  the  meridians,  and  of  the  angle  which  they  make  when  Uiey  contain 
one  degree  of  longitude.  His  calculations  rest  on  the  following  conditions : — 1.  That  the 
errors  are  equal  at  the  northern  and  southern  extremities  of  the  mao.    2.  That  they  are 


Book  I. 

alsoequ 
of  conco 
oflatitu( 

The' 
parallels 
which 
dicular ' 
the  deg 
the  cosi 
just  as ' 


E" 


r™«nn.i-^«Viyi  - 


BookT. 


REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  EARTH. 


161 


5se,  one  was 


also  equal  to  the  greatest  of  those  towards  its  middle.  Hence  he  conclude<l  that  the  point 
of  concourse  of  the  meridians  should  be  situated  beyond  the  pole  by  a  quantity  equal  to  5" 
of  latitude,  and  th^t  the  angle  of  two  consecutive  meridians  should  be  4^  44'. 

!i  6.  Flanuteed' 9  Projection. 

The  English  astronomer  Flamstced,  in  constructing  his  celestial  atlas,  developed  all  the 
parallels  of  latitude  on  the  sphere  into  straight  lines,  and  also  one  of  the  meridians;  viz.  tha 
whicli  passes  through  the  middle  of  the'  chart :  then  tlie  parallels,  which  are  all  perpen- 
dicular to  that  meridian,  are  exactly  of  the  same  length  as  on  the  globe,  aJid  consequently 
the  degrees  of  longitude  on  the  parallels  will  be  shown  in  their  just  proportion,  that  is,  as 
the  cosines  of  the  latitude.  If,  now,  the  parallels  on  the  map  be  divided  into  equal  parts, 
just  as  the  parallels  on  the  globe  are,  by  the  meridians,  curve  lines  traced  throiigh  cone  • 
spending  points  of  division  will  represent  the  meridians. 

The  adjoining  figure  (Jig.  65.)  exhibits  a  sketch  of  a  map  of 
this  construction. 

According  to  Flamsteed's  method,  any  distance  on  the  map  in 
the  direction  of  the  parallels  is  everywhere  equal  to  the  corre- 
sponding dltance  on  the  globe;  but  tiie  configuration  of  places 
near  the  extremities  is  considerably  distorted  by  the  obliquity  of 
the  meridians  to  the  parallels,  so  that  tlie  spherical  quadrilaterals, 
the  sidee  of  which  cross  at  right  angles,  are  in  the  map  represented 
by  mixtilineal  trapeziums,  of  which  the  angles  are  very  unequal.  Flamsteed  employed  this 
projection  in  representing  the  positions  of  the  stars ;  but  it  is  also  employed  in  geography, 
particularly  in  delineating  countries  which  extend  on  Loth  sides  of  the  equator :  Africa,  tor 


North. 


South. 


instance. 


6.  Modification  of  Flamsteed's  Projection. 


There  is  a  modification  of  Flamsteed's  projection  {Jig.  56.),  which  has  been  extensively 

employed,  and  which  deserves  particular  attention,  because  it 
corrects,  in  part,  the  defect  of  the  obliquity  of  the  meridians. 
This  substitutes  arcs  of  concentric  circles  for  the  straight  lines, 
which  he  proposed  to  represent  the  parallels  of  latitude.  The 
common  centre  of  the  circles  is  in  a  straight  line  drawn 
through  the  middle  of  the  map  os  an  axis,  and  which  repre- 
sents a  meridian ;  and  its  position  in  the  axis  ought  to  be  such, 
that  the  obliquity  of  the  angles  made  at  the  intersectibn  of  the 
curves  which  represent  the  meridians,  and  the  circles  which 
represent  the  parallels,  should  be  as  little  as  possible. 

The  position  of  the  centre  is  so  assumed,  that  the  radius  of 
the  middle  parallel  of  latitude  is  equal  to  its  cotangent ;  and 
in  this  the  modified  projection  of  Flamsteed  agrees  with  the 
g  ordinary  conical  projection. 
__^j--2i,  To  exemplify  this  construction,  let  it  be  proposed  to  describe 

S  the  parallels  and  meridians  for  a  map  of  Europe,  which  shall 

extend  from  35°  north  latitude  to  70°. 

Let  us,  as  before,  assume  a  minute  of  a  degree  of  latitude  for  the  unit  of  the  scale 
from  which  the  measures  of  the  lines  are  to  be  taken.  Therefore,  as  before,  the  radius  of 
the  sphere,  of  which  a  portion  of  the  spherical  surface  is  to  be  represented,  will  be  3437.7 
minutes. 

Let  O  A  C  B  (Jig.  56.)  be  assumed  as  the  axis  or  middle  meridian  of  the  map;  and  let 
A  D,  B  E  be  the  halves  of  the  part  of  the  extreme  parallels  of  latitude  to  be  represented, 
and  C  the  point  in  which  the  middle  parallel  (52°  30')  cuts  the  axis ;  also,  let  O  be  the 
centre  of  the  circles,  arcs  of  which  are  to  represent  the  parallels. 

By  the  nature  of  the  projection,  O  0  must  be  taken  equal  to  the  cotangent  of  52°  30' ; 
this,  to  radius  =  1,  is  .76733,  and  to  a  radius  expressed  by  minutes,  we  have  ^ 

0C  =  . 76733X3437.7  =  2637.8.  ' 

Having  found  OC,  the  radius  of  the  middle  parallel,  the  radius  of  any  other  parallel  may 
be  found  by  adding  or  subtracting  its  distance  m  minutes  of  the  meridian  from  the  middle 
parallel.     Thus  we  find  the  radii  of  parallels  differing  by  5°,  as  in  the  annexed  table : — 

Next,  we  must  find  the  points  in  which  some  one  meri- 
dian cuts  all  the  parallels.  We  shall  suppose  it  to  be  30° 
of  longitude  fi-om  O  C,  the  axis  of  the  map. 

FifoiH  the  nature  of  the  developcment,  the  arc  of  l<H!gi- 

tude  on  any  parallel  in  the  map  is  equal  to  the  arc  of  tfie 

parallel  on  the  sphere  which  it  represents.    This  has  to  an  arc  of  the  same  number  of 

degrees  of  the  meridian  the  proportion  of  the  cosine  of  the  latitude  of  the  parallel  to  the 

Vol.  I.  14*  V 


rtnllel. 

Raditn. 

Fuullel. 

RuliUi. 

:«o 

3fiH7.8 

55 

S4H7.8 

40 

3387.8 

m 

2187.8 

4« 

Ai/^fv 

50 

2787.8 

70 

158T.5  i 

102 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartIL 


radius.    Therefore,  an  arc  of  30°  =  1800'  on  a  parallel  whose  latitude  vt  L  will  be  in 

minutes,       ,,„-,,,,         .  .. -   ; 

J  .  I.  ,.|  i  i:!.:.^t^:-^.-i:iii-  ISOOXcosino  L.  i\,.  ,.!«i..i  ■^•'■t  \^.t'>  j-.r.^  ,j*.,iu-.i\ 
By  thij  formula,  Ae  len^hs  of  the  arcs  may  be  easily  computed  by  a  table  of  logarithmic 
Bines;  but,  for  a  practical  construction,  it  will  be  more  convenient  to  have  the  chords  of  the 
arcs.  Now,  in  arcs  not  exceeding  30°,  the  arc  diminished  by  a  fraction  whose  numerator  is 
the  cube  of  the  arc,  and  denominator  24  times  the  square  of  the  radius,  is  very  near  equal 
to  the  chord ;  that  is,  a  being  put  for  any  arc,  and  r  its  radius, 

J      ,     ,               rt'           , 
;-kr..r.;r.Ti  ..  i  I    ,-„r..i  '.ij,-  fv .  choTda=a — 05-5 nearly.  

.  .1:.  . . ...        ......1  X'tr^  '  ■      ,..    -     .If;..-.    •  .    -■  ..  ,  ...        ■.,'. 

Prom  this  formula,  tlie  chords  may  easily  be  deduced  from  the  arcs. 
As  an  example,  let  tlie  arc  of  30°  of  longitude,  and  its  chord  on  the  parallel  35°,  be 
required.    For  fecility  of  calculation,  we  shall  use  logarithms. 


Calculation  of  Arc. 


LogArithmt* 

300—1800' 3.2SS87 

Cosine  35°..     9.0]3:W 


Arco=-1474'.5 3.16863 

3 


Prom  log.  of  cube  of  arc 9.5058!) 

Subtract  Log.  94r< 8.51373 


Diffbr.  of  are  and  chord  9' .8 099314 


Calculation  of  Log,  of  84r». 


Uigwllhmi. 
Radius  of  arc  687.8 3.S(iG77 


Log.  of  aquare  of  radius 7.]33,M 

24 1.38021 


Logarithm   24r<. 


8.51375 


fcr.  of  Ut. 

Ana.      1  Chord  of  Arc  1 

35 

1474.5 

14(M.7 

40 

1378.9 

I3(i0.4 

45 

1872.8 

1303.8 

50 

1157.0 

1148.7 

55 

1032.4 

1025.0 

60 

900.0 

893.6 

63 

760.7 

755.5 

70 

615.6 

611.8 

Thus,  by  an  easy  logarithmic  calculation,  we  have  found  the  arc 
to  be  1474'.5,  and  its  excess  above  the  chord  to  be  9'.8.  There- 
fore, the  chord  is  1464'.7  of  the  meridian.  By  a  like  process, 
we  have  found  the  arcs  of  30°  of  longitude,  and  their  chords 
on  the  parallels  to  every  fifth  degree,  as  in  this  table. 

ilaving  noW  found  the  chord  of  30°  of  longitude  on  the  paral- 
lel of  35°  to  be  1464'.7  of  the  meridian,  we  must,  with  com- 
passes, place  that  distance  taken  from  a  scale  of  minutes  from 
B  to  E,  and  to  e ;  and  the  pointsJE,  e  will  be  in  the  representations  of  meridians  30°  of  lou- 
gitude  fix)m  the  axis  on  each  side.  In  the  same  way,  the  intersections  of  these  meridiaiis 
with  the  other  parallels  are  found.  Curve  lines  E  D,  e  d  must  now  be  traced  through  all 
tlie  intersections,  and  these  will  be  the  meridians  on  the  map. 

ITie  intersections  of  the  intermediate  meridians  with  the  nanti'tL  may  be  found  by  divid- 
ing each  parallel  into  thirty  equal  parts,  from  tlie  axis  both  ways ;  and  as  many  meridian 
lines  may  be  exhibited  as  may  be  thought  necessary.  In  the  figure  here  given,  they  are 
traced  to  every  tenth  degree. 

If  the  map  is  to  extend  further  than  30°  on  each  side  of  its  middle  meridian,  the  divisions 
of  the  parallels  may  be  repeated  on  each,  and  meridians  drawn. 

This  construction  of  a  map  is  memorable,  because  it  was  adopted  by  the  general  dep6t  of 
war  of  France,  about  the  year  1803,  as  the  groundwork  of  a  system  of  geographical  charts 
which  should  exhibit  the  French  original  territory,  as  well  as  the  additions  which  had  bee  i 
made,  and  were  expected  to  be  made,  by  conquest  or  negotiation. 

.    IV,  V.  y      '  ;.:•     Developement  of  the  Curve  Surface  of  a  Cylinder. 

The  mariner,  in  navigating  a  ship  between  remote  points  on  the  globe,  directs  his  course 
by  the  compass ;  steering  a.  nearly  as  possible  always  in  the  same  direction,  supposing  there 
are  no  obsttuiles  to  prevent  him.  If  the  place  from  which  he  sets  out,  and  that  of  his  des- 
tination, be  due  north  and  south  from  each  other,  the  ship's  path  will  evidently  be  a  great 
circle,  vix.  the  meridian  passing  through  them.  If,  again,  they  have  the  same  latitude,  he 
nmst  sail  on  a  parallel  of  latitude ;  that  is,  his  course  must  be  due  east  or  west.  But  if  the 
places  differ  both  in  latitude  and  longitude,  then  it  becomes  a  question,  wimt  is  the  nature 
of  the  line  on  the  globe  along  which  a  ship  must  sail,  with  her  head  always  in  the  same 
dii action,  as  indicated  by  the  compass,  so  as  to  pass  from  one  to  the  other] 

The  line  in  question,  which  is  called  a  rhumb  line  or  loxodromic  line,  has  manifestly  this 
property, — it  cuts  all  the  meridians  on  the  globe  at  the  same  angle.  By  this  property,  a 
ship  sailing  along  it  will  move  always  in  the  same  direction,  as  siiown  by  a  compass :  but  it 
will  not  be  a  great  circle ;  for  the  equator  is  the  only  great  circle  that  cuts  all  the  meridians 
at  the  same  angle ;  and  hence  it  appears  that  the  line  on  tiie  globe  by  which  a  ship  passes 
from  one  place  to  another  is  never  the  shortest  possible,  except  when  they  are  on  the  same 
meridian,  or  on  the  equator. 

Suppqsing  a  navigator  had  a  pprfect  delineation  of  the  earth  on  a  sphere,  it  is  by  no  means 
evident  how  lie  should  find  the  course  he  ought  to  steer  to  reach  a  remote  port.  By  due  con- 
sideration, Isowever,  he  would  nee  that  the  [wth  must  be  a  spiral.     Ft  would  also  be  repre- 


BookII. 


REPRESENTATION  OP  THE  EARTH. 


168 


gented  by  a  spiral  curve  on  a  map,  formed  by  the  developement  cf  a  cone ;  but  navi^ton 
required  charts  before  the  theory  of  such  curves  was  understood ;  therefore  at  that  period  his 
art  must  have  been  imperfect. 

Tlie  wants  of  the  navigator,  accordingly,  gave  rise  to  the  construction  of  a  chart,  in  wliich 
the  meridians  and  parallels  were  straight  lines ;  and  in  this  the  deve'opement  of  the  curve 
surface  of  a  cylinder  was  employed.  Let  us  conceive  that  a  zone  of  "he  earth's  surface,  rf 
no  great  extent  in  latitude,  is  inscribed  in  or  circumscribed  about  a  -ight  cylinder,  whose 
axis  coincides  with  that  of  the  globe :  tlie  planes  of  the  meridians  will  cut  the  curve  surface 
of  the  cylinder  in  straight  lines,  parallel  to  the  axis ;  ami  <iie  planes  of  the  parallels  will  cut 
it  in  sections  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  which  will  be  circles  equal  to  the  base  of  the  cylin- 
der. Bui  in  supposing  the  surface  of  the  cylinder  developed  into  a  plane,  these  circles  will 
oecome  straight  lines,  perpendicular  to  the  meridians.  This  developement  has  received  the 
name  of  the  plane  chart :  its  invention  is  attributed  to  Henry,  son  of  John,  king  of  Por- 
tugal. This  kind  of  phart  has  nothing  but  its  simplicity  to  recommend  it ;  for  the  degrees 
of  longitude  have,  indeed,  their  just  proportion  to  the  degrees  of  latitude  in  the  parallel  com- 
mon to  the  cylinder  and  sphere,  but  in  no  other  parallel. 

In  the  developement  of  a  cylinder  circumscribing  the  whole  sphere,  the  area  of  any  zone 
in  the  sphere  is  exactly  equal  to  that  of  its  representation  in  the  chart ;  and  indeed  the  samn 
equality  may  be  observed  in  all  cases,  by  a  proper  assumption  of  a  parallel  of  latitude  bb  the 
base  of  the  cylinder.  The  developement,  nowever,  has  this  great  fault, — the  deCTees  of 
longitude  always  err  in  excess  towards  the  north  and  in  defect  towards  the  south  of  ue  mean 
parallel,  which  is  assumed  as  the  base  of  the  cylinder. 

There  is  a  construction,  described  in  books  of  navigation  under  the  name  of  a  plane  chart, 
the  principle  of  which  is  somewhat  different  from  that  just  described.  In  the  seaman's  plane 
chart  the  meridians  are  parallel  straight  lines,  and  so  also  are  the  parallels  of  latitude;  and 
both  arc  so  laid  down  that  a  degree  of  latitude  and  a  degree  of  longitude  are  equal  in  all 
latitudes.  It  may  easily  be  conceived  how  incompetent  such  a  representation  must  be  to  the 
purposes  of  navigation  or  geography. 

Mercator's  Chart. 

The  utter  inadequacy  of  the  old  plane  charts  to  the  wants  of  geog^raphy  and  navigation 
induced  ingenious  men  to  "onsider  whether  a  chart  might  not  be  so  constructed  as  to  repre- 
sent the  meridians  and  parallels  by  straight  lines,  and  at  the  same  time  readily  show  the  true 
bearings  of  places  fronv  one  another.  The  first  that  gave  a  true  solution — at  Inast  an 
approximate  one — of  this  important  problem  was  Gerard  Mercator,  who  was  born  at 
Rurcmond,  in  Upper  Guelderland,  in  tJie  year  1512,  and  published  a  chart  in  1556,  wherein 
the  rhumbs,  which  on  the  globe  are  spirals,  were  represented  by  straight  lines,  as  in  the 
plane  chart ;  and  so  alra  were  the  meridians  and  parallels.  It  is  not  known  by  what  prin- 
ciple Mercator  constructed  his  chart ;  it  has  been  supposed  that  he  observed  on  a  globe  fiir- 
nished  with  rhumbs  what  meridians  the  rhumbs  passed  in  each  degree  of  latitude :  it  is  cer- 
tain he  did  not  know  the  true  principles  of  the  construction ;  for  these  were  first  found  by 
Edward  Wright,  of  Caius  College,  in  Cambridge,  who  communicated  his  discovery  to  his 
friend  Thomas  Blundeville,  with  a  short  table,  showing  the  correct  distances  of  the  parallels 
of  latitude  from  the  equator,  which  was  published  in  1594  by  Blundeville,  among  his  Exer- 
cises. The  truth  of  the  divisions  of  Mercator's  chart  was  then  tried  by  the  numbers  given 
by  Wright,  and  they  were  found  to  be  inaccurate ;  hence  it  appears  Uiat  Mercator  did  not 
understand  the  principles  of  the  map  bearing  his  name,  and  that  this  important  invention  is 
(liio  to  Wright,  who  explained  it  himself,  in  his  treatise  entitled  The  Correction  of  certain 
>rs  in  Navigation,  published  1599,  but  written  many  years  before. 

Although  Wright's  numbers  were  sufficiently  corre^  for  all  nautical  purposes,  and  might 
be  carried  to  any  degree  of  accuracy,  yet,  in  the  progress  of  mathematical  science,  an  im- 
provement was  made  in  his  theory.  Napier's  invention  of  logarithms  had  proved  an  inesti- 
mable advantage  to  navigation  and  geogn  .phy,  by  shortening  calculations :  this,  however, 
was  not  the  only  advantage  that  the  navi^tor  derived  from  the  invention ;  fir,  about  the  year 
164'^,  Henry  Bond  showed  that  the  division  of  the  meridian  in  Wright's  cha.t  was  altogether 
analogous  to  the  logarithmic  tangents  of  half  the  complements  of  the  latitudes,  and  might 
be  expressed  by  them.  He  seems  to  have  found  this  by  chance :  such  accidental  discoveries 
are,  however,  never  made  but  by  men  of  genius.  He  could  not  demonstrate  his  important 
theorem.  At  last  James  Gregory  proved  its  truth  in  his  Exercitaliones  Geometrical,  pub- 
lished in  1668.    The  construction  of  the  chart  was  now  made  perfect. 

The  invention  of  Mercator's  chart,  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  16th  century,  afSirds 
a  notable  instance  of  the  slowness  witli  which  men  adopt  improvements  in  science.  Although 
designed  for  the  use  of  sailors,  it  was  at  first  by  no  means  generally  used  by  them.  William 
Burrough,  a  celebrated  navigator,  who  had  entered  on  his  profession  at  the  age  of  fifteen, 
and  risen  by  his  merit  to  the  rank  of  controller  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  navy,  objected  to  its 
iisefiilness.  He  said — "  By  Mercator's  augmenting  his  degrees  of  latitude  towards  the  poles, 
the  same  is  more  fit  for  such  to  behold  as  studv  in  cosmoirnioliv.  bv  reading  authors  upon  ihe 


■      •'■•'(••  ■^■■-       ■•:       ■     ■•      'V 


MERCATOR'S  CHART. 


Book  I. 


Book  I. 


REPRESENTATION  OP  THE  EARTH. 


1^ 


land,  than  to  be  used  in  navi^tion  at  the  sea."  It  is  curious  to  observe  that  logarithms,  the 
othfir  grand  auxiliary  of  navigation,  met  with  a  like  reception  from  tlie  German  rnathema/- 
ticians  that  were  somewliat  advanced  in  years. 

Mercalor's  chart  may  be  produced  by  developement,  as  follows ; — Conceive  that  a  sphere 
with  the  meridians  and  parallels  and  countries  delineated  on  it,  is  inclosed  in  a  hollow  cyl- 
inilnr,  and  that  the  axi.^  of  the  sphere  coincides  with  that  of  the  cylinder.  Imagine  now  that 
tlin  sphere  is  cxpande«l  in  its  dimensions,  just  as  a  soap-bubble  is  pftxluced  by  blowing  air  into 
it,  or  lis  a  bladder  would  swell  in  all  directions  by  inflation,  tiie  parts  always  stretching  uni- 
formly ;  the  meridians  will  lengthen  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  parallels,  till  every  point 
of  th<3  expanding  spherical  surrace  comes  into  contact  with  the  concave  surface  of  the  cyl- 
inder :  the  meridians  will  at  last  become  straight  lines,  and  the  parallels,  circles  on  that 
surface ;  the  former  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  and  the  latter  parallel  to  its  base,  v/hich 
is  tlie  equ-itor.  Suppose  now  the  surface  of  the  cylinder  to  be  cut  open  along  one  of  the 
meridians,  and  spread  into  a  plane ;  the  surface  thus  produced  will  be  Mercator's  chart. 

Mcrcator's  chart  is  constructed,  then,  on  the  following  geometrical  principles : — 1.  The 
meridians  ire  parallel  straight  lines  at  equal  distances,  for  equal  differences  of  longitude; 
and  the  parallels  of  latitude  are  also  straight  lines,  perpendicular  to  the  meridians.  2.  Sup- 
posing a  meridian  on  the  globe  be  divided  into  minutes  of  a  degree ;  one  of  these,  at  any 
parallel  of  latitude,  will  be  to  a  minute  of  longitude  taken  on  that  parallel  in  the  proportion 
of  tlie  radius  of  the  equator  to  the  radius  of  tlie  parallel,  which  is  the  cosine  of  the  latitude ; 
that  is,  OS  the  secant  of  the  latitude  to  radius.  Now  the  same  holds  true  in  the  chart ;  that 
is,  a  minute  of  the  meridian,  at  any  parallel,  has  to  a  minute  of  longitude  in  that  parallel  the 
proportion  of  the  secant  of  the  latiluJc  of  the  parallel  to  radius. 

By  the  first  of  these  properties  a  minute  of  longitude  in  the  map  is  represented  by  a  line 
of  tiie  same  length  in  every  parallel ;  therefore,  by  the  second  the  minutes  of  the  meridian 
will  be  represented  by  lines  which  go  on  increasing  from  the  equator  towards  the  poles. 
From  this  it  follows  that,  if  a  minute  on  the  equator  be  taken  as  the  unit  of  a  scale,  and  that 
unit  be  considered  as  the  radius  of  a  circle,  then  the  representation  of  a  minute  of  the 
moridian,  at  any  latitude,  will  be  expressed  by  the  number  in  the  trigonometrical  tables 
which  is  the  secant  of  that  latitude.  Thus  it  appears  that,  while  the  degrees  of  longitude 
on  the  equator  form  a  scale  of  which  the  divisions  are  all  equal  in  the  map,  the  degrees  of 
latitude  marked  on  a  meridian  form  a  scale  of  wnich  the  divisions  go  on  increasing  from  the 
equator  towards  both  poles,  each  being  the  sum  of  the  secants  of  all  the  minutes  in  the 
dcffree. 

The  numbers  which  result  tl-om  the  addition  of  the  secants  of  1  minute,  2  minutes,  and  so 
on  to  the  last  minute  of  any  arc  of  the  meridian,  reckoned  from  the  equator,  are  given  in 
books  on  navigation.  They  fonn  the  table  of  meridional  parts,  and  serve  for  laying  down 
the  position  of  any  place  in  the  chart.  The  addition  of  the  secants  is,  however,  only  an 
approximation  to  the  true  length  of  the  enlarged  meridian  in  the  chart;  but  it  is  sufficiently 
near  the  truth  for  nautical  or  geographical  purposes.  In  strictness,  also,  it  must  be  considered 
that  the  earth  is  not  a  sphere,  but  a  spheroid,  and  en  that  account  allowance  ought  to  be 
made  for  its  compression  at  the  poles.  The  following  short  table  shows  the  length  of  the 
enlarged  meridian,  both  on  the  sphere  and  the  spheroid,  to  every  fifth  degree  of  latitude. 
The  compression  is  assumed  to  be  J^r- 


Lat. 

Mcri(iii.:iul  Fnrts. 

Lat. 

Meridional  Parts. 

Spheie. 

Spheroid. 

Sphere. 

Spheroid. 

Oo 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 

:«) 
:)5 

40 
45 

0.00 

3O0.:i8 

003.07 

910.40 

122.5.14 

1.549.99 

\sm:.is 

2244.29 
2022.00 
3029.04 

0.00 
298.37 
.599.01       ' 

no.T.28 

1217.00 
1541.17 

1877.99 
9232.09 
2(iOH.35 
3014.41 

50O 
sa 

10 
05 
70 
75 
80 
85 
90 

3474.47 
3907  97 
4527.37 
5178.81 
5965.92 
0970.34 
8375.29 
10704.02 
Infinite. 

3457.39 
3950.57 
4509.41 
5159.93 

;"f5.5i 
:i.)i.07 

H:!52.24 
10741.75 
Infinite. 

To  construct  Mercator's  chart  (Jiff.  57.),  draw  two  straight  lines  W  E,  N  S  at  right 
Biiirles  to  each  other,  intersecting  in  C ;  of  these  W  E  is  to  represent  the  equator,  and  N  S 
a  meridian,  in  the  middle  of  the  chart:  from  any  convenient  scale  lay  off  equal  parts  along 
the  equator,  from  C  both  ways,  to  represent  degrees  of  longitude,  and  each  of  which  should, 
if  there  be  room,  contain  60  subdivisions  for  minutes. 

Assuming  the  equator  as  a  scale  of  minutes,  lay  off  from  C,  north  and  south  on  the  middle 
meridian,  the  number  of  minutes  in  tlie  enlarged  meridian,  corresponding  to  each  degree  of 
latitude  as  shown  by  a  table  of  meridional  parts,  of  which  that  just  given  is  an  abridgement. 

Draw  straight  lines  through  every  fifth  or  every  tentli  degree  of  the  equator  and  divided 
mrsridian,  and  perpendicular  to  them.  Tim  perpendiculars  to  the  equator  w  iu  be  jntridians, 
and  the  lines  parallel  to  it  parallels  of  latitude. 


l"pn 


160 


PRI^'.UPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 
Fio.  57. 


Fait  a 


. 

1 
' 

i 

1 

N 

90 

V 

/\ 

L 

60 

t 

/ 

1 

40 

■ 

30 

E 

HO 

liO 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

C 

ao 

40 

eo 

60 

100 

120 

140 

1 





! 





20 
40 

— 

— 



. 



! 

\ 
! 





" 

6U 

i 



t 

1 

S 

80 

To  put  any  place  in  its  proper  position  on  the  chart,  aE^ume  soinn  one  meridian  for  tlie 
firtet,  and  !ay  off  from  its  intersection  with  the  equator,  and  along  it  in  the  proper  direction 
the  longituu";  of  the  place  in  minutes ;  draw  a  line  through  tlie  point  thus  found  perpen- 
dicular to  the  .quator :  this  will  be  the  meridian  of  the  place. 

On  this  mei  idian  lay  off  tlie  latitude,  as  shown  by  the  table  of  meridional  parts ;  and  the 
[Hjirit  thus  determined  will  be  the  true  position  of  the  place  in  the  chart. 

To  tiad  the  bearing  of  one  point  from  another,  or  course  in  which  a  ship  ought  to  sail  in 
piifssing  from  one  to  the  other,  drpw  a  straight  line  joining  the  two  points,  and  the  angle 
v-itich  that  line  makes  with  the  rneiidiuns  is  the  course  or  bearing. 

Thus,  if  L  be  the  liizard  Point  on  the  chart,  and  M  the  east  end  of  the  Island  of  Madeira, 
draw  L  I  parallel  to  the  meridian  N  S,  and  the  pjigle  I  L  M  will  be  the  course  on  which  a 
ship  ought  tx)  steer  from  the  Lizard  to  reach  Madeira. 

The  .ourse  n^ay  be  found  by  a  tiigonometrical  calculation,  by  considering  that  the  meri- 
dionul  difference  of  latitude  of  the  two  places  (as  given  by  the  table  of  meridional  parti), 
and  the  difference  of  longitude  in  minutes,  are  the  sides  of  p.  right-angleil  triangle,  of  which 
the  line  joining  the  places  's  the  hypotenuse,  and  the  course  one  of  the  acute  angles,  vi/ 
thiit  made  by  the  meridian  and  line  joining  the  places. 

^,1ain,  the  distance  of  the  places,  measured  on  the  rhumb  line  passing  through  them, 
aiay  also  be  found  by  trigonometry.  It  is  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle,  of 
V  liich  the  proper  difference  of  latitude  (not  the  meridional  difference)  is  one  side,  and  the 
CO  Trse  the  adjacent  angle. 

These  properties  of  the  chart  apply  alike  to  the  bearings  and  diota'^'jes  of  all  places  on 
the  globe  measured  on  rhumb  lines.    The  bearing  and  distances  of  I* •< In  •,  Edinburgh,  and 


Dublin,  for  instance,  from  each,  may  be  found  in  this  way  from  a  t 
and  their  known  latitudes  and  longitudes. 

It  is  evident  that  Mercator's  chart  does- not  serve  well  to  show  t'' 
jn  the  globe,  nor  their  rein*'  ^  magnitudes.     These  are  pi       .?"'. 
intended  to  serve ;  but  it  d'       '?rve  perfectly  the  purposes  fo»   wi.' 
and  which,  before  i^iinvi      .'  were  a  desideratum  in  geog!\.'  y. 


'f  meridional  parts 

.3  of  the  countries 

.ever,  which  it  is  not 

;  was  first  constructed, 


pA«Ta 


,U  ?i;AA".0 


THE  HEMISPHEREa  '^ 


1 


iO 


140  1^0 


eridian  for  tJie 

aper  direction 

found  perpen- 

parts;  and  the 

ught  to  sail  in 
and  the  angle 

id  of  Madeira, 
e  on  which  a 

iiat  the  meri- 
dional parti), 
firle,  of  which 
e  angles,  viz 

mugh  them, 

triangle,  of 

^ide,  and  the 

■11  places  on 
inburgh,  and 
idional  parts 

he  countries 
lich  it  is  not 
constructed, 


•f       '  1 


m 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PABTa 


^^BOOK    II 

GEOLOGICAL   PRINCIPLES. 

Grolooy  JH  that  branch  of  natural  history  which  treats  of  the  atmosphere,  the  waters  of 
tlie  jwlobe,  and  of  tlie  mouutain-rocka  of  which  the  earth  is  composed.  No  department  of 
natural  history  abounds  more  in  important  &cts  and  interesting  conclusions ;  and  therefore 
we  shall  lay  before  our  readers  a  short  view,  Ist,  Of  the  natural  history  of  the  atmosphere, 
or  meteorology ;  2dly,  Of  the  natural  history  of  the  waters  of  the  globe,  or  hydrology ;  and, 
I3illy,  Of  the  solid  materials  of  which  the  earth  is  composed,  or  geognosy. 


I 
I 


'        CHAPTER  I. 

METEOROLOOV. 


■■§:<::-' 


vt 


This  beantiflil  department  of  science  makes  us  acquainted  with  all  the  properties  and 
relations  of  the  atmosphere  which  surrounds  our  planet.  Although  in  general  but  little 
studied  by  geologists,  a  knowledge  of  it  is,  nevertheless,  most  usefiu  in  a  geological  point  of 
view,  of  which  the  details  we  shall  now  lay  before  our  readers  will  ailbrd  ample  proofi 

Skct.  I. — Pressure,  Height,  Form,  and  Temperature  of  the  Atmosphere. 

The  air  in  which  we  breathe,  with  the  clouds  and  vapours  floating  in  it,  surroimda  the 
earth  on  all  sides  to  an  unknown  height,  and  forms  a  moveable  envelope  denominated  the 
atmosphere.  The  human  species,  and  other  land  animals,  being  thus  entirely  immersed  in 
this  fluid,  may  with  some  propriety  be  said  to  inhabit  an  ocean  as  really  as  the  fishes  which 
live  in  the  great  deep.  But  the  latter  have  the  advantage  in  being  able  to  mount  up, 
remain,  or  descend  at  pleasure  in  their  element:  whereas,  without  some  additional  aid,  wo 
must  content  ourselves  with  the  more  humble  allotment  of  remaining  on  the  bottom  of  our 
ocf»an.  The  winged  tribes,  doubtless, iiave  the  power  of  ascending  to  great  heights;  still 
they  caiL  never  reach  the  summit.  There  is  nothing  more  essential  to  the  existence  or 
health  or  man  himself,  or  of  the  various  inferior  animals  and  vegetables  which  live  on.  our 
globe,  than  the  air  or  atmosphere ;  nor  has  any  agent  a  greater  share  in  the  innumerable 
changes  which  are  daily  taking  place  in  the  inanimate  materials  composing  our  planet.  It 
is  not  wonderful,  then,  that  the  composition  and  properties  of  the  atmosphere  should  have 
so  often  excited  inquiry.  To  give  an  account  of  these,  and  of  their  relations  to  other 
botlies,  particularly  to  the  various  substances  which  are  diflused  in  the  atmosphere,  and 
really  or  apparently  deposited  from  it,  constitutes  the  science  of  meteorology.  Whilst 
en<raging  in  this  task,  so  far  as  our  limits  permit,  it  will  be  flilly  as  instruct",  o,  and  scarcely 
more  tedious,  occasionally  to  introduce  a  very  brief  sketch  of  the  mode  in  wnich  some  of  the 
loading  facts  were  first  discovered  •  but  there  is  reason  to  think  that  a  few  of  the  more  obvi- 
ous prciperties  of  air  have  been  known,  as  it  were  instinctively,  from  the  remotest  antiquity. 

That  air  is  a  body  or  substance  possessing  the  essential  properties  of  matter,  appears 
from  the  resistance  which  it  offers  to  the  occupation  of  its  place  by  other  bodies.  Thus,  if 
an  apparently  empty  glass  jar  be  first  inverted,  and  then  immersed  in  a  vessel  of  water,  that 
liquid  will  only  enter  a  very  little  way  into  the  jar,  the  rest  being  occupied  by  the  air.  This 
fan'iliar  experiment  shows  that  air  is  a  body,  by  its  resisting  the  entry  of  the  water.  At  the 
same  time  it  shows  the  air  to  be  an  elasti ,  or  compressible  scibstance,  otherwise  it  should 
have  completely  excluded  the  water.  Thai  it  is  a  fluid  is  evident  from  the  ease  with  which 
bodies  move  in  it,  from  its  pressing  equally  in  every  direction,  and  passing  with  great  facility 
through  extremely  minute  openings. 

The  ancients  must  iiave  been  aware  of  these  properties,  or  at  least  of  some  of  their 
practical  applications,  otherwise  they  could  not  have  constructed  their  powerful  air-guns, 
nor  availed  themselves  of  the  principle  of  the  diving-bell :  for,  in  those  early  ages,  the 
adventurers  who  dived  in  search  of  pearls,  &c.  were  accustomed  to  hold  large  jKite  or  kettles 
inverted  on  their  heads.  The  air  which  these  open  vessels  contained  both  exclud'  d  flio 
water,  and  for  a  short  time  supported  respiration ;  thus  forming  diving-bells  in  a  portJible 
shape.  The  ancients  likewise,  m  some  of  their  mechanical  contrivances,  avail'  \  'hemselvos 
of  that  property  of  air  by  which  it  expands  with  heat  and  contracts  with  cold.  It  was  on 
this  principle  that,  in  more  modem  times,  Sanctorio  constructed  the  air  thermoi  eter. 

Weight  and  pressure  are  properties  of  the  air  as  of  all  other  bodies :  it  pidsses  on  the 
earth's  surface,  and  on  every  other  body  with  which  it  comes  into  contact.  This  was  con- 
jectured even  by  the  ancients.  But  the  effects  which  are  now  known  to  result  from  tne 
weight  and  elasticity  of  the  air  were  for  a  long  time  ascribed  to  a  principle  called  nature's 
horror  of  a  vacuum.  So  late  as  the  beginning  of  >,iie  seventeenth  century,  it  was  genoraily 
believed,  that  the  ascent  of  water  in  pumps  was  owing  to  this  principle,  and  that  by  means 


i£*.f;i-.j!'jii 


BooE  n. 


METEOROLOGY. 


I"  )  'r.  f.ifJ  1  1 


i^perties  ana 
ralbut. little 


'lere. 

lurronndstlie 
[niinatcd  the 
iinnierspti  in 
fishes  which 
J  mount  lip, 
onal  (lid,  wo 
)ttom  of  our 
eiffhts;  still 
Jxistence  or 
live  on.  our 
nnumerable 
planet.     It 
should  have 
lis  to  other 
sphere,  urid 
y.     Whilst 
nd  scarcely 
some  of  the 
more  obvi- 
t  antiquity, 
jr,  appears 
Thus,  if 
vater,  thut 
air.     This 
r.    At  the 
5  it  should 
ith  which 
at  facility 

?  of  their 
air-guns, 
as'es,  the 
or  kettles 
•id'd  the 

port/ible 
emselves 

was  on 
!r. 

3  on  the 
vas  con-  ' 
Tom  tie 
nature's 
enerall)' 
Y  meaus 


of  Kuction  fluids  might  be  raised  to  any  height  whatever.  But  Galileo,  though  sti'il  inclining 
to  tlie  old  opinion,  remarked  ttiat  water  dirl  not  rise  in  a  common  pump  unless  the  sucker  oi 
bucket  reached  witltin  'M  feet  of  its  surface  in  tlic  well.  Hence  he  was  forced  to  conjeo 
turi',  that  not  the  power  of  suction,  but  Uie  pressure  of  the  atmos])here  on  the  surface  of  tho 
well,  was  the  cause  of  the  water's  ascent;  ttiut  a  column  of  water  34  feet  high  was  acoun- 
tci|X)ii<c  to  one  of  air  on  an  equal  base,  but  reaching  to  the  top  of  the  atmosphere;  and  that* 
tur  tills  reason,  water  could  not  follow  the  sucker  any  tarther. 

Turiicelli,  a  disciple  of  Galileo,  protited  by  this  hint.  It  occurred  to  him  that  the  same 
force  which  supported  water  to  the  height  of  34  feet  would  sustain  a  column  of  any  other 
fluid  which  weighed  as  much  on  an  equal  base ;  and  tiioretbre  mercury,  being  13.6  times  as 
heavy  as  water,  should  only  be  suspended  to  the  height  of  29  or  30  inches.  Accordingly, 
lie  took  a  glass  tube  irom  three  to  tour  feet  long,  and  closed  at  one  end ;  this  he  filled  with 
mercury ;  then,  stoppmg  its  mouth  with  his  finger,  he  inverted  the  tube,  and  on  re-openmg 
its  iiiuuth  in  a  vessel  of  quicksilver  the  result  verified  his  expectation.  The  mercury, 
obeying  the  laws  of  hydrostatics,  descended  in  tite  tube  till  the  vertical  column  was  about. 
30  inches  above  the  level  of  the  cistern,  leaving  the  remaining  space  at  the  top  empty  or 
nearly  a  vacuum.  Hence  he  inferred  tiiat  it  was  only  the  weight  or  pressure  of  the 
atiiiasphere  on  the  mercury  in  the  cistern,  which  balanced  the  column  in  the  tube.  This 
is  usually  called  the  Toricellian  experiment,  and  is  the  foundation  of  the  barometer. 

The  mean  pressure  is  everywhere  the  same  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  equal  to  about 
14 '  lbs.  on  the  square  inch.  It  becomes  less  us  the  place  is  elevated  above  tlio  sea,  and 
cjrea'.er  if  below  its  level.  The  pressure  of  the  atmospliere,  as  measured  by  the  mercurial 
column,  varies  somewhat  at  every  place  on  the  earth  s  surface.  Generally  speaking,  its 
variations  are  greatest  in  the  temperate  zones,  decreasing  towards  tlie  equator  and  poles. 
The  annual  range  rarely  exceeds  half  an  inch  in  the  torrid  zone.  It  is  about  two  inches  at 
London,  and  the  same  at  St.  Petersburg,  but  rather  less  at  Melville  Island.  It  nowhere 
exceeds  3^  inches.  The  annual  range  is  more  considerable  at  the  level  of  the  sea  than  on 
iiiuiiiitains ;  and  under  tlie  same  latitude  it  is  less,  as  the  height  of  the  place  above  the  sea 
is  jjreater.  The  barometer  has  a  tendency  to  rise  from  4  P.  M.  to  10  P.  M. ;  to  fall  from 
10  ['.  M.  to  4  A.  M. ;  to  rise  from  4  A.  M.  to  10  A.  M. ;  and  again  to  fall  from  10  A.  M.  to 
4  P.  M.  Different  authors,  however,  differ  a  little  both  as  to  the  hours  and  tlie  amount  of 
the  diurnal  variation,  which  appears  to  be  greater  as  the  latitude  is  lower.  The  barometer 
is  likewise  elevated  a  little  at  the  quarters  of  the  moon,  and  depressed  at  the  new  .  '  flill. 
The  range  of  this  instrument  is  greater  in  winter  than  ii.  summer. 

The  barometer  ranges  higher  in  proportion  as  tlie  weather  is  more  serene  and  settlet' : 
calm  weather,  witli  a  tendency  to  rain,  depresses  it;  high  winds  have  a  similar  effect,  ia 
extra-tropical  climates,  a  fall  in  the  barometer,  with  a  change  or  rise  of  wind,  is  usually 
followed  by  rain. 

The  law  which  regulates  tlie  elasticity  of  the  air  formed  the  next  important  step,  after  the 
discovery  of  the  pressure.  Boyle  in  England,  and  Mariotte  in  France,  discovered,  much 
about  the  same  time,  that  the  temperature  being  tlie  same,  the  pressure  or  elastic  tbrce  of 
air  is  directly  as  its  density,  or  inversely  as  the  space  it  occupies.  This  law,  though  received 
as  correct  at  the  time  of  its  discovery,  continued  to  be  suspected  till  within  these  few  years. 
But  Uulong  and  Petit  have  recently  examined  it  through  a  wide  range  of  temperature ; 
Professor  Oersted  has  tried  it  under  a  great  variety  of  pressures ;  and  within  the  limits  of 
their  experiments  it  was  found  to  hold  goofl. 

The  variable  capacity  for  heat  forms  another  property  of  air  of  no  less  importance,  but 
which  seems  to  have  bicn  little  known  or  attended  to  till  towards  the  end  of  the  ^■•'•*  f  cn- 
tury.    When  air  undergoes  a  change  of  volume,  it  at  the  same  time  changoii  its  c  ir 

heat;  becoming  hotter  by  compression,  and  colder  by  rarefaction.  The  want  of  acquaintance 
with  thif  circumstance  led  Newton,  and  many  others  aftjer  him,  into  llo  .nistake  of  con- 
eluding,  that  tli^  particles  of  elastic  fluids  repel,  each  other  with  forces  inversely  as  their 
central  distances ;  which  cannot  be  the  case  if  the  capacity  be  affected,  no  matter  in  what 
manner  or  degree,  by  a  change  of  density.  But  very  extensive  experiments,  made  by  some 
of  the  most  eminent  scientific  men  in  France,  and  repeated^in  Fnglard,  are  favourable  to  the 
idea  that  the  pa'-ti  Jos  of  air  obs^ive  the  same  law  as  magnetism  and  electricity,  repelling 
each  oiher  w '      "      !s  inversely  as  the  squares  of  their  distances. 

There  is  a  ,  ..  lon  of  density  in  the  air.  Being,  as  already  stated,  a  compressible  Sody, 
rt  is  obvious  tl...t  the  lower  parts  of  the  atmosphere,  by  sustaining  tlie  greater  weight  or 
pressure  of  the  air  above  them,  must  be  so  much  the  more  condensed;  and  therefore,  aii  we 
ascend  in  the  atmosphere,  the  density  will  continually  diminish.  Accordingly,  it  may  be 
shown  fTon'.  the  principles  already  laid  down,  that  were  the  temperature  and  the  force  of 
gravity  unifor  '  at  all  heights  above  the  eartli'g  surllv.'^e,  the  densities  of  the  strata  would 
decrease  in  g  o.netrical  progression  for  altitudes  taken  In  arithmetical  prop-ession,  so  as 
nearly  to  halvt  'he  density  for  evory  3.5  miles  of  ascent  But,  independently  of  a  triflinjj 
change  in  the  force  of  gravity,  this  is  not  exact  ly  the  law  of  nature;  for  it  is  found  that  the 
temperature  generally  decreases  as  we  go  upward     .:d  that  x  *  according  to  any  fixed  law 

Vol.  I.  15  W 


170 


PRINCIPI,ES  OP  (;R(XJRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


Hence  the  relntion  briweon  the  denflity  and  altitude  is  not  of  n  stcndy  chnr  cter,  nml  pun 
only  be  obtainod  in  any  particular  case  from  olw^Tving  the  preasure,  temiM'mtuif,  mid  hy^nv 
metric  state  of  the  air.  This  m  a  roBcarch  to  which  n/any  eminent  mm  have  turned  tlieir 
attention ;  and  thoir  Bucceafiive  labourti  have  led  to  the  tbmiation  of  convenient  rules,  by 
which  the  heififhta  of  mountii  ns  can  bo  obtained  to  a  conaiderablo  degree  of  acciu^cy,  and 
with  dfreat  IkcilitVt  by  meaub  of  the  hArometer,  &c. 

The  hciffht  and  form  of  the  ..'  laip.  ">?  are  objects  of  intorpst.  With  nn  uniform  tenn. 
perature,  the  law  of  Boyle  ■  .  ' .  i>.  '  tli©  uotion  that  its  hcijfht  is  infinite;  but  this  is  an 
idea  which  has  scarct'lv  v  'ii'''  '  .  and  is  generally  believed  to  be  incompatiblf  with 
tlie  laws  of  motion,  u.  VV.ulaMton,  whoMo  opinion  is  entitled  to  groat  deference,  main- 
tains  that  the  atmowpli-'rvi  must  terminate  at  the  height  where  tlie  repulsive  force  between 
its  particles  equals  Uit;ir  tendency  to  gravitate  towanft  the  earth.  The  law  of  gravity  may 
be  admitted  as  known,  but  the  same  can  hardly  be  affirmed  of  the  law  which  regulates  the 
repulsive  force,  ho  long  as  the  temperature  at  great  heights  is  unknown  ;  and  this  circum- 
stance leaves  the  boundary  undetermined.  A  dnnb»  ^f  a  more  serious  nature,  howevnr, 
attaches  to  this  ]>eculation,  on  the  ground  f'  ^  *.  ut illy  '  loraiit  with  what  materials 
the  air  may  be  mixed  at  great  olovatin  h.  The  armosphere  is  generally  supposed  to  lie 
higher  at  the  equator  than  at  the  poles ;  but  we  have  neither  data  Tor  computing  the  heights, 
nor  the  proportion  in  which  they  differ:  so  that  the  oblate  spheroidal  figure  which  some  give 
to  the  atinosjihere  can  be  considered  as  little  else  than  an  ingenious  conjecture. 

The  loiiiporature  of  the  atmosphere  has  great  influence  on  most  meteorological  pheno- 
mena; b:  .  :t  is  exceedingly  variable,  and  can  as  yet  be  determined  only  by  actual  observa- 
tion on  thu  spot.  Nothing  would  tend  to  throw  greater  light  on  many  of  the  unresolved 
questi  )nft  in  meteorology,  than  a  ready  mode  of  computing  with  certainty  the  tempemture 
whicl.  obtains  at  any  instant  in  a  point  of  the  atmosphere  remote  from  the  conttact  of  the 
earth'H  surface,  and  at  any  point  on  the  surface  remote  from  the  observer :  but  these  are 
likely  to  continue  desiderata.  The  very  little  that  is  known  of  the  temperature  of  air  remote 
frtHi.  the  earth's  surfiice  has  been  derived  from  a  few  aeronautic  excursions,  particularly  tlie 
ucnnt  of  M.  Gey-i  jssac  to  the  height  of  7630  yards. 

The  heat  of  the  air  in  one  shape  or  another  is  no  doubt  greatly  derived  from  the  sun, 
either  immediately  by  intercepting  the  solar  rays,  or  indirectly,  from  its  cr,  ct  with  the 
earth's  surface,  which  is  more  or  less  heated  according  as  it  is  turned  more  or  less  town  rds 
the  sun :  but  whether  heat,  in  return,  be  projected  from  the  earth  or  its  atmosphere  towards 
other  regions  of  space,  is  a  disputed  question.  Professor  Leslie  maintains  that  heat,  which 
is  not  .vccompanicd  with  or  nither  is  not  in  the  state  of  light,  cannot  pass  through  a  vacuum, 
and,  of  course,  that  it  ciinnot  pe.s8  the  boundary  of  the  atmosphere.  If  so,  it  would  follow 
that  the  atmosphere  does  not  continually  draw  oflT  heat  from  the  earth,  but  may  oflcner  be 
the  warmer  of  the  two.  Many  philosophers,  however,  are  of  a  different  opinion,  among 
whom  was  the  ingenious  Dr.  Wells,  with  most  of  those  who  embraced  his  theory  of  dew. 
These  allege,  that  heat  is  constontly  ,  rojer 'ed  from  the  earth  and  atmosphere  towards  the 
boundless  regions  of  space.  ObsiTvation  shows,  Uiat  much  heat  passes  upward  from  the 
earth's  surface,  especially  when  ti.e  air  is  clear,  in  this  wa",  the  stratum  of  air  in  contact 
with  the  surface  is  cooled  r.^re  tha''  that  which  somewhat  higher.  It  is  probable  that 
there  exists  a  natural  tenritiicy  in  the  atmospher'  .  ae  in  most  other  bodies,  towards  an  uni- 
form temperature  throughout  its  whole  height ;  and  since  currents  in  its  upper  regions  usually 
2onie  from  a  warmer  quarter,  and  the  lower  currents  from  a  colder,  there  is  upon  the  whole, 
independently  of  aeronautic  ob^vi*  ations,  some  « 'ound  for  su]  ,H)sing  th-it  the  decreaso  of 
tempera  lure  on  ascendujg  in  the  atmosphere  shf  'ild  be  slower  than  the  law  of  rapacity  as 
increased  by  dil  tation  requires. 

The  following  list  of  temperatures,  chiefly  obsci'^-  at  stations  employed  in  the  barome- 
trical measurements  of  heights,  is  taken  frc  i  M.  .^'.aiond's  work  on  that  subject.  Only  a 
few  of  these  measurements  embrace  the  •  >  heii  !.ts  of  the  mountains  on  which  they 
were  made,  and  the  first  case  is  of  a  diSc'i  ••  iss.  We  have  reduced  tlie  temperatures  to 
Fahrenheit's  scale : — 


rkcf*. 

HellbL 

Ttmp. 
•tbot. 

11 ! 

riwn. 

ilaliht. 
Yank 

Temp, 
at  Inl. 

Temp. 
at  top. 

Varrli. 

o 

0 

0 

« 

,           (Hy-Lawne*»  meni 

7M0 

n.4 

14.8 

PID  d-KTn.  TirbM 

Plodii  Moiililiii 

rio  du  Midi,  breld 

3)17 

7».» 

81.8 

WI7 

net 

77.8 

ai.« 

n.i 

«8.8 

9344 

1806 

BH.I 
801 

51.8 
111.6 

Mont  Blue 

«m 

ei.7 

W.I) 

W.I 
47.1 

Ditto „ 

Ditto 

z 

71  4 
70.3 

tll4 
40.1) 

Pic  dc  TcMtlOla 

*           Moot  BlAtu:,  Chimonnjr 

«no 

n.4 

38.8 

Ditto 

» 

093 

4711 

KltiB .■,...,.....•..••.....,„...... 

aMo 

n.» 

•».• 

DHto 

_ 

10.8 

3118 

)           Mont  Perdu,  Tirbc* 

fM 

18.  t 

44.4 

Ditto 

_ 

81.0 

4<d 

Col  dil  flMUlt 

MM 

1«.g 

48.1 

Dllto 

.. 

MO 

nA 

,            Milad^ll'  

<IT4 

a94 

18.1 

Ditto 



et.i 

41.4 

ric  du  Midi,  TlrtlM 

nt8 

81.1 

M.e 

Paydc  Dome,  Cleniioiit 

■!= 

.                      Ditto 

47.5 

uiito 

IMO 

1               mtts 

» 

7>.t 

48.8 

Dllto 

» 

(U.O 

«S.i 

;                     Ditto 

.. 

74.1 

eo.7 

Dllto 

.. 

78  8 

69  4 

Dllto 

.. 

86.8 

48,8 

Dllto 

» 

01.3 

741 

Ditto 

88  4 

89.3 

Be.iit  dn  HMOeret.  TKrbei 

Pontdu  Bene*.  ClIcrmoDt 

811 

81  8 

Ditto 

_ 

88.8 

».7 

tn 

81.8 

30.8 

1          Col  do  fletnt,  Cbamouuy 

jHog 

78.8 

40.1 

La  Barrasoe.  Clermant 

418 

74,8 

71.3 

1           Uonl  Perdu  Baretea 

■»" 

1    77.0 

44.4 

1_        — 

Doof  II. 

T>'ii 
temper**! 

txo  still  1 
The  pi 
few  parti 

(em/>«r«f 

ileijreps  I 

From  I 


iHeiKhti'i 
Kiigliial 
feet. 


137'.Kll 


Paht  II. 

f  '^tPT,  mill  run 
'"•<',  niMl  hyjrro. 
vo  turneil  tiicir 
lient  rules,  hj 
accuracy,  and 

uniform  tem- 
'"'<  this  is  nn 
ompatiblf  with 
fcroncp,  main- 
force  between 
>f  firravitv  may 
rcffulateH  the 
I  this  circiim. 
lure,  however, 
vhat  materials 
ipposed  to  l)e 
i.g  the  heijfhts, 
ich  some  give 

logichl  pheno- 
ctual  observa- 
10  unresolved 
>  temperature 
Jonthct  of  the 
but  these  are 
of  air  remote 
rticularly  tJie 

from  the  sun, 
•Jt  with  the 

less  towiirds 
here  towards 
t  heat,  which 
gh  a  vacuum, 
would  follow 
ly  oftener  be 
nion,  among 
eor>  of  dew. 

towards  the 
ird  from  the 
ir  in  contact 
robable  that 
nrds  an  imi- 
rions  usually 
1  the  whole, 
decrease  of 
"apacity  as 

■hii  barome- 
!t.  Only  a 
vhich  they 
eratures  to 


Bool  II, 


METROROI       ;Y. 


171 


Tomp. 

Tem^ 

Bt  I'lp. 

0 

„ 

7».» 

tl.8 

tx.i 

!n.« 

Wl 

iii.i 

714 

•IH  4 

70.S 

ie.a 

«S3 

ii« 

Height  in 

Kngliih 

(em. 

E<|uatorial  n>ne 
ftoinlal.OoiolOO. 

Temperate  lone 
(Vom  lal.  4S0  to  47° 

Mean 
Temp. 

DIIAir- 
piice. 

Mean 
Tomp. 

DllTur- 
eace. 

a 

319S 

A3U3 

..'7 

ISUM 

0 
81.S 

7i.a 

05.1 
S7.7 
44.6 
34.7 

0 

10.3 

e.i 

7.4 
13.1 

0 

33.6 
41.0 
31.0 
83.4 

o 

13.6 
0.4 
8.9 

Tt'is  table  showi,  in  a  very  itrikinff  mai  'u^r,  ith  how  littlo  certainty  the  nocniose  of 
temperature  can  be  dstimateu  tVom  the  increase  of  height;  and  how  unsteady  the  rate  of 
decroa:4e  in  otlen  at  the  same  place.  M.  Ramond,  however,  haa  coUeoted  some  cases  which 
are  still  more  discordant. 

The  precwhling  table  containa  the  temperatures  of  the  air  at  different  heights  for  one  or  a 

few  particular  iiutanta;  but  we  shall  now  add  a  table  from  Baron  Humboldt  nf  the  mean 

temperaturea  of  elevated  nluationa,  aa  deduced  ttom  several  year*   observations.     The 

decrees  are  those  of  Fahrenheit*!  scale. 

IVom  this  table  it  appears,  that,  in  the  mean  state  of  the  atmosphere,  the  tem))eraturc 

does  not  decrease  uniformly  for  a  uniform  ai^cent. 
At  the  equator,  the  thermometer  fklls  1U°  in  tlie 
first  1000  yards  of  aHcnnt,  or  about  1°  for  Hid  feet 
In  the  next  1000  yards,  it  is  only  1°  tor  !i'M  feet  ■ 
but  in  tlie  third  and  fourth  stages  there  is  a  re- 
markable acceleration,  which  having  attained  its 
maximum  rate,  is  diminished  again  in  the  titlh 
stage  to  somewhat  less  than  it  was  in  the  firrit,  or 
to  1°  in  320  feet  The  mean  rate  in  the;  varia- 
tion of  temperature,  throughout  the  whole  height 
of  15965  feet,  at  the  Hiiiit  of  perpetual  snow,  is  1° 
for  every  341  feet  The  smaller  rate  of  decrease  in  the  second  and  third  stages  is  iiscrib(?(i 
by  Humboldt  to  the  large  dense  clouds  hich  are  suspended  in  this  region,  and  winch,  ho 
alleges,  have  Mie  triple  effect  of  absorb  if  the  sun's  rays,  formino;  rain,  and  intercepting 
the  radiation  of  heat  from  the  earth.  In  the  temperate  zone,  the  decrease  is  at  the  rate  of 
l'^  for  253  feet,  during  the  first  1000  yards  of  ascent.  But  throughout  the  whole  height  of 
U.W  feet,  to  the  limit  ( f  perpetual  snow,  where  the  mean  temperature  is  23.4°,  the  decreuse 
is  V'  for  317  feet,  or  a'most  1°  for  100  yards.  As  already  remarked,  observations  made  in 
tlie  free  regions  of  the  atmosphere  have  not  yet  been  so  numerous  as  to  warrant  any  certain 
couclusion  regarding  the  temperature ;  but,  so  far  as  such  observations  go,  they  do  not  diH'er 
very  widely  from  the  mean  of  thoee  observed  on  the  sides  ond  summits  of  mountains.  Hut 
|l[enerally  ii  tii.  i  iperate  zone,  a  difference  of  1000  yards  in  height  will  produce  a  difference 
(if  12°  of  tem  '  lure ;  and  so  on  in  proportion  for  smaller  heights.  In  higher  regions,  the 
'HfTcrence  \)<  '  uen  the  heats  of  day  ana  night,  summer  and  winttr,  seem  to  be  loss  than  at 
the  level  of  the  sea ;  though  from  this  there  are  some  exceptions.  Extensive  tablo-lnnds 
n- '  usually  warmer  than  insulated  peaks  of  the  same  height  Humboldt  calculates  that,  in 
i  mpemte  zone,  an  ascent  of  llO'yards  diminishes  the  temperature  as  much  os  an  addi- 
tional degrr     if  latitude. 

Temper, III  "  of  air  in  mines.  Having  tlius  noticed  the  lower  temperatures  which  obtain 
in  more  eli  I  situations,  we  shall  now  give  some  account  of  the  increased  tempcrutiire 
which  gener  y  prcails  in  air  occupying  deep  caverns  and  mines.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
as  to  such  facta,  but  tlie  source  of  the  heat  is  still  a  subject  of  controversy.  There  are  some 
mines  intensely  c<Ad ;  and  as  these  were  first  observed,  the  explanation  offered  was,  that 
the  colder  portions  of  air  had,  by  their  greater  weight  descendeu  into  the  mines :  but  this 
solution  en'.irely  vanished  when  it  was  known  that  mines  are  generally  hot  The  heat  of 
the  workmen,  their  fires  and  lights,  have  been  stated  as  sources  of  heat ;  as  likewise  the 
chemical  action  of  air  and  water  on  the  minerals.  Som  ;  again  allege  tli'^t  a  high  tempera- 
ture obtains  in  the  interior  of  our  globe,  and  consequently  that  the  heat  will  always  be 
greater  as  we  penetrate  farther.  However,  it  is  found  that  on  boring  into  'Jso  t-Jid  strata  in 
the  bottom  of  warm  mines,  and  letting  down  a  thermometer,  the  temponlnrt,  so  fiir  from 
increasing,  comes  short  of  that  in  the  mine.  This  sufficiently  proves  that,  whatever  be  the 
.'-imrces  of  heat,  some  of  them  at  least  must  operate  in  or  be  situated  about  the  mine  itself. 
That  a  high  temperature  obtains  in  the  interior,  is  in  many  instances  evident  from  the 
streams  of  hot  water  and  vapour  vhich  issue  from  fissures  in  the  strata:  but  in  many  warm 
mines  nothing  of  this  is  observable.  Professor  Leslie,  Dr.  Forbes,  and  aflerwards  Mr.  Mat- 
thew Miller,  have  suggested  the  he8,t  evolved  by  a  current  of  air,  while  it  undergoes  an 
increase  of  pressure  in  descending  into  the  mine.  The  first  two  of  these  philosophers  did 
not  deem  this  an  adequate  source  of  heat ;  and  Mr.  Miller  seems  to  entertain  similar  doubts. 
But  from  what  is  now  known  of  the  great  heat  evolved  by  the  compression  of  air,  there  cin 
be  little  room  to  question  that  this  furnishes  a  considerable  supply,  wherever  there  is  a  suf^ 
ficient  current  of  air.  Thus,  il'  lir  at  the  temperature  of  P2°  F.  have  its  density  suddenly 
increased  by  the  170th  part,  the  temperature  will  be  raised  1° ;  supposing  no  heat  to  be  lost 
on  the  sides  of  the  shaft.  This  would  give  1°  for  a  descent  of  170  feet,  which  is  still  short 
of  the  rate  at  which  the  tempemtuf e  is  otservsd  to  increase  in  British  mines :  but  when 
added  to  the  heat  Cdused  by  the  presence  of  the  workmen  and  horses,  their  lights,  blasting 
of  rocks,  fires,  oic.  together  with  some  increase  of  temperature  belonging  to  the  deeper 
strata,  there  Joes  not  seem  any  mystery  in  the  heat  of  some,  although  probably  not  of  all, 
mines.     Those  mines,  again,  in  which  there  is  almost  no  circulation  of  air,  and  which  pre- 


m 


SCIENCE  OF  OEOORAPIIY. 


MT  II 


tont  a  wido  mouth  to  a  cleor  iky,  may  havu  thoir  tomponiture  reduced  bj  rudiatinir  \\m 

upwards,  iii  tho  Maiiiu  way  that  plants  aro  utarved  witii  cold  by  boin(f  too  much  ahelt'  ri>d 

fruui  tho  wind  whilu  they  are  expuaed  to  a  clear  sky. 

All  iiiinicnoo  colloction  (it'tUctM  and  otxwrvationH  rclatinff  to  thia  Bubject  may  be  loen  in 

Uie  'l^atuactiont  of  the  Utolofjficiil  Society  <{/*  Vomiealf,  and  in  tho  flrat  iiunibor  of  the 

Edin.  PhiL  Journal.     From  the  latter  we  extract  tho  Ibllowiiiir  aunuiuury  ot'  Mr.  ikld'i 

obaorvations,  made  in  tlie  daepeiit  coal-minea  in  Great  Britain : —  -•  "-  "< 

Water  at  ilnplh  or444  Ibdl  ...>itti>t'..... 
Air  at  laiiiu  ileptli 

Ptrtf  Mam  dtUTf,  M^ktrnktrland. 

Air  at  Iht)  iiirflico  49 

Wntor  at  •iirftico 40 


tVUttkavtn  ailtiry,  Otuntl  ^f  CwnUrltnd. 

Air  nt  Ihn  iiirlliro     359  P 

A  ii|irliiK  HI  •iirflira 4tf 

Wiitir  at  (li'pth  of  4M)  fttat    00 

Air  lit  •uiiii>  ili'ntli    03 

Air  at  ilaiMh  of  000  foat  M 


WtrlUngtmk  OolUiry,  Cumb$rlani. 

Air  at  tiM  iiirflieo    M 

A  Kprlni  at  iiiriftipe 48 

Watvr  at  depth  of  IHI)  hut     SO 

Water  304  fevt  beneath  the  lurlkca  of  tba  Iriah 
Bea       00 

n»m  CW/Ury,  OauiUf  qf  Durktwt. 
Water  at  lurftica      40 


Air  ul  duplll  <>r  IKIO  ft'i't  below  the  level  of  the 
Mia,  and  imiiiediatuly  under  the  bod  of  the 

river  Tyne    70 

Water  at  •nine  depth ....OH 

Here  Ltmlle'i  hygrometer  Indlcoted  drynoM  . . ,  .H3 

Jartmt  Ctllitrjf,  CauHtf  iff  Durham, 

A I  r  at  t  he  (iirltca   40^ 

Wiiter  nt  mirflice 40 

Air  at  duplh  of  HN9  fhot 70 

Water  at  «niiie  depth 88 


The  engine  pit  of  Jarrow  is  the  decp<iat  perpendicular  shafl  in  Britain,  being  000  feet  to 
the  toot  of  the  pumps,  where  the  tomperaturu  of  tho  air  wua  64°. 


KimngwoHk  VolHtry,  ^rth*mb$rland. 

Air  at  lurnice  4flo  V 

Wntiir  at  aiirl^ce  4U 

Air  at  bnttoin  of  nhnlY  700  fnot  deep 51 

Air  It  depth  of  noofiM't,  and  n  mile  nnd  half  fyntn 
iKittnni  of  dowii^cait  pit 70 


Wnler  at  ninit  diitnnl  ftirehead  and  ISOO  (bet 

below  iiirfarn 74°  F 

Air  at  mine  deiith  *7 

At  thin  depth,  ifiatlllral  wnler  boiled  at 313 

When  at  lurfacu  it  boiled  at 310  A 


The  temperature  of  springs  and  caverns,  in  many  places,  coincides  with  the  moan  annual 
tPinpcrature  of  the  air:  but  Ilumboldt  alleges  that,  in  latitudes  above  45°,  tho  mean  heat  of 
siirings  and  caves  exceeds  that  of  tho  atinosphero.  As  connected  with  this  subject,  Mr. 
Ferguson,  of  Raith,  had  four  largo  thermometers  sunk  in  his  garden,  to  the  respective  dcptlw 
of  1,  2,  4,  and  8  feet,  in  lat.  50°  10',  and  50  feet  above  the  sea.  Tho  stems  and  scales  rose' 
above  ground,  and  indicated  the  following  monthly  mean  temperatures : 


January... 
February .  ■ 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

AuRUK.  .  .. 
Bcptcinlier . 
Octolw.r..., 
Novfiiihor . 
Uvneinbcr. . 


IRie. 


1  Foot.    3  Feet.    4  Feet.    8  Feet 


33.00 

337 

33.0 

30.7 

40.0 

51.0 

SI.O 

50.0 

51.0 

47.0 

40.R 

35.7 


Mean  of  the  Year 


43.8 


3fl.30 
3U.n 

*i.7 

43.3 
30.0 
33.5 
53.5 
31.3 
4!l,3 
4:1.8 
400 


44.1 


40.70 

3)1.0 

.Til.O 

41.4 

43.4 

47.1 

30.4 

50.0 

51.H 

40.7 

40.3 

43.0 


43.1 


43.00 

43.0 

4^.3 

43.8 

44.0 

45.8 

47.7 

40.4 

50.0 

40.U 

45.0 

40.0 


40.6 


1817. 


1  Foot.    3  Feet.    4  Ftict.    8  Fuet. 


35.0° 

37.0 

311.4 

43.0 

40.8 

31  1 

35.3 

33.4 

5:1.0 

45,7 

41.0 

35.0 


44.0 


.■W.70 

40.0 

40.3 

43.4 

44.7 

4II.4 

55.0 

53.0 

53.7 

40.4 

44.7 

40.8 


40.50 

41.0 

41.7 

43U 

44.0 

47.0 

.'SI. 4 

530 

33.0 

4!l.4 

47.0 

44.0 


45.0 


40.3 


45.10 

48.7 

43.5 

43.(1 

44.3 

47.H 

40.0 

50.0 

50.7 

40.8 

47.0 

40.4 


46.0 


Had  the  thermometers  been  sunk  considerably  deeper,  they  might  have  been  expected  to 
have  indicated  47°  7',  which  is  the  constant  temperature  of  a  neighbouring  spring  issuing 
from  a  trap  rock. 

The  local  temperature  or  climate  of  a  country  depends  very  much  upon  its  distance  from 
the  equator,  and  its  lieigiit  abovf  the  level  of  the  sea :  but  the  nature  of  the  surface,  the 
|)roportion  of  humidity,  the  distance  of  the  sea,  of  lakes,  of  mountaiuB,  of  arid  or  frozen 
plains  and  perhaps,  also,  the  internal  heat  of  the  earth,  have  each  their  share  in  the  fertility 
or  salubrity  of  a  country.  The  docreace  of  lieat  as  we  recede  from  tho  equator  follows  dif- 
ferent laws  in  the  two  hemispheres,  being  greater  in  the 
soutliern  than  in  the  northern,  and  is  also  affected  by  the 
l9ngitude.  On  the  west  of  Europe,  the  cold  increases  less 
with  the  latitude  than  in  any  other  quarter.  Under  meri- 
dians which  are  90°  either  east  or  west  of  London,  the 
increase  of  cold,  as  we  go  northward,  is  more  rapid  than  in 
ji^iiffland.  According  to  Humboldt,  continents  and  iarpe 
islands  are  warmer  on  their  western  sides  than  on  the  eastern. 
Th(!  iinnexetl  table  siiows  the  mean  temperatures  of  western 
Europe  and  North  America  continued  to  the  equator. 


Lat. 

00 
20 

:io 

•10 
.10 
!K! 
70 

Old 
World. 

8U0 

77.0 

70.7 

03.5 

50.0 

4i.O 

3:10 

New 
World. 

81.50 
77.0 
67.1 
54.5 
38.3 
25.0 
0.0 

l)iff. 

00 

0 

3.6 

n.o 

12.0 
Itl.O 

3:1.0 

BnoR  IF. 


METEOROIX'OY. 


173 


fllOf 

M 

rhnd, 

« 

....... 

v..|  nf  the 
M  i)f  the 

70 

BH 

noM  ....(j3 

tain, 

40J 

...   .40 

70 

68 

000  feet  to 

1800  fbot 
740f 

;? 

ai3 

8)0,5 


if"an  anniiai 
fail  heat  of 
'ubjebt,  Mr. 
ctivo  doptjig 
scales  rose ' 


pectcd  to 
?  issuinjf 

tice  from 
face,  the 
T  frozen 
fertility 
lows  dif- 
r  in  the 
by  the 
ses  less 
r  mori- 
on, the 

1.1 :_ 

I'liaii    III 

I  lar^e 
ofitjrn. 
western 


iHu'liorninl  lines  have  been  consiilered  um  rnoiuiiiriri|{  the  heat  and  cold  of  thn  earth.  'I'lio 
cliiniito  of  Eastern  Asia  cuinus  nearer  to  tiiat  of  EiiHtern  America  than  of  WwHtcrn  Eur(i|»e. 
TliuH  tht)  latitudes  of  Naples,  I'ekinff,  andl'liilodelphin  are  respoctivnly  41°,  4(P,  and  40'', 
whilst  their  mean  temperatures  are  03.3°,  B4.8°,  and  KiA'^.  Such  differcnccH  are  rendi-rcd 
more  sensible  when  we  connect  th»)  places  liavin((  the  same  mean  tein|)«rature  by  Uutm 
which  Humb«)ldt  denominates  isolhermal  lines.  Thus,  the  isothermal  lino  of  r>U°  F.  traverHos 
tlie  latitude  of  43°  in  Euroipe,  but  descends  to  lat.  36°  in  America ;  the  isothermal  line  of 
41°  F.  passes  from  lat.  60*^  in  Europe  to  lat.  48°  in  America :  but  since  the  western  coast 
of  Nortii  America  is  warmer  than  the  eastern,  the  isothermal  lines,  bein((  traced  roiuul  the 
iiorthorn  hemisphere,  would  havn  concave  summits  at  the  east  side  of  Iwth  worlds,  and  con- 
vex at  the  west. 

The  difference  between  the  mean  temperature  of  summer  and  winter  is  nothing  at  the 
equator,  and  increases  continually  with  the  lutitudn.  But  the  extreme  difl'erenco  of  the 
seasons  is  comparatively  small  in  Woslorn  Europe,  and  (freat  where  the  mean  annual  tem- 
perature is  low,  as  on  tiie  east  coasts  of  Asia  and  America.  If  we  draw  a  line  in  a  north- 
east direction  iVom  Bordeaux  to  Warsaw,  and  continue  it  to  the  Wolga,  in  lat.  &5°,  thuii 
all  places  under  this  line,  at  the  samO^levation,  will  have  nearly  the  same  summer  tempera* 
ture  of  69°  or  70°  F.  The  lines  of  equal  winter  temperature  decline  in  an  opposite  (lircc- 
tion.  Thus  a  straiKht  line  drawn  from  Edinburgh  to  Milan,  almost  at  ri((ht  anf^les  to  the 
former  line,  would  pass  over  places  which,  if  equally  elevated,  woulr  liave  nearly  the  same 
winter  temperature  of  37°  or  38°  F. 

The  extremes  of  temperature  are  experienced  chiefly  in  largo  inland  tracfj^,  and  little  fi;lt 
in  small  islands  remote  from  continents.  In  the  United  States  intense  cold  m  felt  when  the 
wind  blows  from  the  frozcii  regions  round  Hudson's  Bay.  From  snuw-clad  mountains,  gufts 
of  cold  wind,  called  snoto  xoinda,  rush  down  and  cool  the  adjacent  plains.  The  heat  accu- 
mulates to  on  astonishing  degree  when  the  wind  passes  over  extensive  deserts  of  burning 
sand,  which  are  said,  in  some  instances  in  Africa,  to  bo  heated  to  the  btjiling  point.  This 
fine  sand,  or  rather  dust,  sometimes  rises  in  the  air  and  obscures  it  like  a  fog,  communicating 
to  it  an  intolerable  heat.  In  arctic  countries  the  temperature  is  very  much  regulated  by 
the  freezing  of  the  water  and  the  melting  of  the  ice ;  by  the  freezing  of  the  water  greut 
quantities  of  heat  are  given  out  which  moderate  the  severity  of  the  winter's  cold,  and  thus 
save  from  destruction  the  arctic  land  animals,  and  plants ;  while  in  summer,  the  intensity 
of  the  heat,  produced  by  the  long  continuance  of  the  sun  above  the  horizon,  is  moderated  by 
the  abstraction  of  a  considerable  portion  of  that  heat  by  the  water  during  the  melting  of  the 
ice.  Had  the  arctic  regions  been  entirely  of  land,  neither  plants  nor  animals  could  have 
existed  in  them :  for  during  summer,  owing  to  the  sun  remaining  above  the  horizon  for 
months,  an  elevation  of  atmospheric  temperature  would  have  been  produced  fatal  to  animals 
and  plants  ;  and  in  winter,  the  long  darkness  and  intense  cold  would  have  proved  e(|ually 
fatal  to  animated  beings.  The  cold  of  the  icy  regions  of  the  north  has  been  alleged  tu 
reach,  by  currents  of  air,  southern  latitudes,  end  thus  to  lower  their  temperature. 

Baron  Humboldt  has  aidded  more  to  our  knowledge  of  the  distribution  of  temperature  over 
the  globe  than  any  other  who  had  laboured  in  the  same  boundless  field  of  research.  Tho 
table  on  the  following  page  contains  his  general  summary,  to  which  is  added  Melvillo 
Island.  The  temperatures  have  been  reduced  to  Fahrenheit's  scale,  and  the  longitudes  are 
reckoned  from  Greenwich.  An  asterisk  is  prefixed  to  those  places  whose  temperatures 
have  been  most  accurately  determined,  and  in  general  by  means  of  8000  observations. 

In  treating  on  the  mean  annual  temperature  which  obtains  at  difl^erent  places,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  give  a  table  which  makes  the  temperature  depend  entirely  on  the  latitude.  But 
observation  shows,  that  the  temperature  is  usually  higher  at  the  same  latitude  in  the  old 
world  than  in  the  new,  and  in  north  latitude  than  in  south ;  and,  as  was  already  mentioned, 
it  differs  in  the  same  continent  under  different  meridians.  So  that  more  than  one  table  would 
be  required  for  each  quarter  of  the  globe ;  or  else  one  very  extensive  table,  involving  the 
longitude  as  well  as  latitude,  which  is  the  case  with  Humboldt's  table,  so  &r  as  it  goes. 

As  the  earth  and  its  atmosphere  are  continually  receiving  heat  from  the  sun,  it  is  plain 
that  their  mean  annual  temperature  must  be  continually  on  the  increase,  ^f  no  heat  be 
thrown  off  by  them  into  surrounding  space.  Professor  Leslie  accordingly  alleges,  that  the 
increase  of  temperature  is  at  the  rate  of  about  1°  in  80  yeare.  This  would  help  to  explain 
some  of  the  changes  of  climate  which  seem  to  have  been  gradually  taking  place  during 
successive  ages  in  many  places,  and  particularly  in  the  west  of  Europe.  But  the  late  cele- 
brated Marquis  de  la  Place  has  endeavoured  to  show,  fh)m  astronomical  observations,  that 
the  mean  temperature  of  the  earth  has  undergone  no  sensible  change  during  the  last  two 
thousand  years.    His  argTiments,  however,  are  not  free  from  objection. 

Sect.  II. — Hffect  of  Climate  on  Plants  and  Animals. 
The  geographical  distribution  of  plants  and  animals  appears  to  be  chiefly  regulated  by  the 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere.    Each  has  generally  a  particular  climate  in  which  it  thrives 
best,  and  beyond  certain  lunits  it  ceases  to  exist.    Since  an  increase  of  height  has  an  effect 

15* 


\t 


w: 


•^^ 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PA»Ta 


iMthOT- 

tml 

VuMtoltnum. 

Fiailfcm. 

Maui 
Tanpani. 
luraorilw 

Yimr. 

Mnn  Tonpwilure  of 

Ut. 

uat. 

Hgtit. 

Winter. 

8prini|. 

Sum- 
mer, 

Auluna, 

WaraiMI 
Monlh. 

ColdHI 

Momh. 

0 

-35.52 
-11.20 

-  0.58 
+18,08 

82.10 

7.70 

11.48 

8fiO 

la-w 

6.08 

B 

Melville  Uland.... 

.Nain 

•Knontokios    

HtMpine  do  St.  Go-, 
thanl 

0     / 
74  47 
57    8 

68  30 

46  30 
71    0 
66    3 
63  60 

69  56 
63  24 
56  45 

0       1 

11048W. 
6120W. 
80  47  k. 

8  23R. 
26  60E. 
25  26E. 
8016k 
30  19  k. 
10  22E. 
37  32  k. 
88  18e 

Feet 
O 
O 

1356 

6390 
O 
0 
O 
0 
0 
970 
0 

0 

—  2.00 

+26.42 

86.96 

30.38 
32.00 
;)5,08 
33.26 
38.84 
39.98 
40.10 
40.28 

0 

—31.33 

—  0.60 

0.68 

ia32 
23.72 
11.84 
12.98 
17.06 
83.78 
10.78 
80.84 

0 

—  6.60 
83.90 
84.98 

86.48 
89.66 
87.14 
33.80 
38.18 
36.84 
44.06 
38.30 

0 

33.78 
48.38 
54.86 

44.96 
43.34 
67.74 
6486 
62.06 
61.24 
67.10 
61.88 

0 

—  184 
33.44 
87.38 

31.88 
32.08 
35.96 
S3.44 
38.66 
40.10 

38.:jo 

40.64 

0 

39.08 
51.80 
59.54 

46.28 
46.58 
61.62 
68.60 
66.66 
64.94 
70.52 

North  Cape 

♦Uloa  

♦Umea 

•St  Petersburg 

Urontheim 

\fl>Ju>flvV 

Abo 

60  27 

a 

o 

*Upml 

69  81 
59  20 

46  47 
59  56 

47  47 
55  41 
54  17 

51  26 

50  5 
61  32 

47  22 
66  67 

52  14 
46  50 

53  21 
46    5 
46  12 

49  29 

48  12 

46  46 

47  29 
42  22 
■18  60 

51  30 

51  2 

52  22 

50  50 
52  36 

39  66 

40  40 
39    6 

48  39 
47  13 
39  54 
45  28 
44  50 

17  38E. 

18  3  k. 
71    Ow. 
10  48E. 

10.34E. 
12  36E. 

8  46w. 
59  59  w 
14  24E. 

9  53e. 

8  32e. 
310w. 

21    2e. 

9  30e. 
619w. 

7  26  k. 
6   8k 

8  28e. 
16  22E. 

0 
0 
0 
0 

3066 

0 

0 

0 

0 

4.V. 

1300 

150 

0 

1876 

0 

1650 

1080 

432 

420 

42.08 
42.26 
41.74 
42.80 

42.98 
45.68 
46.22 
46.94 
49.46 
46.94 
47.84 
47.84 
48.5() 
48.92 
49.10 
49.28 
49.28 
60.18 
60.64 

t».98 
25.58 
14.18 

88.78 

88.58 
30.74 
30.86 
39.56 
31.46 
30.38 
89.66 
38.66 
28.76 
32.36 
39.20 
32.00 
34.70 
38.80 
32.72 

34.62 
33.98 
33.98 
38.66 
39.56 
38.48 
36*86 
36.68 
36.68 
32.18 
29.84 
32.90 
48.26 
40.46 
86.42 
36.32 
42.08 

39.38 
88.30 
3a84 
39.02 

42.08 
41.18 
46.14 
46..08 
47.66 
44.24 
48.20 
46.40 
47.48 
50.00 
4730 
48.92 
47.06 
49.64 
51.26 

60.26 
61.88 
68.00 
62.60 

68.46 
62.60 
56.84 
53.06 
f.8.90 
64.76 
64.04 
58.28 
69.08 
63.32 
59.54 
66.56 
64.94 
67.10 
69,26 

64.40 
70.62 
70.70 
64.!>8 
6.3.14 
64.04 
66.84 
64520 
67.28 
73  94 
79.16 
72.86 
66.08 
68.54 

73.04 
70.88 

72..'i0 
7.5.74 
76.20 
75.02 
82.94 
79.16 

48.80 
43.16 
46.04 
41.18 

48.98 

48.38 
46.22 
48.46 
50.18 
48.74 
48.92 
48.56 
^9.46 
50.36 
60.00 
49.82 
50.00 
49.82 
60.64 

62.48 
64.04 
73.40 
66.74 

59.36 
66.66 
58.10 
65.76 

66.38 
66.66 
69.36 
70.34 
64.68 
S1.16 
67.28 
66.56 
68.73 
70.52 

22.46 
22.82 
13.81 
28.41 

30.20 

27.14 
34,88 
37.40 

29.r.6 
26.78 
38.30 
2714 
29.48 
36.42 
30..')6 
34.16 
33.44 
86.a' 

•Stockholm  

Ouobec 

C.iristiania 

•Convent  of  Peisson- 
berg 

•Coponnogen  

•Kendal 

Falkland  Islands  . . . 

CiOltiniron  . 

•Zurich 

•Kdinburgh 

Warsaw 

•Coire 

Dublin  

Borne 

•iJeneva   

•Manheiin 

Vienna 

3 
i 

•Clermont 

3  6e. 

19     lE. 

71    7w. 
2  20E. 
0   5w. 
2  22e. 

4  .We. 
4  22  k. 
6  28e. 

75  10  w. 
73  .'••'.nv. 
84  2'/ w. 

8  Iw. 
132w. 

116  27  k. 

9  He. 
0  34w. 

1260 
494 
0 
222 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

0 
0 

510 
0 
0 
0 

390 
0 

50.00 
61.08 
60.36 
61.08 
60.36 
50.54 
51.62 
51.80 
51.80 
63.42 
53.78 
63.7S 
64.14 
54.68 
54.86 
55.76 
56.48 

50.54 
61.08 
47.66 
49.28 
48.66 
48.56 
51.62 
63.24 
51.08 
51.44 
61.26 
M.U 
62.16 
54..50 
6«).30 
66.12 
66.48 

57.56 
56.66 
57.74 
60.G0 
6756 
65.48 

51.26 
62.34 

40.82 

; '  :4 

50.18 
50.90 
61.62 
51.08 
64.32 
5<;48 
54..'50 
MM 
55.76 
65.58 
54..'I2 
66.84 
6().30 

66.80 
71.60 
72,86 
6.5.30 
64.40 
64.76 
66.92 
67.28 
69.08 
77.00 
80.70 
74.30 
66.93 
70.62 
84.38 
74.66 
73.04 

28.04 
27.78 
29.84 
3fi.M 
37.76 
3776 
J5.42 
3.5.1)0 
32.'.X) 
32.72 
2.5.ai 
30.20 
41.74 
.39.02 
24.G2 
36.14 
41.00 

•Buda  

Cnmbridse,  Mam. . . 
•Parii  ...' 

•London  

Dunkirk 

Amsterdam 

BnimelR 

•Franeker 

Philadelphia 

New  York 

•Cincinnati 

St.  Malo 

Nantes 

Peking .. 

♦Milan  

Bordeaux 

680  to 

72°, 

Mnracillps 

43  17 

43  36 
41  63 
43    7 
32  45 
31  34 

5  22e. 

352  k. 
12  27E. 

550  e. 

129  55  E. 

91  24 w. 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
180 

69.00 
59.3«i 
60.44 
62.06 
60.80 
61.76 

45.60 
44.06 
46.86 
48.38 
39.38 
48..56 

64.40 
61.62 

60.08 
60.98 
62.78 
64.40 
64.22 
66.02 

74.66 
78.08 
77.00 
77.00 
86.90 
79.70 

44.42 
42.08 
42.26 
46.40 
37.40 
46.»t 

Monipollior 

•Rome 

Tiulon 

Nangosnki 

•Nate'  lez 

•Funchal 

32  37 

36  48 

1666w. 

3     lE. 

0 
0 

0 
0 
0 
0 

68.64 
69.98 

65.81 
65.66 

7250 
80.24 

72.32 
72.50 

75.56 
82.76 

64.04 
60.08 

Algiers 

Band 

above 

72=. 

•Cairo 

•Vera  Cruz 

•Havana 

•Cutnana 

30    2 
19  11 
23  10 

10  27 

3018e. 
96    Iw. 
8213w. 
6515W. 

72  32 
'.  .78 

78.08 
81.86 

58.46 
71.96 
71.84 
80.24 

73.58 -a^.lO 
77.90  81..50 
78.98  83.30 
83.66  «2.04 

71.42 

78.62 
78.98 
80.24 

85.82 
81.86 
83.84 
84.38 

.56.12] 
71.061 
69.98! 
7916J 

Pa«tH 


M«taT«iiip,r,i,„^ 


Book  TL 


I  METEOROLOGY. 


17b 


WamiMi 
Month, 


39.08 
61.80 
69M 

46.28 
46.58 
61.58 
68.C0 
65.66 
64.94 
70.52 


62.42 

64.04 
73.40 
66.74 


59.36 
65.66 
68.10 
65.76 

66.38 

66.66 

69.36 

70.34 

r.4.58 

51.16 

37.88 

56.56 

•)8.72 

ro.52 
ieisoT 
r2M 

15.30 
4.40 

4.7fi 
6.92 
7.28 
9.08 

r.oo 

).70 
1.30 
!.92 
•.53  1 
.38 


Coldwi 
Moolh. 

-35,52/ 
-11.80 

-  0.88 
+16,08 


82.10 

7.70 
11.48 

ftfiO 
lafjH 

6.08 


82.4fi 
22.82 
13.81 
28.41 

30,20 
27.14 
34.88 
37.40 

89.f.6 
20.78 
38.30 
27.14 

29.48 

35.42 

30M 

34.16 

33.44 

26,ft> 


28,04 

2778 

29.H4 

3(;,M 

37.7fi 

37.76 

J5.42 

35.()0 

32.y() 

32.72 

25.34 

30.20 

41.74 

39.02 

24.C2 


04 

3(!.14 
41.00 

66 

44.42 

08 

4208 

00 

42.2(> 

(JO 

46.40 

» 

37.40 

-0 

46.94 

»6|  64.041 

'6  1  60.081 

18  56.12  j 

6  71,06 1 

4  1  69.98! 

8  79161 


on  climate  in  some  respects  eimilar  to  on  increaHO  of  latitude,  it  has  been  commonly  mp- 
posed  that  tiiere  are  properly  no  plants  peculiar  to  high  latitudes,  because  such  may  be  raised 
on  the  mountains  under  tlie  equator,  which  embrace  every  variety  of  climate  between  their 
^uiimiit  and  base,  at  least  in  so  fiir  as  temperature  is  concerned.  In  point  of  atmospheric 
|)i<!htiiire,  however,  the  two  situations  dilier  essentially ;  and  some  naturalists  allege,  thai 
pr(!iisiire  is  of  vital  importance  to  the  ffrowth  of  plants.  Professor  Dobereiner  is  of  opinion 
thut  the  d'minutive  size  of  plants,  in  elevated  Hituations,  depends  more  on  the  diminution  of 
pressure  than  of  temperature.  To  ascertain  this,  he  put  equal  quantities  of  barley  and 
inoiBt  earth  into  two  equal  receivers :  the  air  in  the  one  hod  a  pressure  of  14  inclies  of  mer- 
cury, und  the  othbr  56 ;  germination  commenced  in  both  at  the  same  time,  and  the  leaves 
had  the  same  green  tint  At  the  end  of  fifteen  days,  the  shoots  in  the  rarefied  air  wore  6 
inches  long,  and  in  the  other  fVom  0  to  10.  The  first  were  expanded  and  soft  and  wet  on 
the  surface,  especially  towards  their  extremities ;  the  others  were  firm,  rolled  round  the  stem, 
and  nearly  dry.  In  some  respects,  this  accords  with  what  Humboldt  observed  of  the  trees 
on  the  Andes,  that  water  transpires  from  them  even  in  the  driest  weather.  But  such  expe- 
riments are  inconclusive,  unless  there  were  some  contrivance  employed  to  renew  the  confined 
air  trequently.  Independently  of  pressure,  the  barley  in  the  condensed  air  had  the  use  of 
four  times  the  quantity  of  air  in  the  other  vessel. 

Plnnts  are  most  numerous,  and  exhibit  the  greatest  variety  of  species,  and  the  most  luxu- 
riant growth,  within  the  tropics,  beyond  which  they  gradually  diminish.  In  the  arctic 
regions,  and  in  the  north  of  Russia,  the  vegetable  kingdom  has  dwindled  to  almost  nothing. 
The  lines  which  limit  the  growth  of  cert"  in  plants  depend  on  the  average  summer  tempera- 
lure,  for  plants  which  require  a  long  and  moderate  heat ;  on  the  temperature  of  the  wannest 
month,  for  those  which  require  a  short  but  great  heat ;  and  on  the  temperature  of  the  coldest 
month,  for  those  which  cannot  bear  cold.  The  transparency  of  the  air  is  also  of  importance 
to  many  plants ;  but  our  limits  will  not  admit  of  enln.rfi'ing,  and  therefore  we  shall  confine 
ourselves  to  a  short  account  of  the  climates  of  cultivated  plants.  The  plantain,  which  is  a 
primary  article  of  food  in  tropical  America,  requires  a  temperature  fi"om  62°  to  73°  F., 
wliich  occurs  between  lat.  0°  and  27° :  but,  in  the  equinoctial  zone  (lat.  0°  to  10°),  its  fi'uit 
docs  not  ripen  at  a  greatn'-  altitude  than  330()  feet.  The  sugnr  (  ane  has  neorly  the  same 
mnfje,  but  is  cultivated,  though  with  less  advantage,  in  the  oid  world  to  lat.  36°  5',  where 
tlifi  mean  temperature  is  about  67°.  The  severity  of  the  North  American  winter  prevents 
the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane  beyond  lat,  31° ;  but  it  succeeds  at  an  oltitude  of  6700  feet 
on  the  table-land  of  Mexico.  The  favourite  climate  of  the  cotton  plant  lies  between  lat.  0" 
ai;d  34° ;  but  it  succeeds  with  a  mean  summer  heat  of  75°  or  73°  P.,  if  that  of  winter  do 
not  descend  below  36°  or  38°.  In  America,  it  is  cultivated  at  lat.  37° ;  in  Europe,  at  lat.  40° ; 
and  in  Astracan,  at  lat.  46°.  The  date  polm  thrives  best  between  lat.  29°  and  35° ;  but, 
when  sheltered  from  the  north  wind,  it  is  cultivated  on  the  shores  of  Italy  to  lat  44°.  The 
citron  iuis  nearly  the  same  rantre,  but  is  cultivated  nt  Nice,  at  ultitudes  of  400  feet.  This 
tree,  with  the  sweet  orange,  grows  in  Louisiana  to  lat  30°,  bat  beyond  that  it  is  injured  by 
the  cold.  The  olive  ranges  in  Europe  between  lat.  36°  and  44°  6' ;  it  sutceeds  wherevev, 
witii  a  mean  annual  temperature  from  66°  to  58°  P.,  that  of  summer  is  not  below  71°,  u  .r 
that  of  the  coldest  month  below  42°,  which  excludes  all  North  America  beyond  lat.  f-i-". 
The  favourite  climate  of  the  vine  in  the  old  world  is  between  lat  36°  and  48° ;  but  it  thri  :.< 
wherever  the  mean  temperature  is  from  62°  to  47.5°,  provided  that  of  winter  is  not  below' 
S3°,  nor  cummer  under  66°  or  68°.  Such  is  the  case  on  the  shores  of  Europe  to  lat  47°, 
and  in  tlie  interioi'  to  lat.  50°,  but  only  to  ht  40°  in  North  America.  The  cerealia  or  com- 
mon irrain,  as  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  oats,  thrive  wheid  the  mean  annual  temperature 
descends  to  28°  P.,  provided  that  of  summer  rise  to  52°  or  53°.  In  Lapland,  Larler 
ripens  wherever  the  mean  temperature  of  summer  rises  to  47°  or  48°,  The  rapid  growth 
of  btirley  and  oata  adapts  them  to  the  short  summers  of  the  north :  they  are  found  as  high 
ns  lat.  6'i^°  in  Lapland,  along  with  the  potato.  In  some  parts  of  eastern  Russia,  no  grain 
is  found  beyond  lat  60°.  Wheat,  which  is  a  precarioiis  crop,  and  little  cultivated  beyond 
lat.  58°  in  western  Europe,  yields  good  returns  in  this  part  of  the  temperate  zone,  when 
the  mr an  heat,  while  the  grain  is  on  tiie  ground,  is  55° ;  but  if  no  more  tlian  46°,  none  of 
the  cerealia  come  to  maturity.  These  species  of  grain  are  cultivated  at  a  height  of  3500 
feet  on  the  Alps,  in  lat.  46°.  Barley  and  oats  succeed  at  double  that  height  on  Caucasus, 
and  at  almost  a  triple  height  on  the  And.?8,  along  with  wheat  and  rye.  In  the  west  of 
Kurope,  maize  has  the  same  range  as  t.'ie  vine,  but  roaches  farther  north  on  the  east  In  its 
n.ilive  American  eoii,  it  fonns  the  chief  article  of  foot!,  from  the  river  Plata  to  the  lakes  of 
(>aiHultt.  Requiring  a  short  but  warm  season  of  fbur  months,  it  is  well  suited  to  the  climate 
of  the  Now  World  up  to  the  latitude  of  4*1°.  The  oak  ceases  at  lat.  63°  in  Norway,  at 
60°  or  61°  in  Pinland,  and  at  57°  in  the  government  of  Perm.  The  pinus  silvestris,  or  Scots 
fir,  grows  to  a  height  of  60  feet  in  Lnplnnd,  nt  lat  70°,  and  850  feet  above  the  levr!  of  the 
sea ;  there  the  birch  is  found  at  double  that  elevation.  In  ensttm  Russia,  the  larch,  pine, 
birch,  and  mountain-ash,  disapjicar  alwut  lat.  66°;  and,  at  Hudson's  Bay,  all  trees  ceaso 
flH'Utlat  00°. 


176 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  D 


•<)!».  'tiiif'i: 


'■.I'i/^IV, 


Sectt.  in. — Composition  of  the  Atmosphere. — Aqueous  Meteors. 

Ivegarding  the  composition  of  the  atmosphere,  abundantly  vague  and  &nciful  notinnii 
prevailed  for  many  ages.  The  ancients  considered  air  as  one  of  the  four  simple  elemenu, 
of  which  they  supposed  all  other  bodies  to  be  compounded.  These  were  earth,  air,  fire,  and 
water.  How  \t  the  opinion  was  correct,  which  made  fire  an  element,  is  a  question  on 
which  nothing  is  yet  known;  but  the  researches  of  modem  chemistry  have  shown  that  the 
other  three  are  all  compound  bodies.  The  chief,  and  perhaps  the  only  essential,  component 
substances  in  the  atmosphere,  are  the  two  gases  called  oxygen  and  azote ;  its  other  ingre- 
dients, occurring  only  in  small  and  variable  quantities,  are  rather  to  be  considered  as  forei^m 
bodies.  The  analysis  of  air  is  a  difficult  problem.  Many  chemists  have  found  it  to  consist 
of  21  parts  by  volume  of  oxygen  to  79  of  azote ;  and  this  proportion  is  sensibly  the  name 
whether  the  air  be  from  the  polar  or  tropical  regions,  from  the  level  of  the  sea  or  a  mountain 
top,  from  the  most  healthy  or  insalubrious  countries.  But  Dr.  Prout,  guided  by  the  laws  of 
definite  proportions,  alleges,  that  if  the  two  gases  of  which  air  principally  consists  be  really 
combined,  they  ought  to  be  20  oxygen  to  80  azote ;  and  it  nmst  be  allowed  that  similar 
conjectures  of  the  same  eminent  chemist  have  been  verified  regarding  the  composition  of 
other  bodies,  which  had  apparently  deviated  farther  from  the  atomic  system. 

The  investigation  of  the  component  parts  of  the  atmosphere  did  not  keep  pace  with  that 
of  its  mechanical  properties.  Boyle,  however,  and  hfs  cotemporaries,  put  it  beyond  doubt 
that  it  contained  an  elastic  fluid  and  water  in  the  state  of  vapour.  They  also  conjectured 
that  it  contained  various  other  substances,  which  rose  from  the  earth  in  the  form  of  vapours, 
and  often  altered  its  properties,  rendering  it  noxious  or  fatal.  Since  tlie  discovery  of  car- 
bonic acid  by  Dr.  Black,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  this  elastic  fluid  always  constitutes  a 
part,  though  a  very  minute  one,  of  the  atmosphere. 

With  respect  to  moisture,  or  the  state  in  which  water  exists  in  air,  two  opinions  have 
been  formed :  1.  Water  may  be  dissolved  in  air,  in  the  same  manner  as  salt  is  held  in  solu- 
tion by  water ;  2.  It  may  be  mixed  with  air  in  the  state  of  steam  or  vapour,  after  having 
been  converted  into  vapour.  The  first  of  these  was  hinted  at  by  Dr.  Hooke,  and  afterwards 
proposed  by  Dr.  Halley.  It  has  been  adopted  by  many  others  in  succession,  among  whom 
is  Profersor  Leslie ;  and  it  cannot  be  denied  that  many  of  the  phenomena  agree  with  that 
theory.  The  second  opinion  seems  to  have  originated  with  Mr.  Deluc ;  but  it  is  to  Mr. 
Dalton  and  M.  Gay  Lussac  that  we  are  indebted  for  subjecting  this  theory  to  the  test  of 
experiment. 

Evaporation  from  the  waters  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  undoubtedly  the  source  whence 
the  moisture  which  exists  in  air  is  derived.  Accordingly  we  find  that  water  exposed  to  the 
air  suffers  a  gradual  diminution  of  bulk,  till  it  entirely  disappears.  It  is  then  said,  in  com- 
mon language,  to  have  dried  up,  or  to  have  evaporated.  Under  an  exhausted  receiver,  water 
diminishes  even  more  rapidly  than  in  the  open  air.  Were  this  owing  to  solution,  the  very 
reverse  ought  to  follow ;  because,  .a  place  of  vapour  being  caused  by  tlie  presence  of  air.  it 
goes  on  more  rapdly  in  its  absence.  By  comparing  a  set  of  experiments  made  at  Genova, 
with  a  similar  set  on  the  Col-du-Geant,  10,950  feet  higher,  Saussure  found  that,  supposing 
the  temperature  and  dryness  of  the  air  the  same  at  both  places,  the  evaporation  at  tha  upper 
would  be  to  that  at  the  lower  nearly  as  7  to  3 ;  so  that  a  diminution  of  about  one  thinl  in 
the  density  of  the  air  more  than  doubled  the  rate  of  evaporation.  It  is  well  known,  that 
cold  is  always  generated  during  spontaneous  evaporation ;  that  is  to  say,  that  water,  as  it 
disappears,  carries  off  a  quantity  of  heat.  Dr.  Black  has  rendered  it  probable,  that  tiie 
quantity  of  heat  which  disappears  during  spontaneous  evaporation  is  as  great  as  that  whicii 
is  required  to  form  water  into  '■•team.  A  wet  body  is  always  cooled  by  exposure  to  dry  air. 
owing  to  the  evaporation  from  surface.  Hence,  in  warm  countries,  liquors  are  cooled  by 
wrapping  wet  cloths  round  the  bottles  and  exposing  them  to  the  air.  M.  Saussure  observed. 
that  the  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  melting  snow  caused  it  to  freeze  again,  when  the 
temperature  of  the  air  was  4°  or  5°  above  the  freezing  point.  The  simplest  mode  of  illus- 
trating tlie  cooling  influence  of  evaporation,  is  to  cover  the  ball  of  a  tliormometer  with  wet 
cloth  and  expose  it  to  the  air,  when  it  will  be  found  to  indicate  a  greater  or  less  degree  of 
cold.  This,  it  is  true,  does  not  take  place  if  the  air  be  very  damp,  because  there  is  then  no 
evaporation.  Wind  tends  to  promote  evaporation,  both  by  communicating  its  heat  to  the 
colder  evaporating  surface,  and  also  by  sweeping  away  the  vapour  as  it  is  formi  d.  On  tlie 
contrary,  there  is  scarcely  any  evaporation  in  perfectly  still  air,  unless  some  substance  be 
present  which  absorbs  the  vapour  as  it  forms. 

On  this  principle.  Professor  Leslie  contrived  an  elegant  mode  of  producing  ice  in  any  cli- 
mate. A  cup  with  water  is  placed  within  the  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  along  wiib  some 
substance  which  absorbs  the  vapour.  The  rate  of  evaporation  is  then  increased  in  an  astnn- 
isliing  d^sree,  by  exhausting  the  air  from  the  receiver;  and  the  portion  of  the  water  whi'^h 
is  converted  into  vapour  abstracts  so  much  heal  from  the  remainder,  that  the  latter  is  speea- 
ily  converted  into  ice. 

Dew  is  a  remarkable  product  of  atmospheric  moisture.    The  quantity  of  aaueous  vapour 


I 


BookII. 


METEOROLOftY. 


177 


"nions  have 
held  in  solu- 
after  having 
d  afterwards 
nong  whom 
■e  with  that 
it  is  to  Mr. 
tJie  test  of 

iree  whence 
posed  to  the 
'iJd,  in  com- 
3iver,  water 
•n,  the  very 
ce  of  air.  it 
at  Genovn, 
)  supposinjor 
t  tJia  upper 
le  third  in 
nown,  that 
i-'ater,  as  it 
,  that  the 
hat  which 
to  drj'  air. 
cooled  by 
observed, 
wJien  the 
■  of  iliii.s- 
with  v\'et 
'e^ee  of 
i  then  no 
at  to  the 
On  the 
tance  bti 

any  cli- 
ih  some 
n  astnn- 
r  which 
'  speea- 

vaponr 


which  can  exist  in  a  given  space,  as  a  cubic  tbot,  is  pretty  generally  believed  to  be  the  same, 
whether  there  be  air  present  in  the  space,  or  nothing  but  the  vapour  alone.  The  (luantity 
is  always  {ctst,  par.)  the  same  at  the  same  temperature,  but  it  is  greater  as  the  temperature 
is  higiier ;  and  therefore,  supposing  the  space  to  be  saturated  with  vapour  at  a  particular 
temperature,  a  portion  of  this  will  return  into  drops  of  water  whenever  the  temperature 
tails.  It  is  on  this  principle  that  &  cold  body,  such  ^s  a  botf!  of  liquor,  being  carried  into  a 
warm  moist  apartment,  becomes  bedewed  on  the  outside,  till,  perhaps,  the  water  trickles 
down  its  sides :  the  contact  of  the  cold  surface  chills  the  air,  which  in  return  deposits  a  por- 
tion of  its  moisture.  Now  this  is  shnilar  to  the  mode  in  which  moisture  is  uisensibly  depo- 
sited from  the  atmosphere  on  bodies  at  the  earth's  surface,  and  which  is  known  by  the  name 
of  i/cu).  All  bodies,  placed  in  still  air  and  exposed  to  the  aspect  of  a  clear  sky,  are  found  to 
become  colder  than  they  would  be  if  some  screen  or  awning  were  interposed  between  them 
and  the  sky.  In  such  circumstances,  bodies  often  become  much  colder  than  the  surrounding 
air,  which,  if  sufficiently  moist,  deposits  on  them  a  portion  of  its  moisture  or  dew.  When 
tlie  temperature  is  low,  tlie  dew  is  frozen,  and  forms  hoar  frost. 

The  radiation  of  heat  also  deserves  notice.  About  the  commencement  of  the  present 
century,  Professor  Leslie  discovered  that  bodies  possess  very  different  powers  of  radiating 
heat ;  and  that  this  depends  on  the  nature  and  condition  of  their  surfaces.  Metals  possess 
this  quality  in  a  degree  inferior  to  vitreous  bodies,  and  it  is  diminished  in  all  of  them  by 
(jolisliing  the  surface.  Most  fibrous  and  filamentous  vegetable  substances  are  good  radiators, 
as  are  likewLse  bodies  in  general  which  are  bad  conductors  or  bad  reflectors  of  heat.  Now 
tiie  degrees  of  cooling,  which  different  bodies  undergo  when  exposed  together  to  the  aspect 
of  the  sky,  is  observed  to  follow  the  same  order  as  that  of  their  radiating  powers ;  and,  of 
course,  the  order  in  which  they  begin  to  acquire  dew,  as  also  the  quantity  acquired,  is  regu- 
lated by  a  similar  law,  as  will  be  seen  from  what  follows. 

For  the  investigation  of  the  causes  of  dew  we  are  chiefly  indebted  to  the  late  ingenious 
Dr.  Wells.  The  ancients  maintained,  that  dew  appears  only  on  calm  and  clear  nights.  Dr. 
Wells  found  that,  in  opposite  circumstances,  very  little  is  ever  deposited,  and  that  little  only 
when  the  clouds  are  very  high.  Dew  never  occurs  in  nights  both  cloudy  and  windy ;  and 
if  in  the  course  of  the  niglit,  the  weather,  from  being  serene,  should  become  dark  and  stormy, 
dew  which  had  been  deposited  will  disappear.  In  calm  weather,  more  dew  will  appear  if 
the  sky  be  partially  covered  with  clouds-  than  if  it  were  quite  clear.  It  often  happens,  that 
even  before  sunset,  dew  begins  to  adhere  to  grass  in  spots  which  are  sheltered  from  both  sun 
and  wind;  for,  in  clear  weather,  such  spots  suffer  much  froD  the  chilling  aspect  of  tlie  sky, 
and  may  often  continue  to  acquire  dew  during  the  whole  nigl't,  and  for  some  time  after  sun- 
rise. The  quantity  of  dew  depends  on  tlie  moistness  of  the  air,  being  greater  after  rain  than 
after  long-continued  dry  weather.  It  is  more  abundant,  in  Europe,  with  southerly  and  west- 
erly winds,  than  with  those  which  blow  from  the  opposite  points.  The  reason  of  this  seems 
to  be  the  direction  of  the  sea  rendering  tiio  wind  moist;  tor,  in  Egypt,  dew  rarely  occurs 
unless  the  wind  come  from  the  sea.  But  with  a  southerly  wind,  which  has  passed  along  the 
floods  of  tha  Nile,  dew  is  usually  observed  in  the  Delta  five  or  six  days  before  the  inunda- 
tion. After  a  long  period  of  drought.  Dr.  Wells  exposed  to  the  clear  sky,  28  minutes  before 
sunset  in  a  calm  evening,  known  weigiits  of  wool  and  sw^an-down,  upon  a  smooth,  unpainted. 
dry  fir  table  about  3  feet  in  lieight,  and  which  had  been  jilaced  an  hour  before  in  the  sun- 
shine in  a  large  grass  field,  Al  1.2  minutes  a.ft.er  sunset  the  wool  was  14°  colder  than  the 
air,  but  had  gained  no  weight.  The  swan-down  was  13°  colder  than  the  air,  but  had  got  nr) 
additional  weight;  nor  was  it  any  heavier  at  tlie  end  of  2(1  minutes  longer,  but  it  had  then 
become  142°  colder  than  the  air ;  wlii'st  the  grass  was  15°  colder  than  the  air  4  feet  above 
ground. — From  these,  and  many  similur  experiments.  Dr.  Wells  concluded  that  bodies  be- 
come colder  than  the  neighbouring  a'r  before  they  are  dewed. — He  bent  a  sheet  of  paste- 
board into  the  form  of  a  penthouso,  making  the  anjlc  of  flexure  90°,  and  leaving  both  ends 
open.  This  was  placed  one  evening,  with  its  ridge  upj'ormost,  upon  a  grass-plat,  and,  as 
ne'irly  as  could  be  guessed,  in  the  direction  of  the  v/ind.  On  the  middle  of  the  spot  of  grass 
sheltered  by  the  roof,  was  placed  10  grains  of  wool,  and  an  equal  quantity  on  a  spot  of  the 
grass  fully  exposed  to  the  sky.  In  the  morning,  the  first  10  grains  were  only  2  grains 
iicavier,  whilst  the  other  had  gained  16.  The  wool  dues  not  here  acquire  moisturt-  firom  the 
grass  by  capillary  attraction,  for  the  same  effect  happens  ' ':%  be  placed  in  a  r'aucer ;  nor  is  it 
^y.l'ygrometric  attraction,  for  in  a  cloudy  night,  wool  plact,!  on  an  elevated  board  scarcely 
gained  any  weight. 

The  quantity  of  dew  varies  according  to  circumstances.  When  wool  is  placed  upon  a  bad 
conductor  of  heat,  as  a  deal  board,  a  few  feet  from  the  ground,  it  will  become  colder  and 
acquire  more  dew  than  if  laid  on  the  grass.  At  the  windward  end  of  the  board,  it  is  less 
bedewed  than  at  the  sheltered  end ;  because,  in  the  former  case,  the  wind  keeps  up  tlia 
temperature  nearer  lo  that  of  the  uimosphc-c.  Rough  and  porous  surfaces,  as  sliavings  of 
wood,  straw,  &c.,  take  more  dew  than  smooth  and  solid  bodief.  Raw  silk  and  fine  cotton 
collect  more  than  even  wool.  Glass,  being  a  good  radiator  of  hesit,  is  much  more  quickly 
coated  with  dew  than  bright  metals,  which,  indeed,  receive  it  more  readily  than  many  other 

Vol.  T.  X 


i78 


SCIEN(W3  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


bodies.  This  circumstance  has  given  rise  to  the  strange  idea  that  metals  absorb  dew,  though 
thny  be  the  most  compact  bodies  known.  If  we  cout  a  piece  of  glass  partia'ly  with  bright 
tin-foil,  or  silver  leaf,  the  uncovered  portion  of  the  gliiHS  quickly  becomes  cold  by  rarliation, 
on  exposure  to  a  clear  nocturnal  sky,  and  accpiires  moisture;  which,  beginning  on  tliose 
parts  most  remote  from  the  metal,  gradually  approaches  it.  Thus,  also,  if  we  coat  a  part  of 
the  outside  of  a  window-pane  with  tin-foil  m  a  clear  night,  then  moisture  will  be  deposited 
inside,  on  every  part  but  that  opposite  to  the  metal ;  but  if  the  metal  be  inside,  then  the 
outside  of  the  coated  part  of  the  pane  will  be  sooner  and  more  copiously  bedewed.  In  the 
first  case,  the  tin-toil  prevents  the  glass  under  it  from  dissipating  its  heat,  and  therefore  it 
eim  receive  no  dew ;  in  the  second  case,  the  tin-foil  prevents  the  part  of  the  glass  which  it 
conts  from  receiving  the  calorific  influence  of  tiie  irjiartnient,  and  hence  it  is  sooner  cooled 
on  the  outside  than  the  rest  of  the  pane.  When  the  night,  after  having  been  clear,  becomes 
cloudy,  though  there  be  no  change  with  respect  to  calmness,  a  rise  in  the  temperature  of  the 
glass  always  ensues.  In  clear  nights  the  temperature  always  fells,  but,  unless  the  air  be 
.suthciently  moist,  dew  docs  not  necessarily  follow ;  from  which  it  is  evident,  that  the  cold 
cannot  be  the  effect  of  dew.  For  a  more  particular  account  of  these  interesting  phenomena, 
we  must  refer  the  reader  to  Dr.  Wells's  elegant  Essay  on  Dexo. 

Clouds.  The  various  forms  of  clouds  were  first  successfully  attempted  to  be  arransred 
imder  a  few  general  modifications  by  Mr.  Luke  Howard,  and  published  in  the  16th  and  ITth 
vols,  of  the  Philosoph.  Magazine.  The  modifications  of  clouds  is  a  term  used  to  express  the 
structure  or  manner  of  aggregation,  in  which  the  influence  of  certain  constant  laws  is  suf- 
ficiently evident  amidst  the  endless  subordinate  diversitif^s  resulting  fi*om  occasional  causes. 
Hence  the  principal  modifications  are  as  distinguishable  from  eacli  other,  as  a  tree  from  a 
hill,  or  the  latter  fi-om  a  lake ;  although  clouds,  in  the  same  modification,  compared  with 
each  other,  have  often  only  the  common  resemblance  which  exists  among  trees,  hills,  and 
lakes,  taken  generally. 

There  are  three  simple  and  distinct  modifications,  which  are  tlius  named  and  defined  by 
Mr.  Howard: — 

(1.)  Cirrus.  A  cloud  resembling  a  lock  of  hair  or  a  feather.  Parallel,  flexous,  or  diverjr- 
in^  fibres,  unlimited  in  their  extent  or  dirPo-tion. 

(*2.)  Cumulus.     A  cloud  which  increases  from  above  in  dense  convex  or  conical  heaps. 

(8.)  Stratus.     An  extended  continuous  level  sheet  of  (doud,  increasing  from  beneath. 

There  are  two  modifications  which  appear  to  be  of  an  intermediate  nature :  these  are— 

(4.)  Cirro-cumulus.  A  connected  system  of  small  roundish  clouds,  in  close  order  or 
contact. 

(5.)  Cirro-stratus.  A  horizontal  or  slightly  inclined  sheet,  attenuated  at  its  circumference, 
concaA'e  downward,  or  undulated.     Groups  or  patches  have  these  charactcs. 

There  are  two  modifications  which  exhibit  a  compound  structure,  viz. : — 

(6.)  Cumulo-slratus.  A  cloud  in  which  the  structure  of  the  cumuht-  is  mixed  with  that 
of  the  cirro-stratus  or  cirro-cumulus.  The  cumulus  flattened  at  top,  and  overhanging  its 
base. 

(7.)  Nimbus.  A  dense  cloud  spreading  out  into  a  crown  of  cirrus,  and  passing  beneath 
into  a  shower. 

Regarding  the  mode  in  which  clouds  are  suspended  in  the  air,  philosophers  are  not  agreed. 
About  the  commencement  of  the  last  century,  it  was  supposed  that  the  aqueous  particles  of 
clouds  wore  in  tlie  form  of  hollow  shells,  specifically  lighter  than  the  air  in  which  they  float. 
But  as  no  evidence  or  probability  could  be  adduced  in  favour  of  this  theory,  it  has  given 
pluco  to  other  speculations  ;  and,  at  present,  many  consider  the  suspension  of  clouds  a«  an 
electrical  pheno.nenon.  On  attentively  observing  the  forms  of  clouds,  it  vill  be  found  thiit 
they  iiave  a  tend'^ncy  to  assume  one  or  other  of  tlie  seven  distinct  modifications  aboe  men- 
tioned ;  the  peculiar  characters  of  whicii  may  be  discovered  in  all  the  endless  configurations 
eyhibited  by  clouds  under  difl'erent  circumstances.  It  may  be  observed  fai*ther,  that  tlit. 
most  indefinite  and  shapeless  masses  of  clouds,  if  attentively  watched,  will  sooner  or  hitpr 
show  a  tendency  Uj  assume  the  form  of  some  of  thene  modifications;  a  circ.mistance  whirii 
shows  not  only  their  distinct  nature,  but  also  proves  that  thmo  are  some  general  rauses,  us 
yet  undiscovered,  why  aqueous  vap<5ur,  suspended  in  the  air,  should  assume  certain  definable 
and  constant  modifications. 

A  more  minute  description  of  the  ft>nri,ation  and  changes  of  the  clouds,  and  of  the 
prognostics  of  the  weather  to  be  deduced  from  their  peculiar  appearances,  shall  now  he 
attempted. 

The  cirrus  or  friirl-cloud*  may  be  di»rtingiiished  from  every  other  by  the  lightness  of  its 
nature,  its  fibrouf-  f^tructurc,  ano  tlie  tfrent  And  perpettmlly  changing  variety  of  figures  which 
ii  nresents  to  the  i  ye.  It  is  generally  tlie  most  elevatod  of  cloudo.  orcupying  the  higher 
regions  ot  the  atmosphere.     As  ilii»  cloud,  ander  different  eirCumBtBne*»s.  presents  considcr- 


•  This,  and  tlic  oilier  aililitioiial  teiiiis  which  follow,  have  been  prnpoKed  m  Giigiish  nnmca  by  Dr.  ThoniM 
Forsli.'r. 


Book  II. 


METEOROLOGY. 


m 


abln  varieties  of  appearances,  it  will  be  proper  to  consider  these  separately,  with  reference 
to  the  particulnr  kind  of  weather  in  which  they  prevail.  After  a  continuance  of  clear  fine 
wcnthcr,  a  whitisii  line  of  cloud  may  often  be  observed  at  a  great  height,  lilfe  a  white 
thread  stretched  across  the  sky,  the  ends  seeming  lost  in  each  horizon :  this  is  often  the  first 
indication  of  a  change  to  wet  weather.  To  this  lino  of  cirrus,  others  are  added  laterally, 
and  Hometimes,  as  it  were,  propagated  from  the  sides  of  the  line  in  an  oblique  or  transverse 
direction ;  the  whole  having  the  appearance  of  net-work.    At  other  times  tho  lines  become 

iradualiy  denaer;  descend  lower  in  the  atmosphere;  and,  uniting  with  others  below,  pro- 
ucc  rain  without  exhibiting  the  above-mentioned  transverse  reticulations.  The  above- 
described  varieties  of  cloud,  though  composed  of  straight  lines,  are  ranged  under  the  general 
head  of  cirrus,  from  their  resemblance  to  this  cloud  when  it  appears  under  curved  and  con- 
torted forms.  The  comnid  cirrus,  popularly  known  under  the  name  of  the  grey  mare's  tail, 
is  tiie  proper  cirrus.  It  somewhat  resembles  a  distended  lock  of  white  hair,  or  a  bunch  of 
combed  wool,  and  from  this  it  got  the  name  comoid.  It  usually  occurs  in  variable  weather, 
and  is  reckoned  a  precursor  of  wind  and  rain.  In  changeable  weather  it  varies  considerably 
in  a  few  hours ;  but  when  the  fibres  have  a  constant  direction  to  the  same  point  of  the  com- 
pass for  any  considerable  time,  a  gale  of  wind  generally  springs  up  fiom  that  quarter. 
During  warm  changeable  weather,  when  there  are  light  breezes  of  wrM,  long  and  obliquely 
descending  bands  of  cirrus  are  often  observed  in  the  air,  and  sfwietimes  seem  to  connect 
distant  clouds.  Frequently,  by  means  of  the  interposition  of  these  cirri  between  a  cumulus 
and  some  other  cloud,  as,  for  instance,  cirro-stratus,  the  cumulo-stratus,  and  ultimately  the 
nimbus  or  rain-cloud,  is  formed.  The  cirrus,  when  attentively  examined,  is  found  to  be  in 
constant  motion,  not  merely  changing  its  form,  but  often  exhibiting  an  internal  commotion 
in  the  substance  of  the  cloud,  especially  in  the  larger  end  of  it.  Every  particle  seems  alive 
and  in  motion,  while  the  whole  mass  scarcely  changes  its  place.  This  motion,  on  a  minute 
examination,  often  appears  to  consist  of  the  fibres  which  compose  the  cirrus,  gently  waving 
toi'id  from  each  other;  frequently,  however,  it  seems  like  mmute  specks  all  in  commotion. 
Tins  takes  place  more  frequently  in  those  large  and  lofty  cirri,  with  rounded  heads  and 
long  pointed  tails,  so  common  in  dry  winds  during  summer  and  autumn. 

The  formation  of  the  cumulus  is  best  viewed  in  fine  settled  weather,  about  sunrise 
or  a  little  after.  Small  specks  of  cloud  are  seen  here  and  there  in  the  atmosphere.  These 
seem  to  be  the  result  of  small  gatherings  of  the  stratus  or  evening  mist,  which  rising  in  the 
morning  grows  into  small  masses  of  cloud,  wiiilst  the  rest  of  the  sky  becomes  clearer.  About 
sunrise  thete  clouds  increase;  two  or  more  of  them  unite,  till  a  large  cloud  be  formed,  which, 
assuming  a  cumulated  and  irregularly  hemispherical  shape,  has  received  the  name  of  cumulus 
or  stacken-cloud.  This  is  properly  the  cloud  of  day,  as  it  usually  subsides  in  the  evening 
by  retracing  the  steps  of  it^j  formation  in  the  morning.  It  separates  into  small  fi-agmerts 
and  evaporates,  giving  place  to  the  stratus  or  fall-cloud,  which  is  therefore  styled  the  cloud 
of  night. 

Some  varieties  in  the  forms  of  the  cumulus  deserve  particular  notice,  as  they  are  sup- 
posed to  be  connected  with  electrical  phenomena.  The  hemispherical  form  is  more  perfect 
in  fine  than  in  changeable  weather.  When  such  well-formed  cumuli  prevail  during  many 
successive  days,  the  weather  is  settled,  and  the  electrometer  pretty  steady  in  its  indications. 
They  are  whitish  coloured,  and  when  opposed  to  the  sun  reflect  a  silvery  light  Cumuli 
which  occur  during  intervals  between  showers  are  more  fleecy,  and  variable  in  form  and 
lolour.  Sometimes  they  are  blackish,  and  may  at  any  time  increase  till  they  obscure  the 
si<y,  or  assume  the  form  of  the  twain-cloud  or  cumulo-stratus. 

The  stratus  or  fall-cloud  compreliends  fjgs,  and  all  those  creeping  mists  which,  towards 
evening,  fill  the  valleys,  and  disappear  in  the  morning.  The  cumuli  which  have  prevailed 
during  a  hot  summer's  day  decrease  towards  evening,  and  by  degrees  there  is  formed  a 
wliitc  niist  near  the  ground,  increasing  in  density  till  midnight  or  even  till  morning,  and 
generally  disappearing  after  sunrise.  In  autumn,  this  cloud  sometimes  lasts  longer  in  the 
morning.  In  winter  it  becomes  still  more  dense,  and  sometimes  continues  a  who  «  uay  or 
many  s(i<cessive  days.  A  remarkable  instance  of  this  occurred  in  January,  1814.,  when  a 
dense  fog  prevailed  for  about  a  fortnight,  extending  over  a  great  part  of  the  south  a.i  i  west 
of  England.  It  wa.s  p-irticularly  felt  at  I^ondon,  where  the  stagnation  and  subsidence  of 
the  smoke  more  than  doubled  tho  dismal  visitation.  The  stratus  is  often  positively  electrified, 
and  its  component  parto  do  not  wet  leaves  or  other  substances  connected  with  the  earth. 
On  thi?,  however,  it  may  be  remarked  that  dry  bodies,  which  contnnie  warmer  than  tlie  fog, 
niij»t  remi'in  dry  on  tlie  ordinary  principles  of  evaporation.  The  stratus  may  be  distin- 
ankhcA  from  some  varieties  of  cirro-stratus  which  resemble  it,  by  the  circumstance  that  the 
liiftrr  wois  every  object  it  alights  on. 

Th#;  ci/i-o-cumulus  or  ponder-cloud  is  subject  to  some  variations  in  the  size  and  figure 
of  thf  orbicular  masses  of  which  it  is  composed,  niid  in  tlieir  distances  from  each  other 
About  the  time  of  tJiiinder  storms,  the  component  parts  are  denser  in  their  structure,  rounder 
m  their  form,  and  closer  together  tiinn  usual.     This  has  been  frequently  noticed  by  [xtela  as 


^.' 


leo 


SCFENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartII 


a  pronrnostic  of  thunder  and  tempestuouB  weather.  In  rainy  chanjifpnble  woatlipr,  this  rlnud 
has  a  li}?lit  fleecy  texture,  and  ie  very  irrejfular  in  the  tbrm  of  its  cotnponont  parts;  «>  ilmtii 
then  approaches  to  the  form  of  the  cirro-stratus.  Sometimea,  indeed,  it  consists  of  ndm-vl/f, 
90  small  and  lijjht  coloured  as  to  be  scarcely  discernible.  In  fine  summer  weather,  the  cirro 
cumulus  is  neither  so  dense  as  the  stormy  variety,  nor  so  light  as  the  one  last  described ;  .h 
parts  vary  in  size,  and  in  their  proximity.  During  fine  dry  weather  witii  light  breezes,  small 
detachments  of  cirro-cumulus  rapidly  form  and  subside,  which  do  not  lie  in  one  plane ;  but 
their  arrangement  is  commonly  horizontal.  The  cirro-cumulus  sometimes  commences  in  the 
clear  sky.  At  other  tunes  the  cirrus,  the  cirro-stratus,  or  some  other  cloud,  changes  into 
cirro-cumulus,  and  vice  versA.  In  summer,  this  cloud  forebodes  heat :  in  winter,  the  break- 
ing up  of  frost,  and  mild  wet  weather. 

The  cirro-stratus  is  remarkable  for  its  shallo\vnes9,  compared  with  its  horizontal  extent; 
ao  that  when  any  other  cloud  assumes  this  form,  it  seldom  fails  to  end  in  a  cirro-stratua. 
This  cloud  is  constantly  changing  its  form,  and  gradually  subsiding ;  hence  it  has  been 
called  the  wane-cloud.  There  are  many  varieties  in  its  figure ;  sometimes  it  is  disposed 
in  wavuig  bars  or  streaks,  varying  almost  infinitely  in  size  and  shape.  A  flat  horizontal 
cloud,  consisting  of  such  streaks,  frequently  occurs  during  changeable  summer  weather ;  its 
bars  are  generally  confused  in  the  middle,  but  more  distinct  towards  the  edges.  A  variety 
of  this  sort  constitutes  what  is  called  the  mackerel-back  sky.  It  is  oflen  very  high  in  the 
atmosphere,  as  is  proved  from  its  still  appearing  high  when  viewed  from  the  top  of  a  lofty 
mountain.  The  cumulus,  on  the  contrary,  may  be  seen  on  o  level  with,  or  even  lower  thnii, 
the  observer.  The  cirro-stratus  oflen  appears  in  the  form  of  a  long  plain  streak,  tapering 
towards  the  extremities.  Sometimes  buch  a  figure  seems  to  alight  on  tht:  cumulo-stratiis ; 
and,  in  these  cases,  the  density  of  the  latter  increases  in  proportion  as  the  ibrrner  alternately 
appears  and  evaporates  again  on  its  summits.  The  usual  result  is  the  formation  of  the 
nimbus,  and  a  fall  of  rain.     Another  principal  variety  of  the  cirro-stratus  consists  of  sniiill 

vs  of  little  clouds,  curved  in  a  peculiar  manner :  it  is  called  v.he  cymoid  cirro-stratus,  and 
IS  a  sure  mdication  of  approaching  storms.  The  last  variety  of  this  cloud  which  we  shall 
now  notice,  is  that  large  and  shallow  veil  of  cloud  which  covers  a  large  portion  of  the  sky, 
particularly  towards  night,  and  through  which  the  sun  and  moon  are  indistinctly  sei-ii. 
Those  peculiar  refhictions  of  the  light  of  these  luminaries,  called  halos  and  mock  suns, 
usually  appear  in  this  cloud.  These  are  the  most  certain  signs,  yet  known,  of  approacliing 
rain  or  snow. 

The  cumulo-stratus  or  twain-cloud  is  a  stage  towards  the  production  of  rain,  and  is  fre- 
quently formed  in  the  following  manner : — Tlie  cumulus  which  usually  passes  along  in  the 
wind,  seems  retarded  in  its  progress,  grows  denser,  spreads  out  laterally  till  it  overhani'-s 
the  base  in  dark  and  irregular  protuberances.  This  change  often  takes  place  in  all  tiie 
cumuli  which  are  near  to  each  other;  their  bases  unite,  whilst  the  superstructure  remuins 
asunder,  rising  up  like  so  many  mountain  summits,  or  masses  of  rocks.  The  cumulo-stniti, 
in  which  hail  showers  and  thunder  storms  occur,  look  extremely  black  and  menacinj;  biturc 
the  rain  commences.  Sometimes  the  cumulo-stratus  evaporates,  or  changes  again  to  tumulus, 
but  it  oflener  ends  in  the  nimbus  and  rain. 

The  nimbus  remains  to  be  described ;  a  cloud  which  always  precedes  the  fiill  of  rain, 
snow,  or  hail.  Any  of  the  others  above  described  may  increase  so  much  as  to  obscure  the 
sky,  without  ending  in  rain,  before  which  the  peculiar  characteristic  of  the  rain-cloud  may 
always  be  distinguished.  The  best  way  of  obtaining  a  clear  idea  of  the  formation  of  the 
nimbus  or  rain-cloud  is  to  observe  a  dist<int  shower  in  profile,  from  its  first  formation  to  its 
fall  in  rain.  The  cumulus  seems  first  arrested  in  its  progress :  then  a  cirrus  or  cirro-stratus 
may  appear  to  alight  on  the  top  of  it.  The  change  to  cumulo-stratus  then  goes  on  rapidly ; 
and  this  cloud,  increasing  in  density,  assumes  tliat  black  and  threatening  aspect  which  is  a 
known  indication  of  rain.  This  blackness  is  soon  changed  for  a  move  gray  obscurity ;  and 
this  is  the  criterion  of  the  actual  formation  of  rain  drops,  which  now  begin  to  fall,  while  a 
cirriform  crown  of  fibres  extends  from  the  upper  parts  of  the  clouds,  and  small  cumuli 
enter  into  the  under  part.  After  the  shower  has  spent  itself  the  different  modifications 
appear  again  in  their  several  stations:  the  cirrus,  the  cirro-stratus,  or  perhaps  the  chto- 
cumulus,  appear  in  the  upper  regions  of  the  air;  while  the  remaining  part  of  the  broken 
nimbus  assumes  the  form  of  flocky  cumuli,  and  sails  along  in  the  lower  current  of  wind.  Tlie 
reappearance  of  large  cumulo-strati  indicates  a  return  of  the  rain.  In  showery  weather,  the 
alternate  formation  and  destniction  of  rain-clouds  goes  on  rapidly,  and  is  attended  by  the 
other  modifications  in  succession,  as  above  described.  From  its  connexion  with  local 
showers,  the  nimbus  is  distinguished  almost  exclusively  by  bearing  in  its  broad  field  of  sable 
tlie  honours  of  the  rainbow. 

Rain.  Theories  of  rain  have  been  founded  on  the  above  observations.  Since,  as  already 
mentioned,  a  greater  quantity  of  mnisture  can  exist  in  a  given  space  as  the  temperature  \3 
higher,  it  is  plain  that  there  is  a  certain  temperature  at  which  air  containing  some  moisture, 
will  just  be  saturated,  and  which  is  called  the  point  of  deposition,  or  the  detoing  point;  for, 


Door  IL 


METEOROLOGY. 


list 


izontal  extent; 
a  cirro-stratiig. 
:e  it  has  been 
it  is  disposed 
-flat  horizontal 
*r  weather;  its 
es.     A  variety 
ry  high  in  the 
top  of  a  lofly 
en  lower  thmi, 
treuk,  taperinw 
arnulo-stratiis'; 
rier  alternately 
mation  of  the 
isiste  of  sniiill 
ro-stratus,  and 
'hich  we  shall 
?n  of  the  skv, 
istinctiy  spi-'n. 
id  mock  suns, 
'f  approachinjr 

lin,  and  is  fre- 
s  along  in  the 
it  overhang's 
ice  in  all  tlie 
3ture  remains 
cumulo-stniti, 
nacinf/  h'thro 
n  to  t  jinulus, 

ft.ll  of  rain, 
'  obscure  the 
n-cloud  niav 
lation  of  the 
nation  to  its 
cirro-stratus 
I  on  rapidly ; 
t  which  is  a 
icurity;  and 
Sill,  while  a 
nail  cumuli 
lodifications 
8  the  cirro- 
the  broken 
vind.    The 
'eather,  the 
ided  by  the 
with  local 
;ld  of  sable 

as  already 
perature  is 
5  moisture, 
point;  frr, 


it'  cooled  in  the  least  below  this,  the  air  will  deposit  moisture.  When  the  cooling  in  the 
iKKly  of  air  below  the  tiew  point  is  very  slieht,  the  effect  is  merely  to  disturb  the  trans- 
parency, or  produce  a  foff.  In  the  case  of  Jew,  formerly  considered,  the  transparency  is 
iiol  atlected ;  because  it  is  not  tlie  maws  of  air  that  is  cooled  below  the  point  pf  deposition, 
but  only  a  minute  portion  of  it  which  comes  into  contact  with  surfaces  cooled  by  radiation. 
When  the  cooling  in  a  body  of  air  below  the  dewing  point  is  considerable,  the  water  is 
(liposited  more  copiously,  and  collecting  into  drops,  descends  to  the  earth  in  the  form  of 
rain ;  or,  if  the  temperature  be  sufficiently  low,  the  drops  are  partially  frozen,  and  form 
sket ;  if  iuUy  frozen,  snow ;  luid  if  such  drops  be  large  and  compact,  they  receive  the  appel- 
blionof  Aai/. 

Dr.  James  Ilutton  of  Edinburgh  made  the  first  attempt  to  account  for  the  phenomena  of 
rain.  Sic.  on  known  principles.  Without  deciding  whether  moisture  be  simply  mixed  or 
chemically  connbined  in  the  air,  he  conjectured  from  the  phenomena,  as  is  now  established 
bv  experiment,  that  the  quantity  of  aqueous  vapour  which  can  exist  in  air  varies  in  a  higher 
ratio  than  the  temperature.  Hence  he  inferred  that  whenever  two  volumes  of  air  saturated 
witii  moisture  are  mixed  at  different  temperatures,  a  precipitation  of  moisture  must  ensue, 
ill  consequence  of  the  mean  temperature  not  being  able  to  support  the  mean  quantity  of 
vapour.  But  if  the  air,  before  mixtui  >,  was  not  fully  saturated  with  moisture,  then  a 
siiiailer  quantity,  or  none  at  all,  may  be  deposited.  This  theory  has  been  adopted  by  various 
iiii'leorologists,  particularly  Professor  Leslie  and  Mr.  Dalton :  but  Mr.  Luke  Howard  has 
justly  remarked,  that  it  involves  the  assumption  that  the  mixture  should  have  the  mean 
tLMiiperaturo, — a  point  whicli  w  as  tlien,  and  is  even  yet,  not  quite  settled ;  although  so  far 
a;*  experiment  goes,  it  is  fully  more  favourable  to  the  theory  than  the  mean  would  be. 

Air.  Howard  accordingly  rejects  Dr.  Hutton's  theory,  and  alleges  that  rain  is  almost 
ill  every  instance  the  result  of  the  electrical  action  of  clouds  upon  each  other.  This  idea, 
lie  liiinks,  is  confirmed  by  observations  made  in  various  ways  upon  the  electrical  state 
of  the  clouds  and  rain ;  and  he  supposes  that  a  thunder  storm  is  only  a  more  sudden 
and  sensible  display  of  those  energies  which  are  incessantly  operating  for  more  general 
purposes. 

'I'liere  are  two  circumstances  deserving  of  notice  in  the  formation  of  the  nimbus  or  rain- 
cloud,  the  spreading  of  the  superior  masses  of  cloud  in  all  directions,  until  they  become,  like 
the  atratus,  one  uniform  sheet;  and  the  rapid  motion  and  visible  decrease  of  the  cumulus, 
when  brought  under  the  latter.  The  cirri,  also,  which  so  frequently  stretch  from  the 
superior  sheet  upwards,  like  so  many  bristles,  are  supposed  by  some  to  be  temporary 
couductors  for  the  electricity  evolved  by  the  union  of  minute  particles  of  vapour  into  the 
lai'irer  drops  which  fijrni  the  rain.  In  an  experiment  of  Cavallo's  with  a  kite  sent  up  360 
(fct,  in  a-  interval  between  two  showers,  and  kept  up  during  rain,  it  seems  that  the  superior 
cluiuts  were  positively  electrified  before  the  rain ;  but  on  the  arrival  of  a  large  cumulus,  a 
strong  negative  electricity  took  place,  which  lustod  while  the  cumulus  was  passing  over  the 
liite.  We  are  not,  hovnever,  warranted  to  conclude  that  the  cumulus  which  brings  on  ruin 
is  always  negative ;  as  the  same  effect  might  ensue  from  a  positive  cumulus  uniting  with  a 
iie}rativ(!  stratus :  yot  the  general  negative  state  of  the  lower  atmosphere  during  rain,  and 
the  positive  indications  commonly  given  by  the  true  stratus,  render  this  the  more  probable 
opinion.  It  is  not,  however,  absolutely  necessary  to  determine  the  several  states  of  the 
clouds  which  appear  during  rain ;  since  there  is  sufficient  evidence  in  favour  of  the  con- 
clusion, tliat  clouds  formed  HI  difi'orent  parts  of  the  atmosphere  operate  on  each  other  when 
biDUfilit  near  enough,  so  as  to  occasion  their  partial  or  entire  destruction, — an  effect  which 
can  be  attributed  only  to  their  possessing  bcfbrehand,  or  acquiring  at  the  moment,  the  oppo- 
site electricities.  Such  is  Mr.  Howard's  view  of  the  subject ;  but  until  electricity  itself,  and, 
in  particular,  the  electricity  of  the  atmosphere,  be  better  understood,  it  is  doubtful  if  tlie 
plieuomcna  of  rain  be  brought  any  nearer  home  by  being  ascribed  to  electricity.  In  the 
pre.sent  state  of  science.  Dr.  Hutton's  theory  has  rather  the  advantage  of  depending  on 
principles  which  uie  better  known,  though  there  is  some  uncertainty  regarding  their  fitness 
for  the  purpose. 

Rain  is  very  unequally  distributed  to  the  different  regions  of  the  globe ;  but  nature  has 
so  arranged  it,  that  it  is  most  copious  in  those  latitudes  where  evaporation  is  most  rapid. 
Tii(!re  are,  however,  exceptions  to  this  rule ;  for,  on  several  tracts  on  the  earth's  surface,  it 
hardly  ever  rains.  These  are  usually  far  inland,  and  are  generally  extensive  plains  utterly 
stnrlle  and  uninhabitable.  The  want  of  rain  is  in  some  places  partially  supplied  by  the 
cupi(jus  deposition  of  dew.  On  the  contrary,  there  are  some  spots  where  it  always  rains,  and 
which  are  mostly  on  the  sea.  As  the  whole  atmosphere,  wlien  fully  charged  with  humidity, 
is  c  ilculated  to  hold  no  more  water  than  would  form  a  sheet  5  inches  in  depth,  while  the 
mi  a!i  annual  deposit  is  about  35  or  40  inches,  it  is  plain  that  the  supply  must  be  frequently 
Ti'tii'wed.  Rain  is  more  abundant  toward  the  equator  than  the  poles,  at  the  sea-coast  than 
towards  the  interior,  and  on  elevated  situations  thiui  on  plains. 

From  ti«e  nuvst  authentic  sources,  Mr.  Dalton  has  conotructed  the  following  table,  showing 

Vol   1  16 


?ir<"' 


ltiitt^^w  n^~,' 


162 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


thtf  mean  monthly  and  annual  quantities  of  rain  whicli  have  ttillen  at  several  plocos,  being 
the  average  tor  many  years : — 


January.  ■  ■  ■ 
February . . 
Mnrch...^' 
April....:. 

May 

June 

July 

AiivilBt . . . . 
September. 
October  . . . 
November . 
December  . 


-a 


Inch. 
3.310 

s.oua 

3.IIIU 
3H!)5 
3.»» 
3.1W 
3.(103 
3.JM1 

3.!fca 

3.300 
3.H33 

30.140 


3» 


Inch. 
3.177 
1.847 
1.533 
3.104 
8.573 
8.H10 
3.0U3 
3.311 
3.054 
3.724 
3.441 
3.388 

34.118 


1^ 
I- 


Inch. 
3.106 
1.U53 
l.:U3 
3.078 
3.118 
3.3t40 
3.00H 
3.435 
3.2H0 
.3.079 
3.034 
3509 


H 

38 

Inch. 
3.401 
8.095 
1.753 
3.1>!il 
3.400 
3.518 
4.140 
4..181 
3.751 
4.151 
3  775 
3.055 


37.604       39.714 


Inch. 
5.39!) 
5.130 
3.151 
3.980 
3.480 
a.738 
4.U59 

s.o;«) 

4.874 
5.430 

4.7H5 
0.084 


53.044 


Inch. 
3.095 
3.837 
3.104 
3.017 
3.5<18 
3.074 
3.350 
3.199 
4.:<50 
4.143 
3.174 
3.143 


it 


OS 


3U.019 


Inch. 
1.595 
1.741 
1.184 
0.079 
1.041 
1.343 
3.^3 
3.740 
1.017 
3.29'; 
1.904 
1.981 

31.331 


1^ 


Inch. 
1404 
1.850 

i.m 

1279 
1.030 
1.7'« 
8.448 
1.807 
1.848 
3.093 
3.823 
1.730 

30.080 


(A   3 

■c  v 


Fr.  Inch. 
1.388 
1.333 
I.IUO 
1.185 
1.707 
1.097 
l.MW 
1.900 
LiVSO 
1.780 
1.720 
l.liOO 


it: 


>9 


._ 


Fr.  hic'i. 

2,477 

i.;«o 

l.liS!7 

2.'.);ii 
3.5.  •• 
l.fA! 
2:H7 
4.MU 
4.741 
4.li'7 
2.3!J7 


18.649       33.U77 


The  depth  of  rain,  according  to  Humboldt,  at  the  latitudes  of  0°,  19°,  45°,  and  60°,  is, 
respectively,  96,  80,  29,  and  17  inches.  In  the  torrid  zone,  a  small  thick  rain  fells  nlmost 
every  day  on  that  side  of  the  equator  where  the  sun  is ;  but  it  generally  intennits  durin]^  Ihe 
night  In  many  places,  tliere  are  two  wet  and  two  dry  seasons  in  the  year;  and  in  some 
regions,  from  the  effect  of  the  mountains  and  peculiar  winds,  places  under  the  same  parallel 
have  their  wet  and  dry  seasons  at  oppasite  periods.  Though  the  annual  deptli  of  rnin  be 
greatest  toward  the  eciuator,  the  number  of  rainy  days  increases  with  the  latitude. 

Aqueous  meteors,  so  essential  to  vegetation,  have  their  salutary  effects  modified  by  the 
chemical  qualities  of  the  moisture  in  the  atmospiiere.  The  salt  rain  and  dew  of  the  vicinity 
of  the  Caspian  Sea,  owing  to  the  vapours  whicii  are  exhaled  from  the  soil,  probably  cont'-ibute 
to  tiiose  saline  efflorescences  which  are  said  to  be  gradually  overspreading  the  onco  fertile 
soil  of  Persia.  The  salt  fogs  in  the  west  of  Jutland  are  very  injurious  to  the  foliage  of 
trees,  without  being  hurtful  to  the  gross.  Rain  has  also  been  known  to  be  imprognateil  with 
sulphur,  and  with  various  sub.stances  approaching  to  that  of  iinimal  and  vegetabk  matters. 
Some  of  these  communicate  to  tlie  rain  a  peculiar  colour,  as  that  of  blood,  &c.  On  the 
other  hand,  fogs  occur  in  whicli  little  or  no  moisture  is  present :  such  are  called  dry  fn^s ; 
and  are  supposed  to  be  the  vapours  and  ashes  ejected  by  volcanoe.H,  and  dilfused  in  the 
atmosphere  by  the  winds.  Their  occurring  about  the  time  of  great  eruptions  strengthens 
this  conjecture. 

Glaciers.  Ice  and  snow  absorb  a  large  portion  of  heat  duvinf;  liquefaction,  whicli  they 
give  out  again  on  freezing;  tor,  in  the  ordinary  process  of  nature,  water  does  not  cool  F»"low 
32°  F.  till  the  whole  be  tirozen;  nor  does  its  temperature  rise  above  that  point,  whil"  in 
contact  with  ice  or  snow, — that  is,  till  the  whole  be  melted.  This  property  has  an  imporlnnt 
effect  on  the  temperature  of  snowy  districts.  It  retards  and  often  provcnt*  ''w.  orrurn  mcp 
of  extreme  cold,  and  it  opposes  a  sudden  rise  of  temperature  above  the  freezing  pomt.  The 
cold  in  the  at'.iosphere,  as  was  formerly  stated,  continually  increases  with  the  elevation; 
and,  at  a  certain  height,  depending  on  the  climate  or  latitude,  perpetual  frost  prevails, 
Where  the  earth's  surface  attains  this  height,  it  is,  with  the  exception  of  some  steejt  or  ver- 
tical cliffs,  continually  covered  with  snow.  The  snow  acquires  new  rniditions  from  tiini>  to 
time ;  for,  though  it  may  melt  slowly  from  the  heat  of  the  ground  on  which  it  rests,  yi"l  ii 
suffers  little  decay  externally,  except  what  the  air  carries  off  by  evaporation.  The  wannlh 
of  the  solar  rays  may  soften  it  a  little,  but  this  only  tends  to  its  farther  consolidation.  Mns'^i's 
of  this  sort  are  called  fflaeiers.  By  accumulating  in  the  manner  just  mentioned,  they  oltcn 
become  top-heavy,  or  accjuire  such  an  enormous  weight  as  to  break  their  hold,  or  cra.sh  tlicii 
lower  parts,  which  are  besides  liable  to  be  undermined  by  the  warmth  of  the  mnuntnin  on 
which  they  rest.  Hence  it  not  unfrequently  happens,  that  hucre  masses  of  ice  or  coii^lo 
meruted  snow  slide  or  roll  down  the  sides  of  mountains,  transporting,  perhaps,  large  stones  or 
fragments  of  rocks  to  wliich  they  had  adhered,  or  which  had  been  separated  from  their  beds 
by  the  agency  of  the  weather.  Detached  glaciers  otlen  descend  into  districts  haviner  ' 
mean  temperature  considerably  above  the  molting  point  of  snow.  But  so  rreit  is  tlio  heat 
consumed  in  liquefying  such  huge  masses,  that  years  may  elapse  h«?for.^  they  entirely  dis- 
appear; and  during  that  interval  others  descend;  and  so  on  continually.  So  that  the  limit 
of  perpetual  snow  may  be  found  in  a  climate  where  little  snow  tails  from  the  clouds.  V.  ti^n 
glaciers  descend  into  the  sea,  and  particiilarly  when  detaciied  and  noating,  they  are  tenned 
icebergs. 

The  snow-iine,  or  lower  limit  in  mountains  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  descewls  in 
winter  and  rises  again  in  summer.     Under  the  equator,  this  change  is  scarcely  perceptibV 


Rook  !!• 

lull  It  \nMc\ 

dircclio"  otl 

,-acii  its  ctlJ 

on  acchvitil 

that  one  m 

on  the  opri 

niucli  on  1 

otlen  ci»P'4 

Humbol<| 

Andes  of  ' 
Toliina  (lal 
(lal.;U°),| 
Grenada  (1 
&  5'  to 
(49°  10' J' 
550to36t] 
Colour 
a  distant 
telescope, 
and  some 
a  high  mc 
illusory ; 
with  incr( 


yjTf7rTTT^«»-i^m.»-74J,Sf!?"'!'."V'*^;'TsAVI'*'*'''^TTP'^''^'' 


'"^Tv-r  ^jj^tjrpn^-^' 


Part  H. 

il  Plocos,  beiiyj 


Book  II. 


METEOROLOGY.^-^' 


rti9 


?5 


ff-  Inch. 

l.SfcW 

1. 

MUO 

l.liU 

1.707 

I.(ii)7 
i.HK) 

lilOO 
lAW 
1.7W) 

J.(!00 


'Pr.  ImoI|| 
'Un 
1.7(K) 
LW? 
8.(i(<ii 
S.WI) 

a.is 

l.WJ 

8:h7 

-I.MU 

4.  If  7 

S.3II7 


a3.«77 

)°,  and  60°  is, 
iin  fells  nliDftst 
•Its  durinflr  the 
»  and  in  some 
same  parallel 
ptli  of  rnin  be 
iidf". 

Kjdified  by  tlie 
of  the  vicinity 
Wy  contn'buti.' 
le  once  fertile 
he  foliajre  of 
rpsrnated  with 
table  matters. 
&C.     On  the 
^d  dry  fofrg; 
ffuseti  in  the 
3  strengthens 

I  which  they 
)t  cool  ^.|ow 
int,  \vhi(..  in 
m  important 
t  orciiniiiop 
point.     /'/,e 
'  elevTitioii; 
«t  prpv.iils. 
tnop  or  vor- 
"om  timi'  to 
roste,  yiH  ii 
he  W'innlh 
:'n.   \fnss!'s 
they  oih'i) 
3rus)i  tlieii 
ountiiln  on 
or  conjjlo 
i'  stoni^s  or 
thpir  l)eds 
havinrr  n 
=1  the  boat 
tirely  (I;,s- 
tho  limit 
s.   W'wn 
B  termed 

'cpfvis  in 
coptibV 


lull  it  increases  with  the  latitude,  and  in  high  latit\ide8  the  snow-line  has  a  great  ran^e.  Thu 
diroction  of  the  prevailing  winds,  with  many  circumstances  too  numerous  to  be  dotuilud,  hufl 
I'ach  ita  cH'oct.  The  snow-line  is  lower  on  the  sides  of  mountains  turned  from  the  sun,  than 
on  acclivities  which  receive  his  rayv  more  perpendicular  to  their  surfaces.  Hence  it  hap|)eiui, 
thut  one  side  of  a  mountain  may  be  tovcred  with  perpetual  snow,  whilst  at  the  same  iiuighl 
on  tlie  opposite  side  it  is  in  a  state  of  cultivation.  The  snow-line,  therefore,  depends  md 
iiiucli  on  localities,  tliat  no  general  rule  can  be  given  tor  computmg  its  altitude.  Though 
otlen  employed  for  estimating  tne  he       -.  of  mountains,  it  is  a  most  fallacious  critciion. 

Humboldt  gives  the  foUawing  heigiu^  ■iif  perpetual  snow  in  ditlbrent  parts  of  the  world:— 
Andes  of  Quito  (lat.  1°  to  1°  'M\  2460  toises.  Volcano  of  Purace  (lat.  ^^  18'),  3420  toiscb. 
Toliintt  (lat.  4°  46'),  2;i80  toises.  Nevados  of  Mexico  (lat.  19°),  2350  toises.  Himiili'iva 
(lat.  iil°),  northern  side,  lOiiO  toises;  souttiem  side,  2605  toises.  Summit  of  Sierra  Nevada, 
Grenada  (lat  37°  10'),  1780  toises.  Caucasus  (lat.  42°  to  43°),  1650  toises.  Pyrenees  (lat. 
42°  5'  to  43°),  1400  toises.  Swiss  Alps  (lat.  46°),  1370  toises.  Carpathian  mountains 
(49°  10'),  1330  toises.  Norway  (lat.  61°  to  67°),  850  to  600  toises;  and  (lat.  70°  to  71°  30') 
ijGO  to  366  toises. 

Colour  of  the  Atmosphere,  That  the  air  has  a  blue  colour,  hoa  been  conjectured  because 
11  distant  landscape  appears  of  that  cast,  which,  however,  is  greatly  diminished  by  a  good 
telescope.  Newton  ascribed  this  phenomenon  to  the  greater  refrangibility  of  the  blue  rays; 
and  some  consider  it  the  effect  of  vapour.  The  appearance  of  the  sky,  when  viewed  from 
a  liigii  mountain,  is  of  a  deep  blue,  approaciiing  to  bUick.  But  this  must  be  in  some  way 
illusory ;  because  the  upper  atmosphere  is  higlily  transparent,  as  the  heavenly  bodies  shine 
with  increased  Bp  mdour. 

Sect.  IV. — Luminoua  Meteors, 

The  refraction  and  reflection  of  light  by  air  produce  a  rempr^^able  phenomenon.  While 
•lie  r;iys  of  light  move  in  a  medium  of  uniform  density  and  composition,  they  are  straight ; 
but  when  they  pass  obliquely  into  a  medium  of  a  diflbrent  density,  they  are  bent  or  refracted 
toward  the  denser  medium.  The  rays  of  light,  therefore,  whilst  coming  tlirough  the  atmo- 
.i])liere  from  the  heavenly  bodies,  are  always  entering  into  a  denser  and  denser  stratum  of 
air,  and  are  consequently  bent  down  towards  the  earth.  The  different  rays  suffer  different 
dcijrces  of  refraction,  according  to  their  colour.  That  of  red  is  the  least,  tlien  orange, 
vellow,  green,  light  blue,  indigo,  and  violet.  All  solid  bodies  have  th?  property  of  reflecting 
light ;  and  it  is  probable  that  all  bodies  whatever  reflect  light  in  a  greater  or  less  degree, 
Tiic  clouds  and  air  possess  this  property.  The  rays  which  are  tlie  most  refrangible,  are 
also  the  most  easily  reflected.  When  the  sky  shines  witli  a  fine  azure  hue,  it  is  by  means 
of  the  more  reflexiblo  rays,  which  are  first  reflected  from  the  earth,  and  aflerwords  returned 
by  the  atmospliere.  The  refraction  and  reflection  of  light  enable  it  lo  u;f:""se  itself  over 
the  atmosphere,  illuminating  our  hemisphere  for  a  conir!,  -arable  time  after  the  n  i,  a  gone 
down  and  before  he  has  arisen,  producing  the  morning  iv,  .  ->voiiing  twilight. 

The  rainbow  is  a  circular  image  of  the  sun,  variously  oloured,  and  produced  i;hus : — 
The  solar  rays,  by  entering  the  drops  of  falling  rain,  are  refracted  to  tlieir  farther  surfaces, 
and  tlience,  by  one  or  more  reflections,  transmitted  to  ihe  eye.  But  on  escaping  from  the 
drop,  they  undergo  a  second  refraction,  by  which  tlie  rays  are  separated  into  their  difterent 
colours ;  and  in  this  state  are  exhibited  to  an  eye  properly  placed  to  receive  them.  The 
rainbow  is  never  seen  but  when  rain  is  falling,  and  the  sun  and  bow  are  always  on  opposite 
sides  of  tlie  observer. 

The  halo  is  a  broad  circle  of  a  variable  diameter,  s'  netimes  white,  but  more  commonly 
exhibiting  a  faint  representation  of  the  colouis  of  the  luinbow.  It  appears  in  a  thin  cloud, 
or  in  a  haze,  around  tiie  sun  nnd  moon's  disc. 

The  corona  is  a  cir^julnr  spipp,  full  of  mild  whitish  light,  around  the  moon's  disc.  It 
sometimes  passes  into  s  yellowish  or  browni.^Ii  colour  towards  the  edges.  This  and  the  halo 
are  popularly  known  by  the  name  oi  burrs  i  and  the  latter  is  accounted  a  prognostic  of  rain, 
especial  I  \  when  its  diameter  is  large. 

I'lirhelia  or  moch-suns  oxe  images  which  appear  son:  '^mes  above  and  sometimes  below 
the  dis'c  of  the  true  sun.  Tliry  are  supposed  to  be  seated  in  the  points  of  intersection  of 
different  Iialo-s  and  to  derive  their  brightness  from  the  unic.i  of  several  reflections.  Parhelia 
ore  w^irnetimes  surrounded  by  a  whitish  border,  sometimes  by  the  colours  of  the  rainbow. 
They  are  rarely  quite  circular,  and  some  have  luminous  trains,  as  has  likewise  the  sun  hini- 
sc  If.  when  near  tiie  horizon,  m  the  vicinity  of  Hudson's  Bay.  It  is  tliere,  and  in  similar 
col.i  foggy  situations,  that  parhelia  are  usually  seen. 

Mock-moons  or  paraselonos  are  of  less  fro  i  .  occurrence  tlian  parhelia,  but  they  are 
generally  ascribed  to  a  siinikr  cause, 

I.nmiiiods  shadows  or  glories  are  remarku  , '  enomena,  in  which  a  spectator  sees  his 
shadow  projected  on  a  c.oud  with  a  luminous  ri"  ,  'metimes  colov.red  like  the  rainbow, 
encircling  his  liead.  The  spectator,  in  such  cases,  ;i  ist  either  bo  on  an  elevation,  or  tlie 
("loud  must  be  very  low.     The  shadow  is  usually  of  an  jnormous  size- 


\f^ 


SCIRNCE  OP  OEOORAI'HY. 


Pamt  11 


fioominff  ii  Uin  form  iMh]  hy  nailorn  tn  fxprotw  n  nirictiw  npticnl  (tpci'ptioii,  by  wliich 
ohji'«'ti<  como  into  vinw,  tl'ouffh  mRtnriiilly  iiltonul  iih  to  tlinr  r<Mil  Hitiiiilinti  or  ixwition,  '['ha 
Kroiirh  call  it  niniffr,  itml  tiin  ItnliaiiH  futa  morffana.  It  ollcti  liiip|H<nH  at  Him,  that  n  din* 
tjiiit  Hhip  Hp|N<im  AH  it'  iNiiiitoil  in  thr  nky,  p"rliiipM  in  nn  invnrtoti  |K)Niti()n,  iind  not  HM|)|Nirt(>(l 
liv  till)  wiitor.  Hiinkon  f  h  ,ii.l  wiikIh  np|MMir  hh  it'  rniHcnl  alM)vo  tlio  mirllici'.  'I'hc  Swedes 
ioiitf  wi«rch»Ml  it»  vnin  lor  an  illusorj'  ieiand  of  thJM  Hort,  whii-li  they  Hir        mn  (liHtuncc,  an 


if  plartMl  iM'tWi'cii  iho  iHlnn  of  Aland  ami  tlm  ooiimI  of  Upliiiid.     'I'lio 


anil  liiiilil 


\n^ 


on  llio  rilioro  i  '  Wnnlon  Imvo,  tVom  Mowinn,  HomotiniOB  appoii-rod  fl(»(itii;>f  invortod  in  the  air. 
Ill  ITIH,  tii(<  Krcncn  coniit  npp«>arud  dintini-tly  misnd  al)ovo  tlm  noa,  tor  an  honr,  an  vicvvml 
fii>m  tlm  opiKwitrt  Hhoro  of  HuHHt-x.  'I'o  tlni  French,  whibt  marching  in  tlio  K(,'yptian  (d-Hcrtu, 
llic  wndy  plain  covorod  in  tlio  dintnnci'  by  a  doimn  va{Nnir  proMcntcd  tlio  illusive  image  of  u 
vaht  Iftko,  tt)wardM  which  thoy  ImHlincd,  hut  could  never  reach  it, 

'I'iio  nnniri  bornaliA*,  or  northern  liffht,  ih  a  remarkable  huninouH  phenomenon  which 
iiccurB  during'  ni^fht,  and  mont  roininonly  in  chnir  or  tVoaty  weiith<<r.  It  in  unknown  in  low 
Intifudes,  nnd  iM'conies  inoro  t'reiinent  as  we  recede  from  the  eiiuator.  Hut  it  it)  douhtfiil  if 
lift  inaxiinuni  either  an  to  tre<|ueMcy  or  brilliancy  lio  at  the  |X)le;  for  in  the  late  north  polar 
«v\p<HlilionH  it  WR«  Been  to  the  Honth  of  the  oliwM'ver,  wln^roas  at  greater  distances  iVoin  thn 
|»ole  it  appears  to  the  north  or  a  little  to  the  west  of  north  of  the  spoctavor.  It  is  usually  of 
a  reddish  colour,  incliniu);  to  yellow,  and  sends  out  iVequent  coruscations  li"  pale  li)r|it, 
which  seem  to  arise  from  thn  horizon  in  pyramidal  iindnlatinfr  forms,  'ind  shoots  with  jjrciit 
veliM-ity  towards  the  zenith!  Some  maintain  that  a  whizziuf;  noise  accompanies  this  pheno- 
menon, but  this  is  not  very  well  ascertjiined.  The  lijfht  app«*ars  sometimes  remarkably  red, 
as  was  the  case  in  many  prls  of  Kurope,  Dec,  f),  175)7.  The  a\irora  borealis  frecinently 
appears  in  the  form  of  a  luminous  arcli,  ehietly  in  the  sprinv,  and  in  thi;  nutiimn  of  a  dry 
ceiison.  The  arch  is  partly  bri}j:lit  and  |)artly  dark,  but  fjenerally  transimrent.  This  kind  of 
meteor  is  almtvst  constant  durinpf  the  lonpf  winter  niphts,  in  hijrh  latitudes.  'I'he  "  merry 
dancers,"  as  it  is  called  in  Shetland,  afTonl  the  inhabitants  preat  relief  nmid  tlie  plooni  of 
their  lonj?  dreary  nif^bts,  'J'hey  commonly  apptiar  at  twili|ifht  near  tho  horiztm,  of  a  dun 
yellow,  and  sometimes  continue  so  for  several  liours,  without  motion;  allorwards  they  break 
into  streams  of  a  stronj^er  lifj'd,  passinpf  into  columns  and  innumerable  dificrent  shnpos, 
nnrinjj  this,  the  colour  varies  from  all  tlie  tints  of  yellow  (o  the  most  obscure  russet,  exhi- 
bit iiifr  Ihi' most  beautiful  ap|>eanince.  In  the  northern  ,  ts  of  Sweden  and  liUpland,  tlio 
annua  l)orealis  is  siiu'i'lir,  i;  lM>i'iitiful,  and  atVords  to  travellers  a  very  fine  lipht  during  the 
whole  niirht.  In  HmiMic*-^  Hay  it  diffuses  a  variefriited  sph'iidour  sometimes  ecpial  to  llmt 
of  the  full  moon,  t-iti.'lnr  i ^M»  were  olist-rved  by  Dr.  Forster  towards  the  south  pide,  hut 
they  wen^  much  foi  !M«:'r  t',  .r.  in  the  nortliern  hemisphere.  The  cause  of  such  phenomena  is 
unknown.     Somo  ii&oiiht;  them  to  electricity  and  niiif^netism, 

'I'he  electricity  of  the  nfmosphere  is  very  imperfectly  understixxl.  In  storms,  r,he  clouds 
usually  exhibit  the  vitreous  or  jxisitive  electricity.  In  suniiiier,  when  the  earth  is  dry,  iiiid 
the  day  warm  and' serene,  the  electricity  of  the  air  increases  from  sunrise  to  noon ;  in  wliich 
sf-ite  it  ccmtinnes  for  an  hour  or  two,  and  njcrain  diminishes,  till  the  dew  appear.  It  revives 
townnls  midnicfht,  and  afjain  decreases  till  it  become  insensible. 

Tlie  phenomena  of  thunder  are  so  well  known,  as  to  recpiire  no  description ;  but  no  satis- 
fiictory  I'xpbiiiation  has  yet  been  di,>iCovered,  except  that  it  is  intimately  connected  with  elec- 
tricity, which  beinjr  itself  in  a  preat  measure  amonp  the  incofirnita,  leaves  us  still  in  tiie 
dark.  Thunder  is  nior«»  freijvtent  as  we  approach  the  efiuator,  and  decrenr.ps  as  the  latituile 
iiicre.ises,  In^inp  totally  unknown  in  the  arctic  repions.  It  is  a  very  rare  phenomenon  in 
intensely  cold  weather,  and  seldom  occurs  duriiip  nipht  in  the  temperate  zones.  It  is 
usually  attended  by  heavy  showers  of  hail  or  sli^et,  and  less  frequently  by  rain.  The  distance 
of  thunder  may  be  estimate*!,  by  allow  inp  IKM)  feet  for  each  second  which  elapses  between 
seoiup  the  flash  of  liphtninp  and  hearinp  the  report.  It  is  seldom  heard  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance than  two  miles,  and  only  does  mischief  when  very  near. 

St.  Elmo's  fire  is  a  taint  lipht  which  seems  to  adhere  to  the  jwints  of  bodies  carried  swiftly 
throuph  the  air.  It  appears  on  the  tops  of  ship  masts,  and  at  the  points  of  spears  and  etlicr 
warlike  instrument*  when  in  motion.  It  is  penerally  believed  to  be  an  accumulation  of 
electric  matter.  A  sinple  flame  of  this  sort  was  called  by  the  ancients  Helena.  When 
seen  in  pairs,  they  were  called  Castor  and  Pollux. 

Fire-balls  are  those  luminous  liodies  which  appear  usually  at  a  great  height  above  tlie 
eartli,  and  were  on  that  account  long  known  by  the  term  meteor,  which  is  now  applied  to 
many  other  afrial  phenomena.  They  present  a  very  imposing  apjwarance,  and  are  seen  of 
an  immense  size,  sometimes  red,  but  ofloner  of  a  vivid  dazzling  white.  They  tniver.-<e  the 
atiiuwphere  with  amazingvelocity.  Thi.s  and  their  great  height,  have  been  inferred  from 
their  being  seen  from  various  distant  places  almost  at  the  same  instant.  Sometimes  ihey 
burst  in  pieces,  or  discharpe  torrents  of  flames,  with  a  detonation  making  both  the  air  and 
earth  to  tremble.  Sjitno  of  these-  biills  «iescend  like  lightning,  break  throuph  the  roofs  of 
buildings,  de.«tmy  animals,  and  shatter  vessels  at  sea ;  in  short,  they  are  of*en  attended  with 
all  the  disastrous  ctTects  of  Uuinder  and  lightning.  witJi  which  tlioy  are  occasionally  accom 


niUlliMl.     Hoi 

A.«rolit.es| 
p.iiiiiti'Hl  auT 
n\\\M  ver:| 
Hin  of  1""^'' 

l,y  the  colli 

MlllOMl'l"''^'] 

throoifh  yi 
plftuft.    '^1 

istlK'i"";;! 

in  i'/ii'-  M 

riillinp 

\vlii<-li  i«  'j 
Milislaiico  I 

The  zo; 

what  Himi| 

|iyriiiiid. 

Mwk>'S»n| 

i,f  It  was 

(.liistod  oi 

Inrrid  '/•'" 

iiuist  fav( 

HoiiiP  y<*" 

Zddiiicivl 

cimnticte 


a« 


Pabt  II 

tiori,  by  wliich 
||»<>Hif.i(.n.  '(7,g 
r".  tliHt  a  rli». 
I '.ot  Hii|.|K,rt,H| 

Jl'llHt/ltIf,,,  J, 

I'"''  in  til.,  ufr. 
Piir,  (w  vicvvfid 

mm  lU'HVTtg, 
vo  miitgro  „f  ^ 

'lonon  which 
:nown  in  low 
"8  (loiihtfiil  if 
/«  north  fxilnr 
cos  ftoin  the 
J  is  UNimliyof 
[■•'  Pnl"  li^Wit, 
"  with  ^rrodt 
8  this  |»h(.no. 
iirkahly  rod, 
iw  frn(|ii('/H|y 
imn  (if  ,1  ,jry 
'"'•IN  kind  of 
'''k'  "riiiTry 
'«  frlfxiiii  (if 
'">.  of  II  dun 
M  thiiy  hronk 

■■''nt  nJiii|)P8. 

riiwct,  cvlii. 

I'fipiand,  Uio 

F  fliirin/n'  tho 

i|i"il  to  ilmt 

'f'l  polo,  hilt 

tiononi(;iui  is 

.  I  ho  clouds 

is  dry,  nnd 
> ;  in  which 

It  revives 

nt  no  8)1  tis- 
with  i'Ipc- 
'till  in  the 
10  latitude 
'rnenon  in 

108.      Ft   is 

0  (listnnce 
'  between 
eater  dis- 

'«!  swiftly 

mil  other 

lation  of 

When 

Kivo  the 
Jplied  to 
seen  of 
;r.se  the 
"^il  from 
es  they 
air  and 
■flofs  of 
^d  with 
accom 


Pon«  n. 


METK()ROI,OflY. 


tflfi 


it.  still  *li(>v  belong  to  a  clau 
'"vuii    n  fditid  ({clatinoua 

n,,  or  hotiiro  ninrise,  Hoine- 

m  o         anortcd  cone  or 

'n«H|  u>  the  horizon,  and 

"arli(!Ht  liiHtiiict  account 

apposing  that  it  had  not 


imnii'il.  Homo  conHidnr  thewt  IxilU  to  lie  (^roat  iimtmeM  of  i>l(>ctric  matter,  p(UMin(;  from  ona 
iiliici'  to  itiiolhor.     Other*  HiipiNme  them  to  bt;  tlie  Hiiiiie  with  the  aeroliUw. 

AiTdliteH,  or  iiint«!(iric  HtniieH,  have  frn(|iiniitly  ditHCoiidod  rpiMii  the  atmoftp'  re  firom  thfl 
ri'iiioteHt  aiititjuity.  Hotli  the  aUive  oninionH  may  Int  in  mo  tlir  currect;  bitciiUM  !u!  lire-lmlla 
(xliihit  very, liitHirnnt  appeanmceH.  I'liihumpherH  are  very  much  divided  remiriiintr  the  ori- 
pw  (if  iiietiMiric  Ntoiii>H.  Homo  imiitfinn  them  t.i  be  eJActed  froin  voUaiioeH  on  the  earth'H  tttir* 
llict'i  olherH  from  volcanotm  on  the  moon.  A  third  cIiihh  miimtJiin,  that  tiit?y  are  j,;iiieraled 
by  the  eoiiibination  and  condenHution  of  their  C(im|Miiienl  jiartH,  |i  I'vioiiNly  difliiHiHl  in  the 
ntMi(>.''|ihere  in  the  (roHcoim  tiirm.  Otliern  allege,  that  they  are  (I<'Iji'  imI  mtoneH  iii(iviii|f 
llirmiixl'  •'"'  boiindieHH  ropioiiH  of  Hpacc,  and  which  (•iiHimlly  coiih'  »  contuct  with  our 
lilnnct.  All  the»e  are  little  elne  than  conjecture,  althoiiffh  their  tiinnalicn  in  the  atm<>M|)hero 
istlie  iii'^^t  plaiiHihle.  A  numerouH  liHt  of  tlu!  muHt  auth<  iitic  titlln  uf  hucIi  bodich  i  givun 
ill  I'liH.  Mdff.  vol.  Ixvii. 

I''iillin>?  HtiirM  are  very  ordinary  phenomena  nver\  ,vhe 
wliirji  iw  not  well  iiiidcrMUKid.     Near  the  |.laco  of  their  n   , 
HilistiuK^e  liiiH  fre<|uently  been  tbuiid,  of  a  whiti.sh  yellow  co 

The  '/.odiacal  litfht  in  a  liiminoiiH  appearance,  wm"      ''' 
wimt  Hiiiiilar  to  the  milky  way,  but  of  a  fainter  li(r|i> 
pyriiiiid,  with  itn  base  towardn  the  mm.     Its  axis  Ih  va       . 
iMiiki'H  an  nnglo  of  nearly  7°  with  the  plane  of  the  eclipuc. 
(if  if  wa.s  ifiven  by  Oasnini  in  UH\;  but  thiH  alRinlH  no  (froi 

cxJHtcd  or  been  Heen  prior  t«  that  date:  it  in  alwayn  »»liHervablc,  unen  the  sky  Ih  clf^ar,  in  tlio 
liirrid  zone;  but  in  more  randy  to  be  found  iih  we  recede  from  the  equator.  The  Beatton 
hi(i4  favourable  for  obnervinir  it  is  alxiut  tho  lutfinniiij^f  of  March;  it  ia  much  brij^hter  in 
wine  years  tliiin  otherH,  and  was  particulnrly  brilliant  at  I'ariH,  KHli  Fidiriiiiry,  I70ii.  The 
zixHiical  li^ht  lies  in  the  plane  of  the  buh'h  equator,  and  is  theretbre  duppwod  by  tioine  to  be 
CHniK.'ctcd  with  his  rotation. 

Sect.  V. — Winds. 

Winds)  are  riirrcnts  of  air  occasioned  by  the  disturbance  of  tho  equilibrium  of  the  atm<v 
sphere  by  tho  une(]ua1  distrihution  of  h(;at.  The  pem^ral  tendency,  in  mich  circiiniHtaiices, 
in  tor  the  heavier  columns  to  displace  the  lifjhtor;  and  for  the  air  at  the  earth's  surfiice  to  iiiovo 
troin  the  poles  toward  tho  efpiator:  in  consequenco  of  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis, 
unothor  motion  is  combined  with  the  currents  just  described.  The  air,  which  is  constantly 
iiidvinfT  t'roni  jwints  where  tho  earth's  motion  on  its  axis  is  slower  to  those  where  it  la 
qiii(!ker,  cannot  have  precisely  tho  same  motion  eastward  with  tho  part  of  the  surtiice  over 
which  it  is  passin}?,  and  therefore  must,  relatividy  to  that  i^iirfiice,  acquire  a  motion  somo- 
wliiit  westerly.  The  two  currents,  therefore,  from  the  oppi^sitc  hemispheres,  will,  on  meet- 
inif,  about  tho  equator,  destroy  that  part  of  each  otlier's  motion  which  is  in  tho  direction  of 
tlio  meridian,  b^aviujor  nothinjj  but  their  imited  motion  towards  the  west.  Such  is  the  cause 
of  the  trade-wind,  as  proixised  and  rejected  by  Dr.  Halloy :  it  was  shortly  after  revived  by 
Hiuliey,  and  is  pretty  penerally  received.  The  trade-wind  (with  certain  exceptions)  blows 
constantly  from  the  east,  between  the  latitudes  of  30°  N.  and  H(l°  S. ;  it  declines  somewhat 
from  due  east,  towards  the  jmrallel  to  which  the  sun  is  vertical  at  different  seasons  of  the 
your.  The  only  sujiply  for  the  air  constantly  abstracted  from  the  higher  latitudes  must  be 
niiide  by  a  counter  cunpnt,  in  tho  upper  reufions  of  the  atmosphere,  carrying  back  tho  air 
from  tho  equator  to  the  poles.  In  a  zone  of  vnriiible  breadth,  within  the  res-ion  of  trade- 
winds,  calms  and  rains  i)revail,  caused  probably  by  the  minfrlinsr  and  ascendint?  of  the  o]y\Kh 
sito  currents.  Hiph  lands  change  or  interrupt  the  conr.«o  of  the  trade-winds :  thus,  under 
the  lee  of  the  African  shore,  calms  and  variable  winds  prevail  near  the  Cape  Vcrd  islands, 
whih^  an  eddy,  or  counter  current  of  air  from  the  south-west,  is  generated  under  the  coast 
of  (iiiinea.  The  lofly  barrier  of  the  Andes  shelters  the  sea  on  the  Peruvian  shores  from 
llie  trade-winds,  which  are  not  felt  till  a  ship  has  saikxl  eifrhty  leapucs  westward ;  but  the 
inter\  minpf  space  is  occupied  by  a  wind  from  tho  south.  In  tho  Indian  ocean,  the  trade- 
wind  is  curiously  modified  by  the  surrounding  land :  the  southern  trade-wind  blows  refruUirly 
from  the  east  and  soutli-east,  from  10°  to  23°  south  latitude ;  but  between  10°  south  and  the 
e(|iiator  north-west  winds  prevail  from  October  to  April,  and  south-east  the  rest  of  the  year; 
while  north  of  the  equator,  the  wind  is  south-west  in  summer,  and  north-east  in  winter: 
these  uro  called  monsoons,  but  are  not  fiiUy  understood. 

As  to  the  parts  of  the  plobc  that  lie  beyond  the  region  of  trade-winds,  calms  prevail  p  -otty 
generally  over  a  narrow  space ;  beyond  which,  the  region  of  variable  winds  extends  probably 
to  tho  poles.  Mr.  Forster  observes,  that  beyond  the  tropics  the  west  winds  are  most  common. 
He  also  supposes  that  east  winds  have  an  ascendency  within  the  antartic  circle.  According 
to  Kobins,  a  westerly  wind  almost  constantly  prevails  about  latitude  60°  S.  in  the  Pacific 


*  Prcipriisiir  nrniiilr!<.  nf  Br(;Blau,  had  published  a  curiouR  Treatise  on  Falling  Stars,  to  which  we  may  direct  the 
■tt(!ntinii  (if  our  readurs.  _, 

VOL.L  16*  Y 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


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1.0 


I.I 


LaiM    |Z5 

Ui  IM    12.2 

1^    |i£    12.0 


il 


IL25  1111.4 


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1.6 


Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)872-4503 


Ci^ 


166 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PiJlTll 


Ocean.  In  Hudson's  Bay,  westerly  winds  prevail  during  throe  fourths  of  the  3rear,  as  also 
in  Kamtachatka.  At  Melville  island,  the  north  and  north-west  winds  prevail :  on  account  of 
these  winds,  the  Atlantic  may  be  crossed  eastward  in. about  half  the  time  of  retnming 
westward. 

Sea  and  land  bceeaes  arise  from  the  .jpame  general  principle  which  chiefly  occasions  tha 
tiade-winds :  during  the  day,  when  the  l^  renders  the  surface  of  the  land  warmer  than  that 
of  the  sea,  the  warmer  rar^iiied  air  of  the  land  ascends,  being  buoyed  up  and  displaced  by 
the  heavier  air  rudiing  from  the  sea,  and  tiius  forming  the  aea  breeze ;  but  the  reverse  oilen 
happens  during  the  night,  when  the  surface  of  the  land  become  <  colder  than  the  sea,  and 
occasions  a  wmd  from  the  land,  or  a  land  breeze.  Winds  of  this  sort  are  more  frequent 
about  islands  and  small  peninsulas  than  in  other  situations;  but  they  are  not  confined  to  any 
particular  latitude. 

A  variety  of  local  winds  have  a!so  been  observed.  The  etesian,  which  is  a  northerly  or 
north-easterly  wind,  prevails  very  much  in  summer  all  over  Europe.  Pliny  describes  it  as 
blowing  regularly  in  Italy  for  forty  days  after  the  summer  solstice.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a 
pan  of  the  great  lower  current  moving  towards  the  equator.  Another  northern  wind,  which 
often  continues  about  a  month  in  February  anu  March,  is  called  the  omithion  wind,  because 
some  birds  of  passage  then  make  their  appearance  in  the  south  of  Europe.  A  Bquall,^  or 
sudden  gust  of  wind,  is  common  in  many  places ;  and  when  its  impetuosity  is  sufficient  to 
bear  along  trees,  buildings,  &c.,  it  is  caUed  a  hurricane;  such  winds  have  frequently  a 
whirling  motion,  and  are  accompanied  with  torrents  of  rain  or  hail,  and  even  tiiunder ;  these 
are  sometimes  called  tomadoet :  they  ai^  principally  confined  to  the  torrid  zone.  The  sirocco 
is  a  hot  southern  wind,  known  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean ;  when  it  reaches  Naples 
and  Sicily,  it  is  very  moist  and  relaxin|f  to  the  human  fhune.  Some  warm  climates  are 
occasionally  visited  by  excessive  hot  pestilential  winds,  generally  from  the  south,  and  known 
under  a  great  variety  of  names  in  different  quarters.  Such  are  the  kamain  of  Egypt,  the 
simoom  or  aamiel  of  Arabia  and  the  Desert.  The  deleterious  effects,  which  frequently  cut 
off  whole  hordes  or  caravans,  are  sometimes  ascribed  to  the  predominance  of  one  of  the 
component  gases  of  the  air,  or  to  a  mix^e  of  nitrous  gas,  &c. ;  but  this  is  not  well  ascer- 
tained. The  very  arid  state  of  the  air,  bearing  along  vast  quantities  of  burning  sand  and 
dust,  must  of  itself  be  very  prejudicial  to  animal  life.  The  harmattan  is  a  warm,  dry,  east 
wind,  which  occurs  in  Gumea,  and  is  also  of  an  unwholesome  det  jription. 

Thp  velocity  of  the  wind  varies  from  nothing  up  to  100  miles  in  an  hour ;  but  the  maximum 
is  variously  stated  by  different  authors.  According  to  Smeaton,  a  gentle  breeze  moves 
'  between  4  and  5  miles  per  hour,  and  has  a  force  of  about  2  ounces  on  a  root ;  a  brisk  pleasant 
gale  moves  from  10  to  15  miles,  with  a  force  of  12  ounces ;  a  high  wind,  30  to  35  miles, 
with  a  force  of  5  or  6  pounds ;  a  hurricane,  bearing  along  trees,  houses,  &c.  has  a  velocity 
of  100  miles,  and  a  force  of  49  pounds  on  the  square  foot. 

The  force  of  the  wind  is  nearly,  as  the  square  of  the  velocity  multiplied  by  the  density  of 
the  air.  Some  interestmg  experiments  are  described  by  Colonel  Beaufoy,  Annalt  Phil. 
vol,  viii.  p.  94. 

The  atmosphere  is  the  vehicle  of  sound,  and  we  shall  close  this  brief  sketch  by  noticing 
this  property.  Till  lately,  the  velocity  of  sound  used  to  be  greatly  over-rated.  Prom  the 
experiments  of  Dr.  Moll,  in  the  plains  of  Utrecht,  in  1823,  it  appears,  that  the  mean  velocity 
of  sound  is  nearly  1100  feet  per  second ;  but  it  varies  a  litUe  witJi  the  temperature  and 
humidity  of  the  air.    See  Phil.  Trana.  for  1824. 


CHAPTER  n. 

HTDROLOGV. 

Thib  branch  of  natural  history  makes  us  acquainted  with  the  various  properties  and  rela- 
tions of  tiie  waters  of  the  globe.  Any  definition  of  water  is  unnecessary;  but  mankind  must 
have  remarked,  at  a  very  early  period,  that  the  waters  distributed  over  the  globe  differ  con- 
siderably in  their  fitness  for  drinking,  for  pre^ring  food,  and  for  other  domestic  purposes. 
These  di^rences  are  occasioned  by  the  foreign  bodies  which  this  liquid  holds  in  a  state  of 
solution  or  suspension ;  for  water  is  capable  of  dissolving  a  greater  number  of  substances 
than  any  other  fluid.  Hence  it  is  scarcely  ever  found  native  in  a  state  of  absolute  purity  • 
in  some  cases,  the  qucmtity  of  foreign  matter  is  so  minute,  as  to  have  little  influence  on  the 
taste  or  other  properties;  but  in  other  instances  they  are  so  abundant,  as  to  render  it  unfit 
for  common  use,  or  even  noxious ;  while  at  other  times  it  is  medicinal,  &c.,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  substances  with  which  it  is  impregnated.  Native  water,  free  from  colour,  is 
almost  never  poisonous,  especially  if  it  be  at  the  same  time  tasteless;  but  if  blue  from  cop- 
per, green  from  iron,  or  brown  from  vegetable  impregnation,  it  is  unfit  for  the  use  of  man, 
w'ater  performs  the  most  impf)rtant  functions  in  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms,  and 
enters  largely  into  their  compositions,  as  a  constituent  part  ,  v-.?,,.  »v  -.^je 


J  year,  as  aiao 
Pn  account  of 
I  of  returning 

cpMions  th« 
ner  than  that 
IdiBplaced  by 
Jreverse  oaen 
■the  sea,  and 
lore  frequent 
"ned  to  any 

northerly  or 
"■^ibes  it  as 
3d  to  be  a 
wind,  which 
'ind,  because 
A  ««'««//,  or 
sufficient  to 
frequently  a 
'wdfir;  these 
The  sirocco 
ches  Naples 
slimates  are 
» and  known 
Egypt,  the 
iquently  cut 
'  one  of  the 
well  ascer- 
g  sand  and 
u>»  dry,  east 

e  maximum 
eeze  moves 
isk  pleasant 
to  35  miles, 
8  a  velocity 

>  density  of 
nah  Phil. 

)y  noticing 

FVom  the 

in  velocity 

■ature  and 


BookII. 


HYDROLOGY. 


187 


and  rola- 
tind  must 
iffer  con- 
purposes, 
state  of 
ibslances 
!  purity  • 
!  on  the 
^it  unfit 
g  to  the 
olour,  ig 
om  cop. 

-e I. 

^i     IllUU, 

ms,  ani 


The  Bubetaiiee  df  wat«r  pteaenta  itself  under  three  different  fatna  of  aj;<Erre|?ation.  It 
under  sufficient  pressure,  it  is  liquid  at  all  temperatures  above  32^,  so  far  as  is  .known.  It  is 
densest  at  the  temperature  of  40".  Wlien  cooled  down  to  32°,  it  (Hrdinarily  assumes  the 
solid  form  of  ice;  but  if  neat  care  be  taken  to  avoid  agitation,  it  may  be  cooled  almost  to 
zero,  without  freezing.  Congelation  commences  ia^the  form  of  priematic  crystals,  crossing 
each  other  at  angles  of  60°  or  120°,  and  the  temperature,  however  low  I>etbre,  instantly 
rises  to  32°.  During  this  process,  the  mass  expands  with  a  prodigious  force,  the  volume 
suddenly  increasuig  about  a  ninth  part  Glass  bottles  filled  with  vater,  and  properly  stopped, 
are  burst  during  its  congelation,  and  the  same  has  happened  to  a  strong  bomb-shell.  Water 
passes  into  vapour  at  all  temperatures,  and  under  any  pressure ;  when  the  elasticity  of  the 
vapour  equals  or  exceeds  the  incumbent  pressure,  the  process  proceeds  with  violence,  and  is 
called  boiling.  Under  the  ordinary  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  this  takes  place  at  about 
212°  of  Fahjrenheit's  scale;  but  the  boiling  temperature  varies  with  the  prossore:  hence, 
water  boils  at  a  lower  temperature  on  a  mountain  top,  and  at  a  higher  in  a  deep  pit  -4 . 

The  relati(Hi8  of  water. to  heat  are  very  remarkable.  WiUi  me  exception  of  hydrogen 
gas,  it  absorbs  more  heat  in  wanning,  and  parts  with  more  in  cooling,  than  other  bodies  da 
Hence,  large  bodies  of  water  have  a  powerful  influence  in  checking  or  retarding  sudden 
alterations  of  temperature  in  the  surrounding  air.  Ice,  in  melting,  absorbs  as  much  heat  as 
would  raise  its  temperature  140°,  and  gives  out  the  like  quantity  again  in  freezing,  —a  pro- 
perty that  enables  it  to  resist  or  retard  sudden  alterations  of  temperature  in  cold  climates,  in 
a  more  remarkable  degree  than  the  other ;  which,  however,  exerts  its  influence  in  tlie  torrid 
and  temperate  as  well  as  in  the  frigid  zone.  Lastly,  water,  in  assuming  the  elastic  tbrm, 
absorbs  heat  sufficient  to  raise  its  temperature  1000°,  and  parts  with  as  much  during  re-con< 
densing  into  water ;  so  that  water  possesses  an  ahnost  boundless  influence  in  tempering 
climate. 

Water,  as  to  its  composition,  was  long  ranked  among  the  simple  elements;  but  the 
researches  of  modern  chemistry  have  ascertained  that  it  is  a  compound  of  88.9  of  oxygen, 
and  11.1  of  hydrog'^n ;  or  its  composition  by  volume  and  weight  may  be  Uius  stated :  one 
volume  of  oxygen  combined  with  two  of  hydrogen,  or  eight  parts  by  weight  of  oxygen,  witli 
one  of  hydrogen.  It  is  composed  and  decompraed,  during  many  of  the  operations  of  nature, 
and  its  chemical  agency  is  almost  universal.  It  is  an  ingredient  in  most  bodies  which 
appear  under  the  crystalline  form. 

Sect.  L — The  Ocean.  *' 

The  ocean  is  the  origin  and  fountain  of  all  the  other,  waters  which  occur,  in  whatever 
form,  on  the  face  of  the  ^lobe.  According  to  some  naturalists,  it  forms  the  remains  jf  the 
menstruum  or  chaotic  fluid,  in  which  all  solid  bodies  were  originally  held  in  a  state  of  solu- 
tion, and  from  which  they  have  been  precipitated  or  crystallized,  m  short,  brought  to  their 
present  state,  during  the  countless  ages  which  these  processes  are  supposed  to  have  occwpipd, 
anterior  to  the  creation  of  man :  be  this  as  it  may,  we  are  certain,  that  it  is  from  the  vapours 
exhaled  by  the  ocean  that  the  atmosphere  is  furnished  with  sufficient  moisture  to  support  and 
refresh  the  organized  beings  which  inhabit  the  earth.  All  nature  languishes  when  the 
atmosphere  withholds  its  rain  and  dews ;  plants  fade  and  droop ;  animals  feel  their  strength 
failing;  even  man  himself,  breathing  nothing  but  dust  can  with  ditncalty  procure  shelter 
from  the  sultry  heat  by  which  his  frame  is  parched  and  overpoti'erud.  The  ocean  is  the 
grand  thoroughfare  of  commerce,  forming  a  medium  of  communication  between  the  most 
distant  and  otherwise  inaccessible  portions  of  the  earth.  It  consists  of  one  continuous  fluid, 
spread  round  the  land,  and  probably  extending  from  pole  to  pole.  All  the  gulfs,  all  the 
inland  seas,  form  only  pcMtions  detached,  but  not  entirely  separated,  from  that  universal  sea, 
denominated  the  ocean.  Geographers  roundly  estimate  the  ocean  and  its  branches  to  occupy 
three  fourths  of  the  entire  surface  of  the  globe.  But  to  ascertain  the  exact  proportion 
between  the  land  and  water  will  af!brd  them  ample  employment  for  ages  to  come,  though 
every  day  adds  to  the  stock  of  information  already  acquired. 

The  ocean  is  variously  subdivided  by  different  authors :  it  may  be  conveniently  divided 
mto  five  great  basins. 

The  Pacific,  so  named  from  its  comparative  tranquillity,  and  often  called  also  the  Great 
South  Sea,  separates  Asia  from  America.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  basms,  and  somewiiat 
exceeds  the  entire  surface  of  dry  land.  Its  greatest  extent  from  east  to  west,  is  about  37()0 
leaorues,  and  breadth  2700.  It  is  bounded  on  the  oast  by  the  western  and  north-west  shores 
of  America,  and  on  the  west  by  the  eastern  coasts  of  Asio :  on  the  western  side,  and  between 
the  tropics,  its  surface  is  studded  with  innumerable  groups  of  islands,  all  remarkably  small ; 
and  consisting  generally  of  corol  reefs,  rising  up  like  a  wall  from  unknown  depths,  and 
emerging  but  a  very  little  above  the  sea.  These  islands  are  the  works  of  innumtirable 
minute  insects,  whose  incessant  labours  are  thus  gradually  forming  new  lands  in  the  bosom 
of  the  ocean.  On  the  western  side,  it  communicates  witJi  the  inland  seas  of  Japan  iind 
Okotsk,  the  Yellow  and  Chinese  seas;  and  on  the  eastern  side,  it  has  the  inlets  of  Cnlitbrnia 
and  Queen  Charlotte's  Sound.    The  small  isles  of  the  Pacific,  scattered  over  the  torrid  zone, 


188 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paet  IL 


have  their  temperature  bo  moderated  by  the  ocean  as  to  enjoy  the  most  delightful  climate  in 
the  world. 

The  second  basin,  or  Atlantic  Ocean,  is  usually  divided  into  the  North  Atlantic,  and  the 
South  Atlantic,  or  Ethiopic  Ocean.  The  Atlantic  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Europe  and 
Africa ;  and  on  the  west,*  by  America :  that  part  of  it  between  Europe  and  North  America 
is  frequently  called  the  Western  Ocean.  The  Atlantic  basin  extends  from  70°  N.  to  tiSP 
and  50°  S.  latitude ;  but  it  is  only  about  half  the  size  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  length  is 
about  2800  leagues,  but  the  breadth,  which  is  very  unequal,  varies  from  600  to  1800.  The 
South  Atlantic  contains  few  islands  of  any  size,  and  no  inlets  of  consequence ;  but  the  North 
Atlantic  abounds  in  large  islands,  and  in  deep  and  numerous  inland  seas,  which  penetrate 
far  on  each  side  into  both  the  old  and  new  worlds,  and  have  fitted  it  for  the  most  extensive 
commerce  on  the  globe.  On  its  eastern  shores  it  receives  few  large  rivers  except  the 
Niger;  but  on  the  west  it  receives  the  Plata,  Orinoco,  Amazons,  and  Mississippi, — the 
largest  rivers  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 

The  third  basin  is  the  Indian  Ocean,  which  washes  the  shores  of  the  south-east  coasts  of 
Africa  and  the  south  of  Asia.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Indian  islands.  New  Holland, 
and  New  Zealand :  its  length  and  breadth  are  each  about  1500  leagues :  it  contains  many 
islands,  the  two  large  bays  of  Bengal  and  Oman,  with  the  deep  inlets  of  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  Red  Sea.     The  half-yearly  winds  called  monsoons  prevail  in  its  northern  parts. 

The  fourth  basin  is  the  Arctic  Ocean,  an  hnmense  circular  basin,  surrounding  the  North 
Pole,  and  communicating  with  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  by  two  channels;  the  one  separating 
America  from  Europe,  the  other  America  from  Asia.  Few  points  of  the  coasts  of  Europe 
and  Asia,  which  occupy  a  full  half  of  the  circumscribing  circle,  extend  much  beyond  tiie 
70th  parallel ;  and  it  is  doubtful  if  the  other  boundaries,  consisting  of  the  nortliern  coasts 
of  America  and  Old  Greenland,  reach  nearer  the  Pole ;  so  that  the  mean  diameter  of  this 
basin  may  be  taken  at  800  leagues.  Its  interior  or  central  parts  are  little  known :  several 
islands  are  scattered  over  its  southern  extremities,  the  largest  of  which  is  Old  Greenland, 
whose  northern  limit  is  unknown ;  the  others  are  Spitzbergen,  Nova  Zembla,  the  Isles  of 
New  Siberia,  those  lately  discovered  by  Captain  Parry,  and  several  towards  Baffm's  Bay. 
The  White  Sea,  on  tlie  north  coast  of  Europe,  is  the  only  deep  gulf  connected  with  this 
basin,  which  is  of  any  importance  to  navigation. 

The  fifth  basin  is  tlie  Antarctic,  which  is  still  less  known  than  the  preceding :  it  joins 
the  Pacific  in  the  latitude  of  50°  S.,  and  the  Indian  Ocean  in  that  of  40°.  Floating  ice 
occurs  in  every  part  of  it;  but  it  is  very  abundant  within  the  parallel  of  60°.  It  was  long 
supposed,  that  a  large  continent  of  land  and  fixed  ice  occupied  the  gieater  part  within  the 
antarctic  circle.  In  1819,  Captain  Smith  discovered  land  lying  between  the  longitudes  of 
55°  and  65°  W.,  and  beginning  at  the  latitude  of  62°.  Mr.  We'^  has  since  examined 
this  (luarter  nearer  the  Pole,  which  he  believes  to  be  free  from  fi .v 

Of  the  inland  seas,  the  Mediterranean  is  the  largest  and  most ,.;.  .ortant:  it  is  deserving 
of  notice  on  various  accounts,  and  in  particular  as  having  been  the  scene  of  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  the  nautical  adventures  of  antiquity.  It  is  tlie  "  Great  Sea"  of  the  Sacred 
Writings,  though  we  find  it  there  spoken  of  under  other  names.  Its  greatest  length,  from 
east  to  west,  is  about  2350  miles ;  and  the  breadth,  which  is  sometimes  small,  is  at  the 
greatest  650.  It  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  Africa,  on  the  east  by  Asia,  and  on  the  north  by 
Europe.  It  communicates  on  the  west  with  the  Atlantic  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and 
with  the  Black  Sea  by  the  Dardanelles  Strait  on  the  east.  It  has  many  islands,  gulfs,  and 
bays,  with  a  very  deep  inlet  on  the  north  called  the  Adriatic  Sea,  or  Gulf  of  Venice.  The 
Black  Sea  is  connected  with  the  Sea  of  Azof;  but  these  containing  only  brackish  water, 
and  being  so  far  inland,  have  more  of  the  character  of  lakes  than  branches  of  the  ocean. 
Proceeding  still  farther  eastward,  we  come  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  which  is  abundantly  salt,  and 
of  great  dimensions ;  but  being  wholly  unconnected  with  the  ocean,  will  be  afterwards 
spoken  of  under  the  character  of  a  lake. 

The  Baltic  is  pretty  much  allied  to  the  Black  Sea,  in  having  only  brackish  waters,  which 
are  sometimes  wholly  frozen  over  for  several  months  in  winter,  and  the  ice  so  strong,  that 
armies  have  been  marched  across.  The  Baltic  communicates  with  the  German  Sea  by  the 
strnit  called  the  Cattegat:  its  greatest  length  is  1200  miles.  The  North  Sea,  or  German 
Ocean,  is  bounded  by  Britam  and  the  Orkneys  on  the  west,  and  the  continent  of  Europe  on 
t}io  east;  and  reaches  from  the  Straits  of  Dover  to  the  Shetland  Islands,  where  it  joins  the 
Northern  Ocean.  On  the  west  of  the  Atlantic  are  the  Gulfs  of  Mexico  and  St.  I^wrence, 
and  Hudson's  and  Baffin's  Bays;  but  we  must  now  proceed  to  treat  of  the  different  properties 
and  relations  of  the  ocean,  so  far  as  our  limits  will  permit. 

The  usual  colour  which  sea  water  exhibits  is  a  bluish  green,  of  various  shades.  Some 
maintain,  that  this  is  its  true  and  proper  colour;  others,  that  it  is  an  optical  illusion,  occa- 
sioned by  the  greater  refrangibility  of  the  blue  rays  of  light,— opinions  which  may  botli  he 
trii"  to  a  certain  extent.  The  ocean  secins  often  to  assume  various  other  colours;  some  of 
tiiem  no  doubt  real,  hut  as  often  illusory.  Among  the  more  general  sources  of  deception, 
may  be  reckoned  the  aspect  of  the  sky  :  thus,  an  apparently  dark-coloured  sea  is  a  common 


Book  II. 


HYDROLOGY. 


199 


profrnDstic  of  an  approaching  stonn ;  not  that  the  water  then  is  really  blacker  than  UHiiai, 
but  because  the  dark  colour  of  the  clouds  indistinctly  seen  in,  or  reflected  from  the  waves,  is 
mistaken  for  the  colour  of  the  sea  itself.  Whate\  er  other  colour  the  sky  happens  to  wear 
has  a  greater  or  less  influence  on  the  appearance  of  the  ocepji :  thus  red  clouds  seem  to  tinrre 
it  red,  &c.  On  some  occasions,  the  edges  of  the  waves,  by  refracting  the  solar  beams  like  a 
prism,  exhibit  all  the  different  colours  of  the  rainbow,  which  is  still  more  nearly  imitated  by 
the  refraction  of  the  rays  in  the  spray.  Not  unfrequently,  an  indistinct  image  of  the  neigli- 
bouring  coast  reflected  from  the  ruffled  surface  is  mistaken  for  the  colour  of  the  water. 

The  variety  of  colours  in  the  sea  may  probably  arise  from  animal  and  vegetable  matters 
diffused  through  the  waters  in  a  putrescent  state,  and  communicating  various  tints.  The 
yellow  and  bright  green  shades  seem  to  be  owing  to  living  marine  vegetables,  which  grow 
at  the  bottom,  stretch  their  fibres  through  the  water,  or  spread  over  the  surface ;  and  it'  is 
supposed  that  the  colour  of  innumerable  minute  "limals  is  often  confounded  with  that  of  the 
sea.  Near  the  shore,  and  especially  towards  the  mouths  of  rivers,  the  diffusion  of  mud  and 
other  earthy  matters  cannot  fail  to  aflect  the  colour  of  the  sea :  where  it  is  shallow  or  very 
transparent,  the  colour  of  the  bottom  is  frequently  mistaken  for  that  of  the  water. 

The  colour  of  the  Greenland  Sea,  according  to  Mr.  Scoresby,  varies  from  ultramarine  blue 
to  olive-green,  and  from  the  most  pure  transparency  to  great  opacity.  These  appearances, 
he  thinks,  are  not  transitory,  but  permanent ;  not  depending  on  the  state  of  the  weather, 
but  on  the  quality  of  the  water.  Hudson,  in  1607,  noticed  these  changes,  and  observed  that 
the  sea  was  blue  where  there  was  ice,  and  green  where  it  was  open.  This,  however,  was 
only  accidental.  Phipps  does  not  mention  the  green  water ;  it  forms,  perhaps,  one-fourth  of 
the  Greenland  Sea,  between  the  latitudes  of  74°  and  80° ;  often  it  constitutes  long  bands  or 
currents,  lying  north  and  south,  or  N.  E.  and  S.  W.  Mr.  Scoresby  sometimes  passed  throuffh 
stripes  of  pale  green,  olive-green,  and  transparent  blue,  in  the  course  of  ten  minutes.  The 
food  of  the  whale  occurs  chiefly  in  the  green  water,  and  there  the  fishers  look  for  them. 
Whales  are  more  easily  taken  in  the  opaque  green  water  than  in  the  transparent  blue,  be- 
cause they  do  not  readily  see  their  enemies  through  the  former.  On  examining  the  differently- 
coloured  sea  waters,  Mr.  Scoresby  found  various  substances  and  animalcules,  especially  in  the 
olive-green  water.  The  number  of  medusse  was  immense :  they  were  about  one-fourth  of 
an  inch  asunder.  Hence  a  cubic  foot  would  contain  110,592.  From  these,  and  many  similar 
observations,  Mr.  Scoresby  concludes,  that  the  Arctic  Spa  owes  its  colour  to  animalcules,  and 
that  they  occasion  the  opacity  of  the  olive-green  water.  The  blue  water  contains  few  ani- 
malcules, and  is  uncommo:  ly  transparent.  The  surface  of  the  Mediterranean  sometimes 
appears  of  a  purple  tint.  In  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  the  sea  is  sometimes  white ;  end  around 
the  Maldive  islands,  black. 

The  transparency  of  the  sea  may  in  many  places  be  very  great,  without  such  property 
being  readily  noticed.  Thus,  where  the  water  is  sufficiently  deep  to  be  dark  at  the  bottom, 
it  may  seem  quite  opaque,  unless  some  fish  or  other  object  happen  to  come  within  view. 
Agitation  of  the  surface  will  likewise  tend  to  conceal  the  transparency.  In  general,  the 
sea  is  more  transparent  as  we  recede  from  the  shore,  and  in  cold  climates  than  in  hot ;  owing 
perhaps,  to  the  smaller  quantity  of  organic  matter  diffused  in  the  waters  of  high  latitudes. 
From  this,  however,  there  are  exceptions ;  as  in  the  opacity  of  the  Arctic  Sea  just  noticed, 
and  in  the  case  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  which  is  often  remarkably  transparent.  Admiral 
Milne  observed  the  bottom  at  a  depth  of  1.50  feet  in  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Authors  are  not 
agreed  to  what  depth  the  solar  rays  penetrate ;  and  indeed  we  have  every  reason  to  supp)se 
that  this  must  depend  upon  and  be  as  various  as  the  transparency.  Some  limit  the  penetra- 
tion to  a  depth  of  100  yards;  while  others  more  than  double  that  quantity.  The  light 
should  surely  penetrate  to  at  least  double  the  depth  to  which  an  observer  can  see  from  the 
surface. 

The  temperature  of  the  sea  has  probably  a  tendency  to  follow  the  mean  temperature  of 
the  climate ;  but  many  powerful  causes  must  interfere  and  modify  it  Thus,  between  the 
tropics,  the  mean  temperature  of  the  surface  of  the  ocean  is  about  80°,  and  generally  ranges 
between  77°  and  84°.  Beyond  the  tropics,  it  begins  to  decrease,  but  without  observing  any 
strict  connexion  with  the  latitude ;  because,  on  account  of  the  great  specific  heat  of  water, 
powerful  currents  cannot  fail  partially  to  preserve,  for  some  time,  the  temperature  of  the 

Eilace  from  which  they  come.  Hence,  currents  from  the  torrid  zone,  on  passing  into  higher 
atitudes,  raise  the  temperature  of  the  sea  above  what  usually  belongs  to  such  parallels ;  the 
reverse  holds  of  cold  icy  currents  from  the  arctic  regions.  The  temperature  of  the  ocean  is 
much  more  steady  than  that  of  the  superincumbent  air,  and  has  likewise  a  smaller  annuai 
range :  unless  where  very  shallow,  it  has  scarcely  any  diurnal  range. 

The  temperature  of  the  sea  on  descending  below  the  surface  generally  decreases,  but  no* 
according  to  any  uniform  or  known  law.  Thus,  at  a  depth  of  five  fathoms,  it  is  sometimes 
1°  colder,  while  in  other  instances  it  requires  100  fathoms  for  1°.  Sometimes  the  cold 
attains  its  maximum  at  a  depth  of  100  fathoms,  and  sometimes  it  requires  400  or  2500  fathoms. 
According  to  an  experiment  related  by  Capt  Sabine,  the  temperature  of  the  Caribbean  Sea 
was  45.n°  at  a  depth  of  1000  fathoms,  while  its  surfkce  was  83°.    But  the  enormous  prea- 


.00 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  a 


euro  at  the  bottom  probably  compressed  the  ball  of  the  thermometer,  and  kejK  the  apparent 
tornperature  45.5°  aliove  the  truth.  In  the  Arctic  Sea,  however,  the  temperature  incrcoiiei 
with  the  depth.  Mr.  Scoresby,  who  first  ascertained  this,  found  an  mcreaae  of  6.6°  and  8" 
at  the  respective  depths  of  liJO  and  7;J0  fathoms ;  Capt.  Parry,  6°  at  240  fathoms ;  Capt. 
Sabine,  7.5°  at  «80  fiitlioms;  Lieut.  Beechy,  10°  at  700  lathoms;  and  Mr.  Fisher,  9.5°  at  a 
depth  of  188  fathoms.  Thus,  the  rate  of  increase  of  temperature  in  the  Arctic  Sea  has  as 
uiconstnnt  a  connexion  with  the  depth  ob  the  decrease  in  the  temperate  and  torrid  zones. 
Seu  water  fi'eezes  about  28°;  after  which,  the  ice  has  been  observed  to  cool  down  to 
—  55° ;  but  we  cannot  thence  infer,  that  a  lower  temperature  does  not  occur  in  the  polar 
rejrions. 

Tlie  phosphorescence  of  the  sea  is  a  common  but  very  remarkable  phenomenon,  concern- 
ing tiie  cause  of  which  authors  are  not  agreed.  But  most  probably,  as  Newton  conjectured, 
it  proceeds  from  a  variety  of  causes.  Since  his  time,  it  has  engaged  the  attention  of  many 
eminent  pliilosophers.  The  appearance  of  these  lights  is  by  no  means  uniform.  Sometimes 
a  vessel,  in  traversing  the  ocean,  seems  to  mark  out  a  track  of  fire ;  while  each  stroke  of  an 
oar  emits  a  light,  sometimes  brilliant  and  dazzling,  at  other  times  tranquil  and  pearly.  These 
lights  are  grouped  in  endless  variety.  Perhaps,  at  one  tune,  innumerable  shining  points 
float  on  the  surfiice,  and  then  unite  into  one  extensive  sheet  of  light.  At  another  time,  the 
spectator  fancies  he  sees  large  sparkling  figures,  like  animals  in  pursuit  of  each  other,  inces- 
santly vanishing  and  re-appearing.  Such  lights  have  been  ascribed  to  luminous  animals, 
and  to  the  phosphorescence  of  semiputrescent  matter  diffused  in  the  ocean.  It  is  well  known, 
that  various  fishes  and  other  marine  animals  emit  light,  which  does  not  in  every  instance 
appt?ar  to  be  voluntary,  or  to  depend  on  the  vital  principle,  as,  in  some  of  them,  it  continues, 
and  perhaps  increases,  after  death :  but  motion  seems  to  be  either  a  principal  cause,  or  at 
least  an  exciting  one ;  for  this  light  more  rarely  occurs,  and  is  much  fainter,  in  still  water, 
whilst  it  becomes  more  and  more  brilliant  as  the  motion  increases.  It  is  also  more  abundant 
immediately  before  and  during  storms.  In  vol.  v.  p.  30*3.  of  the  Edin.  Phil.  Jour.,  Dr. 
Francis  Buchanan  has  given  a  very  interesting  account  of  an  extraordinary  shining  of  the 
eea,  which  he  observed,  31st  July,  1785,  in  longitude  61°  25'  E.,  latitude  6°  32'  N.  "  About 
a  quarter  past  seven  p.  m.,"  says  he,  "  the  sea  was  observed  to  be  remarkably  white.  The 
sky  was  everywhere  clear,  except  around  the  horizon,  where,  for  about  15°,  it  was  covered 
with  a  dark  haze,  as  is  usual  in  such  latitudes.  The  whiteness  gradually  increased  till  past 
eight.  The  sea  was  then  as  high-coloured  as  milk,  not  unlike  the  milky  way,  the  luminous 
appearance  very  much  resembling  the  brighter  stars  in  that  constellation.  It  continued  m 
this  state  till  past  midnight,  and  -only  disappeared  as  daylight  advanced.  The  whiteness 
prevented  us  from  being  able  to  see  either  the  break  or  the  swell  of  tlie  sea,  although  both 
were  considerable,  as  we  knew  from  the  motion  of  the  ship  and  the  noise.  There  was  much 
light  upon  deck,  as  we  could  discern  all  the  ropes  much  more  distinctly  than  u^ual.  We 
drew  several  buckets  of  water,  in  which,  even  when  at  rest,  there  appeared  a  great  number 
of  luminous  bodies.  The  bulk  of  them  did  not  appear  to  be  more  than  one  quarter  of  an 
inch  in  length,  and  nearly  as  much  in  breadth.  Some,  however,  were  one  inch  and  a  half 
long,  and  of  the  same  breadth  as  the  others.  These  were  seen  to  move  in  the  same  manner 
as  a  worm  does  in  water.  When  taken  up  on  the  finger,  they  retained  their  shining  faculty 
even  when  dry.  When  brought  near  a  candle,  their  light  disappeared ;  but,  by  minute 
attention,  an  extremely  fine  white  filament  could  be  observed  and  lifted  upon  the  point  of  a 
pin.  It  was  of  a  uniform  shining  colour  and  form,  and  about  the  thickness  of  a  spider's 
thread.  In  a  gallon  of  water  there  might  be  about  400  of  these  animals  emitting  light. 
The  water  itself,  when  in  the  bucket,  had  a  natural  appearance.  The  atmosphere  was 
seemingly  free  from  fog.  The  stars  were  bright,  and  there  was  no  moonlight  The  night 
before,  the  same  appearance  was  observed  at  ten  p.  m.  ;  it  lasted  only  20  minutes ;  but  as  I 
^was  below,  I  did  not  hear  of  it  till  it  wps  over." — "The  animalcules  which  occasion  tlie 
unusual  luminousness  of  the  sea  emit  light  only  when  strongly  agitated,  and  hence  appear 
close  by  the  sides  of  the  ship,  or  when  any  larger  fish  passes  swiftly,  or  when  a  bucket  of 
water  is  drawn  and  suddenly  poured  out." — "  In  the  year  1805,  on  returning  from  St.  Helena 
to  England,  a  little  north  from  the  equinoctial  line,  and  near  the  coast  of  Africa,  I  had  an 
opportunity  of  seeing  a  stiil  more  splendid  appearance  of  the  luminous  animalcules.  Soon 
after  dark  in  the  evening,  it  being  nearly  calm,  we  saw  numerous  lights  at  a  distance,  like 
the  lamps  of  a  great  city.  The  lights  gradually  approached  the  frigate,  and  on  reaching  us 
appeared  to  arise  from  a  great  many  large  fishes  (albicores)  sporting  in  the  water,  and  agi- 
tating the  animalcules,  so  as  to  excite  their  luminous  powers." 

The  depth  of  the  sea  is  a  question  on  which  our  information  is  very  imperfect,  and  there 
is  little  likelihood  that  much  accurate  information  will  ever  be  obtained  on  the  subject,  so 
fiir  as  regards  the  wide  ocean.  According  to  the  speculations  of  the  late  celebrated  Mar- 
quis Laplace,  the  depth  of  the  ocean  is  comparatively  small,  and  nearly,  uniform.  If,  how- 
ever, it  be  recollected  that  the  bottom  of  the  sea  is  still  a  part  of  the  earth's  surface^  and  by 
much  the  jrronter  pnrt  too,  one  would  \>c.  apt  to  ask,  wny  tlint  lurtfoi-  purl  of  ilic  surfnco 
should  be  more  level  than  wliat  appears  as  dry  land  !  The  soimduigs  which  liavc  been  made 


Past  a     ■      Book  n. 


HYDROLOGY. 


191 


in  tlio  ocean  «tfe  quite  inadequate  to  decide  the  question.  They,  however,  often  indicate  great 
inccjiwlitios  in  the  depth ;  but  how  far  lioilows  may  liave  been  tilled  with  debrin,  or  asperi- 
ties wurn  down,  it  is  not  easy  to  say ;  though  it  is  more  likely  that  the  summits  of  moim- 
tniiiH  oxi)0!!cd  to  the  alternate  or  combined  actions  of  air  and  moisture  suffer  a  more  rapid 
a!)r.iision  tlian  those  which  are  wholly  under  water.  In  general,  tlie  slope  of  the  adjacent 
sliori!  is  continued  downward  for  a  good  way  under  water ;  that  is,  the  sea  is  usually  shallow 
where  the  shore  ia  flat,  while  its  depth  increases  rapidly  by  the  side  of  a  cliff"  or  steep  moun- 
tain. It  is  therefore  probable,  that  some  islands,  though  very  small,  may  be  the  tops  of 
8ub-marine  mountains  as  large,  periiaps,  as  the  highest  which  occur  on  the  earth's  surface. 
In  many  instances,  no  bottom  has  been  found;  but  this  might  proceed  either  from  the 
siiortness  of  the  line,  or  from  its  being  borne  aside  by  rapid  currents.  We  have  already 
mentioned  a  sounding  of  6000  feet  in  the  Caribbean  sea;  but  Lord  Mulgrave's  line  of  4680 
feet  did  not  reach  the  bottom  of  the  Northern  Ocean.  In  the  entrance  of  the  German  or 
North  Sea,  at  the  Straits  of  Dover,  the  central  depth  is  29  fkthoms.  This  extensive  basin 
conkiins  various  shallows  and  sand-banks ;  yet,  generally  speaking,  the  depth  increases  in 
going  northward,  and  near  to  Bergen  in  Norway  it  amounts  to  190  &thoms.  A  very  inter- 
esting account  of  the  bed  of  the  German  Sea  is  given  by  Mr.  Stevenson,  Edin.  Phil.  Jour, 
iii.  42. ;  and  in  the  third  volume  of  the  Memoirs  of  the  Wernerian  Society. 

The  level  of  the  open  sea  is  believed,  generally  speaking,  to  be  everywhere  the  same ; 
or  to  form  a  portion  of  the  surface  of  an  oblate  spheroid,  to  which  the  surface  of  the 
land  approaches  with  less  accuracy.  Some  gulfs  and  inland  seas  appear  to  deviate  in 
some  measure  from  the  general  rule.  This  is  more  particularly  the  case  where  the  com- 
munication of  such  seas  with  the  ocean  is  narrow ;  and  there  are  a  few  other  exceptions.* 
When  tiie  general  motion  of  the  ocean  or  of  the  trade-winds  is  directed  into  the  mouth  of 
an  inland  sea,  it  has  a  tendency  to  raise  its  level  above  that  of  the  ocean.  On  this  account 
it  is  tlmt  the  Arabian  Gulf  or  Red  Sea  is  higher  than  the  ocean,  and  still  higher  than 
the  Mediterranean,  which,  from  the  opposite  action  of  the  wind  and  the  great  evapora- 
tion, is  supposed  to  be  a  little  below  the  general  Icvel.f  Some  gulfs  and  inland  seas,  as 
the  Baltic  and  Black  Sea,  rise  in  spring,  from  the  copious  influx  of  river  water,  and  are 
lowered  in  summer  by  evaporation  and  the  efflux  at  their  mouths.  Of  late  years,  there  has 
been  considerable  discussion  regarding  the  subsidence  of  the  Baltic  below  the  level  it  had 
formerly  maintained.  Whilst  some  support  this  opinion,  and  venture  to  explain  the  cause 
of  the  subsidence,  others  deny  the  fact  altogether.  The  trade-winds  and  general  westward 
motion  of  the  ocean  force  the  water  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  so  as  to  maintain  a  higher 
level  tb"re  than  on  the  western  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien.J  The  consequence  of  this 
accumulation  of  water  is,  that  it  generates  a  current  moving  northwards ;  and  which,  after 
various  windings  through  the  Atlantic,  at  length  reaches  the  western  shores  of  Europe,  as 
will  be  more  particularly  noticed  hereafter.  Some  naturalists  allege,  that  the  debris,  or 
alluvial  matters  daily  abraded  by  the  action  of  the  weather  on  the  surface  of  the  land,  and 
swept  into  the  ocean  by  the  rain  and  rivers,  must,  at  length,  raise  the  level  of  the  ocean  till 
it  cover  the  whole  globe,  and  restore  the  reign  of  ancient  chaos.  Unless  there  be  some 
compensating  process,  which  either  makes  up  for  the  exhausted  materials,  or  gradually  ele- 
vates the  entire  continents  above  the  water,  it  is  not  very  easy  to  guess  at  an  alternative. 
A  compensating  power  is  situated  deep  in  the  crust  of  the  earth. 

The  taste  of  sea  water  is  disagreeable  and  bitter,  at  least  when  taken  from  the  surface  or 
near  the  shore ;  but  when  drawn  from  great  depths,  its  taste  is  only  saline.  It  would  there- 
fore seem  that  the  bitterness  is  owing  to  the  greater  abundance  of  animal  and  vegetable 
matter  near  the  surface.  Man,  in  a  civilized  state,  cannot  make  use  of  sea  water  as  drink ; 
yet  it  is  said  that  the  inhabitants  of  Easter  Island,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  make  it  their 
usual  beverage.  Some  of  the  lower  animals  occasionally  travel  far  to  drink  sea  water. 
Sheep  are  very  fond  of  licking  the  dry  salt ;  and  so  are  horses  and  cattle.  With  them  it  is 
a  cure  for  various  complaints.  Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  render  sea  water  pota- 
bloj  or  to  free  it  from  salt  Distillation  is  tlie  most  effectual ;  but  the  expense  of  fuel  is  a 
serious  objection  to  this  method  at  sea,  and,  after  all,  it  does  not  divest  it  of  all  its  bitterness. 
Thus,  in  the  midst  of  water,  mariners  are  frequently  in  danger  of  dying  of  thirst,  when 
tiiey  run  short  of  fresh  water.  Sea  ice,  when  melted,  aflbrds  nearly  fresh  water ;  but  being 
devoid  of  air,  its  taste  is  not  very  agreeaMe,  though  it  would  be  highly  prized  in  time  of 
need.  A  temporary,  and  in  some  degree  an  imaginary,  relief  may  be  obtained,  by  holding 
salt  water  in  the  mouth. 

The  saline  contents  of  the  waters  of  the  wide  ocean  do  not,  so  far  as  experience  has  gone, 
vary  much  in  different  latitudes  and  under  different  meridians,  although  we  ought  to  find 
the  sea  fresher  in  the  spaces  occupied  by  the  internal  limits  of  the  trade-wind,  and  also  in 
those  tracts  of  the  ocean  where  calms  and  a  high  temperature  prevail,  as  on  the  west  coast 


•  etralK)  says  the  level  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  In  htehcr  than  that  of  the  Gulf  of  CenchretB. 
t  yidf  Maclnren  on  the  level  of  thf*  Rivi  Sfn.  i-i  t\\-  lllinliiirjli  Phil^i^ophi'""!  Journii). 
{  Tha  mean  height  ol  tlic  Pacific  above  tliu  Atlantic  U  siiiti  to  Im  'XSi  feet. 


103 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  tl. 


of  Africa.  The  mean  is  about  3.5  per  cent,  in  the  weight  of  the  water;  but  the  nulMu-tv  m 
more  or  less  atfected  by  currents  and  storms.  It  is  diminished  at  the  surface  duriii^r  ||(.;,vy 
rains,  and  by  the  disoliarge  of  rivers:  but  increased  by  evaporation,  which  carries  oil'  ilip 
water  fresh,  and  leaves  tlie  salt  behind  :  hence  there  is  often  little  consistency  in  detaclird 
obsei vations.  From  a  great  variety  of  experiments,  Dr.  Marcet  concludes:  1.  That  llic 
Southern  Ocean  contains  more  salt  than  the  Northern,  in  the  ratio  of  1.0291  to  1.027r:7. 
2.  That  the  mean  specitic  gfravity  of  sea  water  near  the  equator  is  1.02777,  intermedin te 
between  those  of  the  northern  and  southern  hemispheres.  3.  That  there  is  no  notable  dif. 
ference  in  sea  water  under  different  meridians.  4.  That  there  is  no  satisfactory  evidence 
that  the  sea  at  great  deptlia  is  mure  salt  than  at  the  surface.  5.  That  the  sea,  in  general, 
contains  more  salt  where  it  is  deepest  and  most  remote  from  land ;  and  that  its  sanncss  Ih 
always  diminished  in  tho  vicinity  of  large  masses  of  ice.  6.  That  small  inland  seas,  thou£rli 
communicating  with  the  ocean,  are  much  less  salt  than  the  open  ocean.  7.  That  the  Medi- 
terranean contains  rather  larger  proportions  of  salt  than  the  ocean.  This  last  is  explained 
from  the  fact,  that  a  pretty  strong  current  from  the  Atlantic  always  flows  inward  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Mediterranean,  to  supply,  as  was  supposed,  the  water  which  escaped  by 
evaporation,  and  left  its  salt  behind.  So  great,  however,  is  the  influx,  that  this  inland  sea 
ought  to  have  become  perfect  brine,  or  pernapa  to  have  deposited  beds  of  salt,  if  there  were 
no  efflux ;  and  accordingly  it  is  maintained  tnat  there  is  an  outward  current  at  the  bottom, 
very  deep,  which  carries  off  this  excess  of  salt,  and  prevents  its  deposition  in  the  vast  hol- 
lows in  the  bottom.  The  water  drawn  up  from  this  lower  current  is  Salter,  in  a  small  de- 
gree, than  at  the  surface. 

The  following  are  the  mean  specific  gravities  of  the  waters  of  different  seas,  according 
to  Dr.  Marcet's  experiments : — 


Arctic  Ocean 1.03fi64 

Northern  llcmisphore 1  .OlS"^ 

Southern  Hemisphere 1.038H3 

Yellow  Sea I.fl33«l 

Mediterranean l.CKinao 

Sea  of  Marmora 1.01015 


Black  Sea 1.0141!) 

White  Sea 1 .01!  01 

Baltic 1.0IS33 

Lake  Oiirroia,  in  tenia 1.1V507 

Dead  Sea 1.11100 


The  saltness  of  inland  seas  is  subjett  to  many  varieties.  In  the  entrance  to  the  Black 
Sea,  the  water  is  much  salter  at  the  bottom  than  the  surface.  To  account  for  this,  it  is  said 
that  an  under  current  enters  from  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  well  known  that  there  is  an 
outward  current  at  the  surface,  which  brings  with  it  the  less  salt  water  of  the  Black  Sea. 
The  saltness  of  inland  seas  is  often  affected  by  the  direction  and  strength  of  the  wind,  either 
forcing  in,  or  retarding  the  entrance  of,  water  from  the  ocean.  Accordingly,  from  the  expe- 
riments of  Wilcke,  it  appears  that  the  saltness  of  the  Baltic  is  increased  by  a  west  wind,  and 
still  more  so  by  a  north-west  wind ;  but  it  undergoes  a  diminution  when  the  wind  is  from 
the  east    Thus,  the  specific  gravities  are,  for  a 


Wind  at  W 1.0067 

Ditto  at  N.W 1.0098 


Storm  at  W 1.0118 

Wind  at  E l.OO.T!) 


Hence,  the  proportion  of  salt  in  the  Baltic  depends  in  no  small  degree  on  the  different  winds; 
a  proof  that  the  salt  is  not  only  derived  from  the  neighbouring  ocean,  but  that  storms  have  a 
much  greater  effect  on  it  than  has  been  commonly  supposed. 

The  constituent  parts  of  sea  water  have  been  an  object  of  examination  to  many  chemists, 
and  various  sets  of  experiments  made  to  determine  tliem.  The  late  Dr.  Murray  of  Edin- 
burgh was  of  opinion  that  there  were  various  sources  of  fallacy  in  analysing  sea  water ;  and 
that  different  modes  of  operating  on  the  same  water  gave  very  different  results.  Two 
reasons  are  assigned  for  this ;  viz.  that  some  of  the  different  salts  mutually  decompose  eucli 
other  in  the  process,  and  that  a  part  is  lost  altogether  by  evaporation,  especially  if  the  tem- 
perature be  high.  According  to  this  eminent  chemist,  10,000  parts  of  water  from  the  Frith 
of  Forth,  which  is  not  sensibly  different  from  that  of  the  ocean,  contain  220  parts  of  common 
salt,  33  of  uulphate  of  soda,  42  of  muriate  of  magnesia,  and  8  of  muriate  of  fime.  On 
analysing  sea  water  from  N.  latitude  25°  30',  W.  longitude  32°  30',  Dr.  Marcet  made  tlie 
numbers  respectively  266,  47,  52,  and  12.  According  to  Bladh,  the  saltness  is  greater  about 
the  tropics  tlian  at  the  equator.  Dr.  Trail  maintains  the  contrary ;  and  also  that  the  salt- 
ness increases  with  the  depth. 

Ice  is  formed  on  the  sea,  though  its  saltness  gables  it  to  resist  the  process  of  congelation 
at  the  ordinary  freezing  point  of  fresh  water.  This  quality  does  not  withstand  the  rigour 
of  the  Arctic  regions,  where  the  temperature  of  the  air  has  been  observed  so  low  as  55°  F, 
Sea  water  freezes  about  28°,  but  the  temperature  varies  a  little  with  the  saltness. — It  is  a 
curious  circumstance,  that  sea  water  parts  with  its  salt  in  freezing.  Hence  compact  trans- 
parent sea  ice  affords  fresh  water  on  being  melted.  When,  however,  the  ice  is  of  a  loose 
or  cellular  texture,  its  pores  sometimes  contain  liquid  brine ;  and  therefore,  on  being  melted, 
it  affords  brackish  water.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  affinity  between  the  water  and  salt  which 
retards  the  congelation  of  sea  'water ;  because  the  greater  the  saltness,  the  lower  is  the 
fi'ee:^ing  temperature.  Detached  masses  of  ice  are  occasionally  met  with,  floating  in  tne 
ocean  at  so  low  a  parallel  of  latitude  as  40°  in  both  hemispheres ;  having  been  conveyed 


Part  fl. 

I  the  Hulnicis  in 
P  tliiriii(r  )„,.,^, 
JcarrieH  oil'  i),e 
toy  in  (Jotaclid 
J-  Tiiat  tl,e 
^  to  1.027r;7. 
Jt  interniediiite 
Ino  notable  dif. 
fctory  evidence 
la,  in  ffeneral, 
*  Its  sakness  in 
Id  seas,  thoujrh 
f  hat  the  Medi- 
J?t  is  explained 
■inward  at  the 
Ih  escaped  by 
This  inland  sea 
J  if  there  were 
ft  the  bottom, 
Ji  the  vast  hol- 
in  a  small  de- 

eas,  according 

■•••l.OHlg 

••■•i.oiini 

•••■1.01523 
•••.I.l(i507 
••••1.11100 

e  to  the  Black 
this,  it  is  said 
t  there  is  an 
he  Black  Sea. 
e  wind,  either 
rom  the  expe- 
i^est  wind,  and 
wind  is  from 


Book  II 


HYDROI^OOY. 


\m 


.1.0118 
.1.00.T9 


rerent  winds; 
torms  have  a 

^y  chemi.sts, 
■ray  of  Edin- 
t  water;  and 
suits.    Two 
ompose  eucli 
if  the  tem- 
•m  the  Frith 
I  of  common 
'  fime.    On 
t  made  tlie 
reater  about 
lat  the  salt- 
congelation 
the  rie-Qiir 
/  as  55°  F. 
ss.— It  is  a 
pact  trans- 
of  a  loose 
ng  melted, 
salt  which 
ver  is  the 
ng  in  ine 
conveyed 


tiiitlier  by  currents  flrom  the  polar  regions.*  At  the  parallel  of  BO*  they  are  more  abundant; 
and  there  it  is  common,  in  winter,  to  see  the  shallow  edges  of  the  sea  covere<i  with  ice.  At 
60°  N.  latitude,  the  gulfs  and  inland  seas  are  tVequently  frozen  over  their  whole  surface. 
As  we  proceed  toward  the  poles,  the  ice  becomes  more  and  more  abundant,  and  of  larger 
(limensions,  till  at  length  we  come  to  fields  of  ice,  and  iceberffs  or  mountains  of  ice.  The 
process  of  congelation  commences  at  the  surface  of  the  sea,  with  the  formation  of  slender 
prismatic  crystals  resembling  wet  snow :  this  the  seamen  call  sludge.  The  surface  is  at 
first  rough ;  but,  by  the  union  of  the  crystals  and  the  accumulation  of  the  sludge,  the  surface 
i)Cuomes  smooth  and  forms  a  continued  sheet,  which  is  next  broken,  by  the  agitation  of  the 
water,  into  iragmenta  of  about  three  inches  diameter ;  these  again  coalesce  into  a  continued 
sheet  of  a  stronger  texture,  which  is  in  its  turn  broken  as  before,  but  into  larger  fVagments 
called  pancake  ice.  Whore  the  water  is  free  from  all  agitation,  the  congelation  goes  on 
more  regularly,  and  some  allege  more  rapidly.  During  24  hours  of  keen  frost,  tl»e  ice  fre- 
quently attains  a  thickness  of  from  two  to  three  inches,  and  is  soon  fit  for  walking  on :  it  is 
then  called  bay  ice.  When  the  thickness  is  about  a  foot,  it  is  called  light  ice ;  and  when 
three  feet  thick,  heavy  ice.  The  term  field  is  given  to  a  sheet  of  ice  so  extensive  that  its 
farther  end  cannot  be  seen  from  a  mast-head.  Very  large  loosened  pieces,  whose  boundaries 
may  be  seen  readily,  are  called  Jloes.  Fragments  of  thick  ice  floating  together  are  called 
brash  ice.  Floating  ice  of  any  sort,  sufficiently  loose  to  allow  a  vessel  to  pass  through,  is 
called  open  or  drijl  ice.  Indeed,  there  is  no  end  to  the  terms  which  seamen  apply  to  different 
sorts  of  ice.  The  sudden  disruption  of  extensive  fields  is  sometimes  produced  by  that  power- 
ful tendency  to  undulation  of  the  surface,  communicated  by  the  motions  of  the  adjoining 
liquid  surfiice  of  the  ocean  during  a  continued  storm,  which  is  denominated  a  ground  swell. 
The  ice,  when  thin,  merely  yields ;  but,  if  thick  and  little  flexible,  it  is  broken  with  tre- 
mendous noise.  A  very  interesting  account  of  such  a  phenomenon  is  given  by  a  party  of 
missionaries  who  passed  along  the  coast  of  Labrador  in  sledges  drawn  by  dogs.  They  nar- 
rowly escaped  destruction ;  but  were  near  enough  to  witness  all  its  grandeur.  "  The  mis- 
sionaries met  a  sledge  with  Esquimaux  turning  in  from  the  sea,  who  threw  out  some  hints 
that  it  might  be  as  well  for  them  to  return.  After  some  time,  their  own  Esquimaux  hinted 
that  there  was  a  ground  swell  under  the  ice.  It  was  then  scarcely  perceptible,  except  on 
lying  down  and  applying  the  ear  close  to  the  ice,  when  a  hollow  disagreeable  grating  noise 
was  heard  ascending  from  the  abyss.  As  the  motion  of  the  sea  under  the  ice  had  grown 
more  perceptible,  they  became  alarmed,  and  began  to  think  it  prudent  to  keep  close  to  the 
shore.  The  ice  also  had  fissures  in  many  places,  some  of  which  formed  chasms  of  one  or 
two  feet ;  but  as  these  are  not  uncommon  even  in  its  best  state,  and  the  dogs  easily  leap 
over  them,  they  are  frightful  only  to  strangers.  As  the  wind  rose  to  a  storm,  the  swell  had 
now  increased  so  much  that  its  effects  on  the  ice  were  extraordinary,  and  really  alarming. 
The  sledges,  instead  of  gliding  smoothly  along  as  on  an  even  surface,  sometimes  ran  with 
violence  after  the  dogs,  and  sometimes  seemed  with  difliculty  to  ascend  a  rising  hill.  Noises, 
too,  were  now  distinctly  heard  in  many  directions,  like  the  report  of  cannon,  from  the  burst- 
ing of  the  ice  at  a  distance.  Alarmed  by  these  frightful  phenomena,  our  travellers  drove 
with  all  haste  towards  the  shore ;  and  as  they  approached  it,  the  prosp*  t  (i>ifore  them  was 
tremendous.  The  ice,  having  burst  loose  from  the  rocks,  was  tossed  to  t;  c  S^o,  and  broken 
in  a  thousand  pieces  against  the  precipices  with  a  dreadful  noise ;  which,  add  jd  to  the  raging 
of  the  sea,  the  roaring  of  the  wind,  and  the  driving  of  the  snow,  so  completely  overpowered 
them  as  almost  to  deprive  them  of  the  use  both  of  their  eyes  and  ears.  To  make  the  land 
was  now  the  only  resource  that  remained ;  but  it  was  with  the  utmost  difficulty  that  the 
frightened  dogs  could  be  driven  forward ;  and  as  the  whole  body  of  the  ice  frequently  sunk 
below  the  summits  of  the  rocks,  and  then  rose  above  them,  the  only  time  for  landing  was  tJie 
moment  it  gained  the  level  of  the  coast, — a  circumstance  which  rendered  the  attempt 
extremely  nice  and  hazardous.  Both  sledges,  however,  succeeded  in  gaining  the  shore,  and 
were  drawn  up  on  the  beach,  though  not  without  great  difficulty.  Scarcely  had  they  reached 
it,  when  that  part  of  the  ice  from  which  they  had  just  escaped  burst  asunder,  and  the  water, 
rushing  up  from  beneath,  instantly  precipitated  it  into  the  ocean.  In  a  moment,  as  if  by 
signal,  the  whole  mas^  of  ice  for  several  miles  along  the  coast,  and  extenduig  as  &r  as  the 
eye  could  reach,  began  to  break  and  to  be  overwhelmed  with  the  waves.  The  spectacle  waa 
awfully  grand.  The  immense  fields  of  ice  rising  out  of  the  ocean,  clashing  against  one 
another,  and  then  plunging  into  the  deep  with  a  violence  which  no  language  can  describe, 
and  a  noise  like  the  discharge  of  a  thousand  cannon,  was  a  sight  which  must  have  struck  the 
most  unreflecting  mind  with  solemn  awe.  The  brethren  were  overwhelmed  with  amaze- 
ment at  their  miraculous  escape;  and  even  the  pagan  Elsquimaux  expressed  gratitude  to 
God  for  their  deliverance."t 

The  term  iceberg  is  applied  to  huge  masses  of  ice  resembling  mountauis,  whether  resting 
on  the  land  or  floatmg  on  the  sea.    The  latter  part  appear  to  be  sometimes  formed  in  the 

♦  Honburgh  mentionii  icebcrgi  having  been  met  with  in  Soutli  lat.  35°  54|',  and  VviMi  iong.  17<5  59'.— P*jl  Jf"* 
t  Brown'8  History  of  the  Propagation  of  Christianity,  vol.  ii.  p.  57 
Vol,.  T.  17  Z 


IM 


SCIENCE   OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  n, 


■oa  iteelft  by  the  accumulation  of  ice  and  snow ;  at  other  timeti  to  be  fl-affmentb  of  land  ice- 
berg or  ((laciora,  which  have  been  pilinff  up  on  the  sliorc  till  quito  overfrrown,  iind  ultimately 
broken  and  launched  into  the  ocean  by  tlieir  own  woif^ht.  MasscH  of  this  sort  abound  in 
Buffin'H  Bay,  whore  thoyaro  eumetiineti  two  miles  lon^,  and  half  or  one  third  as  broad.  They 
art!  briNtlea  with  various  spiros,  risiuff,  perhaijo,  1(H)  tbct  above  the  surfkce,  and  descendini; 
half  aa  much  below  it.  Wlicn  compact  ice  floats  in  water,  the  part  under  the  surface  jg 
alM)Ut  nine  times  as  great  as  that  alxive  it;  and  henco  the  iceberg  may  sometimes  descend 
to  a  (Treat  depth,  though  they  should  bo  far  from  consisting  of  very  compact  ice.  Icebergn 
of  an  even  surface,  rising  90  feet  above  the  sen,  and  havinf^  an  area  of  five  or  six  square 
miles,  are  very  common.  Those  of  East  Greenland  are  of  inferior  size,  uid  they  are  still 
smaller  around  8pitzl)crgen,  where  some  of  enormous  dimensions  occur  on  shore.  The 
reoHon  which  Mr.  Scoresby  assigns  for  this  is,  that,  owing  to  the  shallowness  of  thr>  w;>ter 
into  which  the  huge  masses  are  precipitated,  they  are  all  shattered  against  the  bottom  into 
a  thousand  pieces  before  they  are  fairly  launched  into  deep  water.  "  On  an  excursion  to  one 
of  the  Seven  Icebergs,  in  July  1818,"  says  Mr.  Scoresby,  "  I  was  particularly  fortunate  in 
witnessing  one  of  the  grandest  effects  which  these  polar  glaciers  ever  present  A  strong 
north-westerly  Hwell,  having  for  some  hours  been  beating  on  the  shore,  had  loosened  a  num- 
ber of  fragments  attached  to  the  iceberg,  and  various  heaps  of  broken  ice  denoted  recent 
shoots  of  the  seaward  edge.  As  we  rowed  towards  it,  with  a  view  of  procee<Hng  close  to 
itfl  base,  I  observed  a  few  little  pieces  fall  from  the  top;  and  while  my  eye  was  fixed  upon 
the  place,  an  immense  column,  probably  50  feet  square  and  150  feet  high,  began  to  leave 
the  parent  ice  at  the  top ;  and  leaning  majestically  forward,  with  an  accelerated  velocity 
fell  with  an  awiiil  crash  mto  the  sea.  The  water  into  which  it  plunged  was  converted  into 
an  appearance  of  vapour  or  smoke,  like  that  from  a  furious  cannonading.  The  noise  was 
equal  to  that  of  thunder,  which  it  nearly  resembled.  The  column  which  fell  was  nearly 
square,  and  in  magnitude  resembled  a  church.  It  broke  into  a  thousand  pieces.  This  cir- 
cumstance wtis  a  happy  caution ;  for  we  might  have  inadvertently  gone  to  the  very  base  of 
the  icy  cliff,  from  which  masses  of  considerable  magnitude  were  continually  falling."  A 
huge  mass  of  this  sort  which  fell  on  a  Russian  ship,  broke  the  fore  and  main  masts,  sprung 
the  bowsprit,  and  flung  the  ship  over  with  such  violence  that  a  piece  of  ordnance  was  thrown 
overboard  from  under  the  half-deck,  and  the  captain  and  some  of  tlie  crew  were  projected  in 
the  same  manner.  The  captain,  however,  escaped  unhurt;  but  the  mate  and  two  others 
were  killed,  and  many  were  wounded. 

Icebergs  variously  affect  navigation.  They  are  oflen  highly  useful  by  protecting  naviga^ 
tors  from  gales,  as  well  as  from  the  concussions  of  drifl  ice,  which  moves  more  quickly  when 
acted  on  by  the  wind  than  the  massy  iceberg.  To  the  latter,  ships  are  sometimes  moored, 
but  not  without  danger ;  for  these  floating  masses  are  sometimes  so  nicely  balanced  as  to  be 
easily  overturned,  should  they  happen  to  catch  the  bottem  of  the  sea.  The  concussion  pro- 
duced in  this  way  sometimes  detaches  large  fragments ;  and  sometimes  the  iceberg  rolls 
forward,  to  the  imminent  danger  of  tlie  vessel,  though  perhaps  100  yards  distant, — so  great 
are  the  waves  and  whirls  caused  by  such  an  occurrence.  Many  dangers  and  discourage- 
ments attend  the  navigation  of  the  polar  seas :  but  the  recent  attempts  to  discover  a  north- 
west passage  through  the  Arctic  Sea  have  rendered  the  ice  a  subject  of  considerable  interest. 
These  attempts  have  not  yet  been  crowned  with  success:  but  diflerent  navigators  have 
brought  such  different  accounts  of  the  state  of  the  ice,  that  it  is  probably  very  changeable 
and  very  difficult  to  examine.  It  is  not  quite  agreed  that  any  navigator  has  been  within  6° 
of  the  North  Pole ;  although  some  accounts  pretend  to  a  still  nearer  approach.  Captain 
Parry,  in  his  last  voyage,  reached  to  82"  45'  N.  lat.  The  failure  Of  Captain  Cook's  attempt 
to  penetrate  to  the  Soutb  Pole  gave  rira  to  an  idea,  which  has  been  pretty  generally  enter- 
tained since  his  time,  that  the  South  Pole  is  surrounded  witli  fixe<l  ice  to  the  distance  of  18° 
or  19° ;  and  a  more  recent  Russian  expedition  gave  still  worse  hopes,  as  they  could  not  gft 
beyond  the  latitude  of  70°  S.  Mr.  Weddell,  however,  has  since  reached  255  miles  nearer 
the  pole,  and  met  with  no  such  obstruction :  this  enterprising  navigator  contends  strenuously 
that  the  South  Pole  must  be  free  from  ice,  and  might  be  reached  by  sea.  Some  of  his  argu 
mentfl  are  rather  plausible ;  but  the  question  is  involved  in  so  many  uncertainties,  that  nothing 
less  than  actuel  trial  can  decide  it 

The  expansion  and  contraction  of  ice  has  unportant  effects.  Though  water  undergoes  a 
great  expansion  in  the  act  of  freezing,  yet  ice  obeys  the  ordinary  law  of  solids, — that  of 
expanding  by  heat  and  contracting  by  cold.  The  effect,  therefore,  of  intense  cold  is  to  con- 
tract ice,  which,  if  of  large  dimensions,  or  fixed  all  around,  has  no  alternative  but  to  rend 
where  it  is  contracting  most  This  is  often  attended  with  a  tremendous  report.  On  the 
contrary,  a  rise  of  temperature  may  not  only  bring  the  parts  to  meet  again,  but  often  makes 
them  lap  over,  or  burst  up  with  great  violence.* 

The  motion  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean  is  almost  perpetual ;  and  it  is  believed,  that  without 

•  TIw  mo»t  5R»i?fnrtc.ry  B.-cniint  of  the  polar  ice  i»  that  of  ScoreBby,  flrst  published  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  VVer 
■nnan  Natural  History  Bociety 


t*  of  land  ice. 
■ind  ultimately 
"J't  abound  jn 
.broad.  They 
Ind  descendini 
pe  surface  jg 
times  descend 
|ce.     Iceberj^H 
,0'  "'X  square 
tneyare  still 
8'.'o>"e.    The 
of  tile  w;iter 
le  bottom  into 
^ursion  to  one 
rortunate  in 
It-     A  strong 
'ened  a  num. 
Jnoted  recent 
I'linff  close  to 
Ks  'ijfed  upon 
ffa"  to  leave 
•ated  velocity 
>nverted  into 
le  noise  was 
1  was  nearly 
's.     This  cir- 
very  base  of 
fiilJlng."    A 
naats,  sprung 
B  was  thrown 
5  projected  in 
J  two  others 

3tinff  naviga- 
?uick]ywhen 
imes  moored, 
Jced  as  to  be 
icusaion  pro- 
ceberg  rolls 
t»— 80  grreat 
discouragfe- 
ver  a  north- 
ble  interest, 
gators  have 
changeable 
n  within  6° 
'•     Captain 
k's  attempt 
•ally  entor- 
mceoflS" 
lid  not  ffpt 
lies  nearer 
trenuously 
f  his  argu 
at  nothing 

dergoes  a 
—that  of 
is  to  con- 
t  to  rend 
On  the 
!n  makes 

t  without 

r  the  VV«r 


BookII. 


METEOROLOGY. 


196 


this  provision  in  the  economy  of  nature  the  sea,  in  place  of  tempering  and  purifying  the  air, 
wuulil  both  becoino  putrid  and  exhale  noxiuim  vapourH. 

Waves.  The  motions  which  first  proaont  tlioinselves  to  our  notice  are  the  partial  and 
altRrnuto  rising  and  falling  of  the  surface,  known  by  the  name  of  undulations  or  waves.  This 
turt  of  motion  is  caused  by  the  wind,  which,  by  dislodff  ing  or  depressing  a  certain  portion  of 
tliR  waters,  has  destroyed  tlie  equilibrium  or  level,  which  they  naturally  endeavour  to  recover. 
Waves  may  be  compared  tu  the  reciprocation  of  water  in  a  syphon  or  bent  tube.  It  was  in 
tliiM  way  that  Newton  deduced  the  velocity  of  waves,  and  the  time  required  to  an  undulation. 
If  water  ascend  and  descend  alternately  in  the  legs  of  a  bent  tube,  and  a  pendulum  be  con- 
structed whose  length  between  the  point  of  suspension  and  centre  of  oscillation  is  equal  to 
iiiilf  the  length  of  the  water  in  the  tube,  tlien  this  fluid  will  ascend  and  descend  during  each 
leciilation  of  the  pendulum.  Hence  the  velocity  of  the  waves  is  as  tlie  square  root«  of  their 
breadths ;  the  breadth  being  the  distance  between  the  tops  of  the  ridges.  In  the  aomo  way, 
it  may  be  shown  that  the  apparent  progressive  motions  of  waves  through  spaces  equal  to  their 
breadths  are  performed  in  the  times  in  which  pendulums  oscillate  whose  lengths  are  equal  to 
these  breadths.  Hence  waves,  whose  breadth  is  39||  inches,  will  seem  to  pass  over  that  space 
in  one  second.  Waves  are  scarcely  over  without  progressive  motion ;  but  the  real  progress 
of  the  surface  of  the  water  is  generally  small,  compared  to  tlie  apparent  motion  of  the 
waves ;  as  is  easily  proved  from  any  floating  body  which  does  not  rise  above  the  surfbce  so 
aii  to  be  hurried  forward  by  the  wind.  Waves  are  distinguished  into  natural  and  accidental. 
The  natural  are  proportional  to  the  strength  of  the  wind  producing  them : — the  accidental 
arc  occasioned  by  repercussion  of  the  wind  from  hills  and  bold  coasts,  and  by  the  dashing 
of  the  waves  on  rocks  and  shoals.  Divers,  it  is  said,  find  the  waters  perfectly  still  at  the 
depth  of  thirty  yards,  during  the  greatest  tempest.  But  this  can  only  be  known  of  some 
sheltered  spots;  for  when  do  divers  descend  m  an  open  sea  during  a  tempest  1  Waves  are 
always  seen  rolling  towards  the  shore ;  but  an  obstacle  opposed  to  them  becomes  the  centre 
of  a  new  series  which  spreads  in  circles.  One  set  of  waves,  however,  may  not  interfere 
with  the  motion  of  another,  and  they  may  mutually  cross  without  interruption.  Sometimes 
the  ordinary  oscillations  are  combined  with  a  distant  swell,  called  the  bore,  which  rises 
impetuous  aiter  certain  intervals.  Breakers,  or  waves  which  break  against  some  obstacle, 
when  formed  over  a  great  extent  of  shore,  are  distinguished  by  the  name  of  surf.  The  surf 
is  greatest  in  those  parts  of  the  ocean  where  the  wind  blows  always  nearly  in  the  same 
direction. 

Currents.  There  are  two  permanent  and  general  sorts  of  currents  in  the  ocean,  which 
are  supposed  to  originate  in  two  great  movements, — that  of  the  tropical  waters  westward 
round  the  globe,  and  that  of  the  polar  waters  towards  the  equator.  But  it  is  plain  that  the 
latter,  or  polar  currents,  imply  the  existence  of  a  third  set,  moving  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion ;  otherwise  the  waters  at  the  poles  would  soon  be  exhausted,  together  with  the  ice  from 
which  they  are  partly  derived.  It  is  well  known  that  the  rain,  fog,  or  snow,  which  fiills  in 
the  polar  regions,  could  never  supply  any  perceptible  current  towards  the  equator.  The 
movement  of  the  tropical  waters  westward  is  ascribed  to  the  agency  of  the  trade  winds, 
wliich,  blowing  c4hstantly  from  the  east,  must  impress  their  motion  on  the  sea  to  a  certain 
extent.  But  the  resulting  current  is  necessarily  modified  by  the  position  of  the  great  conti- 
nents. This  grand  westerly  motion  prevails  generally  between  30"  S.  and  30"  N.  latitude. 
According  to  Humboldt,  its  mean  Vi^looity  is  from  nine  to  ten  miles  a-day.  In  the  Atlantic 
it  separates  into  two  branches,  on  j  of  which  forms  the  well-known  Gulf  Stream.  This 
branch  flows  northward,  through  the  middle  of  the  Atlantic,  till  it  reaches  the  Cape  Verd 
Islands :  it  then  turns  west,  passes  through  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  the  strait  between  Cuba 
and  Yucatan,  winds  round  the  Mexican  Gulf,  and  rushes  out  by  the  Bahama  Channel ;  then 
spreading  out  to  a  greater  breadth,  it  sweepr  along  the  shores  of  the  United  States  to  New- 
foundland. At  this  point  it  is  deflected  south-eastward  by  a  southerly  current  from  Baffin's 
Bay,  and  passing  the  Azores  and  Canary  Isles,  returns  in  a  great  measure  into  itself,  and 
repeats  its  circumgyration.  The  waters  of  the  North  Atlantic,  between  the  latitudes  of  11" 
and  43°,  thus  form  a  continued  whu-lpool,  completing  a  circuit  of  3800  leagues  in  about  34 
months.  Its  velocity  is  greater  as  the  depth  and  breadth  are  less.  Its  breadth  is  51 
leagues  in  the  Bahama  Channel,  and  velocity  from  three  to  five  miles  an  hour.  In  its 
retrograde  course  from  longitude  50°  to  the  Azores  the  breadth  is  160  leagues,  and  velocity 
from  seven  to  eight  miles  a-day.  An  insulated  expanse  of  almost  motionless  water,  140 
leagues  in  breadth,  occupies  the  interior  of  the  circuit.  This  grand  current  sends  off  one 
branch  near  Newfoundland,  which  proceeds  north-eastward,  and  sometimes  deposits  tropical 
fruits  on  the  shores  of  the  British  isles  and  Norway.  In  1776,  Dr.  Franklin  traced  this 
current,  by  means  of  its  high  temperature,  quite  across  the  Atlantic ;  and,  since  his  time, 
it  has  been  more  closely  traced,  especially  by  Captain  Sabine.  A  second  branch,  escaping 
at  the  Azores,  enters  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  forms  the  upper  and  middle  current  which 
prevails  in  that  strait  Another  branch  of  the  great  tropical  current  sets  along  the  coast  of 
Braxil,  and  a»  length  passes  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  In  the  Pacific  Ocean  the 
wat«re  havn  a  general  westward  motion  from  the  coast  of  Peru,  which  must  he  partly  sup» 


\m 


BrinivcE  op  oRonRAriiY. 


Pa«t  n. 


pliod  by  the  lant-mpnlionoil  ourrciit  nrti-r  (lonlilinu  iUi\»>  lloni.  Tho  ciirrrnt  frcmi  tht 
ctKiHt  ol  Peru  JH  \fnn  )M'rci<|)ti)ili',  till  it  onttTu  tlin  Imliiiri  Ocvnn;  wIumi,  Htrciitrllinii'il  by  the 
imrthnrly  currents  there,  it  Howh  nionff  the  oaKtern  cnait  of  At'ricu,  aixl  'l(Mil>l)>tt  tlit-  (';i|m'  of 
(lonti  Hope,  in  a  rapid  atroarn,  l'M\  inilott  brunii,  and  from  7°  to  8°  warmer  tituii  tliu  oiMtH 
(rtunia  itea.  A  current  tVom  the  Houth  Pole  aetx  alonflr  the  woMt  mdn  of  New  ilolland  into 
tho  Bay  of  Benffal :  it  ia  Hup|KiH<^i  that  other  portioiia  of  the  f^enerul  |N)iar  current  dtttlicl 
the  jyreat  westerly  current  northward,  after  it  haH  poMted  tho  doutiiorn  proiuontorios  of  Atrica 
and  America.  In  the  Northern  Ocean,  in  the  8|iace  comprised  lietweon  Grceniund  ami  llm 
coaatfl  of  Britain  and  Norway,  and  between  Ijabrador  and  HpitzlHtrffon,  a  f(reat  body  of 
watera,  acted  on  by  three  or  four  lateral  currents,  is  supposed  tu  perform  a  per)N;tual  circuit. 
These  waters  receive  their  impulse  eastward  tVom  a  branch  of  tho  Gulf  Htream,  whicii 
naases  firom  Newfoundland  alonff  the  north-west  coasts  of  Scotland  and  Norway.  At  the 
Nforth  Cape  in  Lapland,  a  great  westerly  current  from  Nova  Zembia  turns  the  waters  nortli- 
westward  alon(f  both  sides  of  Hpitzboriren.  Beyond  this  island,  beinjf  met  by  a  current  frnm 
the  polo,  they  turn  south-westwanl,  and  jhibs  alon{;  the  coast  of  (Jreeidand  to  Davis's  Htruiu, 
where  they  are  deflected  southward  by  a  fourth  current  tVom  Biittin's  Bfiy  ;  and  having;  re- 
turned to  Newfoundland,  recommence  their  revolution.  Thus  two  jifroat  whirlpools,  con- 
nected with  one  another,  touch  at  the  Bank  of  Newfoundland,  which  seems  to  be  a  bar  cititt 
up  by  their  conflicting  waters;  and  revolving  in  opposite  directions,  occupy  four-fitlhs  of  the 
North  Atlantic.  The  small  current  which  sets  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay  across  the  mouth 
of  the  English  Channel,  and  through  St.  George's  Channel,  is  most  probably  a  branch  of  the 
Gulf  Stream  which  had  come  off  at  the  Azores.  Were  otiier  parts  of  the  ocean  as  minutely 
examined  as  the  Nortli  Atlantic,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  other  great  vortices  would  be 
discovered. 

Local  or  temporary  currents  are  produced  by  winds,  the  discharge  of  rivers,  the  melting 
of  ice,  &c.  In  general,  currents  which  do  not  descend  to  a  great  depth  are  liable  to  clmn<;o 
with  the  winds,  particularly  when  they  blow  for  a  long  time  with  equal  force,  as  the  mon- 
soons do.  These  winds  give  by  turns  entirely  opposite  directions  to  the  currents  which  pro- 
vail  fVom  the  Maldivia  Islands  to  Arabia  and  Zanguebar.  When  tho  supply  of  fresh  wiitor 
in  an  inland  sea  falls  short  of  what  is  carried  off  by  evaporation,  its  level  will  have  a  tmi- 
ency  to  fall  below  that  of  the  ocean ;  and  hence  the  water  will  flow  into  it  from  the  ocean. 
But,  as  formerly  noticed,  a  continual  influx  of  salt  water,  to  be  concentrated  by  evaporation, 
must  have  a  tendency  to  render  such  inland  sea  saltcr  than  the  ocean  ;  and  tlie  salter  wutcr 
being  the  heavier,  naturally  endeavours  to  keep  under  the  lighter,  which  enters  from  the 
ocean.  In  this  way,  it  forms  an  outward  current  in  the  bottom  of  the  entrance.  Such  is 
said  to  be  the  case  with  the  Mediterranean,  as  was  flrst  hinted  by  Dr.  Hudson  in  1724.  I'lio 
reverse  of  all  this  takes  place  where  the  supply  of  fresh  water  m  an  inland  sea  exceedifi  the 
evaporation,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Baltic,  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Sea  of  Azof.  In  those 
the  outward  fresher  current  is  uppermost,  while  the  heavier  salter  current  enters  below. 
Since  the  mean  quantity  of  salt  brought  in  must  equal  what  is  carried  out,  if  no  permanent 
change  take  place  in  the  saltness  of  the  inland  sea,  it  follows  that  the  salter  current  is  the 
smaller  of  the  two.  However,  the  weather  sometimes  produces  temporaiyf  xceptions  to  thia 
general  rule.  The  current  which  flows  into  the  Mediterranean  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar 
sets  along  the  shores  of  Africa  and  Egypt  to  Syria,  where  it  turns  north-westward ;  and, 
joined  by  the  current  from  the  Dardanelles,  it  makes  the  circuit  of  the  Adriatic,  then  of  the 
coasts  of  Tuscany,  France  and  Spain,  and  ultimately  returns  to  the  Straits.  In  the  Cattepat, 
a  northern  current  proceeds  from  the  Baltic  along  the  coasts  of  Sweden ;  and  another,  a 
southern  current,  enters  into  the  Baltic  along  the  coasts  of  Jutland.  In  the  German  Sea, 
a  north  current  sets  from  the  Straits  of  Dover  along  the  continental  shore,  while  a  south 
current  comes  from  the  Orkneys  along  the  British  coast. 

Whirlpools  or  eddies  are  produced  by  the  meeting  of  currents  which  come  in  different 
directions.  These,  by  encountering  in  a  narrow  passage,  turn,  as  it  were,  about  a  centre, 
which  is  sometimes  spiral,  till  they  unite  or  one  of  them  escapes.  The  most  celebrateo 
whirlpools  are  the  Euripus  near  the  coast  of  Negropont,  the  Charybdis  in  the  Straits  of 
Sicily,  and  the  Malstroem  on  the  northern  coast  of  Norway.  Such  eddies  sometimes  aug- 
ment tlieir  force  by  means  of  two  contrary  high  tides,  or  by  the  action  of  the  winds.  Ir. 
certain  states  of  the  tide,  some  of  them  cease  altogether ;  but  they  do  not  &il  to  make  up  foi 
this  afterwards.  Their  danger  to  navigation  is  well  known ;  but  is,  perhaps,  inferior  to  the 
dread  which  they  inspire.  They  draw  vessels  along,  and  dash  tliem  against  the  rocks,  or 
engulf  them  in  the  eddies.  The  wrecks,  perhaps,  do  not  appear  till  some  time  aflerwanls ; 
or,  indeed,  they  may  never  be  seen  at  all.  This  has  given  rise  to  the  notion  that  these  vortices 
have  no  bottom.  The  phenomena  and  dread  of  whirlpools  have  afforded  excellent  matter 
for  marvellous  fables,  both  to  the  ancient  poets  and  more  modern  writers. 

The  tides  form  a  remarkable  phenomenon,  consisting  in  the  alternate  rise  and  fall  of 
the  surface  of  the  sea  twice  in  the  course  of  a  lunar  day,  or  at  a  mean  rate  every  12"  25" 
14'.  The  instant  of  low  water  is  nearly,  but  not  exactly,  in  the  middle  of  the  interval 
between  two  high  waters.     I'he  tide  generally  takes  nine  or  ten  minutis  longer  in  ebbing 


Rook  II. 


HYDROLOGY. 


107 


tliMii  ttdwinif.  At  thn  new  and  flill  moon  tlio  tulcH  attain  tho  (froatcut  hoi((ht,  and  the  in- 
lurviil  butwcon  two  \ug\\  watiTH  in  liMiMt,  viz.  IT  11)'"  'iH*.  At  tho  miartcira  of  the  moon  the 
tiilcMuro  lln!  I«iuit,  and  the  inltTvalu  tho  Krcatcnt,  vh.  12''  iW"  T.  J'ho  time  of  high  water 
IK  riioHlly  regulated  by  the;  moon ;  and  in  ^Riioral,  in  tho  opon  Kca,  ia  tVom  two  to  three  honra 
tihT  that  |)lniu!t  puHiuiH  tlifl  mnridinn,  either  above  or  under  the  horizon.  Un  the  RhoreH  of 
Itiriru  contniDntts  und  whore  tlieiu  are  Hhalh>WH  and  obittniclioni*,  (;reat  irre^fularitieH  take 
il  icu  in  this  rofl|H<ct ;  and  wlicn  thcMe  oxcoimI  tdx  honra,  it  may  Hoem  na  if  the  hi|;h  water 
prcrnicd  tho  nioon'a  |>iiHHat;o  ovor  thn  meridian.  Thou((h  tlie  tidea  aeem  to  be  reifuluted 
chii'rty  by  tho  moon,  they  ap|)car  alno  in  a  certain  dojjreo  to  bo  under  tho  influence  of  the 
Klin.  ThuH,  at  tho  Hvzijjios,  when  tlie  aim  and  moon  come  to  tlio  meridian  tofjethor,  tho 
tide,-*,  ovnry  thinj?  eiMo  connidered,  are  tho  hifjfhcst.  At  the  quarterH,  when  the  aun  and 
iiicon  are  ti()°  distant,  tlio  tides  are  leaBt.  Tlio  former  are  called  the  Bpritiff,  the  latter  the 
niiip  tides.  The  hiifheHt  of  the  sprinfr  tides  is  not  that  immediatclv  atlcr  the  new  or  full 
UHNiii;  but  in  in  general  the  third,  and  in  some  caaes  tlio  fourth.  The  lowest  of  the  neap 
tiiJi'M  occurs  much  alNnit  the  same  time  atler  the  quarters.  The  total  magnitude  of  the  tide 
in  cHliiiiatcd  by  the  difTerence  between  tho  hei^htJ*  of  high  and  low  water.  The  hif^her  the 
fl(Hi(l  tide  rises,  tho  lower  tho  ebb  tide  ponerally  sinks  on  tho  same  day.  At  Brent,  the 
iii(!ilium  spring  tide  ia  about  19  feet,  and  the  mean  neap  tide  about  9.  On  other  parts  of 
the  cojist  of  France  oppottite  to  Eufjiand,  tho  waters,  beinj?  confined,  rise  to  a  great  hoifrht, 
ami  do  HO  on  Ixith  sides  of  the  Channel.  At  Ht.  M.ilo  it  is  from^'ito.'MJfeet.  Nearly  aahigh 
fides  occur  lit  Annapolis  Iloyal,  in  Nova  ^cotia.  It  is  the  obhtruction  which  the  land  pre- 
wMits  lo  the  motions  of  tho  waters  which  occasions  tides  of  any  conseciuence  at  all :  were 
the  triolie  entirely  covered  witli  water,  tlie  tides  would  be  very  insijfniticant.  Thus,  in  the 
I'licific  Ocean,  the  sprinp  tide  amountw  only  to  5  feet,  and  the  neap  to  from  2  to  2.5  feet. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  free  conrmunication  w  ith  the  ocean  is  indispt^nsable,  to  produce  a  hiph 
tide.  Thus,  in  inland  seas,  the  tides  are  very  triflinjf,  because  the  luminaries  act  n'^arly 
cqunUyover  the  whole  surface  at  the  name  time. 

Tlie  height  of  the  tide  increases  as  the  sun  or  mixin  is  nearer  the  earth,  hut  in  a  higher 
ratio.  The  rise  of  tho  tides  is  likewise  greater  when  the  sun  or  rnoon  is  in  the  equattir,  and 
lens  tis  they  decline  from  it.  When  the  observer  and  the  moon  are  on  the  same  side  of  the 
etiimtor,  the  tide  which  happens  when  the  moon  is  above  the  horizon  is  greater  than  when 
she  is  below  it.  The  reverse  occurs  when  the  observer  and  the  moon  are  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  equator.  If  the  tides  be  considered  relatively  to  the  whole  globe  and  to  the  open  sea, 
it  api)ears  that  there  is  a  meridian  about  139°  eastward  of  the  moon,  where  it  is  always  high 
water,  both  in  tho  hemisphere  where  the  moon  is  and  in  the  opposite.  On  the  west  side  of 
this  circle  the  tide  is  flowing;  on  the  east  it  is  ebbing;  and  on  the  meridian,  which  is  at 
ri'.'ht  (ingles  to  tho  same,  it  is  everywhere  low  water.  These  meridian  circles  move  west- 
ward, keeping  nearly  at  the  same  distance  from  the  moon  :  only  approaching  nearer  to  her 
when  new  or  full,  and  withdrawing  at  the  cpiarters.  In  high  ii'titudes  the  tides  are  very 
iiiconsidorable.  It  is  probable  that  at  the  polos  there  are  no  diurnal  tides;  but  there  is  some 
ground  for  thinking  that  the  water  will  rise  higher  at  the  pole  to  which  the  luminaries  are 
at  any  time  nearest,  than  at  the  opposite. 

'pv,o  .Y-o.,^  wave  which  follows  the  moon  as  above  described,  and  constilul(;a  the  tide,  is 
to  he  considered  as  an  undulation  or  reciprocation  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean ;  in  which 
there  is,  except  when  it  passes  over  shallows  or  approaches  the  shore,  very  little  progressive 
motion.  In  all  this  we  are  :b  yet  overlooking  the  operation  of  local  causes,  winds,  currents, 
&(•.,  Iiy  which  these  general  laws  are  modified,  overruled,  or  even  reversed.  Most  people 
find  little  difticulty  in  conceiving  how  the  waters  should  rise  on  the  side  of  the  glol)e  which 
is  next  the  moon ;  but  there  can  scarcely  be  a  harder  task  than  bringing  many  to  see  why 
*hr  watrrs  slimtld  at  the  same  time  rise  nn  the  side  which  is  turned  from  the  moon.  We 
iini.><t,  however,  confine  ourselves  to  a  very  brief  and  palpable  explanation.  The  force  by 
which  the  moon  draws  any  particle  of  our  globe  towards  her  is  greater  when  it  is  nearer  to 
'lor,  and  less  when  more  remote.  The  force,  therefore,  with  which  the  moon  attracts  the 
particles  on  the  side  nearest  her  is  greater  than  the  average  force  which  she  exerts  on  the 
wliole  globe.  These  particles,  therefore,  rise  or  endeavour  to  come  near  the  moon.  On  the 
othi'r  hand,  the  force  by  which  the  moon  draws  tho  particles  which  are  farthest  from  her 
oeiiig  less  than  the  average  force,  these  particles  endeavour  to  recede  from  the  moon,  and  in 
80  doing  they  also  recede  fi-om  the  earth's  centre ;  that  is,  they  rise  higher  than  the  general 
level.  The  action  of  the  sun  is  similar  to  that  of  the  moon ;  but  his  being  almost  four 
hundred  times  as  distant,  greatly  diminishes  his  efl'ect.  At  the  new  and  full  moon  the 
luininaries  act  together,  and  produce  spring  tides.  The  highest  of  all  arc  a  little  after  the 
outinnnal,  and  before  the  vernal,  equinox  ;  and  the  least  spring  tides  occur  a  little  after  the 
"(dstices.  At  the  quarters  of  the  moon  her  action  is  opposed  by  that  of  the  sun,  and  there- 
*ore  nrap  tides  are  the  result. 

The  time  of  hisrh  water  deserves  consideration.  Tho  preceding  is  sufficient  to  show  that 
the  iilionomenn  of  tlie  tides  arf  effects  thnt  'ni-jht  be  expected  from  thn  principle  of  attrnrliou 
or  gravitation;  but  since  the  waters  necessiirily  occupy  some  time  in  moving  irom  one 

17* 


IW 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


pAHTtt 


place  to  another,  this  is  the  renaon  why  the  hiph  water  occurs,  not  when  the  moon  is  on  the 
meridian  but  from  two  to  three  hours  uftprwanls.  For  the  saiuo  reason,  when  the  sun  is 
before  or  west  of  the  moon,  he  hastens  the  rise  of  the  tide ;  and  when  behind  hor,  lie  retards 
it  Considerable  extent  of  surface  is  necessary,  in  order  that  the  sea  should  be  sensibly 
affected  by  the  action  of  the  sun  and  moon ;  for  it  is  only  by  the  inequality  of  such  action 
on  diiferent  parts  of  the  mass  of  waters  that  their  level  is  disturbed.  In  narrow  sorh,  and 
on  shores  far  from  the  main  body  of  the  water,  the  tides  are  not  caused  by  the  direct  action 
of  the  sun  and  moon,  but  are  waves  propagated  from  the  great  diurnal  undulation.  Of  this 
the  tides  on  the  coast  of  Britain,  and  in  tlie  German  sea,  are  remarkable  examples.  TIia 
high  water  transmitted  from  the  tide  in  the  Atlantic  reaches  Ushant  between  three  and  four 
hours  atler  the  moon  has  passed  the  meridian,  and  its  ridge  stretches  north-west,  so  as  to  fiijl 
a  little  south  of  the  coast  of  Ireland.  This  wave  soon  after  divides  itself  into  three  brnnclins ; 
one  passing  up  the  British  Channel,  another  ranging  along  the  west  side  of  Ireland  and 
Scotland,  and  the  third  entering  the  Irish  Channel.  The  first  of  these  flows  at  the  rate  of 
about  50  miles  an  hour,  so  as  to  pass  through  the  Straits  of  Dover,  and  to  reach  the  Nore 
about  midnight  at  the  time  of  spring  tide.  The  second  being  in  a  more  open  sen,  moves 
more  rapidly,  reaching  the  north  of  Ireland  by  six  p.  m.  ;  about  nine  it  has  got  to  tlie  Ork- 
neys, and  forms  a  wave  or  ridge  stretching  due  north ;  at  twelve  the  summit  of  the  same 
wave  extends  from  the  coast  of  Buchan  eastward  to  the  Naze  of  Norway  ;  and  in  twelve 
hours  more  it  passes  southward  through  the  German  Sea  and  reaches  the  Nore,  whore  it 
meets  the  morning  tide  that  left  the  mouth  of  th^  Channel  only  eight  !<ours  before.  Thus, 
these  two  tides  travel  round  Pritain  in  28  hours ;  in  which  time  the  primitive  tide  has  gone 
quite  round  the  globe,  and  nearly  45  degrees  more.  Various  curious  anomalies  are  observed 
in  the  tides  of  particular  places:  such  as  their  ceasing  altogether  for  a  day  or  two,  at  a 
certain  age  of  the  moon ;  while  at  other  times  they  become  considerable,  though  perhaps 
occurring  only  once  a  day  It  is  said  that  on  some  coasts  there  is  never  more  than  one 
tide  in  the  course  of  a  lunar  day,  which  is  probably  owing  to  some  oversight :  but  it  may  be 
shown  from  theory,  that  if  the  observer's  distance  from  the  pole  be  equal  to  the  moon's 
declination,  he  will  see  but  one  tide  in  the  day.  Small  tides  occur  six  times  a  day  on  tlie 
shore  of  the  Isle  of  Negropont.* 

The  agency  of  the  tides  is  probably  very  extensive  in  many  of  the  operations  of  nature, 
and  in  particular  in  those  which  regard  geology.  The  late  Professor  Robison  suggested  how 
experiments  might  be  made  to  determine  the  mean  density  of  the  globe,  from  the  temporary 
change  which  is  undoubtedly  caused  on  the  direction  of  gravity  by  the  great  body  of  water 
brought  to  Annapolis  Royal,  and  then  withdrawn  by  the  stream  tides. 

Sect.  II. — Springs, 

Springs  are  composed  of  the  waters  issuing  from  crevices  in  the  earth.  Of  such  there 
are  great  varieties.  Some  of  the  principal  dintinctions,  independently  of  the  qualities  of 
their  waters,  are, — temporary  springs,  which  only  flow  during  a  certain  sea.son  of  the  year ; 
perennial,  which  always  run ;  intermitting,  which  alternately  run  and  cease,  either  wholly 
or  in  part,  at  short  intervals ;  perioiHcal,  which  flow  and  ebb  regularly  at  particular  periods ; 
spovting,  which  issue  with  considerable  force,  forming,  perhaps,  a  jet  of  water.  The  mag- 
nitude of  springs  passes  through  every  gradation,  from  being  scarcely  perceptible,  to  con- 
siderable rivulets.  They  have,  likewise,  a  wide  range  of  temperature;  but  necessarily 
limited  between  the  freezing  and  boiling  points.  It  is  most  usual  for  springs  which  are 
large,  and  which  appear  to  issue  from  a  considerable  depth,  to  have  nearly  the  mean  tempe- 
rature of  the  place ;  and  in  some  instances  the  temperature  is  remarkably  steady, — not  the 
slightest  variation  being  perceptible  in  the  course  of  the  year.  Hence  apparently,  or  r(^lii- 
tively  to  the  air,  they  are  colder  in  summer  and  hotter  in  winter.  It  is,  no  doubt,  this  con- 
trast which  has  given  rise  to  the  popular  notion,  that  good  springs  are  really  colder  in  sum- 
mer and  hotter  in  winter.  Nothing  is  more  common  than  to  see  a  well  smoking  during 
uitense  frost,  which  shows  nothing  of  the  kind  during  warm  weather;  but  it  does  not  recjuire 
a  really  high  temperature  to  exhibit  such  an  nppearance,  but  only  a  temperature  not  so  low 
a^  *^at  of  the  air.  The  most  that  any  spring  keeps  within  the  range  of  both  seasons,  is  to 
remain  always  at  one  temperature.  The  greater  number  of  the  smaller  springs,  howrver 
become  a  little  warmer  in  summer  and  colder  in  winter;  particularly  those  which  come 
along  for  a  considerable  way  at  a  small  depth  under  ground.  By  so  doing,  they  participatt 
in  the  temperature  of  the  surface,  which  varies  with  the  season :  but  all  springs  preserve  a 
greater  warmth  than  the  mean  temperature  of  winter ;  and,  excepting  the  thermal  or  hot 
springs,  they  do  not  reach  the  mean  heat  of  summer. 

Hot  springs  are  those  which  preserve  a  heat  above  the  mean  temperature  of  the  place. 
Such  as  are  mereiy  tepid  are  common  in  most  countries,  especially  in  mines.  Those  having 
a  considerably  higher  temperature  are  less  frequently  met  with,  and  mostly  in  volcnnic  dis- 
tricts ;  but  some  of  them  reach  the  boiling  point,  or  are  actually  boiling  and  spouting  forth 


*  Fide  Stevenson's  great  work  on  the  Bell-Rock  Light-house,  for  observations  on  Tides  in  the  British  seal 


Book  II. 


HYDROIX)GY. 


I9if 


7«»n  '8  o„  the 

i;''""  }^^  ««n  is 

P ''pr  he  retards 

""'I'l  be  sensibly 

o*  such  action 

>e  direct  action 
l'*twn     Ofthi, 
xampjes.    The 
l>  three  and  foi,, 
i^8t,Boas  tofiil) 
three  brnncliPs- 
of  Ireland  and 
.'  at  the  rate  of 
each  the  Kore 
Ipen  sea,  niovps 
?ot  to  the  Orl(. 
I't  of  the  same 
.  and  in  twelve 
Nore,  where  it 
^ipre.    Thus, 
!  tide  htts  g-one 

es  are  observed 
»y  or  two,  (It  a 
houg'h  perhaps 
more  than  one 
hut  it  may  be 
to  the  moon's 
fs  a  day  on  the 

ons  of  nature, 
^UfTgfested  how 
'the  te?nporary 
hody  of  water 


3f  SHch  there 

B  qualities  of 
I  of  the  year; 
sithcr  wholly 
ular  periods"; 
■     The  niao'. 
tible,  to  con- 
necessarily 
8  which  are 
(lean  tempe- 
iy,— not  the 
tly,  or  r('lii- 
t,  this  con- 
der  in  snm- 
<in{r  diirinor 
not  require 
not  so  low 
asons,  IS  to 
I,  howover 
hich  come 
participati 
preserve  a 
naJ  or  hot 

the  place, 
ise  having 
conic  dia- 
ling' forth 


with  (rvoa.t  violence,  which  indicates  their  having  had  a  still  higher  temperature  before  get- 
ting vent.  Tlje  most  remarkable  are  the  hot  springs  of  Iceland,  some  of  which  are  con- 
gidcred  among  the  greatest  wonders  of  the  world.  They  are  believed  to  be  more  abundant 
ill  Iceland  than  in  any  other  country.  But  the  interest  which  the  number  and  variety  of 
these  hot  springs  excites  in  a  person  who  never  saw  any  thing  similar,  is  \]uickly  lost  in  the 
feelings  which  are  roused  on  beholding  the  magnificent  and  tremendous  explosions  of  the 
GeysiTs,  as  they  are  called.  Besides  the  principal  tbuntains,  there  is  a  great  number  of 
boiling  springs,  cavities  full  of  hot  water,  and  several  from  which  steam  issues.  There  are 
also  some  places  full  of  boiling  mud  of  gray  and  red  colours.  The  silicious  depositions  of 
tlic  waters  of  the  Great  Geyser  have  formed  for  it  a  basin  56  feet  in  diameter  in  one  direction, 
and  46  in  the  other ;  a  projection  from  one  side  causing  it  to  deviate  from  the  perfect  circle 
In  the  centre  of  this  basin  is  a  cylindrical  pit  or  shaft  10  feet  in  diameter.  Through  this 
tlie  hot  water  rises  gradually,  filling  it  and  the  basin,  after  which  it  runs  over  in  small  quan- 
tities. At  intervals  of  some  hours,  when  the  basin  is  fiill,  explosions  are  heard  from  below, 
lilce  the  report  of  distant  cannon,  and  at  the  same  time  a  tremulous  motion  of  the  ground  is 
felt  all  around  the  basin :  immediately  the  water  rises  in  a  mass  from  the  pit,  and  sinking 
again,  causes  the  water  in  the  basin  to  be  agitated  and  to  overflow :  another  and  a  stronger 
propulsion  follows,  and  clouds  of  vapour  ascend.  At  length,  strong  explosions  take  place, 
and,  large  quantities  of  sto' m  escaping,  the  water  is  tlurown  to  a  height  of  from  30  to  90 
feet,  and  even  to  200  or  3()()  feet.  The  steam,  coming  into  contact  with  the  cold  air  of  that 
climate,  is  condensed  into  tliick  clouds,  which  are  tossed  and  rolled  with  great  rapidity ;  the 
whole  forming  a  very  singular  and  magtiificent  exhibition.  After  continuing  for  some  time, 
tl.e  explosions  cease,  when  the  basin  and  pit  are  found  empty.  Bursts  of  steam  sometimes 
take  place,  when  ihe  water  is  rising,  without  any  warning  by  subterraneous  noise.  These 
phenomena  seem  to  be  occasioned  by  ster-i  finding  its  way  from  below  into  cavities,  where 
part  of  it  is  condensed  into  water,  which  ivler  is  at  length  forced  out  by  the  action  of  the 
steam  under  high  pressure.  The  New  Geyser  is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  other.  There 
are  many  hot  springs  of  less  note  in  Iceland ;  but  perhaps  the  most  curious  of  the  whole  is 
the  Tunguhver.  Among  a  great  number  of  boiling  springs  are  two  cavities,  within  a  yard 
of  each  other,  from  which  the  water  spouts  alternately :  while  from  one  the  water  is  thrown 
about  ten  feet  high  in  a  narrow  jet,  the  other  cavity  is  full  of  water  boiling  violently.  This 
jet  continues  about  four  mmutes,  and  then  subsides ;  when  the  water  from  the  other  imme- 
diately rises,  in  a  thicker  column,  to  the  height  of  three  or  four  feet.  This  continues  about 
three  minutes ;  when  it  sinks  and  the  other  rises,  and  so  on  alternately. 

The  natural  jets  of  water,  called  spouting  springs,  only  diflTer  from  the  rest  in  comir 
down  some  close  canal  from  a  fountain  on  a  higher  level.    Being  thus  closely  confined,  they 
burst  forth  in  consequence  of  the  pressure,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  artificial  spouting  foun- 
tains do.* 

Intermitting  fountains  have  sometimes  been  viewed  by  the  multitude  as  of  a  miraculous 
nature.  One  at  Como,  in  Italy,  rises  and  fiills  every  hour:  another  at  Colmars,  in 
Provence,  rises  eight  times  as  often.  At  Fronzanches,  in  Languedoc,  one  has  a  perio<l  of 
24  hours  15  minutes.  England  affords  many  examples  of  such  springs ;  particularly  those 
on  the  sea  coast,  whose  waters  rise  and  fall  with  the  pressure  of  the  tides.  The  town  of 
Tideswell,  in  Derbyshire,  is  named  from  a  noted  fountain  of  this  sort  which  once  flowed 
there,  but  has  now  cea.sed  to  observe  its  tides.  The  principles  on  which  intermitting  springs 
depend  aro  attempted  to  be  explained  in  every  popular  treatise  on  hydrostatics  and 
hydraulics.! 

Various  have  been  the  opinions  of  philosophers  concerning  the  origin  of  springs.  Some 
suppose  that  sea  water  is  conveyed  through  subterraneous  ducts  or  canals  to  tlie  places 
where  the  springs  flow  out  of  the  ear^Ii :  but  in  this  way  fresh-water  springs  could  not  be 
produced;  because  sea  water  canno',  be  freed  from  its  salt  by  filtration.  It  is,  besides,  dif- 
ficult to  conceive  how  the  water  siiould  filter  vpwards.  In  order  to  overcome  these  objec- 
tions, recourse  has  been  had  to  subterranean  heat,  by  which  the  water  is  conceived  to  rise 
upwards  in  vapour  through  certain  fissures  and  cavities  of  the  mountains  where  it  is  col- 
lected, and  issues  forth,  as  we  see,  in  springs.  Others  vary  the  hypothesis  a  little,  by  saying 
that  the  sea  water  is  raised  through  the  mountains  by  capillary  action ;  but  here  we  ought 
still  to  have  salt  springs;  and  it  has  been  further  objected  that  a  current  cannot  be  produced 
by  capillary  action. 

The  most  probable  theory  is  that  proposed  by  Dr.  Halley,  who  maintained  that  springs 
are  nothing  more  than  a  part  of  the  water  which  falls  on  higher  ground  filtrating  through, 
and  afterwards  issuing  forth  at  a  lower  level.  This,  it  is  true,  does  not  at  first  sight  appea 
to  account  for  the  permanent  flow  of  springs  during  dry  weather.  To  complete  the  theory 
it  is  supposed  that  the  water  at  first  collects  in  large  subterranean  cavities,  from  which  it 
nfterwards  filtrates  slowly,  and  passes  towards  the  springs.     Tiie  disposition  of  the  rocks  in 

*  Vide  Ed.  Ni!W  Pliil.  JournnI,  vol.  ix.  for  observations  on  spouting  Rprings  and  Artesian  wells, 
t  V'de  Gd.  New  Phil.  Journal,  vol.  viii.  for  an  account  of  intermitting  springs. 


JOO 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  H 


strata  contributes  much  to  the  collecting  of  the  waters  under  Uie  surface,  and  conveying 
tiiein  without  waste,  as  if  in  close  pipes,  till  they  are  united  in  founttiins,  lakes,  rivers 
&c.  Dr.  Halley  showed  that  the  evaporation  from  the  sea  alone  is  a  sufficient  supply  for 
all  the  waters  that  the  rivers  carry  into  it.  His  calculation  was  founded  on  a  very  complex 
view  of  tne  subject,  and  liable  to  several  objections.  Buffbn  took  a  more  simple  view  of 
tho  matter,  by  selecting  one  of  those  lakes  that  send  out  no  stream  to  the  ocean,  and  .show- 
i\v^  that  tlie  probable  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  lake  is  equal  to  all  the  water  cor- 
ned into  it. 

The  theory  of  hot  springs  is  deserving  of  consideration.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  the 
greater  number  of  warm  and  hot  springs  occur  in  volcanic  countries — where  volcanoes  tbr- 
Dieily  burnt  or  are  still  in  a  state  of  activity  ;  and  of  those  that  do  not  occur  in  volcanic  dis- 
tricts,  some  arc  associated  with  trap  and  granite  rocks,  to  which  most  geologists  assign  an 
igneous  origin.  Hence  it  is  inferred  that  they  owe  their  temperature  to  the  same  cause  or 
causes  as  gave  rise  to  volcanic  and  ignigenous  rocks.  That  the  heat  of  such  springs  is 
otlen  connected  with  volcanic  action  cannot  admit  of  doubt;  for,  from  the  Geyser  of  Iceland, 
tlie  transition  is  almost  uninterrupted  to  the  hot  springs  in  the  dormant  volcano  of  the 
island  of  Ischia,  and  from  thence  to  those  connected  with  the  process  which  formerly  took 
place  in  the  now  extinct  volcanoes  of  Hungary  and  Auvergne.  The  hot  and  warm  springs 
of  Bath  and  Bristol,  however,  occur  in  a  limestone  country  where  no  igneous  rocks  are  visi- 
ble ;  but  these  may  be  under  the  limestone.  This  opinion  is  further  countenanced  by  the 
fact  that  many  of  the  hot  springs  met  with  in  primitive,  and  also  in  secondary,  formations, 
occur  in  spots  where  the  strata  api)ear  to  have  been  disturbed  by  igneous  agency.  Of  this 
there  is  a  striking  example  at  the  hot  springs  of  Carlsbad  in  Bohemia;  the  hot  spritigs  of 
Clifton  issue  from  a  limestone  which  appears,  at  an  early  period,  to  have  been  disturbed  by 
igneous  action :  the  hot  springs  of  Pfefiers,  in  the  Orisons,  gush  from  a  ravine  from  400  to 
6i34  feet  in  depth,  and  so  perpendicular  that  the  provisions  required  for  tlie  inmates  of  tiie 
bath  are  lowered  from  ropes  attached  to  the  summit  of  the  cliftl  and  so  narrow  that  the  rocks 
in  some  places  touch  overhead,  and  nowhere,  perhaps,  are  more  than  30  feet  apart.  The 
most  obvious  explanation  of  such  a  phenomenon  is  to  be  found  in  some  convulsion  of  nature, 
such  as  that  caused  by  an  earthquake,  or  the  sudden  elevation  of  a  large  tract  of  country. 
The  other  hot  springs  in  Switzerland  appear  in  circumstances  for  the  most  part  similar. 
Those  of  Weissenburg,  in  the  canton  of  Berne,  rise  out  of  a  gorge  of  the  same  kind  as  that 
of  Pfeffers :  those  of  Louechi  appear  at  the  foot  of  the  mural  precipice  of  the  Gemmi :  whilst 
tlio  spring  of  Baden,  in  the  canton  of  Argovia,  from  whicli  the  only  remaining  one,  that  of 
Schinzath,  is  not  far  removed,  lies  near  the  point  where,  in  consequence  of  the  two  moun- 
tains of  Staftblegg  and  Ijagern  having  been  severed  asunder  by  some  great  convulsion,  tlie 
waters  of  the  Rhine  and  of  the  other  rivers, — which  appear  to  have  once  constituted  a  single 
lake  extending  from  Coire  in  the  Orisons  to  this  mountain  ridge,  including  the  lakes  of 
Zurich  and  of  Wallenstadt,  with  the  intermediate  country, — in  one  continuous  sheet  of 
water,  flowed  off  by  the  channel  now  taken  by  one  of  the  rivers,  the  Limmat  alone.  Thus 
the  Rhine,  says  Dr.  Daubeny,  may  be  supposed  to  owe  its  original  direction  to  the  event 
which  produced  one  hot  spring,  and  its  present  course  to  that  which  occasioned  another. 

Some  springs  apparently  emit  inflammable  matter;  for  when  a  light  is  applied,  it  secmS 
to  tiike  fire  like  ardent  spirits.  But  it  is  not  so  much  the  water  that  is  inflammable,  as  some 
gas  which  it  exhales,  or  bituminous  matter  floating  on  its  surface. 

Springs  in  the  sea.  Powerful  springs  are  occasionally  mot  with  boiling  up  in  the  bottom 
of  the  sea,  so  as,  in  some  instances,  to  rise  above  the  surface.  From  some  of  them  naviga- 
tors can  draw  up  fresh  water  fit  for  taking  on  board  as  store.  The  natives,  in  certain  places, 
know  where  to  dive  under  the  surface  of  tiie  sea  tor  fi-esh  water ;  which,  perhaps,  may  be 
the  only  sour"'^  whence  they  could  obtain  it. 

Mineral  waters,  and  the  quantity  of  matter  they  deposit.  Springs  in  their  course  through 
strata  convey  along  with  them  portions  of  the  strata,  not  only  from  higher  to  lower  situa- 
tions, but  also  from  below  upwards.  They  contain  salts,  earths,  acids,  metals,  and  inflam- 
mable matters,  of  very  varied  nature:  the  variety  depending  sometunes  on  tiie  nature  of  the 
strata  through  which  they  pass;  at  other  times,  as  in  those  that  rise  upwards  in  volc;inic 
districts,  on  igneous  agency.  Hoffman  remarks,  tiiat  when  warm  and  liot  springs,  and 
those  richly  impregnated  with  mineral  matters,  occur  in  countries  at  a  distance  from  active 
and  extinct  volcanoes,  we  observe  the  strata  from  which  they  issue  to  be  much  deranged, 
thus  intimating  that  formerly  earthquakes  and  other  igneous  agencies  were  at  work  in  the 
districts  where  these  springs  now  flow.  The  quantity  of  mineral  water  brought  from  the 
interior  of  the  earth  by  springs  is  very  great ;  whether  that  matter  is  abstracted  from  the 
strata  traversed  by  the  springs,  or  is  brought  by  them  from  a  great  depth,  as  in  volciinic 
countries.  Even  some  calcareous  springs  in  Britain  deposit  annually  vast  quantities  of  cal- 
careous tuffa  and  calcareous  sinter.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Edinburgh  there  are  great 
calcareous  deposits  from  calftiroous  springs  that  flow  through  limestone  rocks ;  and  appear- 
ances of  the  same  description  abound  around  all  the  calcareous  springs  in  En:rlan(l.  Near 
to  Clermont,  in  France,  some  calcareous  springs,  rising  \\\YO\xg\\xock\ioi granite  and  gneiss, 


Book  IT. 


HYDROLOGY. 


901 


>  feet  high,     Many  of  the  great  edifices  in  Rome  are  built 
JVQua  springs.    The  hot  springs  of  Carlsbad  annually  deposit 


havu  fiirbied  a  mound  or  hi!i  ^ 

ol'  ciilcaruous  deposits  i'tM.  ■  i. 

niucli  calcareous  tuflii  and  ;      ■  •.     Other  springs,  as  the  hot  springs  in  Iceland  and  in  the 

Aiori'S,  iic|x)sit  annually  g^eai.  vjuantities  of  silica.     Salt  springs  also  bring  from  the  interior 

o!  tilt'  earlii,  and  spread  over  tlieir  vicinity,  much  salt,  wiiich  salt  may  be  derived  from  tho 

^iiliiiu  cliiys  and  salt  beds  through  wliich  they  pass;  in  other  instances  the  salt  may  come 

truiii  a  great  depth  as  on  igneous  production. 

(Jlwinical  nature  of  spring  waters.  The  water  of  springs,  when  very  pure,  is  namud 
fiifl ;  if  impregnated  with  calcareous  salts,  hard ;  and  if  impregnated  witii  various  mineral 
iiiiillLis,  mimrul.  It  was  long  believed  tiiat  hard  watev  was  unfit  for  brewing  and  distilla- 
tion i  ami  hence  soft  water  was  often  procured  for  these  operations,  at  great  expense ;  but  it 
b  now  l()und  tliat  water  which  owes  its  hardness  to  lime  is  the  most  proper  of  all  for  the 
leniioiitatiou  of  worts.  A  time  will,  however,  be  necessary  to  remove  the  popular  prejudice 
in  Hu'uur  of  soft  water.  We  have,  in  tlie  Table  on  the  following  page,  given  a  view  of  the 
coinjx)sitiou  of  the  most  celebrated  mineral  springs. 

According  to  some  chemists,  the  salts  found  by  chemical  analysis  in  springs  are  ctmsidered 
as  existing  in  the  waters ;  the  late  Dr.  Murray  considers  the  compound  existing  before  con- 
centration of  tlie  water  as,  in  all  cases,  the  most  soluble  salts  that  can  be  formed  out  of  the 
inj;rt'ilients  present.  'But,  in  reality,  so  fiir  from  our  having  determined  in  any  given  case 
till!  nature  of  the  existing  combinations  between  the  ingredients,  we  are  ignorant  even  of 
any  method  by  which  such  knowledge  is  attainable.  If,  says  Berzelius,  the  physician 
iii'inircs  of  tiie  chemist,  what  the  proportion  these  sajts  bear  to  each  other  in  any  given  case 
may  be,  the  latter  must  reply,  that  tiiis  is  a  question  as  to  which  we  are  at  present  entirely 
ill  tliu  dark ;  as  the  proportion  depends  not  only  on  the  quantity  of  acids  and  bases  present, 
wliicii  admits  being  ascertained,  but  also  on  the  relative  force  of  affinity  subsisting  between 
tlie  one  and  the  other,  for  determining  which  we  have  as  yet  no  data  whatever. 

Sect.  III. — Lakes, 

A  lake  is  a  body  of  water  which  does  not  communicate  with  the  ocean.  Independently 
of  tlie  qualities  of  their  waters,  lakes  are  distinguished  into  several  sorts: — 1.  Those  which 
receive  streams  of  water,  and  have  an 'outlet,  are  the  class  of  lakes  best  known.  It  is  rare 
t(ir  a  lake  to  give  rise  to  more  than  one  river,  which  often  bears  the  name  of  the  princiiml 
stream  which  flows  into  the  lake,  though  the  two  rivers  may  differ  niaterially  in  every 
respect.  2.  Those  which  receive  streams  of  water,  and  often  great  rivers,  without  having 
any  visible  outlet.  This  class  is  less  numerous  than  the  former,  and  is  confined  to  warm 
climates ;  but  the  largest  of  all  lakes,  the  Caspian  Sea,  belongs  to  it.  3.  Those  which 
receive  no  running  water,  but  have  an  outlet, — circumstances  wliich  imply  that  such  lakes 
are  ted  with  springs  from  beneath,  or  with  small  imperceptible  streams  from  the  Jidjacent 
land,  4.  Those  whicii  receive  no  running  water,  and  have  no  visible  outlet.  Lakes  of  this 
class,  exclusive  of  marshes,  are  for  the  most  part  small,  and  merit  little  attention.  Without 
regarding  the  foregoing  distinctions,  some  writers  subdivide  lakes  into  two  kinds,  according 
to  the  general  character  of  tlie  surface  in  Which  their  basins  are  situated :  viz.  those  which 
are  formed  in  deep  hollows  between  the  ridges  or  at  the  foot  of  mountains,  and  fed  by 
springs  or  torrents ;  and  those  which  are  formed  in  low  and  level  countries  for  want  of  a 
general  declivity,  or  dammed  up  by  a  mere  accumulation  of  alluvial  matter. 

Subterranean  lakes  form  a  class  of  lakes  dillering  remarkably  from  all  the  preceding,  and 
are  bodies  of  water  contained  in  cavities  quite  covered  over  by  eartliy  strata.  It  is  only 
wiien  such  cavities  are  laid  open  by  earthquakes,  by  the  falling  asunder  of  mountains,  by  the 
action  of  the  weather  or  of  rivers,  by  the  operations  of  mining,  or  when  the  roof  falls  in, 
that  their  situation  becomes  known.  But  they  are  probably  very  numerous,  though  perhaps 
oltoii  of  small  size.  It  is  not  easy  to  account  for  tlie  permanent  and  uniform  flow  of  many 
springs  on  any  other  supposition.  Some  of  them  appear  to  give  rise  to  rivers,  while  others 
arc  known  to  receive  very  considerable  streams  wliich  lose  themselves  in  the  interior.  Such 
are  the  numerous  cavities  of  the  Julian  Alps.  It  is  to  similar  reservoirs  that  we  must  attri- 
bute the  periodical  disappearance  of  certain  lakes  situated  above  ground.  There  are  some 
caverns  in  Norway  which  afford  a  passage  to  rapid  currents  of  water,  as  appears  from  the 
sound  heard  through  their  roofs.  It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  many  streams,  finding  no 
readier  outlet,  flow  into  subterranean  cavities,  are  absorbed  by  the  earth,  or  discharge  them- 
selves under  ground  into  the  sea.  In  this  way  may  be  explained  the  origin  of  those  springs 
iif  fresh  water  that  are  to  be  seen  spouting  up  even  in  the  midst  of  the  waves  of  the  ocean. 
The  waters  thrown  up  by  volcanoes,  the  sudden  and  terrible  inundation  of  mines,  the  number 
of  rivers  which  disappear,  the  mountains  which  are  suddenly  engulfed  in' the  bosom  of  new 
lakes, — all  these  fiicts  leave  no  doubt  of  the  existence  of  extensive  subterranonn  caviticjs 
iHintaining  large  bodies  of  water.  The  digging  of  wells  has  supplied  a  fact  still  more  inter- 
esting to  physical  geography.  It  appears  that  there  are  lakes,  or  rather  sheets  of  water, 
whicli  extend  under  ground  to  considerable  distances.  In  digsring  wells  near  Aire,  in  the 
province  of  Artois,  they  always  come  to  a  clayey  bed ;  which  being  pierced,  tlie  water  gusliea 

Vol*  L  2  A 


M8 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  U. 


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Part  a 


BookII. 


HYDROLOGY. 


209 


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forth  in  large  bubbles,  and  forms  permanent  springs,  fn  the  country  of  Moilona,  we  find 
everywhere,  at  the  depth  of  twenty  yards,  a  bed  of  clay  five  feet  thicic ;  wiiicii  beinjf  pierced, 
tlie  water  spouts  up  with  considerable  force — indicating  that  it  is  connected  with  a  reservoir 
which  stands  at  a  higher  level.  There  is  a  district  in  tie  interior  of  Algiers,  where  the 
inhabitants,  after  diggmg  to  a  depth  of  about  200  fathoms,  invariably  come  to  water,  which 
flows  up  in  such  abundance  that  they  call  it  the  subterranean  sea. 

Lakes  which  receive  much  water,  but  have  no  outlet,  were  believed  necessarily  to  com- 
municate with  the  ocean  by  some  subterraneous  channel.  The  great  distance  of  some  of 
them  from  the  ocean  seemed  to  stand  in  the  way  of  such  an  explanation ;  and  doubts  might 
still  have  remained,  were  it  not  for  the  discovciy  of  the  remarkable  fiict,  that  some  of  the 
principal  lakes  of  this  description  have  their  surfaces  far  depressed  below  the  level  of  the 
ocean.  Thus  the  surface  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  which  is  the  largest  known  lake,  and  without 
an  outlet,  was  found  by  Engelhardt  and  Parrot  to  be  SJM  feet  beneath  the  level  of  the  Black 
Sea.  A  similar  depression  has  been  ascertained  of  the  level  of  the  famous  Dead  Sea,  in 
Judea,  which  is  also  a  lake  without  an  outlet.  Its  surface  is  below  that  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean in  its  neighbourhood,  and  consequently  still  farther  below  the  higher  level  of  the  Red 
Sea.  The  true  explanation  as  to  the  consumption  of  the  waters  of  such  lakes  seems  to  be, 
that  it  is  carried  oflf  by  evaporation.  The  climates  in  which  the  two  last-mentioned  are 
situated  accord  well  with  this  supposition.  The  level  of  these  lakes,  however,  varies  with 
the  weather,  and  with  the  abundance  or  scarcity  of  the  waters  discharged  into  them  by  rivers 
at  particular  seasons  of  the  year.  The  variation  in  the  height  of  tiie  Caspian  Sea  is  from 
four  to  eight  feet ;  but  the  level,  at  a  particular  point  of  its  shore,  must  be  affected  by  the 
direction  of  the  wind,  and  probably  by  a  very  trifling  tide.  When  the  banks  of  lakes  are 
very  porous,  they  cannot  foil,  during  very  dry  weather,  to  absorb  a  large  portion  of  the  water, 
and  to  throw  it  off  by  evaporation. 

The  depth  of  great  lakes  has  been  seldom  ascertained  with  much  exactness.  The  gene- 
ral depth  of  the  Caspian  Sea  is  fi"om  60  to  70  fathoms ;  but  this  increases  towards  the  south 
end  to  such  a  degree,  that  no  bottom  can  be  found  with  a  line  of  380  fiithoms.  In  lakes,  as 
in  the  ocean,  the  slope  of  the  bank  is  continued  downward  tbir  a  considerable  way  below  the 
water ;  that  is,  deep  lakes  are  to  be  found  in  mountainous  districts,  and  shallow  marshy  ones 
in  flatter  countries.  The  depth  of  Loch  Ness,  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  is  in  Rome 
places  130  fathoms,  which  is  four  times  the  mean  depth  of  the  German  Sea ;  and  its  bottom 
is  actually  30  fathoms  below  the  deepest  part  of  that  sea,  between  the  latitudes  of  Dover 
and  Inverness.*  The  Lake  of  Geneva  attains  the  still  greater  depth  of  161  fathoms.  Many 
other  lakes  are  known  to  be  exceedingly  deep,  without  the  amount  being  ascertained.  Seve- 
ral have  passed  for  ages  as  bottomless ;  but  this  opinion  now  obtains  little  credit.  It  is  more 
probable,  that  most  lakes  are  daily  getting  more  shallow,  from  being  filled  up  with  mud  or 
debris. 

The  temperature  of  the  surface  of  lakes  depends  on  the  climate  and  season ;  but  at  the 
bottom  of  deep  lakes  it  undergoes  little  or  no  change  throughout  the  year,  and  approaches 
to  that  which  corresponds  to  the  maximum  density  of  water,  which  different  writers  estimate 
variously,  from  39"  F.  to  42.5° ;  but  40°  is  most  commonly  received.  In  Loch  Catrine  and 
Loch  Lomond,  the  temperature,  at  all  depths  below  40  fathoms,  is  41° ;  but  the  mean  for 
the  climate  is  47°.  The  deep  lakes  of  Thun  and  Zug,  in  Switzerland,  have  a  temperature 
of  42°  at  the  depth  of  15  brasses.  Thun  was  41.5°  at  the  depth  of  105  brasses,  while  the 
surface  was  60° ;  and  Zug,  41°  at  38  brasses,  with  surface  58°.  The  bottom  of  the  Lake  of 
Geneva  has  a  temperature  of  42° :  that  of  the  Lago  Sabatino  at  Rome  is  44.5°,  at  a  depth 
of  80  fathoms.  Tepid  springs  may,  in  some  cases,  keep  up  the  temperature,  when  they 
occur  at  the  bottom  of  lakes.  From  what  we  mentioned  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  it  does  not 
appear  that  the  climate  has  much  influence ;  and  yet  most  powerful  springs  of  fresh  water 
are  known  to  boil  up  in  its  shallower  parts.  Sucli  springs  probably  approach  to  tlic  moan 
temperature  of  the  climate ;  or,  perhaps,  those  who  contend  for  an  increase  of  heat  with  the 
depth  of  the  solid  strata  would  claim  for  them  a  higher  temperature.  Deep  lakes  almost 
never  freeze,  except  in  a  very  cold  climate ;  because  the  whole  body  of  water  must  cool 
below  40°  before  congelation  could  commence.  Accordingly,  neither  Loch  Ness  nor  its 
effluent  river  of  the  same  name  are  ever  frozen  over. 

The  qualities  of  the  waters  of  lakes  are  various,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  substances 
with  which  they  may  be  mixed  or  contaminated.  The  principal  distinctions,  in  this  respect, 
are  freith,  saline,  and  alkaline.  Ijakes  which  receive  much  fresh  water,  and  have  a  copious 
efflux,  are  almost  always  fresh ;  but  those  which  lose  much  of  their  water  by  evaporation 
may  be  slightly  saline,  especially  if  the  neighbouring  soil  abound  in  salt.  When  lakes  have 
no  outlet,  they  are  invariably  saline.  To  account  for  this,  two  reasons  have  been  given, 
which  are  quite  compatible  with  each  other.  The  one  is,  that  salt  lakes  having  no  outlet 
are  concentrated  portions  of  the  waters  of  the  deluge,  retained  by  the  hollows  of  the  earlii's 
surface ;  and  that  all  other  lakes  were  originally  such,  and  saline ;  but  those  have  had  tlieir 


*  Vido  Stuvensoix  Werneriaa  Memoirs,  and  Edinburgh  Phil.  Journal. 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II 


■alt  washed  out  and  carried  to  the  Scean,  which  are  traversed  by  rivers  or  other  fresh  water 
The  other  opinion  is,  that  the  salt  in  lakes  has  come  from  springs,  or  been  washed  from  the 
soil  of  the  adjacent  country  by  means  of  the  rain  and  rivers :  for  such  lakes  are  most  abun- 
dant where  the  soil  contahis  saline  matter ;  and  where  lakes  only  lose  water  by  evaporation, 
the  vapour  goes  off  fresh  and  leaves  the  salt  behind.  The  Dead  Sea  is  the  saltest  of  all 
known  lakes,  and  appears  to  have  been  so  for  upwards  of  4000  years ;  for  in  the  book  of 
Genesis  it  is  called,  by  way  of  distinction,  the  "  Salt  Sea,"  even  at  a  time  when  the  adjacent 
pliiin  was  as  noted  for  fertility  as  it  is  now  for  barrenness.  The  waters  of  this  lake  are  in  a 
state  of  saturation,  containing  about  eight  times  as  much  salt  as  those  of  the  ocean.  The 
salt  must  be  accumulating  in  beds  at  its  bottom ;  for  the  river  Jordan,  which  is  brackish, 
necessarily  carries  in  more.  Masses  of  bitumen  frequently  float  on  the  surface,  and  seem 
to  rise  from  the  bottom  of  the  lake.  The  same  thing  occurs  in  other  Asiatic  lakes,  some  of 
which  are  impregnated  with  borax.  In  the  island  of  Trinidad,  there  is  a  lake  which  pro- 
duces an  enormous  quantity  of  bitumen  fit  for  naval  purposes. 

Some  lakes  are  both  saline  and  alkaline,  as  is  the  case  with  a  series  of  lakes  in  Lower 
Egypt.  These  are  called  the  Natron  Lakes,  from  their  abounding  in  soda,  which  is  there 
culled  trona  and  natron,  the  nitre  of  the  Sacred  Writings. 

Lukes  appear  to  have  been  much  more  numerous  at  a  former  period  than  at  present,  and 
to  have  occupied  a  large  proportion  of  the  surface  of  the  land.  Traces  of  their  existence 
occur  everywhere.  Many  of  them  have  been  filled  up  with  debris,  and  become  level  plains 
traversed  by  a  river ;  some  have  been  drained  by  the  gradual  deepening  of  their  outlets ;  or 
both  causes  have  often  operated  together.  Others  have  got  vent  through  cracks  caused  by 
earthquakes,  or  by  the  subsiding  of  a  part  of  the  basin.  The  kingdom  of  Hungary  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  originally  the  basin  of  a  lake ;  and  some  go  so  for  as  to  allege  the  same 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Geological  phenomena  also  show  that  new  lakes  arise,  and  old 
ones  disappear,  during  those  great  risings  and  sinkings  of  the  land  which  have  taken  place 
during  former  periods,  and  even  now  are  not  without  example. 

There  are  several  modes  in  which  new  lakes  may  be  formed.  In  hot  tropical  climates, 
many  large  lakes  are  formed  during  the  rainy  season,  and  entirely  disappear  on  a  change  of 
wei'iher ;  but  such  hardly  deserve  the  name,  being  rather  land-floods,  diough  they  would  be 
permanent  lakes  in  a  colder  country.  "  We  have  already  mentioned  the  formation  of  a  visible 
or  open  lake  from  the  falling  in  of  the  roof  of  a  subterranean  one.  When  a  mountain  fulls 
asjmder,  it  often  happens  that  it  stops  up  a  neighbouring  river  and  valley,  and  forms  a  lake. 
But  the  water  of  a  river  obstructed  in  this  manner  will  always  overflow,  and  can  scarcely 
fail  to  regain  its  former  level,  either  by  wearing  away  a  cut  for  itself  above,  or  by  under- 
mining the  ruins  beneath.  Shallow  marshy  lakes  are  frequently  formed  by  the  surplus 
waters  of  rivers  detained  on  flat  ground  by  an  accumulation  of  mud.  Ice  and  snow  some- 
tiinfs  accumulate  in  narrow  passes  between  mountains,  so  as  to  obstruct  and  make  the  water 
stagnant,  and  form  a  temporary  lake,  increasing  perhaps  for  years,  till  at  length  The  pressure 
of  the  water  is  augmented  to  such  a  degree  as  to  burst  the  icy  barrier.  The  consequences 
are  sometimes  dreadful.  So  great  a  discharge  of  water  and  ice,  precipitated  from  the 
moiuitains,  tears  up  not  only  alluvial  substances,  but  frequently  portions  of  rocks,  which  are 
scattered  over  the  plain  below.  Thus  villages  and  fertile  fields  are  almost  instantly  con- 
verted into  deep  hollows  and  heaps  of  rubbish.  These  cavities  perhaps  continue  filled  with 
water,  forming  small  lakes. 

There  are  certain  lakes  which  disappear  and  re-appear  periodically,  without  regard  to 
the  rainy  season.  Such  are  supposed  to  be  filled  and  emptied  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 
cavities  of  intermitting  springs,  or  to  communicate  with  some  subterranean  lake  which 
undergoes  such  periodical  changes.  Tiiat  any  lakes,  remote  from  the  sea,  should  communi- 
ciito  with  it  under  ground,  so  as  to  rise  and  llill  with  the  tide,  is  very  improbable.  In 
Portugal  there  is  a  small  lake  near  Beja,  which  emits  a  loud  noise  on  the  approach  of  a 
storm.  Other  lakes  appear  agitated  by  the  disengagement  of  gas.  Near  Boleslaw,  in 
Boliemia,  a  lake  of  unfathomable  depth  sometimes  emits  blasts  of  wind  which  raise  up 
pieces  of  ice.  Some  of  the  Scottish  lakes,  and  the  Wetter  in  Sweden,  experience  violent 
agitations  even  during  serene  weather.  A  coincidence  of  dates  has  given  ground  for  believ- 
ing that  these  agitations  are  connected  with  earthcjuakes  in  distant  countries. 

Sect.  IV. — Rivers. 
The  origin  and  progress  of  rivers  have  been  compared  by  Pliny  to  the  life  of  man.  "  Its 
beginnings  are  insignificant,  and  its  infancy  is  frivolous;  it  plays  among  the  flowers  of  a 
mo'iilow,  it  waters  a  garden,  or  turns  a  little  mill.  Gathering  strength,  in  its  youth  it 
beooincs  wild  and  impetuous.  Impatient  of  the  restraints  which  it  still  meets  with  in  the 
hollows  among  the  mountains,  it  is  restless  and  fretful ;  quick  in  its  turning,  and  unsteady 
in  its  ctMirge.  Now  it  is  a  njiiring  catarnct,  tearing  up  and  overturning  whatever  opjioi^es 
its  prooress,  and  it  shoots  hendlonjr  down  from  a  rock  ;  then  it  becomes  a  sullen  and  glooniy 
pool,  buried  in  the  bottom  of  a  glon.  Recovering  brnatii  by  reposo,  it  again  dashes  u\<a\'i, 
till  tired  of  uoroar  and  mischieti  it  quits  all  that  it  has  swept  along,  and  leaves  the  opening 


BllOK  II. 


HYDROLOGY. 


200 


of  tlio  vallny  strewed  with  the  rejected  waste.  Now  quitting  its  retirement,  it  comes  abnwd 
into  the  world,  journeying  with  more  prudence  and  discretion,  through  cultivatfid  tiolds, 
yielding  to  circumstances,  and  winding  round  what  would  trouble  it  to  overwhelm  or  remove. 
It  passes  through  the  populous  cities,  and  all  the  busy  haunts  of  man,  tendering  its  servicea 
on  every  side,  and  becomes  the  support  and  ornament  of  the  country.  Increased  by 
numerous  alliances,  and  advanced  in  its  course,  it  becomes  grave  and  stately  in  its  motioiiH, 
loves  peace  and  quiet,  and  in  majestic  silence  rolls  on  its  mighty  waters  till  it  is  laid  to  rest 
in  the  vast  abyss."  The  sun  and  the  host  of  heaven  have,  in  all  ages  and  nations,  boon 
objects  of  sincere  worship.  Next  to  them,  the  rivers  seem  to  have  attracted  the  grateful 
acknowledgements  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring  countries.  They  have  every- 
where been  considered  a  sort  of  tutelar  deities,  and  each  little  district,  every  retired 
valley,  had  its  river  god,  who  was  preferred  to  the  others.  The  expostulation  of  Naaman 
the  Syrian,  who  was  offended  with  the  prophet  for  enjoining  him  to  wash  in  the  river 
Jordan,  was  the  natural  effusion  of  this  attachment.  "  What  (said  he),  are  not  Abana  and 
Pharpar,  rivers  of  Damascus,  more  excellent  than  all  the  waters  of  Judea  f  Might  I  not 
wash  in  them  and  be  clean"?  so  he  went  away  wroth."  In  those  countries  particularly 
where  the  labours  of  the  husbandman  and  shepherd  depended  on  what  took  place  in  a  tar 
distant  country  by  the  falling  of  periodical  rains,  or  the  melting  of  the  collected  snows,  tiie 
Nile,  the  Ganges,  the  Indus,  were  the  sensible  agents  of  nature  in  procuring  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  their  fertile  banks  all  their  abundance,  and  tiiey  became  objects  of  grateful  adoration. 
Their  sources  were  sought  for  even  by  conquering  princes,  and  when  found  were  worshipped 
with  the  mast  affectionate  devotion.  These  rivers  preserve  to  this  day  the  fond  adoration  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  countries  through  which  they  pass,  and  their  waters  are  still  held  sacred. 

The  term  river  is  applied  to  any  large  current  of  water  which  is  not  in  the  ocean  or  its 
branches,  and  which  may  discharge  itself  into  the  ocean,  into  lakes,  marshes,  or  into  other 
rivers ;  for  the  waters  of  some  rivers  never  reach  the  ocean ;  as  is  the  case  with  the  Wolga, 
the  Jordan,  and  others,  which  discharge  themselves  into  salt  lakes,  having  usually  the  name 
of  seas.  When  the  atmosphere  supplies  a  country  with  more  water  than  it  has  an  opportu- 
nity of  carrying  off  again  by  evaporation,  the  surplus  either  penetrates  through  the  surface 
or  collects  into  small  streams,  which,  afterwards  uniting  and  receiving  the  water  of  springs, 
gradually  form  larger  and  larger  currents,  which,  if  allowed  to  proceed  increasing,  at  length 
become  rivers.  Some  rivers  proceed  from  lakes  or  marshes,  but  none  come  immediately  from 
tiie  sea.  They  invariably  occupy  the  lowest  parts  of  the  districts  from  which  their  waters 
are  derived,  and  these  districts  are  called  their  basins.  The  basins  are  usually  bounded  hy 
high  lands,  and  sometimes  by  mountains.  They  form  natural  divisions  in  physical  geography. 
Those  of  the  Rhone,  Garonne,  Loire,  Seine,  and  part  of  the  basin  of  the  Rhine,  comprehend 
the  greatest  part  of  France.  In  some  cases,  the  boundaries  of  basins  are  not  well  defined ; 
as  where  the  surface  becomes  flat  or  marshy.  This  is  the  case  between  the  basins  of  the 
Amazon  and  Orinoco,  which  are  connected  by  a  natural  and  navigable  communication.  In 
Europe,  the  sources  of  the  Dwina,  of  the  Niemen,  and  of  the  Borysthenes,  are  nearly  united 
in  a  marshy  plain.  It  is  evident  that  the  deep  ravines  through  which  rivers  flow  could  not 
in  many  instances  be  the  work  of  the  rivers  themselves ;  because  the  margins  of  such  ravines 
are  often  higher  than  other  places  of  the  district,  through  which  the  rivers  ought  to  have 
flowed  before  such  yalleys  were  cut,  as  some  fiincy,  out  of  solid  rock.  A  more  rational 
explanation  is,  that  a  crack  or  rent, — the  effect  of  some  earthquake  or  subsidence, — had 
taken  place ;  and  that  the  water,  getting  through  such  rent,  had  gradually  widened  it  by  the 
attrition  of  its  sand  and  gravel :  the  still  more  corroding  action  of  the  weather  would  mate- 
rially assist  in  widening  the  upper  part  of  the  ravine.  Many  rivers  appear  to  have  been  at 
first  a  series  of  lakes  and  cataracts  alternately,  through  which  the  water  was  conveyed  from 
higher  to  lower  ground.  The  bottoms  of  these  lakes  are  gradually  filled  up  with  debris, 
the  outlets  are  by  degrees  deepened,  or  the  basins  rent  through  as  above  described.  The 
lakes  at  length  become  dry  plains,  traversed  by  the  river;  the  cataracts,  clefls  or  deep 
ravines ;  and  the  river  acquires,  upon  the  whole,  a  pretty  uniform  descent.  There  are  traces 
of  these  changes  everywhere :  the  parallel  roads  of  Lochaber,  as  they  are  called,  seem  to  be 
nothing  else  than  the  horizontal  shelves  with  which  lakes  are  usually  surrounded.  From 
these  it  appears  that  the  valleys  of  Glen  Gluoy,  Glen  Roy,  and  Glen  Spean,  have  formerly 
been  the  basins  of  lakes,  which  are  now  cut  through  and  emptied.  Three  distinct  basins 
are  observed  in  the  course  of  the  Rhine :  first,  that  of  the  Lake  of  Constance ;  the  second 
reaches  from  Basle  to  Bingen ;  and  the  third  from  this  to  the  sea.  They  are  separated  from 
each  other  by  rocky  straits.  In  many  cases,  the  subsidence  of  the  water,  at  successive  stages, 
can  be  traced  from  one  level  to  another,  by  means  of  the  different  horizontal  shelves  still 
visible  on  the  sides  of  the  valleys.  Sir  Thomas  Lauder  remarked  tliis,  in  the  above  named 
?Iens  in  tho  Hiirhlands  of  Scotland.  Tn  the  vallev  of  the  Rhine.  PrnfoasoT  Plavfflir  distin. 
guished  four  or  five  such  terraces,  at  the  successive  heights  of  twenty,  thirty,  or  forty  feet 
aliove  one  another.  The  same  thing  occurs  on  the  banks  in  the  great  chain  of  North  American 
uikes  which  are  not  yet  empty. 

The  larger  rivers  are,  theur  fall  or  declivity  is  generally  so  much  the  smaller.    The  reason 

Vol.  I.  18 


206 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PaetII. 


of  this  is,  that  large  rivers  necessarily  occupy  the  lowest  parts  of  the  country ;  and  also,  that 
tlicrc  urc  no  materials  of  which  beds  of  rivers  are  ordinarily  formed,  that  could  have  resisted 
the  action  of  a  great  river,  having  a  rapid  fiill,  during  the  lapse  of  ages.  In  the  last  200 
leagues  of  the  Amazons,  the  fall  is  only  10.5  feet ;  and  in  the  3000  miles  above  that,  the 
meun  fall  is  only  five  inches  per  mile.  The  Seine,  between  Valvins  and  Sevres,  hafi  a  fall 
of  about  9.5  inches  per  mile.  The  Loire,  between  Briaire  and  Orleans,  has  only  one  foot  in 
13,5Ji<i.  Between  the  Himalaya  chain  and  tlie  sea,  the  Ganges  has  only  four  inches  per  mile. 
The  entire  fall  of  the  Woljja  is  957  French  feet,  or  five  inches  per  mile.  Notwithstanding 
the  rapidity  of  the  Rhine,  it  has  only  a  lull  of  four  feet  per  mile  between  Schaffhausen  and 
Straijburg ;  and  of  two  feet  between  that  and  Schenckenschantz.  Sometimes  a  river  iallmg 
into  another  with  great  rapidity,  and  at  an  acute  angle,  will  at  the  time  of  flood  force  the 
latter  to  flow  back  for  a  short  way.  Such  is  sometimes  the  effect  of  the  Arve  on  the  Rhone, 
whicli  is  forced  back  into  the  Lake  of  Geneva. 

The  bore  is  a  phenomenon  which  occurs  on  some  great  rivers,  which  enter  the  sea  with 
considerably  velocity,  and  experience  a  sudden  check  or  obstruction  from  the  flow  of  the  tide; 
tiio  consotiuence  is,  that  an  enormous  wave,  known  by  the  term  bore,  and  various  other  names, 
is  generated  and  sent  bockward  or  up  the  river  with  great  velocity,  to  the  no  small  danger 
of  the  navigation.  The  principle  on  which  this  phenomenon  depends  is  nearly  allied  to  that 
if  the  hydraulic  ram :  at  the  spring  tides,  it  appears  of  a  correspondingly  greater  magnitude. 
In  the  Amazons,  the  height  of  this  wave  is  estimated  at  180  feet. 

Rivers  are  subject  to  inundation.  In  the  Sacred  Writings,  some  allusions  are  made  to  the 
overflowings  of  the  Nile;  but  those  of  the  Jordan  are  distinctly  mentioned,  as  covering  all 
the  banks  during  harvest,  and  expelling  the  lions  which  lurked  in  the  thickets,  so  as  to 
drive  tiiem  infuriated  through  the  country.  Modern  travellers,  however,  assert  that  this 
river  does  not  now  overflow ;  and  they  allege  as  a  reason,  that  its  channel  is  become  deep 
enough  tu  hold  tlie  floods.  It  is  as  likely  that  the  banks  have  been  raised  by  the  deposition 
of  mud  and  the  growth  of  vegetables :  perhaps  the  fall  of  snow  and  rain  upon  Mount  Leba- 
non, from  which  the  floods  came,  is  not  so  abundant  since  its  forests  of  cedars  were  cut 
down ;  for  some  travellers  are  of  opinion  that  this  river  must,  firom  the  accounts  of  the  an- 
cients, have  been  formerly  of  much  greater  magnitude,  at  all  seasons  of  the  yeai ,  than  it 
now  appears  to  be. 

The  excessive  rains  which  fall  in  tropical  regions,  during  a  certain  season  of  t)ie  year, 
occasion  the  inundation  or  overflowing  of  the  rivers  which  originate  in  the  torrid  zone. 
Tiie  following  is  nearly  the  general  rule  for  the  rainy  season ;  viz.,  that  periodical  rains 
jverywiicre  prevail  from  the  equator  to  the  parallel  of  latitude  over  which  the  sun  is 
vertical.  Humboldt  mentions  as  another  pretty  correct  and  still  more  general  rule,  apply- 
ing likewise  to  the  fi"igid  zone,  that  tlie  season  of  floods  falls  within  four  months  of  midsum- 
mer. Tlie  floods  of  rivers  originating  in  high  latitudes  proceed  principally  from  the  melt- 
ing of  the  ice  and  snow  on  the  mountains,  by  means  of  the  summer's  heat.  Such  floods  are 
violent,  but  of  short  duration,  and  occur  in  the  four  months  preceding  the  summer  solstice. 
Some  of  these  rivers  have  two,  or  perhaps  three,  successive  floods,  corresponding  to  the 
seasons  of  thaw  in  the  low  crround,  on  the  sides  of  mountains,  and  on  their  summits. 

The  ancients  were  quite  aware  that  some  rivers  derived  their  floods  from  the  sources  we 
have  just  mentioned ;  but  the  overflowings  of  the  Nile,  in  a  country  remote  from  both  rain 
and  snow,  excited  their  surprise.  The  mystery  was,  however,  dispelled,  when  once  it  was 
known  tlmt  the  Nile  principally  draws  its  waters  from  the  tropical  regions,  where  the  exces- 
sive periodical  rains  cause  other  rivers  to  overflow.  The  Nile  begins  to  swell  in  June,  and 
continues  to  do  so  till  the  middle  of  August,  when  it  has  reached  its  maximum  hciglit  of 
from  24  to  28  feet.  With  tlie  exception  of  a  few. elevated  spots,  and  some  of  the  higher 
accumulations  of  alluvial  matter,  on  ti:c  margin  of  the  river,  the  whole  of  the  Delta  and  the 
long  valley  of  Egypt  is  then  covered  with  water.  The  rising  of  the  Ganges,  which  is  partly 
owing  to  the  melting  of  snow  and  partly  to  the  rainy  season,  commences  in  April,  and,  like 
tlie  Nile,  attains  its  maximum  of  about  31  or  32  feet  in  the  middle  of  August.  Tropical 
rivers  which  move  parallel  to  the  equator  spread  their  waters  pretty  uniformly  over  the  low 
ground  :  such  is  the  case  with  the  Orinoco  and  the  Senegal.  In  rivers  which  descend  from 
great  elevations,  or  move  at  right  angles  to  the  equator,  the  action  of  the  tropical  rains  is 
extremely  unequal ;  for  the  surplus  water  only  overflows  the  low  and  flat  districts.  This  is 
exactly  what  happens  with  the  Nile :  but  it  is  sufficient  here  to  mention  the  general  princi- 
ples ;  OS  the  inundations  of  particular  rivers  will  be  described  along  with  their  respective 
countries. 

Waterfalls,  or  cascades  and  cataracts,  are  often  formed  by  rivers  in  descending  from  pri 
mitive  mountains  into  secondary  countries.  Compact  durable  rocks  are  requisite  for  pro 
ducing  a  permanent  eflect  of  this  kind  :  such  are  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile,  of  the  Ganges, 
and  various  other  rivers.  Some  cataracts,  like  those  of  Tunguska,  in  Siberia,  have  gradu- 
ally lost  their  elevation  by  the  wearing  away  of  the  rocks,  and  have  now  only  a  rapid  de- 
scent. According  to  HuinboMt,  tlie  hoitrlit  "of  the  jrreat  c;itnract  of  the  Rio  de  Bogota,  in 
South  America,  long  estimated  at  1500  feet,  is  about  800  feet ;  tliat  of  Staubbach  is  about 


Bool  n. 


HYDROLOGY. 


vn 


0<)()  feet  The  amall  river  Ache,  in  Bavaria,  which  riseB  in  the  cavern  of  the  fi^Iacier  ot 
Mount  Tauren,  runs  through  the  valley  of  Achenthal,  and,  afler  reaching  tiie  Gulf  of  Tau> 
ren,  throws  itself  oyer  an  elevation  of  2000  feet.  It  has  five  great  fiills;  the  la«t  of  which 
forms  a  most  ma^ificent  arch  of  waters,  which  is  resolved  into  spray  before  it  reaches  the 
prouiid.  The  noise  of  the  waters  is  so  terrible,  that  it  is  heard  at  the  distance  of  moro  than 
a  leajTiio ;  and  the  current  of  air  produced  by  the  descent  of  the  water  is  so  violent,  that  it 
drives  buck  those  who  attempt  to  advance  towards  the  gulf:  it  is  necessary,  tliereforc,  to 
approacii  it  by  walking  backwards.  The  fall  of  Garispa  in  India  is  1000  feet.  One  of  the 
most  considerable  known  falls  takes  place  on  the  river  Niagara,  which  connects  Lakes  Erie 
ami  Ontario.  The  river  here,  just  before  the  fell,  is  divided  by  Goat  Island  into  two  parts : 
tlic  one,  600  feet  broad,  falls  to  the  depth  of  150  feet ;  while  the  other,  95  yards  broad,  fella 
164  feet  in  perpendicular  height  In  Scotland  the  most  considerable  fells  are  those  on  the 
river  Clyde,  near  Lanark,  where  the  river  is  precipitated  down  three  successive  precipices 
of  red  sandstone.  In  the  upper  fall,  that  of  Bonniton,  the  whole  river  throws  itself  over  a 
precipice  30  feet  high :  lower  down,  at  Corra  Lirin,  it  is  precipitated  from  a  height  of  84 
feet.  Tiie  lowest  fall,  that  of  Slonebyres,  consists  of  three  stages,  being  broken  by  two  pro- 
jectinijf  rucks ;  its  fell  is  80  feet  In  the  course  of  the  river  Foyers,  on  the  side  of  Loch 
Ness,  HiCTo.  are  two  falls ;  the  upper  fall  is  40  feet  high,  the  lower  00  feet  In  the  miner- 
alogical  report  of  Lapland,  presented  to  the  Swedish  government,  the  discovery  of  a  great 
waterfell  in  the  river  Lulea  is  particularly  mentioned.  It  is  said  to  be  one  eighth  of  a  mile 
bmad,  and  to  fell  400  feet ;  if  the  mile  be  German,  as  is  most  likely  (equal  to  four  and  a  half 
English  miles),  the  breodUi  exceeds  half  an  English  mile. 


CHAPTER  ra. 

GEOGNOSY. 

This  branch  of  natural  history  makes  us  acquainted  with  the  structure,  materials,  relative 
position,  and  mode  of  formation,  of  the  great  mineral  masses  of  which  the  crust  of  the 
earth  is  composed. 

In  conveying  to  our  readers  a  short  view  of  this  important  subject,  we  shall  adopt  the 
followinf;  arrangement : — 

I.  Describe  the  physio^omy  of  tlie  earth's  surfece. 

II.  Give  an  account  of  the  action  of  water  and  air  on  that  surfece. 

III.  Give  an  account  of  the  action  of  volcanoes  and  earthquakes  on  the  earth's  surface. 

IV.  Describe  the  different  strnctures  observable  in  the  solid  mass  of  the  globe. 

V.  Define  and  describe  the  different  classes  and  species  of  rocks  of  which  the  crust  of  the 
earth  is  composed. 

Sect.  I. — Physiognomy  of  the  EartVs  surface. 

Dry  land.  The  dry  land,  or  the  land  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  arranged  into  masses 
of  various  magnitudes  and  forms.  It  is  not  equally  distributed ;  for  a  much  larger  portion 
of  it  occurs  to  the  north  than  to  the  south  of  the  equator ;  and  the  difference  in  this  respect 
is  so  great,  that  the  southern  half  of  the  globe  is  principally  water,  while  the  northern  is 
chiefly  land.  About  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  it  was  asserted  that  a  great  contment 
must  exist  towards  the  south  pole,  in  order  to  counterbalance  the  mass  of  land  in  the  north- 
em  hemisphere ;  but  by  the  voyages  of  Cook  and  Bellinghausen,  and  particularly  the  late  enter- 
prise of  Weddel,  it  has  been  shown  that  in  high  southern  latitudes,  in  place  of  a  continent, 
there  are  but  a  few  groups  of  islands.  The  absence  of  a  continent  near  the  south  pole  does 
not  itself  prove  that  there  is  less  land  there  than  in  the  north,  since  it  is  possible  that  the 
land  in  general  may  be  only  rather  more  depressed  in  the  south,  and  consequently  the  ocean 
is  spread  more  extensively  over  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  that  quarter.  The  dry  land 
is  arranged  into  two  grand  divisions  named  worlds,  viz.  the  Old  World  and  the  New 
World.  The  Old  World,  in  the  eastern  hemisphere,  extends  from  S.  W.  to  N.  E.,  and 
comprehends  the  three  continents  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  The  JVeio  World,  in  tlie 
western  hemisphere,  extends  from  N.  to  S.,  and  is  composed  of  two  continents,  viz.  North 
and  South  America. 

The  general  direction  of  the  land  in  the  two  worlds  is  different  In  America,  it  is  from 
N.  to  S. :  in  the  Old  World,  it  is  S.  W.  to  N.  E :  and,  if  we  omit  Africa,  it  is  almost  parallel 
with  the  equator.  The  longest  straight  line  tliat  can  be  drawn  on  the  Old  World  com- 
mences on  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  from  abput  Cape  Verd,  and  extends  to  Behring' 
Strait,  on  the  north-east  coast  of  Asia:  it  is  about  11,000  miles  in  length.  A  similar  line 
traced  along  the  New  World  from  the  Strait  of  Terra  del  Fuego  to  the  northern  shore  of 
North  America  measures  nearly  9000  miles. 

The  Old  and  New  Worlds  have  the  following  features  in  common :  northern  and  southern 
halves,  connecting  ipthmuses,  a  peninsula  on  the  one  side,  and  a  group  of  islands  on  the 
other.    This  arrangement  will  appear  evident  from  the  following  details. 


soe 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOORAI'IIY. 


Part  II. 


The  old  world  may  he  conHulerod  an  composed  of  two  jjreat  halves:  the  one,  the  wcstirn, 
lnrlndca  Euro|w  and  AtVica;  the  other,  the  oaHtern,  Asia  and  New  Ilolliind.  In  tiic  wo(<f,'rii 
halt',  tlio  two  continents,  viz,  Europe  and  Africa,  are  connected  together  hy  the  iHthimis  nf 
Hnez,  and  have  on  the  one  hand  the  iwlan<l«  of  the  Meditcrmnoan,  and  on  the  other  tlio  p.n. 
insula  of  Arabia.  In  the  caHtern  half,  tlie  two  continents  of  Asia  and  Now  Holliinil  iirc,  to 
a  cdrtiiin  extent,  connected  together  hy  the  islands  of  Java,  Sumatra,  dtc. ;  and  in  front  of 
tliis  broken  isthmiu  is  Papua  and  other  islands,  and  on  the  other  side  the  peninsula  of  Imlia. 
The  New  World  is  composed  of  two  halves,  a  northern  and  a  southern:  these  are  coniicctt'd 
together  by  the  isthmus  of  Darien ;  and  on  the  front  are  situated  the  West  India  islatidn,  anil 
behind  the  peninsula  of  California. 

Another  general  feature  in  the  general  distribution  of  the  dry  land,  is  the  tapering  of  nil 
the  great  peninsulas  to  the  south.  This,  for  example,  is  the  case  with  the  continent  of  Africa, 
with  Arabia,  India,  South  America,  Scandinavia,  Spain,  Italy,  Greece,  Corea,  Aloshka,  Kiim- 
tchatka,  California,  Florida,  and  Greenland. 

Besides  the  Old  and  New  Worlds,  as  above  described,  there  occur,  dispersed  through  the 
ocean,  numerous  smaller  masses  of  land,  forming  islands  of  various  ma^itudes  and  torms. 
Those  islands  situated  near  to  the  continents  are  considered  as  belongmg  to  them.  Thus 
the  British  isles  belong  to  Europe,  those  of  Japan  to  Asia,  the  West  India  islands  to 
America,  and  Madagascar  to  Africa,  But  besides  these  there  are  other  islands  and  grnni)9 
of  islands,  situated  at  a  distance  from  continents,  and  which  cannot  bo  referred  to  any  of  the 
preceding  divisions,  but  to  the  oceans  in  which  they  occur;  as,  tor  example,  the  Sajidwich 
Islands,  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean. 

SuBBECT,  1, — Inequalities  of  the  Surface  of  the  Dry  Land. 

The  surface  of  the  land  exhibits  great  variety  in  aspect,  forming  moimtains,  hills,  valleys, 
and  plains.  The  most  general  of  tiiese  features  are  what  geographers  term  hiffh  Imul  and 
low  land.  High  lands  are  lofty,  uneven,  and  widely  extended  masses  of  land :  tlius,  tlie 
mountainous  tract  of  country  extending  from  the  Naze  of  Norway  to  the  North  Cape  is  a 
high  land.  Low  lands  are  widely  extended  low  and  flat  countries :  thus,  the  northern  part 
of  France,  the  Netherlands,  Holliind,  part  of  Germany,  and  Silesia;  Poland,  and  European 
Russia  form  what  may  be  called  the  great  European  low  land.  We  shall  first  explain  the 
structure  of  high  land,  and  next  that  of  low  land. 

(1.)  Structure  of  high  land.  In  a  high  land,  the  central  parts  are  generally  the  most 
rugged  and  lofty,  while  the  exterior  districts,  those  which  border  on  the  low  land,  are  lower, 
and  less  rugged.  The  central  part  is  named  alpine,  the  lower  and  the  exterior  part  hilly. 
The  alpine  part  of  a  high  land  is  composed  of  a  central  and  lofty  chain  of  mountains,  named 
the  central,  or  high  mountain  chain,  towards  which  there  tend  a  greater  or  lesser  number 
of  lateral  or  principal ;  and  from  these  again  subordinate  chains.  The  high  mountain  chain 
forms  the  water-shed  (divorlia  aquarujn)  of  the  district ;  and  the  hollows  that  traverse  the 
upper  part  of  this  chain  are  named  passes  (cols.)  On  passing  fi^m  one  side  to  another  of 
the  alpine  land,  we  do  not  always  travel  through  a  pass  or  col,  but  sometimes  across  a  com 
paratively  flat  tract,  many  leagues  in  extent ;  such  are  named  table-lands.  In  crossing 
from  Norway  to  Sweden,  we  pass  in  some  parts  across  a  table-land ;  also  in  travelling  from 
Vera  Cruz  by  Mexico  to  Acapulco.  The  inclined  planes  on  which  the  lateral,  or  principal 
and  subordinate,  chains  are  distributed  are  named  the  acclivities  of  the  high  land.  The 
hollows  that  separate  these  chains  from  each  other  are  named  valleys :  those  valleys  bounded 
by  principal  chains  are  named  principal  valleys,  and  sometimes  transverse  valleys ;  while 
the  valleys  between  subordinate  chains  are  named  subordinate  valleys.  The  hilly  or  lower 
part  of  the  ''igh  land  is  composed  of  comparatively  low  and  less  rugged  chains,  called  chains 
of  hills,  whioh  are  irregularly  grouped,  being  entirely  without  a  central  or  high  motmtain 
chain.  The  valleys  in  this  hilly  land  are  shorter,  less  steep,  and  not  so  rugged  as  in  the 
more  central  or  alpine  part  of  the  high  land. 

(2.)  Structure  of  low  land.  Low  land  is  formed  principally  of  extensive  plains,  little 
elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  which  we  occasionally  observe  gentle  risings  and 
undulations  of  the  surface,  that  often  extend  to  a  considerable  distance,  and  sometimes  form 
the  limits  between  neighbouring  rivers.  Now  and  then  conical  and  table-shaped  hills  rise 
up  singly  and  suddenly  in  a  low  country,  as  is  the  case  with  volcanic  and  igneous  hills.  The 
plains  of  the  low  land  are  characterised  by  the  presence  of  particular  hollows  or  concavitiej, 
which  are  named  river-courses  or  river-valleys ;  because  in  these  rivers  flow.  In  such  iiol- 
lows  we  distinguish  the  bed  of  the  river,  and  the  holm  or  haugh  land ;  further  we  observe 
the  high  and  low  banks  of  the  river,  and  the  ravines  or  small  valleys,  that  traverse  the  high 
bank  and  terminate  in  the  low  bank.  There  is  still  another  kind  of  hollow  met  with  in  the 
low  land ;  it  is  tha't  in  which  lakes,  generally  shallow,  are  cnntitined. 

Coasts.  The  margin  of  the  dry  land,  where  it  meets  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  has  received 
the  general  name  of  coast.  It  varies  in  its  aspect.  Sometimes  it  is  low  and  shelving,  and 
then  the  neighbouring  sea  is  shallow  to  a  considerable  distance ;  at  other  times  it  is  steep, 
lotly,  and  rugged,  and  then  the  sea  is  deep.    In  many  parts  of  Great  Britain,  and  on  tlie 


Book  II. 


GEOONOSY. 


aperinjr  of  nH 
lontofAfncii, 
loBlika,  Kiiin. 

3  through  the 
Bs  and  fi)riT,s 
them.  Tims 
'a  islands  to 
8  and  prnii|)s 
to  any  of  the 
he  Sandwich 


[•'"s,  valleys, 
»>A  land  nnd 
«J :  thus,  the 
rth  Cape  is  a 
lorthern  part 
n«i  European 
explain  the 

Hy  the  most 
d,  are  lower, 
)r  part  hilly. 
tains,  named 
sser  nimiber 
mtain  chain 
traverse  the 
'  another  of 
TOSS  a  com 
In  crossing 
ellin^  from 
T  principal 
and.    The 
ya  boimded 
'ys;  while 
y  or  lowor 
led  chjiins 
mountain 
I  as  in  the 

vins,  little 
sings  and 
mes  form 
hills  rise 
lis.  The 
ticavities", 
such  hoi- 
J  observe 
the  high 
th  in  the 

received 
ing,  and 
is  steep, 
I  on  the 


continent,  as  in  Holland,  the  coast  is  low  and  sandy,  and  tho  mnd  is  occasionally  blown  into 

IiiIIh. 

Cuvet,  Those  are  cavities  of  creator  or  Icsa  extent,  which  aro  either  ojte/n  to  day,  as  in 
Iho  c!!^"  "f  the  inagniHccnt  caves  in  tho  IhIo  of  Isia,  those  in  Arran,  thowe  near  WoniysH  on 
tlic  const  of  Fifoshin!,  &.C.,  wiion  tlij-y  are  named  extfrual  or  open  r.nveg ;  or  tiiey  are  more 
or  Icrfs  coiicnttietl  in  tho  interior  of  tho  rockH  in  which  tliey  are  contained,  as  Maclean's  ('a\  e 
ill  the  L^lo  of  E^g,  and  many  caves  in  tlie  limeHtone  of  Dcrbyahiru :  such  are  named  internal 
cava. 

SuMEOT.  2. — Inequalitwa  of  the  Surface  of  the  Submarine  iMni. 

Tho  bottom  of  the  sea,  like  tho  surface  of  tho  dry  land,  varies  in  tbmi.  In  some  seaa 
thrrc  occur  Hats  and  plains  mn(;in|i(  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  near  to  the  surface  of  the 
water,  torminfj  what  are  called  ahoah ;  in  other  cases,  plains,  of  great  extent,  occur  deeply 
softtod,  or  much  below  the  surface  of  tho  sea,  which  are  denominated  deep  Kiibmaririe  plninn, 
Tiieso  submarine  plains,  like  the  plains  on  the  dry  land,  sometimea  contain  hollows  of  con- 
Biderable  extent,  and  of  groat  depth ;  the  deep  hollows  under  tho  soa  off  tho  coast  of  Hcot- 
land,  known  under  the  name  of  Montrose  pita,  are  of  this  description.  Tho  sea  bottom  is 
sometimes  hilly;  these  hills  vary  in  tbrm  and  magnitude,  and  are  either  deeply  seated,  or 
rine  above  the  surtkce  of  the  water,  forming  rocks  or  islands.  In  tropical  seas,  tho  bottom, 
when  not  very  deep,  Incomes  ene-rusted  with  coral ;  which  coral  sometimes  rises  to  the  sur- 
face, and  then  forms  coral  ahoula,  cornl  reefa,  or  coral  ialns.  If  tho  Iwttom  is  very  deep, 
but  sends  up  from  below  hills  whoso  summits  arc  not  far  below  the  level  of  the  ocean,  these 
ill  tropical  seas  also  become  covered  with  coral. 

Sect.  II. — Effecta  of  Water  and  the  Atmoaphere  on  the  Surface  of  the  Land. 

Water  is  a  very  active  agent  in  altering  and  variously  modifying  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
and  its  energy  is  increased  when  it  carries  along  with  it  mechanical  matter,  as  sand,  gravel, 
&c.,  and  particularly  when  aided  by  the  gnawing  influence  of  tho  atmosphere.  Through 
these  agents  the  whole  surtiice  of  tho  dry  land  is  keJpt  more  or  less  in  a  state  of  motion,  by 
their  breaking  up  the  strata,  and  removing  with  greater  or  less  rapidity,  the  broken  rocky 
matters  from  point  to  point,  and  often  into  lakes  and  the  sea. 

Water  acts  mechanically  and  chemically :  it  acts  mcchanicnlly  when  it  removes  part  of 
the  soil  or  broken  rocky  matter  over  which  it  passes,  or  corrodes  the  channel  in  which  it 
flows,  or  the  reservoirs  in  which  it  is  contained ;  it  also  acts  mechanically,  when,  on  being 
imbibed  by  rocks,  it  increases  their  weight,  and  thus  favours  their  rending,  slipping,  and 
nvertiirning ;  and,  lastly,  it  acta  mechanically,  when,  by  its  freezing  in  fissures,  it  breaks  up 
mountain  masses  and  rocks.  It  nets  chimically,  when  it  dissolves  particular  mineral  sub- 
stances, as  rock-salt,  out  of  the  rocks  through  which  it  percolates. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Mechanical  destroying  Effecta  of  Water. 

(1.)  Rivulets  and  Rivers,  Running  waters,  in  their  course  from  the  higher  to  the 
lower  parts  of  a  country,  carry  along  with  them  the  di'^bris  already  prepared  by  the  action 
of  the  weather  on  exposed  rocks,  and  also  more  or  loss  considerable  portions  of  the  strata 
of  the  basin  in  which  they  flow.  The  quantity  of  abraded  matter  depends  in  a  great  degree 
on  the  quantity  of  sand  or  gravel  the  river  carries  along  with  it ;  it  being  a  fact,  that  running 
water,  when  pure,  acts  but  feebly  on  compact  strata,  and  displays  its  scooping  or  excavating 
power  only  when  carrying  along  with  it  sand,  gravel,  and  such  other  matters,  which  com- 
municate to  it  a  mechanical  deptroying  action.  As  the  velocity  of  the  river  diminishes, 
its  carrying  power  diminishes;  and  fretpiently,  long  before  it  has  reached  the  marsh,  lake, 
or  tho  sea.  into  which  it  disemlioguea  it<5elf,  it  carries  only  slime  and  sleech,  leaving  the 
pravols  and  larger  solid  masses  in  higher  parts  of  its  course.  The  transporting  power  of 
water  is  much  greater  than  many  arc  aware  of:  it  is  strikingly  shown  by  the  enormous 
quantities  of  rubbish,  and  great  blocks  of  stone,  which  are  swept  along  by  rivulets  when  in 
the  state  of  flood  or  swollen.  This  transporting  jrower  is  materially  assisted  by  the  diminished 
specific  gravity  of  the  rocks  when  immersed  in  the  water,  by  which  their  weight  is  oflen 
diminished  one-third,  and  even  one-half.  The  transporting  of  heavy  stones  by  water  in 
situations  where  ice  occurs  is  assisted  by  the  ice  which  adheres  to  them,  and  which  dimin- 
ishes the  specific  gravity  of  the  mass. 

(2.)  Lakes.  Around  the  margins  of  many  lakes  we  observe  a  beach,  formed  of  the  frag- 
ments of  the  neighbouring  strata,  broken  off  in  part  by  the  waters  of  the  lake.  The  bursting 
of  Inkos  also  occasions  great  changes  in  the  neighbouring  country,  which  changes  are  of  a 
mechanical  destroying  nature. 

(o.)  Ocean.  The  waters  of  the  ocean  exercise  a  powerful  destroying  eflfect  on  coasts. 
If  the  coasts  are  bold  and  rugged,  they  are  violently  assaulted  by  the  waves  of  the  ocean ; 
the  crags  and  cliffs  split  and  tumble  down,  in  frightfiil  and  irregular  succession.  The  perfo- 
rated rock,  the  Doreholm,  on  the  west  coast  of  Shetland  ;  the  perforated  rocks  described  by 
•>aptain  Cook  near  New  Zealand ;  the  stalks,  holms,  and  skerries  on  the  coasts  of  Shetlana, 

Vol,.  I.  18*  2B 


410 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOTiRAPHY. 


PartII 


Hcotlnnd,  and  i\  ly,  are  efiecU  of  the  doatroyin)f  power  of  tho  wavoa  of  the  oconn,  con- 
J  iiibJ  \vith  llio  Knuwmj/  ilwii  of  Uie  woatli«r.  On  iKoho  rocky  coanU  wlior«»  tho  ntrnlft«rn 
ui  UBqo  '  >rdnoM,  Uiu  autit^r  portions,  and  alio  |Nirt  of  tho  surrounding  hardor  inuwt,  aro 
reiiiovwl  t.  ictioii  of  tlto  wuvro;  (iiul  thua  nea-caveM  aro  turine<l. 

I'hu  watero  ui  Uiu  ocean  otlen  iiiao  cnuxe  dreailtlil  raviq^eii  in  low  countries  oxpowjd  m 
tii(>ir  fury,  Holland  f\inu8hoa  umny  htril.  r  cxamploa  of  its  dovaMtatiuif  power.  In  tio 
yiMr  Vi'iii  tho  wuttua  of  liic  ocoan,  n^fitaiud  hy  'i  violent  tempcHt,  inuiuiated  lh«<  country; 
tlie  lllinio.  HWuilcn  it  t)ic  time  liv  oxtriionlinary  t1(MNlri,  and  reUiinod  at  n  ftroat  lii  't;iit,  partly 
i,\  till'  wutcm  of  the  u.  an,  ami  partly  hy  tho  wind  blowinjj;  in  a  contrary  direction  to  itn 
roiirw,  Hproad  over  tho  n(i;/hbourin(i:  (iiiintry :  hut,  tho  tcinp«?Ht  havini;  suddenly  HiitmidiMJ, 
th<>  liiifhly  olevuted  waters  retired,  wi  >  such  vcltKity  and  tbrco  oa  to  carry  with  them  a 
(Kin  ruble  portion  of  the  soil,  and  ktl  in  its  place  tho  sea  now  nonied  the  Zuyilfr  Sea. 
Ill  till'  \  oar  14*21,  a  (freat  inundation  subiner)i:ed  the  Houthcrn  |)artof  tho  province  ot  Holland 
drowned  fl(),00((  |)cr»tonH,  and  on  retiring  t'orinml  tho  liiin-Houa. 

The  action  of  the  H«'a  on  the  submarine  land  is  also  worthy  of  notice.     Stevenson  sppalu 
of  a^ritiittons  of  tho  moii  reacliingf  to  a  depth  of  upwards  of  '2(N)  feet ;  statin);  that,  at  n  con- 
Hiilcrahle  depth  the  ixiwer  of  the  ocoan  in  so  considerable  as  to  break  rocks  in  pieces,  uiul 
throw  thoin  upon  tho  coa.stH  in  masses,  of  various  sizes  and  forma.   Thus  he  saya,  "  numerous 
proofs  of  tho  sea  heiug  disturbed  to  a  considerable  depth  have  also  occurred  since  tho  cm 
tion  of  the  Bell-Rock  Li(;ht-houso,  situated  upon  a  sunken  rock  in  tho  sea,  twelve  miles  o 
Arbroath,  in  Forfarshire.     Somo  dri/t-atnnea  of  largo  dimensions,  measuring  upwnn' 
thirty  cubic  feet,  or  more  than  two  tons  weight,  have,  during  storms,  been  otlen  thrown  up<Mi 
the  rock  from  the  deep  water.     These  large  iKiulder-stoneH  are  so  familiar  lu  the  li((lit- 
house  keepers  at  this  station,  as  to  be  by  them  termed  travellers.*    On  the  ccvist  of  tho  main 
land  of  Shetland,  particularly  on  the  west  coast,  we  have  observed  many  striking  displayH 
of  the  power  of  tho  waves  in  moving  enormous  masses  of  rocks. 

The  currents  that  traverse  tho  ocean,  like  rivers  on  the  dry  land,  probably  acoop  nut  beds 
for  themselves,  and  carry  away,  and  often  to  distant  places,  great  fjuantitiea  of  abraded 
mutter.  The  gulf  stream,  and  other  branches  of  the  groat  equinoctial  current,  may  act 
powerfully  in  this  way ;  and  the  same  may  be  the  case  with  the  currents  in  other  soob, 
mill  tiioso  that  enter  mediterranean  seas  and  wind  round  them,  as  the  Baltic  and  Medi- 
terranean. 

(4.)  Action  o^  water  by  ita  own  weight.  Water  by  its  own  weight  contributes  very  much 
to  the  degradation  of  the  surface  of  the  <t\i  jo.  Sometimes  great  masses  of  rock,  particu- 
liirly  those  of  a  soft  and  porous  naturo,  imbibe  much  water,  by  which  their  weight  is  in- 
creased, and  thus  occasions  breaking  iind  rending,  and  slipping  of  masses  oilen  of  enormous 
niiirnitiide.  Clay  beds  sometimes  become  soil  from  the  percolation  of  rain  or  snow  water 
from  liio  superincumbent  strata.  When  this  takes  place  the  superincumbent  beds  lose  their 
xupiKirt,  and  if  the  clay  and  superimposed  rocks  are  inclined  at  a  considerable  angle,  the 
ri)ckH  ill  vast  masses  separate,  and  slide  down  intx)  the  lower  part  of  the  country.  The  fell 
of  the  Hossberg,  in  Switzerland,  in  September  181)2,  may  be  mentioned  as  an  example  of 
this  phenomenon.  This  mountain  (Kossberg)  is  5193  feet  high,  and  lies  opposite  to  the 
Rigibcrg,  which  rises  6182  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  Rossberg  is  composed  of 
molasse,  with  beds  of  clay,  and  all  inclined  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  50°.  It  is  said  that  the 
clay  in  some  of  the  beds  was  much  soflened  by  the  percolating  water,  and  the  thick  super- 
iui  unbent  beds  of  molasse,  in  this  way  losing  their  support,  were  separated  from  the  inclined 
and  soft  surface  underneath,  and  slid  into  the  valley  below.  This  ■■■  valapche  of  debris  and 
mud  overwhelmed  several  villages,  and  destroyed  from  600  to  ■  '  ]■  -idP'.  In  the  year 
1714,  the  west  side  of  the  Diablerets,  in  t!  ^  Valais,  separated,  ar'l  'n  il  ■  ' n       downwu' 

covered  the  neighbouring  country  with  itd  ruins  for  two  miles  r  '»'  ?■     oreadth;  tiie 

immense  blocks  of  stones  and  heaps  of  rubbish  interrupted  tht,  co\ii>>Q  of  the  rivers,  and 
lakes  were  tlius  formed.  In  the  year  1618,  the  once  considerable  town  of  Pleurs,  in  tlie 
Orisons,  with  the  neighbouring  village  of  Schelano,  were  overwhelmed  by  a  vast  mass 
ot'  rock,  which  had  imbibed  much  water,  and  separated  from  the  south  side  of  the  mountain 
of  C-^'to, 

(5.)  V,  ^".i  ts  of  the  freezinff  of  water.  In  those  regions  of  the  earth  where  tho  freezing 
and  tiia  s  2,  ■  of  voter  takes  place,  the  expansive  ond  destroying  action  of  ice  is  oflen  dis- 
played on  H  .  ir.v'  scale  In  the  history  of  northern  countries  we  meet  with  many  accounts 
of  the  iM.  %■  ■<!  ro'i-ongs  of  rocks,  occasioned  hy  the  expansion  of  water  during  its  freezing 
in  the  fi  suret  '  rtwlws.  Terribl:  disiisters  take  place  in  alpine  countries  by  the  bursting 
and  fall  r.'^  f^reav  mnsses  of  rock,  jplit  by  the  freezing  of  the  water  in  rents. 

(6.)  Dr.stroyiu^  effects  of  ice  and  snow.  Water  in  tho  form  of  ice  causes  considerable 
changes  (in  the  snrtiice  of  the  earth.  Thus,  when  floated  along  in  great  masses  by  rivers,  it 
breaks  up  their  banks,  and  thus  aiTonis  them  an  opportunity  of  devastating  the  lower  country ; 
and  the  masses  arc  often  so  great,  that  enormous  heaps  of  the  strata  are  thereby  torn  off  and 
carried  to  a  distiincn.  Wlien  sea  ice  is  drifted  against  the  cliffs  and  precipices  on  th^  coast, 
the  breaking  and  destruction  it  occasions  sometimes  almost  pass  belief.     For  the  breaking 

"  Viilp  WiTiiiTinn  Siir.  Mi'iiinir=   ml.  iii. 


tl)*  ocean,  con. 

9  t'lo  "trntn  ntn 
"•<l«r  iimnH.  a,o 

"■'c  cxponwl  10 

Iho  country; 

h'i<i»U  partly 

•reclioii  t„  k^ 

lenl^  Hiili»i,li.,j, 

'  with  thpin  a 

Xuyiln  Nfti 

'CfiofUoiia,,,! 

I'onHon  H\mh 
''"It,  ot  n  con. 
n  pieces,  and 
'  numerous 
fice  tlio  crri 
Ive  Miilen,, 
:  upwnrr 
1  tlirown  np,ni 

10  the  lifflit. 
^t  of  the  tiwin 
king  (lispluys 

•oop  nut  beds 
'8  of  ubMdt)d 
ont,  niny  net 
1  other  send, 
io  and  Medi- 

'8  very  much 
ocJf.  particii. 
^'eight  is  in. 
of  enormous 
'  enow  water 
ds  Jose  their 
3  anple,  the 
>^-     The  fill! 
ex*mple  of 
Mite  to  the 
omposed  of 
id  that  the 
"lick  super- 
;ho  inclined 
debris  and 
Fn  the  year 
iownwiii 
eadth;  tne 
•ivers,  and 
urs,  in  the 
vast  mass 
mountain 

0  freezin^r 
often  dis- 
'  accounts 
'  freezingf 
bursting 

siderable 
rivers,  ii 
country  j 
n  of}' and 
hp  coast, 
jreakmg 


0i)OK  n. 


GEOGNOSY. 


911 


up  niid  movinff  of  largo  maaMs  of  rock,  oim  of  the  moat  powerflil  en^ea  employed  by 
nature  are  tho  ^lacinra.  ThoHo  inaiiaeH  of  conKL'uli'd  water  and  snow,  in  their  coiino  down- 
ward, puxh  before  tiicm  enormoua  i|iiarit  'ies  of  ijudcr'n  rucky  matter,  which  form  ^eat 
mounds,  iwinod  moraine. 

BvMBcr.  2. — Che.mil  <l  dettroyw I!  Kfftcti  oj  Water. 
Afmoapherlc  water  enters  into  the  fixM,  =)  of  rockH  m  a  jHire  state,  but  iaaiiea  f^h  a>;fiin 
more  or  (i'mh  irnprej^natod  with  mineral  matters  of  varioiu  kinds  abraded  from  the  strata 
ihroiijfh  which  they  pass.  The  most  abundant  sul)«tance  brought  out  in  fhis  way  from  the 
interior  of  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  litne,  which  is  di  losited  from  these  calcaT'MXH  waters  in 
tlin  torin  of  tufTa.  Many  of  the  excavations  in  limostonn  are  partly  owing  to  tins  destroying 
offiTt  of  water.  Spring  waters,  in  passing  through  beds  of  gyjwum  and  rock  salt,  dissolve 
11  jxir'  <n  (  Ui(  m,  and  in  this  way  sometimes  occasion  considera bin  changca  m  the  interior 
ind  '  .  II  ti).)  surface  of  the  earth,  by  the  superincumbent  strata  yielding  over  thr  hollows 
loi  me   y  liii  removal  of  the  salt  and  gypsum. 

BuMKCT.  3. — Mechanical  forming  l^ffectt  qf  Water. 
'  'i  Fnrtninff  effect*  of  gpringg.     Springs  bring  fVom  the  interior  of  the  earth  muddy 
niHi  er  of  various  descriptions;  and  in  the  course  ot  time,  if  the  springs  are  spouting-springs, 
liillocks  and  hills  of  considerable  magnitude  are  thus  formed. 

,2.)  Lilket.  When  lakes  are  filled  up,  or  are  emptied,  we  find  the  space  formerly  occu- 
I  (I  liy  them  covered,  to  a  greater  or  less  depth,  with  the  alluvial  matter  brought  into  them 
by  the  rivers  that  flow  into  them.  When  lakes  burst  their  barriers,  at  difreri^nt  times,  they 
Irave  on  their  sides  a  series  of  natural  terraces  or  platforms,  of  which  we  h  ive  a  Hplendi« 
example  in  Glen  Roy.  In  Glen  Roy  these  terraces  are  known  under  the  nan  '^  of  Parallel 
Riwth  of  Glen  Roy ;  because  some  have  ftincied  they  were  not  natural  orrai  ^omenta,  but 
works  of  art, — roaiw  formed  by  the  ancient  inhabitants. 

(8.)  Rivera.  When  rivers  are  in  a  state  of  flood  they  often  overflow  theii  banks,  and 
cover  the  neighbouring  country  with  their  waters.  Thus  the  Ganges,  near  its  m-  nth,  in  the 
rainy  season  overflows  the  country  to  the  breadth  of  one  hundred  miles,  and  to  tl  o  depth  of 
nrariy  twelve  feet;  and  the  Indus,  during  its  period  of  inundation,  extends  thi  ty  or  forty 
inilci,  from  its  banks.  This  flood  water  carries  with  it  muddy  and  other  matters,  m  d  deposits 
them  upon  the  land.  Gerard  says  that  the  annual  floods  of  the  Nile  had  raised  the  surface 
of  Upper  Egypt  about  six  feet  four  inches,  English  measure,  since  the  commenc^'ment  of 
the  Christian  era,  or  tour  inches  in  a  century.  In  other  countries  extensive  deposits, 
extending  along  the  sides  of  rivers,  are  formed  by  the  overflowing  of  their  waters.  Where 
rivers  enter  lakes  and  the  sea,  they  form  triangular  pieces  of  land  named  deltas,  ftcm  their 
resemblance  in  form  to  the  trian^ilar-shaped  Greek  letter  A.  These  deltas  are  more  'Strongly 
marked  in  lakes  than  in  nearly  inclosed  seas,  as  the  Mediterranean ;  and  in  these  S(  is  than 
in  the  ocean,  where  the  depositions  are  much  interrupted  by  currents.  The  most  famous 
in  history  of  these  deltas  is  that  of  the  Nile.  This  delta  has  been  considerably  enlarged 
since  the  time  of  Herodotus,  but  not  to  the  extent  stated  by  many  writers.  At  m.  great 
distance  firom  the  shore  of  the  delta  the  depth  of  the  Mediterranean  is  about  seven  ry-two 
feet,  and  farther  out  the  sea  suddenly  deepens  to  2(X)0  feet, — a  depth  very  probably  Ix^yond 
reach  of  the  delta,  and  which  may  be  conjectured  to  be  the  original  depth  ot  this  p;  rt  of 
the  Mediterranean  sea.  The  deltas  of  the  other  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Mediterra  lean, 
as  the  Rhone  and  the  Po,  exhibit  phenomena  similar  to  those  observed  in  the  delta  of  E  ypt; 
and  by  their  considerable  extent,  and  annual  growth,  furnish  ample  proofs  of  the  for  ling 
power  of  rivers,  and  of  the  resemblance  of  alluvial  matters  to  strata  of  an  older  date:  The 
great  sea-deltas,  or  those  formed  where  rivers  flow  into  the  ocean,  are  sometimes  on  a  jrreat 
scale,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Ganges,  of  which  a  most  interesting  account  has  been  given 
by  Renncl  aiu^  some  other  writers.  A  full  description  of  this  magnificent  delta,  as  also  of 
Hie  vast  de]x>sitp^<  at  the  mouths  of  the  Mississippi,  Orinoco,  and  other  great  rivers,  wil.  be 
given  in  the  body  of  this  work.  At  present,  however,  we  may  remark,  that  the  quantity  of 
matter  cnrYied  into  the  sea  by  all  the  rivers  on  the  globe  is  very  great,  and  fully  as  consid 'ar- 
able OS  that  stated  by  wiine  authors,  who  have  been  held  as  exaggerating  the  amount  of  t.  lis 
earthy  m.itfer  car-ied  from  the  dry  land  to  the  shores  of  the  ocean.  The  alluvial  matter 
brought  (Id  •  by  rivers  not  only  forms  great  tracts  of  land  at  their  mouths,  but  also,  throuj^'h 
the  aijenry  of  currents,  assisted  by  the  wave  of  the  ocean,  gives  rise  to  extensive  tracts  of 
low  and  flat  land,  which  extend  along  the  coa.-ts. 

Downs.  When  the  sea-coast  is  low,  and  the  bottom  consists  of  sand,  the  waves  push 
tliis  sand  towards  the  shore,  when',  at  every  reflux  of  the  tide,  it  becomes  partially  dried, 
and  the  winds,  which  often  bl>>w  from  tfic  sea,  (iritt  up  some  portions  of  it  upon  the  beach. 
By  this  forming  action  of  the  ocean,  sandy  flats  and  downx,  or  ranges  of  sand-hills,  are 
formed  along  the  coast.  When  this  sand  is  moved  about  by  the  wind,  it  forms  what  is  called 
the  sand-food.  Westward  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  Findhom,  in  Morayshire,  a  district 
consisting  of  upwards  of  ten  square  miles  of  land,  which,  owing  to  its  fertility,  was  once 


312 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


aained  the  Granary  of  Moray,  lias  been  deiwpuliitccl,  uiid  rendered  utterly  iinpriKluctivo  by 
tlm  sand-flood.  This  barren  waste  may  be  cliuracterisod  ad  hilly ;  the  accuniuliaioiis  of  tiaiij 
composing:  these  hills  frequently  varyinjr  in  tiieir  height,  and  likowine  in  their  ailiiatiuiis. 
'I'lie  sand  iiills  of  Barry,  at  tlie  mouth  of  the  Tay,  composed  of  blowjf  sand,  are  from  :^0U 
to  300  feet  hi{fh.  Belhelvie  links,  in  Aberdeenshire,  and  the  extensive  sandy  tracLs  in  tliu 
Shetland  and  Western  Islands,  are  of  the  same  description.  These  blowinjf  sands  some- 
times block  up  the  mouths  of  rivers  and  rivulets :  thus,  many  years  ago,  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Findhorn  in  Moray  having  become  blocked  up  with  blowing  sand,  it  cut  out  for  itsoit' 
its  present  channel,  which  conducts  it  by  a  more  direct  course  to  the  sea.  In  consequence 
of  this,  the  old  town  of  Findhorn  had  changed  its  situation  from  the  east  to  the  west  side  of 
tlie  river,  and  its  site  has  since  been  covered  by  the  sea.  The  lake  at  Strathbeg,  which 
covers  a  square  mile  of  country,  on  the  coast  of  Aberdeenshire,  about  ten  miles  north  from 
Peterhead,  was  formed  about  170  years  ago,  by  the  choking  up  by  blowing  sand  of  a  siiiui! 
stream  that  fell  into  the  sea.  These  barriers  sometimes  give  way,  when  the  tract  is  again, 
for  a  time,  covered  by  the  sea ;  a  new  barrier  again  rises,  and  the  sea  is  excluded  a  secoiui 
time.  These  operations,  on  a  great  scale,  would  afford  alternation  of  productions  of  the  land 
and  of  the  sea.  The  sands  of  the  African  deserts  may  be  sea  sands,  or  land  sands,  or  both 
together.  Dr.  Oudney,  Major  Denham,  and  Captain  Clapperton  have  added  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  blowing  sands  of  the  African  deserts.  The  coloured  engraving  of  the  sand-hills  ot 
the  African  desert  in  Denham,  Oudney,  and  Clapperton's  Narrative,  is  a  striking  and  in- 
teresting representation  of  the  form  of  the  moving  sand-hills  of  Africa, 

Sand  banks.  The  bed  of  the  German  Ocean  supports  many  accumulations  of  sand 
called  sand-banks.  One  of  these  extends  from  the  Frith  of  Forth,  in  a  north-easterly 
direction,  to  a  distance  of  110  miles,  while  another,  the  Dogger  Bank,  extends,  north  und 
south,  for  upwards  of  350  miles.  The  average  height  of  these  submarine  sand-banks  is 
estimated  at  about  seventy-eight  feet :  the  whole  surface  of  the  various  shoals  in  this  sea 
laid  down  in  charts,  according  to  Stevenson,  is  equal  to  about  one-fifth  of  the  whole  area  of 
tlie  German  Ocean,  or  about  one-third  of  the  whole  extent  ol'  England  and  Scotland.  Those 
banks  are  composed  of  quartz  sand,  varying  in  the  size  of  the  grain,  from  coarse  to  fine, 
which  is  abundantly  mixed  with  broken  shells  and  fragments  of  corals.  These  banks  urn 
conjectured  to  owe  their  origin  to  the  action  of  currents  and  the  tides. 

SuBSECT.  4. — Chemical  forming  Effects  of  Water. 

(1.)  Springs.  Many  spring  waters,  after  dissolving,  by  means  of  the  superabundant 
carbonic  acid  with  which  they  are  impregnated,  calcareous  matter  abraded  from  limestone 
rocks,  or  rocks  containing  lime,  allow  the  carbonate  of  lime  to  crystallize,  in  consequence  oi 
the  escape  of  the  acid,  and  in  this  way  form  depositionsof  calc-sinter,  or  calcareous  alabaster, 
On  the  roofs,  sides,  and  floors  of  caves ;  or  fill  up  fissures  in  rocks,  and  form  veins ;  or  when 
flowing  over  the  surface  of  rocks,  form,  if  the  surface  is  horizontal,  horizontal  beds — it 
inclined,  inclined  beds— of  calcareous  sinter  and  calcareous  tufta.  These  beds  sometimes 
extend  very  far,  and  with  a  thickness  of  200  or  300  feet.  The  water  of  such  springs,  when 
collected  into  hollows  so  as  to  form  lakes,  often  deposits  vast  quantities  of  calcareous  sinters 
and  tuffas;  and  hence  such  lakes,  when  emptied,  present  extensive  calcareous  deposits, 
i'he  travertine  employed  at  Rome  for  building  is  a  lake  or  spring  calcareous  deposit  of 
sinter  and  tuffa;  and  the  town  of  Guancavelica  in  South  America  is  built  of  a  compact  ciil- 
careous  tuffa  from  the  calcareous  springs  in  the  neighbourhood.  In  the  mountain  limestone 
districts  in  England,  also  in  tlie  lias  districts  botii  in  England  and  Scotland,  the  roofs,  walls, 
and  floors  of  caves  are  often  elegantly  ornamented  by  numerous  varieties  of  calcareous 
sinter.  In  Persia,  as  mentioned  by  Sir  John  Malcolm,  there  are  great  deposits  of  a  very  fine 
calc  sinter,  which  is  extensively  employed  for  ornamental  purposes ;  and  in  the  marshes  of 
the  great  plain  of  the  vast  circular  valley  of  Hungary,  according  to  Beudant,  there  is  a 
constant  deposition  of  horizontal  strata  of  calcareous  tuifa  and  sinter,  which  are  so  hard  as 
to  be  used  for  building,  all  the  houses  of  Czlea  being  constructed  of  these  minerals.  Tiie 
pea-stone,  a  beautiful  caltareous  carbonate,  is  formed  in  very  considerable  abundance  from 
tlie  waters  of  calcareous  hot  springs,  as  those  at  Carlsbad  in  Bohemia.  As  these  calcareous 
springs  often  flow  into  rivers,  and  these  rivers  terminate  in  the  sea,  it  is  evident  that  in  tiiis 
way  a  vast  quantity  of  carbonate  of  lime  must  reach  the  ocean  where  it  will  be  deposited  in 
the  various  forms  of  sinter,  tufla,  and  lime-^tone.  The  Geysers,  or  hot  springs  of  Iceland, 
and  those,  of  St.  Michael's  in  the  Azores,  deposit  on  the  dry  land  vast  quantities  of  siliceous 
sinter.  This  siliceous  mineral,  which  is  sometimes  like  opal,  although  generally  pure,  is 
not  always  so,  being  occasionally  intermixed  with  other  earths,  and  thus  giving  rise  to  par- 
ticular mineral  substances.  Such  springs  also  pour  their  waters  into  the  ocean,  and  even 
rise  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea  sometimes  a  considerable  way  upwards,  or  even  jet  above  the 
surface  level  of  the  sea,  all  the  time  throwing  out  much  water  impregnated  with  silina, 
which  is  deposited  on  the  submarine  land  in  various  forms  and  states,  depending  on  a  variety 
Df  circumstances,  which  our  limits  prevent  our  noticing. 

(2"^  Lakes.    Having  already  noticed  the  calcareous  depositions  from  tlie  waters  of 


Part  H 

iriitluctivo  by 
tioiiM  of  auid 
["■  aitiia  Hulls, 
Ire  t'roiii  :;.'(>0 
|tract.s  ill  tiio 
samls  sonic. 
Iiiouth  of  till' 
put  for  itself 
Iconsequeiice 
I  west  side  of 
llibeg,  which 
V  nortli  from 
jid  ofasniail 
fact  is  again, 
ped  a  secoiul 
[softJieknd 
^nds,  or  both 
knowledge 
and-hilJs  ot 
:ing  and  in. 

•ns  of  sand 
>rtli-easterly 
.  nortli  iUKJ 
•nd -banks  is 
ill  tliis  sea 
liole  area  0/ 
»nd.  Those 
irse  to  fine, 
a  banks  aro 


perabundnnt 
n  limestone 
sequence  of 
IS  alabaster, 
s ;  or  when 
al  beds — it 

soinetiine.s 
ings,  when 
ous  sinters 
8  deposits. 

deposit  of 
mpact  ciil- 

limestoiie 
)ofs,  walls, 
calcareous 
I  very  fine 
narshes  0.' 
there  is  a 
30  hard  as 
lis.     The 
nee  from 
alcareous 
lat  in  this 
X)sited  in 
'  Iceland, 
siliceous 
'  pure,  is 
e  to  par- 
imi  even 
bove  the 
th  silica, 
I  variety 

iters  of 


Book  II. 


GEOGNOSY. 


219 


sonic  lakes,  we  may  how  mention  some  other  deposits  that  appear  to  owe  their  origin  lo 
lakes.  The  bog  iron-ore,  or  hydro-phosphate  of  iron,  is  otlen  found  in  such  situations  as  to 
show  that  it  has  been  deposited  from  the  waters  of  lakes ;  and  in  some  countries  it  is  col- 
lected from  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  lakes  once  in  a  certain  number  of  years;  thus  showing 
that  it  is  still  forming  in  such  situations.  In  salt  lakes  considerable  depositions  of  salt  take 
place ;  and  when  sucli  collections  of  water  dry  up,  or  arc  drained  off,  the  sides  and  bottoms 
of  the  hollows  arc  found  incrusted  with  salt,  which  is  sometimes  disposed  in  beds  alternately 
witli  beds  of  clay. 

(S.)  Marine  incrustations.  Collections  of  perfect  and  broken  sea-shells  and  of  corals  are 
sHiiietiines  found  agglutinated  by  calcareous,  clayey,  or  ferruginous  matters,  forming  banks 
or  beds  of  considerable  extent.  Beds  of  this  kind,  particularly  those  formed  of  shells,  are 
met  with  in  many  parts  of  the  coasts  of  this  island.  In  other  countries,  as  in  the  West 
Indies,  a  solid  conglomerate  of  shells  and  corals  lines  a  considerable  extent  of  coast  on 
several  of  the  islands.  The  human  skeleton  from  the  island  of  Guadaloupe,  in  the  British 
Museum,  is  imbedded  in  a  rock  of  this  description. 

SuBSECT.  5. — Effects  of  the  Atmosphere,  ifc. 

Effects  of  the  atmosphere.  The  air  and  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  effect  great  changes 
on  the  rocks  at  the  surface  of  llie  earth.  They  either  simply  disintegrate  the  rock,  or  not 
only  break  it  down,  but  also  occasion  a  change  in  its  chemical  constitution.  Sandstone,  and 
otl^T  rocks  of  the  same  general  description,  often  yield  very  readily  to  the  weather;  their 
ba^is  or  ground  is  washed  away,  and  the  (juartz,  mica,  and  other  particles  remain  in  the  form 
of  sand  and  gravel.  When  trap  veins  intersect  strata,  it  frequently  happens  that  the  softer 
parts  of  the  rock  are  destroyed,  while  the  harder  trap  appears  rising  several  feet  or  yards 
above  the  neighbouring  surface,  and  crossing  the  country  like  walls ;  hence,  in  Scotland, 
tiioy  are  named  dykes.  The  variously  shaped  summits  of  mountains  and  hills  owe  nmch 
of  their  form  to  the  destroying  influence  of  the  weather.  Some  caves,  as  certain  open  caves 
in  sandstones  and  limestones,  are  also  formed  by  the  destroying  powers  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  various  changes  in  the  form  of  rocks,  by  which  they  assume  columnar,  globular,  tabular, 
an<!  indetcrniinato  angular  forms,  and  fall  into  scales,  crusts,  layers,  gravels,  and  sa7ids,  are, 
to  a  certiiin  extent,  effects  of  the  destroying  powers  of  the  atmosphere.  Valleys  owe  much 
of  their  form  and  extent  to  the  destroying  influence  of  the  atmosphere.  Their  sides  and 
guiumits,  everywhere  exjwsed  to  its  action,  become  covered  with  debris;  and  in  this  way 
valleys  experience  greater  changes  than  are  produced  on  their  bottom  by  the  passage  of 
the  river,  and  on  its  sides  by  the  rushing  of  the  torrent.  The  chemical  destroying  effect* 
are  to  be  traced  to  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  atmosphere,  and  to  the  vast  quantities  of  the 
sniiie  matter  which  rise  from  the  interior  of  the  earth :  this  acid  dissolves  lime,  abstracts 
alkaline  matters  from  granite  and  other  similar  rocks,  and  by  combining  with  iron,  converts 
thut  universally  distributed  substance  into  a  soluble  carbonate.  The  o.xygen  of  the  atmo- 
sphere also,  by  its  action  on  the  iron  and  other  constituents  of  rocks,  assists  in  breaking 
them  down. 

Effects  of  electricity  on  roclts.  Electricity,  as  a  chemical  agent,  may  be  considered  not 
only  as  directly  producing  an  infinity  of  changes,  but  also  as  influencing  almost  all  that  t-ike 
place.  There  are  not  two  substances  on  the  surface  of  the  globe  that  are  not  in  different 
cli'ctrical  relntions  to  each  other;  and  chemical  attraction  itself  seems  to  be  a  peculiar  form 
ol'  the  exhibition  of  electric  attraction :  and  whenever  the  atmosphere,  or  water,  or  any  part 
111'  the  Kurtiice  of  the  earth,  gains  accumulated  electricity  of  a  difl'erent  kind  from  the  con- 
tiiiuous  surfaces,  the  tendency  of  this  electricity  is  to  produce  new  arrangements  of  the 
pirts  of  those  surfaces.  Thus,  a  positively  electrified  cloud,  acting  even  at  a  great  distance 
on  a  moistened  stone,  tends  to  attract  its  oxygenous,  or  acidifbrm,  or  acid  ingredients ;  and 
a  tu'gatively  electrified  cloud  has  the  same  effect  upon  its  earthy,  alkaline,  or  metallic  mat- 
ter; find  the  silent  and  slow  operation  of  electricity  is  much  more  import^mt  in  the  economy 
of  nature  than  its  grand  and  impressive  operation  in  lightning  and  thunder. 

Sect.  III. — On  Volcanoes,  and  the  Changes  they  produce  on  the  Land  and  the  Bottom  of 

the  Sea. 

The  agents  which  the  globe  conceals  in  its  interior,  and  whose  existence  is  manifested  aX 
its  surface,  are  made  known  to  us  by  the  phenomena  of  voleanoes  and  earthquakes.  We 
?liall  first  describe  these  phenomena,  and  afterwards  add  some  observations  on  their  can.ses, 

SuBSECT.  1. — Distribution  of  Volcanoes. 

Volcanoes,  as  is  well  known,  are  ojienings  in  the  crust  of  the  earth,  whence  there  issue 
•roui  time  to  time  jets  of  burning  subsiancns  and  currents  of  melted  matters  which  bear  the 
mnic  of  lavas.  These  openiu'^s  are  genenilly  <>n  the  summit  of  isolated  mountains;  they 
tiavr  t!,e  form  of  a  funnel,  and  take  the  niune  of  craters. 

Pdsilinn  (if  colcdiiocs.  Volcanoes  occur  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe,  and  are  oilen  di* 
trihuted  in  a  linear  direction. 


m 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PaktII 


Diatrihution. — Europe  contains  but  few  burning  volcanoes.  On  the  coast  of  Sicily,  we 
Bee  iEtna  rising  like  a  colossus  to  a  height  of  10,870  English  feet  On  the  opposite  coast 
of  ItHiy  we  have  Vesuvius,  which  does  not  attain  more  than  the  third  of  this  elevation,  viz. 
9932  feet  Between  them,  in  the  Lipori  islands,  we  find  the  small  volcano  of  Stromboli, 
and  the  volcanoes  ofVulcano  and  Vulcanello,  which  still  smoke.    The  islands  of  the  Archi- 

Selago,  at  Milo  and  Santorino,  contain  mountains  which,  during  an  early  historic  perio<l,  pro. 
uced  terrible  igneous  phenomena.  Iceland  in  the  north,  in  the  midst  of  snow  and  ice,  pre- 
sents to  our  view  many  volcanoes,  of  which  the  most  prominent,  Hecla,  rises  to  a  height  of 
5500  feet.  Farther  to  the  north,  in  the  desolate  and  dreary  Jan  Mayen's  Island,  extending 
between  north  latitude  70°  49'  and  71°  8',  is  the  volcano  of  Esk  Mount,  which  rises  to  a 
height  of  1500  feet  above  the  sea-beach  in  Jameson's  Bay.  The  continent  of  ^sta,  as  far 
as  is  known  at  present,  exhibits  but  few  volcanoes.  We  can  scarcely  reckon  three  or  lour 
on  its vvestern shores,  or  on  the  edges  of  the  Caspian:  there  are  none  in  its  northern  part: 
Bome  but  vaguely  known  exist  in  Central  Asia :  in  the  east,  the  peninsula  of  Kamtscliatka 
contains  five  or  six;  but  in  the  islands  which  surround  this  continent  their  number  is  great. 
The  islands  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  such  as  Bourbon,  Madagascar,  the  Cape  de  Verd  Islands,  the 
Canaries,  and  the  Azores,  also  contain  several  volcanoes.  In  America,  if  we  except  those  of 
the  West  India  islands,  we  observe  the  greater  part  of  them  on  the  ridge  of  that  great  Cordil- 
lera,  which,  like  an  immense  wall  or  lofty  terrace,  borders  the  western  part  of  that  conti- 
nent. They  are  remarkable  not  only  on  account  of  their  position,  but  also  for  their  colossal 
form,  the  nature  of  the  masses  of  which  they  are  composed,  and  the  materials  thoy  throw 
out.  Torrents  of  fire  rarely  issue  from  them,  but  streams  of  water  and  mud  are  of  fro(jueiit 
occurrence:  tho  total  number  of  American  volcanoes  is  about  eighty-six;  they  are  placed  as 
it  were  in  groups.  The  kingdom  of  Guatemala  presents  about  twenty ;  in  Mexico  there  are 
six.  in  the  number  of  which  is  the  Jorullo,  so  well  known  from  the  account  of  Humboldt. 
But  it  is  in  Peru  that  the  greatest  occur :  there  are  seven  in  that  country,  of  which  we  shall 
mention  Pichincha,  nearly  15,931  feet  high ;  Cotopaxi,  wich  rises  to  the  height  of  IB.i^fi? 
feet ;  and  Antisano,  which  attains  a  height  of  19,136  feet.  On  a  rough  estimate,  wo  state 
the  number  of  burning  volcanoes  incluling  solfataras  at  303 ;  of  these  194  are  in  islands, 
and  the  other  109  are  on  the  continents :  the  most  distant  fi"om  the  sea  are  those  of  America 
and  Asia;  in  Peru  there  are  volcanoes  thirty  leagues  fi'om  the  sea;  and  that  of  Popocuto])etl 
near  Mexico,  which,  ho\jvever,  is  now  only  a  smoking  volcano,  is  fifty-six  leagues ;  and  they 
occur  in  the  very  centre  of  Asia.  The  circumstance  of  the  most  active  volcanoes  being  situ- 
ated in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea,  is  a  fact  worthy  of  being  recollected ;  it  becomes  still  more 
m  when  we  observe,  that  there  are  submarine  volcanoes  burning  in  the  midst  of  the  waters. 
The  islands,  and  the  phenomena  which  they  have  been  observed  to  produce,  at  Santwrino, 
on  the  coast  of  Iceland,  in  the  Azores,  &c.,  leave  no  doubt  respecting  their  existence. 

Independently  of  volcanoes  in  a  state  of  activity,  the  interior  of  our  continents  contoins  a 
great  number  of  extinct  volcanoes,  but  which  still  present  their  original  form,  or  incontes- 
table remains  of  that  form  :  perhaps  no  country  contains  more  numerous  and  splendid  displays 
of  them  than  France ;  there  are  more  than  a  hundred  in  Auvergne,  Vivarais,  and  Covennes. 
They  are  conical  mountains,  composed  of  lavas,  scorioB,  and  volcanic  ashes  heaped  ujwn  eacli 
other ;  many  of  them  present  a  crater,  which  has  retained  its  form  in  a  greater  or  less  degree ; 
and  sometimes  there  are  seen  as  it  were  issuing  from  their  bases  lavas  which  extend  to  a 
distance  of  several  thousand  yards,  and  which  have  perfectly  preserved  the  form  of  r«r- 
rents :  the  matter  of  which  they  are  composed  resembles  that  of  lava  trap.  We  may  fur- 
ther remark,  that  volcanoes  are  never  or  scarcely  ever  isolated ;  they  are  collected  into 
groups.  This  is  tlie  case  with  the  American  volcanoes ;  those  of  Asia,  and  the  diflerent 
Archipelagoes  are  similarly  situated :  in  Europe,  the  Greek  islands  and  southern  Italy  pre- 
sent distinct  groups.  Sometimes  volcanoes  are  arranged  one  after  the  other  in  tlie  saniB 
line,  as  is  the  case  in  South  America,  and  in  the  extinct  volcanoes  in  the  neighbourhoal  of 
the  Puy  de  Ddme. 

SuBSEcr.  2. — Phenomena  and  Theory  of  Volcanoes. 

Volcanoes  do  not  incessantly  emit  flames,  nor  do  lavns  constantly  flow  fi-oi  i  them ;  they 
remain  for  ages  in  a  state  of  inactivity.  Vesuvius  was  extinct  from  time  immei/inrial,  when, 
awakening  from  its  slumber,  it  suddenly  rekindled,  in  the  reign  of  Titus,  and  buried  the 
cities  of  Pompeii,  Herculaneum,  and  Stabise  under  its  ashes.  It  became  quiet  again  at  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century ;  and  in  1630,  whim  it  resumed  its  action,  its  summit  was  inha- 
bited, and  covered  with  wood.  The  inhabitants  of  Catania  regarded  as  fables  the  accounts 
of  history  respecting  eruptions  of  ^Etna,  till  the  period  when  their  city  was  ravaged,  and  in 
part  destroyed,  by  tlie  fires  of  that  volcano. 

Subterranean  noises,  and  the  appearance  or  increase  of  smoke,  which  issiips  from  tlie 
crater,  are  generally  the  first  symptoms  of  volcanic  action.  Presently  the  noise  becomes 
louder,  the  earth  trembles,  it  experiences  shock.s,  and  every  thing  proclaims  that  it  is  in 
labour.  The  smoke  increases,  thickens,  and  becomes  charged  with  ashes.  When  the  air  is 
tranquil,  the  smoke  is  seen  rising,  under  tlie  form  of  an  immense  column,  to  a  very  great 


of  SicUy,  we 
Pposite  coast 
levation,  viz. 
of  Strombolii 
of  the  Archi- 
c  period,  pro. 
and  ice,  pre- 
t>  a  hoipht  of 
™,  extending 
:h  rises  to  a 
■^sia,  as  fat 
three  or  Ibur 
rthem  part: 
Camtschutka 
iber  is  greut. 
I  Islajidy,  the 
:ept  thciso  of 
rrcat  Conlil. 
f  that  conti- 
lieir  colossal 
'  thoy  throw 
'  of  iroqueiii 
re  placed  as 
CO  tliere  are 

f  Humboldt. 

ich  we  .sihall 

it  of  18,n:67 

te,  wo  .st;ito 

B  in  islands, 
of  Amorica 

'opocatoi)ptl 

s ;  and  thoy 
being'  sitii- 

5  still  more 

the  wafers. 
Santwrino, 

ence. 

i  contains  a 

)r  inoonfes- 

iid  displays 

Covennos. 

iipnn  each 

ss  (ino-reo ; 

ixtond  to  a 

m  of  cur- 

5  may  fiir- 

3cted  into 

!  difleront 

Italy  pre- 

thc  same 

urhoal  of 


m;  they 
il,  wlicn, 
iried  the 
in  at  the 
^as  inhii- 
iccoiniti 
I,  and  in 

)econie8 
it  is  in 
le  air  is 
y  great 


Book  II. 


GEOGNOSY. 


215 


liRJirht.  There,  finding  itself  in  a  rarer  atmosphere,  it  ceases  to  rise ;  its  upper  part  dilating, 
turms  as  it  were  an  expanded  summit,  placed  upon  a  lengthened  shatl.  The  cloud,  with  the 
supporting  column,  in  favourable  circumstances,  has  the  figure  of  an  immense  umbrella,  or 
of  the  Italian  pine,  to  which  Pliny  the  Elder  compared  that  of  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in 
A.  D.  79,  and  which  was  accurately  represented  in  October,  1822.  At  other  times  the  smoke 
disperses  in  the  air :  it  there  forms  thick  and  vast  clouds  which  obscure  the  day,  and  covei 
tlie  surrounding  country  with  darkness.  These  columns  and  clouds  are  often  traversed  by 
enormous  jets  of  red-hot  sand,  resembling  flames,  and  rising  to  extraordinary  lieighis.  Some- 
tiiTics  they  are  traversed  by  flashes  of  lightning,  and  on  all  sides  loud  explosions  are 
heard.  Then  there  are  projected  red-hot  stones  and  masses  in  fusion.  They  issue  ti-om  the 
volcano  with  a  noise  which  is  frequently  very  loud.  They  rise  into  the  air,  spreading  out  in 
their  progress,  and  fall  around  the  mouth  of  the  volcano  under  the  form  of  showers  of  ashes, 
Bcoriffi,  or  stones.  The  shocks  and  quakings  of  the  ground  continue  and  increase  in  violence. 
In  the  midst  of  these  convulsions,  and  on  these  accessions,  the  melted  matter  which  filled 
the  subterranean  furnaces,  already  carried  into  the  mountain,  is  raised  up  by  elastic  fluids; 
it  ascends  to  the  crater,  fills  it  up,  and  passing  over  the  least  elevated  part  of  this  enormous 
cavity,  spreads  out  upon  the  flanks  of  the  volcano.  It  then  descends,  sometimes  very  quickly  ; 
sometimes,  and  more  frequently,  as  a  majestic  river,  quietly  rolled  along  its  peacefiil  waters. 
Very  frequently,  when  the  lava  rises,  the  walls  which  contain  it  being  unable  to  resist  its 
immense  pressure  or  its  heat,  give  way  and  burst  asunder.  It  rushes  forth  like  an  impetuous 
torrent  through  this  new  aperture :  rivers  and  torrents  of  fire  make  their  way  to  the  foot  of 
tlie  mountain;  they  spread  out  upon  the  neighbouring  ground,  carrying  along  or  burying  all 
that  they  find  in  their  way,  breaking  down  or  overthrowing  every  obstacle  that  opposes  their 
passage.  In  the  midst  of  torrents  of  fire,  enormous  currents  of  water  and  mud  sometimes 
issue  from  volcanoes,  and  deluges  falling  from  the  atmosphere  increase  the  ravages,  lay 
waste  fields  which  lavas  had  spared,  and  carry  desolation  into  places  which  had  already 
thought  themselves  happy  in  having  escaped  the  scourges  of  the  eruption.  Mephitic  gases 
and  noxious  exhalations  sometimes  arise,  particularly  in  low  situations ;  they  destroy  animals 
and  blast  vegetation,  and  thus  complete  the  scene  of  misery  and  desolation. 

After  the  emission  of  the  lavas  the  earth  seems  freed  of  the  evil  which  agitated  it,  the 
earthquakes  cease,  the  explosions  and  ejections  diminish  for  some  time,  and  the  volcano 
enjoys  a  moment  of  rest :  but  presently  a  new  accession  takes  place,  reproducing  in  a  still 
more  terrible  manner  the  same  phenomena ;  and  this  state  of  things  continues  during  a 
variable  period  of  time.  At  length  the  crisis  ceases,  and  the  volcano  finally  resumes  it« 
original  trtinquillity. 

Having  premised  this  general  account  of  volcanic  action,  we  shall  next  treat  of  the  sub- 
stances ejected  or  projected  into  the  atmosphere  by  volcanoes,  and  the  lavas  which  they 
pour  out. 

a.  Ejected  Matters. 

These  are,  1,  Smoke.  2.  Ashes.  3.  Sands,  4.  Scorite.  5.  Volcanic  bombs.  6.  Unal- 
tered Masses  ? 

(1.)  Smoke.  The  enormous  columns  of  smoke  which  are  seen  issuing  from  the  crater, 
sometimes  with  extraordinary  rapidity,  are  chiefly  composed  of  aqueous  vapour.  This  vapour 
is  generally  charged  with  gaseous  substances,  and  particularly  with  hydrogen  gas,  sometimes 
also  with  carbonic  acid.  Sulphurous  acid  and  muriatic  acid  are  also  given  out.  The  smoke 
is  nrray  or  white ;  sometimes  also  brov.aish  black,  or  fuliginous,  and  then  the  smell  is  not 
unlike  that  of  asphaltum,  or  mineral  pitch.  It  oflen  contains  a  great  quantity  of  volcanic 
aslies. 

(2.)  Ashes.  These  ashes,  which  appear  to  be  nothing  else  than  the  substances  of  the  lava 
reduced  to  a  state  of  minute  mechanical  division,  are  formed  of  flocculent  and  extremely 
minute  particles  of  a  gray  colour,  and  forming  a  paste  with  water.  They  are  always  mixed 
with  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  sand,  which  gives  them  the  blackish  colour  which  they 
sometimes  exhibit.  The  torrents  of  gas  and  vapour  which  issue  fi'om  the  craters  carry 
tlieso  ashes  along  with  them,  bearing  them  into  the  atmosphere,  where  they  form  vast 
clouds,  sometimes  so  dense  as  to  cover  the  s\irrounding  country  with  darkness.  During  the 
eruption  of  ITecla  in  1766,  clouds  of  this  kind  protluced  such  a  degree  of  darkness  that  at 
fllaumba,  which  is  more  than  fifty  leagues  distant  from  the  mountain,  people  could  only  fhid 
tiieir  way  by  groping.  During  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in  1794,  at  Caserta,  four  leagues 
distant,  people  could  only  walk  by  the  light  of  torches.  On  the  1st  of  May,  1812,  a  cloud 
of  volcanic  ashes  and  sand,  coming  from  a  volcano  in  the  island  of  St.  ViiiCent,  covered  tli 
wlv^lc  of  Barbadoes,  s[ireading  over  it  so  intense  a  darkness,  that  at  mid-day,  in  the  open  air 
one  could  not  perceive  the  trees  or  other  objects  near  him,  or  even  a  white  handkerchief 
placed  at  the  distance  of  six  inches  from  the  eye.  The  distance  to  which  these  volcanic 
ashes  are  carried  by  the  winds  is  truly  astonishing.  Barbadoes  is  more  than  twenty  leagues 
from  St.  Vincent's,  and  ITecla  is  fifty  leagues  from  Glnumba.  Procopius  relates,  that  in  472 
the  ashes  of  Vesuvius  were  carried  as  far  as  Constantinople ;  that  is  to  say,  to  a  distance  of 


Me 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartIL 


iTjO  leairues.  These  showers  of  ashen  produce,  in  the  countries  where  they  fall,  earthy 
l)ti(ls,  otlcn  of  ^reat  thickness,  which,  on  being  heaped  up  and  penetrated  by  wutcr,  form 
Bonie  kind  uf  volcanic  tutfa. 

(Ji.)  Volcanic  sands.  These  are  small  particles  of  lavas  which  have  been  ejected  into  the 
nir  in  the  form  of  drops,  and  there  harden.  They  are  nothing  but  very  small  sized  scoriic, 
or  frafrments  of  ordinary  scoriie.  They  are,  moreover,  mingled  with  numerous  small  crys- 
tulM  of  augite  ano  felspar,  or  with  fragments  of  these  crystals.  The  quantity  of  these  .sands' 
which  volcanoes  eject  is  immense.  They  form  the  greater  part  of  the  ejections,  and  of  the 
UKiHs  of  many  volcanic  mountains,  of  ilitna  for  example,  according  to  M.  Dolomieu.  The 
tiiiest  mingle  with  the  ashes,  and  form  part  of  the  clouds  already  mentioned.  Others,  accu- 
Ululating  in  too  great  (juantity  to  be  sustained  upon  the  acclivities  of  the  mountain,  slide 
riuwn  and  spread  out  at  its  base.  In  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  of  1822,  a  current  of  sand  of 
til  is  description,  still  red-hot,  was  taken  at  a  distance  for  a  torrent  of  lava. 

(4.)  Scoria-..  The  gases  whicli  come  from  the  depths  of  the  volcano,  passing  through 
th(!  mass  of  melted  lava  with  great  force  and  vehjcity,  carry  off  some  parts  of  that  viscid 
matter,  and  bear  tliem  along  with  them  into  the  atmosphere.  They  are  there  further  divided, 
in  consequence  of  the  resistance  which  the  air  opposes  to  them ;  and,  in  cooling,  they  assume 
tlie  intumesced  and  slaggy  appearance  which  the  scoriuj  of  forges  so  frequently  have. 

(5.)  Volcanic  bombs.  Wiien  tlie  matter  of  lavas  is  projected  in  a  soft  state,  as  is  most 
coiniiionly  the  case,  it  sometimes  on  cooling  in  the  air  assumes  the  form  of  drops,  tears,  or 
elongated  spheroids,  to  which  the  name  of  volcanic  bombs  is  given.  They  abound  in  the 
e.xtinct  volcanoes  of  Auvergne. 

(6.)  Unaltered  ejected  masses.  Volcanoes  sometimes  eject  stones,  many  of  which  bear 
no  marks  of  common  flision.  These,  by  some,  are  considered  as  fragments  of  rocks,  wliicli 
form  the  walls  of  internal  cavities,  and  which  may  have  been  torn  ofl'and  projected  by  some 
current  of  elastic  fluids ;  others,  again,  maintain  that  they  are  fragments  of  rocks,  which 
have  been  formed  by  igneous  solution  and  crystallization.  Fragments  of  the.se  dubious 
masses  are  found  in  great  numbers  on  the  Monte  Somma.  There  they  are  of  granular 
limestone,  containing  mica,  and  many  other  minerals  besides. 

Projectile  fower  of  volcanoes.  Did  our  space  allow  of  it,  it  would  be  interesting  to 
inquire  what  is  the  intensity  of  that  force  which  throws  such  quantities  of  matter  to  so  great 
a  height.  We  can  only  remark,  that  the  greatest  velocity  in  the  case  of  ^tna  and  Vesuvius 
was  ibimd  to  be  equal  to  that  of  a  cannon-ball  at  the  moment  when  it  issues  from  a  cannon, 
file  velocity  being  from  four  to  five  hundred  yards  per  second.  The  gigantic  Cotopaxi  pro- 
ji'oted  a  piece  of  rock  about  an  hundred  cubic  yards  in  magnitude  to  the  distance  of  three 
leagues. 

b.  Lavas. 

Eruptions  of  lavas.  When  we  have  an  opportunity  of  seeing  the  liquid  lava  in  the 
crater,  it  resembles  the  melted  matter  in  our  furnaces,  and  appears  as  it  were  boiling  with 
greater  or  less  violence.  Jets  of  the  melted  matter  are  thrown  up  from  the  liquid  siir- 
fico,  through  the  agency  of  elastic  fluids.  It  is  by  these  elastic  fluids  that  the  lava  is  raised 
uj) wauls  in  the  crater.  When  the  mountain  is  high,  as  Teneritfe  or  vEtna,  these  fluids  are 
not  sufficiently  powerful  to  raise  the  lava  to  the  summit,  or  rather  the  sides  of  the  mountain 
are  not  sutRciently  strong  to  resist  the  weigiit  and  force  of  the  long  and  heavy  coliiniii  of 
lava  ;  it  therefore  presses  or  melts  the  walls  which  surround  it,  and  thus  forms  an  opening, 
through  which  it  issues  with  great  rapidity.  When,  on  the  contrary,  the  mountains  are 
comparatively  low,  as  Vesuvius  tor  cxnniplc,  the  lava  reaches  the  mouth  of  the  crater  find 
flows  over  its  lijjs,  and  from  thence  downwards  along  the  acclivities  of  the  mountain.  On 
reaching  the  bottom  they  divide  into  several  brandies,  according  to  the  nature  and  slop^^  ot 
the  ground  over  which  they  flow.  Tiio  currents  or  streams  of  lava  vary  much  in  regard  to 
the  velocity  with  which  they  move.  This  velocity  depends  upon  the  slope  of  the  gmund 
upon  which  it  flows,  as  well  as  upon  the  (piantity  and  viscidity  of  the  lava.  At  Vesuvias, 
M.  do  la  Torre  saw  currents  passing  over  a  space  of  about  8()0  yards  in  an  hour.  Sir 
William  Hamilton  observed  one  which  traversed  1800  yards  in  the  same  time.  The  eruption 
of  1776  presented  another,  which  moved  more  than  2000  yards  in  14  minutes.  Bik  lilc 
observed,  during  the  eruption  uf  ISO."),  a  torrent  flow  from  the  summit  to  the  soa-sli(]rc,  a 
distance,  in  a  straight  line,  of  abont  7000  yards.  Those  we  have  mentioned,  however,  arc 
extriiordinary  velocities;  for  in  general  lavas  move  slowly.  Those  of  ^tna,  flowing  upon 
an  inclined  plane,  are  considered  quick  when  they  traverse  a  space  of  400  yards  in  an  hour. 
In  flat  grounds  they  sometimes  occupy  whole  days  in  advancing  a  few  yards. 

Tlie  slowness  with  which  lavas  cool  is  not  less  remarkable  than  tliat  with  which  I  hoy 
move.  If  their  surface  is  quickly  cooled  and  consolidated,  the  case  is  diflferent  with  the 
interior;  the  heat  concentrates  there,  and  is  retained  for  whole  years.  Currents  are 
mentioned  which  were  flowing  ten  years  afler  emerging  from  the  crater,  and  lavas  were  seen 
smoking  in  ypAna  twenty  years  after  an  eruption. 

The  heat  of  liquid   iava   is  nearly  that  of  liquid  trap,  as  greemtone  or  basalt.     The 


Part  n. 

H  fall,  earthy 
Py  water,  form 

(yccted  into  the 
|Ji  sized  scoriic 
t'l's  small  crys.' 
r  or  tlieso  sati(Jp 
P»s,  and  of  the 
piomjeu.  TJie 
J  Others,  accu. 
Jiounfain,  slido 
|ent  of  sand  of 

I  ^'ni?  through 
J  of  that  viscid 
lurther  divided, 

te.tJiey  assume 
I'y  nave, 
yte,  as  is  most 
f  rops,  tears,  or 
abound  in  the 

)f  whicli  bear 
rocks,  Avhich 

octodbysoDie 
rocks,  which 

these  dubious 

e  of  granular 

intfirestin^  to 
ter  tosojfreat 
and  Vesuvius 
oni  a  cannon, 
(^otopaxi  pro. 
ance  of  three 


Inva  in  tlie 
boiling-  with 
2  liquid  sur- 
ava  is  niisud 
se  fluids  are 
'e  mountain 
y  cohnnn  of 
an  oponiniT, 
untains  are 

crater  and 
ntain.  ()„ 
rid  Klopr^  of 
"  roiran!  to 
the  ^Toinid 

Vesuvius, 

hour.     Sir 

0  Oru|ifir,u 
S.       Burjdc 

'a-sli(irc,  a 
vover,  arc 
'Jng  u|)nn 

1  an  hour, 

lich  (hey 
with  the 
cnts  are 
I'ere  seen 

It.    The 


BookII. 


QEOGNOSY 


JIT 


particular   temperatureB  are  given  by   Dr.   Kennedy,   Sir  James  Hall,   and    ProfesEor 

Jameson. 

The  magnitude  of  lava  currents  varies  much.  The  larijest  current  which  ha.s  ever 
issued  from  Vesuvius  was  about,  14,000  yards  longf;  that  of  the  eruption  of  IHO.")  was 
SIKH);  tluit  of  1794  was  in  length  4*200  yards,  in  breadth  from  1(K)  to  4(K)  yards,  an<l  in 
(io|)th  from  eight  to  ten  yards;  that  which  issued  from  ^^'itna  in  1787  was  four  times 
Inrifer;  and  Dolomieu  relates  that  that  volcano  furnished  one  more  than  ten  leagues  in  length. 
But  tlie  largest  current  known  is  that  which  in  Iceland,  in  1783,  covered  an  extent  of 
twenty  leagues  in  length  by  four  in  breadth. 

Those  currents,  by  being  superinduced  on  each  other,  and  having  interposed  between  them 
other  products  of  eruptions,  as  sand,  ushcs,  and  scoria?,  form  a  series  of  inclined  beds  that 
give  rise  to  the  cone  of  the  mountain.  In  short,  the  cone  is  composed  of  a  series  of  con- 
cnilric  layers  or  coats  of  lava,  scoria;,  &c. ;  the  outgoings  of  which  are  sometimes  well  seen 
in  natural  sections  in  the  mountain. 

c.  Different  Kinds  of  Eruptions. 

Walery  and  muddy  eruptions.  In  the  accounts  of  volcanic  eruptions,  mention  is  often 
ma'le  of  torrents  of  water  and  mud  vomited  forth  by  volcanoes.  Many  of  these  watery  and 
iiiiiildy  eruptions  are  external  actions,  us  is  the  case  with  those  mentioned  as  having  taken 
pi  ;co  in  Vesuvius,  ,^tna,  and  Hccla ;  others  are  internal,  as  those  of  Quito. 

(1.)  External  aijueoiis  and  muddy  ernptimis.  These  are  owing  to  great  rains,  which 
frequently  take  place  by  the  condensation  of  the  great  volumes  of  acpieous  vapour  that  rise 
fniin  the  craters  during  volcanic  action.  This  rain,  on  mixing  with  the  ashes  and  sands, 
fiirins  currents,  more  or  loss  charged  with  earthy  matters,  which  descend  on  the  sides  of  the 
niiiMutuiu,  spread  themselves  at  its  base,  and  sometimes  to  a  distance  in  the  low  country. 
The  melting  of  bodies  of  snow  by  the  lavas  also  occasions  great  floods  of  water  and  mud. 
Or'  tliis  a  striking  instance  is  related  as  having  taken  place  on  Mount  i'Etna  in  1755,  where, 
by  tlie  sudden  melting  of  a  great  btidy  of  snow  by  a  stream  of  liquid  lava,  a  terrible  inunda- 
tion was  produced,  which  devastated  the  sides  of  the  mountain  for  eight  miles  in  length,  and 
afterwards  covered  the  lower  parts  of  i1*]tna,  together  with  the  plains  near  the  sea,  with  great 
(Icptisits  of  sand,  ashes,  scoria;,  and  fragments  of  lava.  Similar  floods  of  ashes  and  sand  are 
mentioned  by  authors  as  taking  place  in  Iceland  and  in  America,  where  the  summits  reach 
above  the  snow  line. 

(ii.)  Internal  aqueous  and  muddy  eruptions.  These  waters  also  frequently  make  their 
wn y  into  the  mountain  by  infiltration.  They  there  collect  in  particular  reservoirs ;  and  at 
thi!  period  of  explosion,  or  when  the  mountain  happens  to  split  in  consequence  of  some  shock, 
they  issue  forth,  and  cover  the  neighbouring  countries.  During  the  earthquake  which  over- 
turned Lima  in  1740,  four  volcanoes  opened  at  Lucanos  and  in  the  mountains  of  Concepcion, 
and  occasioned  a  frightful  inundation.  The  mountains  of  Quito  sometimes  present  the  same 
phenomena:  but  it  is  there  accompanied  with  extraordinary  circumstances.  The  enormous 
cones  of  Cotopaxi,  Pichiiicha,  Tunguragua,  &.c.,  are  but  in  some  measure  the  summits  of  the 
volcanoes  to  which  they  belong,  and  whose  acclivities  are  probably  encased  in  the  great  mass 
of  the  Andes.  No  true  lavas,  within  the  memory  of  man,  have  been  vomited  forth  by  these 
volcanoes;  yet  Humboldt  saw  consolidated  lava  currents  on  Sanguay,  and  even  on  Antisana. 
It  luiirht  be  said,  says  Humboldt,  that  the  volcanic  agents,  whicli  seldom  have  force  sufficient 
to  raise  the  column  of  lava  to  the  summit  of  if'itna  and  of  the  Peak  of  Tenerifto,  would  still 
loss  be  able  to  raise  it  in  volcanoes  of  nearly  double  the  height.  In  yEtna  and  Teneriffb,  the 
lava  may  force  an  opening  at  the  lower  part  of  the  mountains,  and  thus  burst  out;  but  this 
could  not  happen  in  volcanoes  whose  sides  are  strengthened,  to  a  height  of  nearly  3000 
yards,  by  the  whole  breadth  of  the  Cordilleras.  These  volcanoes  confine  themselves  to  the 
emission  of  ashes,  scoria;,  and  pumice.  They  also  vomit  immense  quantities  of  water  and 
mud,  but  much  more  frequently  by  openings  which  take  place  on  the  sides  of  the  cone  than 
by  the  craters.  These  muddy  waters  form,  as  it  were,  great  lakes  in  the  different  cavities 
which  these  enormous  mountains  contain.  They  issue  from  these  cavities,  as  we  have  said, 
when  a  communication  is  opened  with  the  exterior.  Thus,  in  1698,  the  volcano  of  Carga- 
arazo,  which  is  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Chimborazo,  and  perhaps  forms  a  part  of  it,  broke 
down,  and  covered  with  mud  eighteen  square  leagues  of  country.  Similar  muddy  wafers 
are  still  contained  in  parts  of  the  same  country,  which  are  of  volcanic  origin,  but  which  no 
Inniror  present  any  indication  of  fire ;  and  they  are  equally  vomited  forth  during  great 
couunotions  of  the  ground.  In  Peru  and  Quito  it  is  not  by  fire  and  curi-ents  of  burning  mat- 
ters that  the  volcanoes  commit  their  ravages,  but  by  the  water  and  enormous  streams  of 
mud.  This  substance  is  mud  which  is  at  first  of  a  soft  consistence,  soon  hardens,  and  bears 
the  name  of  moya.  It  preseiita  two  curious  phenomena.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  moya  which 
inundated  the  country  of  Pilielo,  and  which  destroyed  the  village  of  that  name  during  the 
earthquake  of  1797,  it  contains  a  combustible  matter,  which  renders  it  blackish  and  soiling, 
and  which  exists  in  so  largo  a  quantity  in  it  that  the  iidiabitants  make  use  of  this  moya  as  a 
kind  of  fuel.     Frequently  the  same  muddv  waliirs,  issuing  from  subterranean  caverns,  carry 

Vol..  I.  '19  2C 


2!9 


SCIENCE- OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  1[. 


witli  them  a  great  quantity  of  small  fiflhes.  These  fishes  are  a  species  of  pimehiks  {\\ 
cyciopum).  Most  of  them  are  not  more  than  four  inches  lonp.  Their  nuniher  it*  sometinieg 
BO  great  that  diseases  are  occasioned  in  the  country  by  their  putrefaction.  Tlioy  ore  the 
same  as  those  which  live  in  the  brooks  of  the  country.  What,  then,  has  introduced  them 
into  these  subterranean  lakes  1  It  would  appear  that  there  are  some  communications  between 
the  upper  and  lower  level  of  these  lakes  and  the  surface  of  the  ground ;  but  what  could  imve 
raised  them  from  the  level  of  this  surface  to  the  summit  of  the  volcanoes,  for  they  sometimea 
issue  from  the  crater  1  It  is  very  difficult  to  give  any  explanation  of  this.  From  nil  tlmt 
has  been  said  above,  it  does  not  appear  that  tiie  mud  which  issues  from  these  volcanoes  comes 
from  the  subterranean  caverns  where  the  volcanic  fires  have  their  focus,  and  prepare  the 
matter  of  lava. 

Air  and  mud  volcanoes.  In  some  countries  we  observe  issuing  ftom  the  ground  jets  im- 
pelled by  gases  and  charged  with  earth,  which,  on  being  deposited  in  the  form  of  mud,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  and  chiefly  around  the  apertures  which  have  vomited  them,  form  cones, 
-  which  represent  on  a  very  small  scale  volcanic  cones,  and  which  are  therefore  named  air 
volcanoes.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  is  that  of  Macalouba  in  Sicily.  It  consists 
of  a  hill  of  dried  mud  about  160  feet  high.  Its  upper  part,  which  is  2600  feet  in  circum- 
ference, presents  a  multitude  of  small  cones  of  which  the  largest  are  not  above  a  yard  in 
diameter.  They  have  a  small  crater  fiiU  of  soft  clay,  which  is  every  instant  traversed  by 
large  bubbles  of  gas,  which  burst  with  an  exploding  noise,  and  scatter  the  clay  around. 
Some  of  these  explosions  have  been  seen  throwing  jets  of  mud  to  the  height  of  160  feet. 
In  the  neighbourhood  of  Modena  there  are  many  of  these  small  mud  volcanoes,  where  they 
are  called  salses  on  account  of  the  saltness  of  the  water  they  scatter  about.  The  gas  which 
occasions  the  phenomena  is  hydrogen  gas  charged  with  petroleum  and  carbonic  acid.  Similar 
mud  volcanoes  occur  in  the  Crimea,  Java,  Trinidad,  and  America. 

d.  Periods  of  Activity  of  Volcanoes,  and  the  Theory  of  their  Formation. 

Periods  of  activity  of  volcanoes.  The  periods  of  activity  of  volcanoes  are  but  transitory 
and  of  short  duration.  They  are  followed  by  years,  and  even  ages,  of  rest.  Humboldt  is 
of  opinion  that  the  frequency  of  eruptions  seems  to  be  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  size  of  the 
volcano.  The  smallest  of  them,  Stromboli,  is  continually  throwing  up  volcanic  matter ;  the 
eruptions  of  Vesuvius  are  less  frequent,  there  having  been  but  eighteen  recorded  since  1701 ; 
those  of  iEtna  are  much  rarer;  those  of  the  Peak  of  Teneriffe  still  more  so;  and  the  colossal 
summits  of  Cotopaxi  and  Tunguragua  scarcely  exliibit  one  in  the  course  of  a  hundred  years. 
To  periods  of  activity  there  sometimes  succeed  periods  of  repose.  The  crater  is  filled  up 
and  becomes  covered  with  forests.  These  burning  furnaces,  whence  torrents  of  fire  have 
issued,  become  the  reservoirs  of  subterranean  lakes,  whose  waters  are  peopled  with  fishes, 
and  in  elevated  situations  the  sides  and  summits  of  the  mountains  become  covered  with  snow 
and  ice.  But  most  commonly  the  state  of  rest  is  not  complete ;  the  crater  remains  open, 
and  tliere  is  exhaled  from  it  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  vapours,  which  attack  the  masses 
ti\at  lie  in  their  way.  Sometimes  they  produce  diflTerent  saline  and  metallic  incrustations 
Voiv*anic  districts  in  which,  however,  no  eruption  has  taken  place  since  the  commencemeni 
of  our  liistory,  and  in  which  the  volcanic  cones  are  nearly  eflfeced,  still  betray  by  their  vapours 
and  exhalations  the  fire  which  formerly  ravaged  them,  and  which  is  not  yet  extinct.  Such 
are  the  Phlegrean  Fields,  on  the  coast  of  Puzzoli,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

Cause  of  volcanoes.  This  is  an  obscure  subject.  A  conjecture,  hazarded  many  years  a^o, 
may  be  stated.  There  being  no  decided  proof  of  a  central  heat,  in  the  commonly  received 
sense,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  matter  of  lavas  is  seated  deep  in  the  crust  of  tlie  enrtii,  in 
spaces  of  greater  or  less  extent,  from  wiience  it  is  sent  up  from  time  to  time  among  the 
previously  existing  strata,  by  the  agency  of  elastic  fluids. 

Sect.  IV. — Earthquakes. 

On  earthquakes,  and  the  changes  they  produce  on  the  earth's  surface.  Werner  distin- 
guishes two  kinds  of  earthquakes.  Some,  he  says,  appear  to  be  connected  with  a  particular 
volcano,  and  to  have  their  focus  in  the  same  region  as  it.  They  are  only  felt  to  the  distance 
of  a  few  leagues  around,  and  their  paroxysms  are  almost  always  connected  with  tiiose  of 
the  volcano.  Others,  which  appear  to  liave  their  focus  at  a  much  greater  doptii,  nnd  whose 
eftbcta  are  much  greater,  are  propagated  to  immense  distances  with  incredible  celerity,  and 
are  felt  almost  at  the  same  time  at  points  thousands  of  miles  distant  from  each  other.  Some 
of  the  latter  however  approach  the  former,  and  are  still  connected  with  volcanic  phenotnona. 
Thus,  during  the  earthquake  which  overturned  Lima  in  1746,  and  which  was  one  of  the  most 
terrible  that  has  been  recorded,  four  volcanoes  opened  in  one  night,  and  the  agitation  of  the 
earth  ceased. 

Universality  of  earthquakes.  If  in  the  more  violent  we  include  the  slighter  agitations 
of  the  earth's  surface  in  particular  places,  earthquakes  may  bo  said  to  be  universal  or  ■;eneral, 
and  we  may  aflirm  that  no  considerable  country  is  entirely  exempted  from  them.  Sandy 
deserts  and  fertile  regions,  primitive,  secondary,  and  tertiary  hills,  extensive  plains,  and  <>vaii 


BnoK  IL 


GEOGNOSY. 


219 


1071. 

iiut  transitory 
Humboldt  is 
e  size  of  the 
"latter;  the 
since  1701 ; 
the  colossal 
ndred  years. 
<•  is  filled  up 
of  fire  have 
with  fishes, 
d  with  enow 
mains  oper., 
the  masses 
crustatioiis 
inencement 
leir  vapours 
let.     Such 

years  a^o, 
y  received 
le  earth,  in 
^niongf  the 


ler  distin- 
Pnrtiou/af 
'  'lit'tance 
tllOt;o  of 
i<i  wiiofje 
rity,  and 
•     Some 
nornonn, 
the  niobt 
n  of  the 

[■ititiuns 

,eneral, 

Sandy 

nd  vf-'fin 


niTshy  districts  but  little  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  afford  no  protection  a^inst 
t>.  .°c  destructive  piienomono,  which  are  equally  prevalent  in  cold,  in  temperate,  a  nd  m  tropical 
climates.  They  are,  however,  generally  considered  more  frequent  near  to  coasts;  thus, 
Syria,  the  coasts  and  islands  of  Asia,  America,  the  European  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  Iceland,  are  most  subject  to  them ;  while  the  plains  of  Africa,  Asia,  and  the  North  of 
Europe  are  least  exposed.  Viewing  the  whole  earth,  and  including  every  slighter  agitation, 
earthquakes  appear  to  be  exceedingly  numerous,  and  it  may  be  maintained  that  not  a  week 
passes  in  which  the  earth's  surface  in  some  place  or  other  is  not  more  or  less  agitated.  The 
great  number  of  concussions  observed  in  civilized  countries,  and  the  fkct  that  some  districts 
are  constantly  agitated  by  them,  entitle  us  to  draw  the  conclusion.  Their  return  in  the 
places  most  subject  to  them,  and  in  the  places  where  they  are  less  frequent,  is  not  rogi  .fated 
by  any  precise  period  of  time.  Their  appearance  is  not  connected  with  any  particular  season 
of  the  year  or  state  of  the  atmosphere,  and  they  take  place  by  day  as  well  as  by  nigiit. 

Phenomena  of  Earthquakes.  The  phenomena  peculiar  to  earthquakes  arc  in  themselves 
sufficiently  simple.  They  consist  in  tremblings  and  oscillations  of  the  earth's  surtiice,  culled 
shocks;  extending  over  greater  or  smaller  tracts  of  country,  and  frequently  following  a  par- 
ticular direction.  The  shocks  appear  at  first  chiefly  as  perpendicular  heavings;  tiien  as 
horizontal  undulations  or  oscillations ;  lastly,  in  some  instances,  there  is  a  violent  agitation : 
the  motion  is  more  or  less  rotatory.  If  to  these  we  add  the  rending,  slipping,  rising  and 
sinking  of  the  ground,  the  violent  agitations  of  the  sea,  lakes,  rivers,  and  springs ;  consist- 
ing, in  springs,  in  their  drying  up  or  bursting  forth  with  great  violence ;  in  lakes,  rivers,  and 
the  ocean,  in  their  falling  and  rising,  and  rushing  backwards  and  forwards,  owing  to  the 
sinking  and  rising  of  the  land,  we  obtain  an  enumeration  of  the  principal  phenomena.  As 
the  subject  is  very  interesting,  we  shall  view  it  somewhat  in  detail,  and  under  the  following 
heads :  —  1.  Shocks.  2.  Extent  of  earthquakes.  3.  Duration  of  shocks.  4.  Magnitude  of 
rents  formed,  and  the  phenomena  connected  with  them,  5.  Elevation  and  subsidence  of  the 
land.    6.  Agitations  in  the  sea,    7.  Notice  of  particular  earthquakes. 

(1.)  Shocks.  The  slighter  shocks  of  an  earthquake,  consisting  of  perpendicular  heavings 
and  horizontal  undulations,  commonly  produce  rents  in  houses,  moving  light  objects  in  tliem, 
as  articles  of  furniture.  Persons  unacquainted  with  the  phenomenon,  or  who  do  not  per- 
ceive it  from  the  subterraneous  noise  resembling  thunder  which  accompanies  it,  feel  un- 
steady while  in  their  beds,  but  particularly  when  silting,  and  believe  themselves  seizeil  with 
a  sudden  giddiness.  The  shocks  proceed  gradually  to  be  more  violent,  and  tlien  tliey  are 
very  easily  perceived  even  by  the  inexperienced.  Then  the  most  substantial  building-s  are 
shattered  to  pieces,  and  the  inhabitants  buried  beneath  their  ruins :  while  buildings  of  a  lighter 
construction  are  only  rent,  and  very,  slender  reed  huts  are  least  of  all  exposed  to  destruction. 
In  some  cases  the  fracturing,  or  as  it  were  trituration,  surpasses  description.  Hence,  tor 
the  plainest  reasons,  it  is  most  dangerous  to  remain  in  houses  or  inhabited  places ;  but  even 
the  fields  and  mountains  themselves  afford  no  perfect  security,  inasmuch  as  the  fields  I're- 
quently  in  some  places  open  into  fissures,  and  are  rent  asunder ;  while  mountains  are  not 
only  rent,  but  slide  down  into  the  valleys,  dam  up  rivers,  form  lakes,  and  cause  inundations. 
Although  the  desolation  produced  by  these  convulsions  exceeds  all  description,  this  is  much 
more  the  case  with  the  rotatory  motions ;  a  species  of  motion,  however,  the  existence  of 
wliich  has  been  denied  by  some  geologists.  In  proof  of  it,  however,  it  may  be  mentioned, 
that  during  the  earthquake  of  Catania,  whose  general  direction  was  from  S.  E.  to  N.  VV., 
many  statues  were  turned  round,  and  a  large  mass  of  rock  was  turned  25°  from  South  to 
East.  But  the  rotatory  motion  was  more  strikingly  exemplified  in  the  earthquake  at  Val- 
paraiso, on  the  19lh  November,  1822,  by  which  many  houses  were  turned  round,  and  three 
palm-trees  were  found  twisted  round  one  another  like  willows.  These  rotatory  motions  of 
masses  of  rock  are  particularly  interesting  when  viewed  in  connexion  with  the  pheno- 
mena of  faults  or  shif\^  among  strata  in  non-volcanic  districts.  It  is  only  the  slighter  earth- 
quakes that  pass  by  with  a  single  shock;  in  most  of  them  more  shocks  follow  at  short  int(?r- 
vals,  and  for  the  most  part  the  number  is  proportioned  to  the  violence  of  the  concussion. 
Tiic  first  shock  is  sometimes  the  most  powerful,  but  the  second  is  as  often,  if  not  ollcner, 
equally  violent.  Further,  the  concussions  are  also  repeated  after  longer  intervals,  as  the 
earthquakes  in  Syria,  that  sometimes  continue  for  a  number  of  months,  with  longer  or  shorter 
intermissions ;  but  the  first  catastrophe  is  generally  the  most  violent  and  destructive. 

(2.)  Extent  of  earthquakes.  It  is  the  agitation  of  the  sea  that  points  out  the  great  extent 
of  the  tracts  of  land  convulsed  by  earthquakes.  In  this  respect,  the  earthquake  at  Lisbon, 
in  1755,  was  the  most  remarkable  and  most  violent  that  ever  visited  Europe.  In  coiise 
quonce  of  it,  by  the  concussion  on  the  bottom,  or  momentary  rising  or  upheaving  of  the  sub- 
marine land,  the  sea  overfl.^wed  the  coasts  of  Sweden,  England,  and  Spain,  and  of  the 
ishmds  of  Antigua,  Barbauoes,  and  Martinique  in  America.  In  Barbadoes  the  tide,  which 
rises  only  28  inches,  rose  20  feet  in  the  bay  of  Carlisle,  and  the  water  appeared  as  black  as 
ink,  owing  probably  to  bituminous  matter  thrown  up  fi-om'  the  bed  of  the  ocean.  On  the  ist 
of  November,  when  the  concussion  was  most  violent,  the  water  at  Guadaloupe  retreated 
'vvicc,  and  on  its  return  rose  in  the  channel  of  the  island  to  a  height  of  from  10  to  12  teet 


280 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Parte 


Similar  appearances  were  witnessed  at  Martinique.  A  wave  of  the  sea,  60  feet  high,  over- 
flowed a  part  of  the  city  of  Cadiz;  and  the  lakes  of  Switzerland,  such  an  Geneva,  were  ob- 
Bcrvud  to  bo  in  commotion  aix  hours  atler  tlie  first  shock.  It  is  also  remarkable  tliat  agita- 
tions were  noticed  in  lake  Ontario,  in  October,  1755.  During  the  earthquake  at  Lima,  1,586, 
a  wave  of  tho  sea  rose  84  feet  high  in  the  harbour  of  Callao.  During  the  earthquakes  in 
Calabria  in  178;),  the  sea  not  only  overflowed  the  coast  and  drowned  many  people,  but  was 
in  genoral  so  much  agitated  that  the  guns  on  shipboard  sprung  from  Xhedeck  to  a  height  of 
several  inches. 

(3.)  SUppinff  of  Mountains.  Besides  tho  common  operations  of  earthquakes  already 
mt'iitiouod,  others  occur  that  do  not  immediately  succeed  the  concussions,  and  therefore 
happen  loss  frequently.  To  those  belong  the  sliding  down  of  parts  of  mountains,  as  ht 
Dobratch  in  1345,  and  the  falling  together  of  two  mountains  in  Jamaica  in  1692,  by  which 
tilt!  bed  of  a  river  was  dammed  up.  In  the  latter  place,  a  part  of  a  mountain  slid  down  and 
covered  many  plantations ;  the  city  of  Port  Royal  sunk  to  the  depth  of  eight  fathoms ;  and 
a  plain  of  1000  acres  fell  in,  with  all  the  buildings  upon  it. 

(4.)  Duration  of  shocks.  Single  shocks  frequently  succeed  one  another  very  rapidly,  and 
otlon  afler  greater  or  smaller  intervals  of  time ;  they  are  occasionally  single,  frequently  very 
numerous;  and  in  volcanic  districts,  shocks  sometimes  happen  afler  a  lapse  of  months  or 
vears,  are  then  followed  by  longer  or  shorter  intervals,  and  even  periods  of  10  or  1(H) 
years.  In  regard  to  this,  it  is  remarkable  that  since  the  earthtpiake  which  in  1204  shook 
Antioch,  Damascus,  and  Tripoli,  Syria  was  spared  till  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  although  no  region  of  the  earth  suffers  more  from  these  destructive  plienomenn 
than  that  country.  It  is,  in  short,  difficult  to  define  the  duration  of  a  single  shock.  It  is 
undoubtedly  brief  in  general ;  and  in  slighter  sliocks,  witnessed  by  tranciuil  spectators  and 
Cf)r\.seciuently  observed  with  greater  attention,  it  is  not  longer  than  a  few  seconds.  In  the 
gnviter  convulsions,  for  instance  at  Lima,  Caraccas,  Calabria,  Catania,  Zanto,  Antioch,  &c. 
tln!  time  is  reckoned  from  fitly  seconds  to  one  minute  and  five  seconds,  or  indefinitely  iroin 
a  i'cw  minutes  to  a  few  seconds.  When  we  consider  how  exceedingly  distmcted  tho  atten- 
tion is  when  the  shock  is  first  perceived,  that  the  duration  cannot  be  measured  by  moans  of 
a  watch,  but  by  sup|)osition,  and  that  by  such  a  mode  of  computation  we  are  in  the  habit  of 
reckoning  time  much  longer  than  it  really  is,  we  may  with  great  probability  conchuh?  that 
tho  duration  of  a  single  shock  does  not  go  beyond  a  few  seconds,  and  we  may  affirm  that, 
at  the  most,  it  rarely  exceeds  half  a  minute. 

(5.)  Magnitude  of  rents  formed  by  earthquakes.  These  vary  fVom  a  few  feet  to  many 
fhthoms  in  extent.  They  have  cither  a  direction  which  is  nearly  straight  or  more  or  less 
winding,  or  they  run  in  all  directions  from  a  centre.  During  the  terrible  Calabrian  earth- 
quakes of  1783,  rents  were  formed  of  great  dimensions ;  in  the  territory  of  San  Fill  there 
was  formed  a  rent  half  a  mile  long,  two  feet  and  a  half  broad,  and  twenty-five  feot  deep;  in 
tlic!  district  of  Plaisano,  a  rent,  of  nearly  a  mile  in  length,  one  hundred  and  five  feet  broad, 
and  thirty  feet  deep  opened ;  and  in  the  same  district  two  gulfs  arose,  one  at  Cerzulli,  three 
quirtors  of  a  mile  long,  one  hundred  and  fitly  feet  broad,  and  about  one  hundred  leet  deep; 
and  another,  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  about  thirty  feet  broad,  and  two  hundred  and 
twenty-five  feet  deep.  UUoa  relates  that  in  the  eartluiuake  of  1746,  in  P(!ru,  a  rent  took 
place,  which  was  two  miles  and  a  half  long,  and  fbur  or  five  feet  wide.  These  rents  some- 
times close  again ;  thus,  in  the  year  1692,  in  the  island  of  Jamaica,  during  an  earthquake, 
t!io  ground  heaved  like  a  boiling  sea,  and  was  traversed  by  numerous  rents,  two  or  tiirce 
luuKlred  of  which  were  otlen  soon  at  a  time  opening  and  closing  rapidly  again. 

(0.)  Elevation  hnd  subsidence  of  land  during  earthquakes.  It  is  evident  that,  if  the 
land  is  fractured  and  then  traversed  with  vast  rents  by  earthquakes,  that  portion  of  the 
land  will  in  some  places  sink  and  in  others  rise,  and  this  not  once  but  several  times  in  the 
same  place.  In  the  year  1772,  during  an  eruption  of  one  of  the  lotliest  mountains  in  Jnvn, 
till!  ground  began  to  sink,  and  a  groat  part  of  the  volcano,  and  part  of  the  neighbouring 
country,  estimated  to  be  fifloen  miles  long  and  six  miles  broad,  was  swallowed  up.  During 
tiif!  oarthquoke  at  Lisbon  in  1755,  a  new  quay  entirely  disappeared ;  thousands  of  tho  in- 
habitants had  taken  shelter  on  it,  to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  the  tottering  and  falling  build- 
inifs,  wiien  suddenly  the  quay  sunk  down  with  its  thousands  of  human  beings,  and  not  one 
oC  their  dead  bodies  ever  floated  to  the  surface.  In  the  year  1692,  during  an  earthquake  in 
J  Mimica,  a  tract  of  land  about  a  thousand  acres  in  extent  sank  down  in  less  than  a  minute, 
ani  tlio  sea  immediately  took  its  place.  On  the  north  side  of  the  island  several  large  trar.is 
with  tlieir  whole  population  were  swallowed  up,  and  a  lake  appeared  in  their  place  covering 
al«;vf!  a  thousand  acres.  Numerous  examples  of  the  upraising  of  the  land  by  earthquakes 
nii'_'Iit  1)0  given;  we  shall  enumerate  a  few  of  them.  On  the  19th  of  November,  1822,  a 
most  (irtiadful  earthquake  visitod  the  coast  of  Chili;  the  shock  was  felt  at  the  same  timr? 
tlirDiia'honl  a  space  of  one  thous;ind  two  hundred  miles  frrmi  north  to  south.  Wlion  i!i-! 
c;)i!nr,ry  anviHid  Valparaiso  was  examined  on  tho  Tnornin'jr  atler  the  shock,  it  was  fijund  tlint 
tiio  I'uiire  line  of  coast,  for  the  (list  nice  of  morn  tlian  a  hundred  miles,  w;is  raised  alvivn  i^s 
former  level.     The  area  over  which  this  upraising  took  place  was  estimated  at  one  hundred 


pen 
we 
Sic 


cit' 


feet  high,  over. 
Ineva  wnreob. 

I  at  Lima,  irv^ 

prthqimkea  in 

Hie,  but  »va., 

J  toa  height  of 

luakes  already 
[and  therefore 
l''nt^iins,  OS  at 
lYf7  by  which 
H'"' "own  and 
Imthoms;  and 

b  rapidly,  and 
Nuontjy  very 
of  months  or 
tf  10  or  m 
1204  shook 
-  seventeenth 
'  phenomona 
shock.    It  is 
>fictntor8  and 
lids.    In  (i,e 
^ntioch,  &c. 
'finitely  from 
'J  the  iitten- 
by  moans  of 
t'm  habit  of 
oncliide  that 
f  affirm  that, 

feet  to  many 
more  or  Icsa 
lirifin  earth- 
"  Pili  there 
Jotdeep;  in 
'  feet  broad, 
^ziilii,  three 
(eet  deep  ; 
iinrlred  and 
n  rent  took 
■ents  Horne- 
arthqimke, 

0  or  three 

liat,  it'  (he 
:on  of  the 
les  in  the 
s  in  .7(1  vn, 
>'hl)oiirin<i' 
During 
f  the  in- 
1^'  build- 

1  not  one 
qufiko  in 

niinute, 
re  trams 
:ovoritijT 
hqimkes 

1823,  a 
ie  time- 
ien  t'h; 
nd  tfint 

'OVP   jf.s 

undred 


Book  IL 


GEOGNOSY. 


tlioiisiind  square  miles:  the  rise  upon  the  coiihI  wiih  from  two  to  four  feet ;  at  tlie diHtnnco  of 
u  mile  iniiuid,  it  wuh  cstimatetl  from  five  to  sovon  feet.  On  tlie  IHth  of  Murcli  h\  tlie  year 
17()(),  at  St.  Maria  di  Niscoini,  Boino  miles  from  Tcrroniiovo,  near  the  south  const  of  Hirily, 
H  loud  Bubterranoan  noise  was  heard  under  the  town  just  iuentioned,  and  the  day  art'.;  "-tli- 
qtiakes  were  felt;  then  the  ground  gnulually  sunk  down  for  a  circumference  of  three  iin 
miles,  during  seven  shocks,  and  in  one  place  to  a  depth  of  thirty  feet ;  as  the  subsidence  was 
unc(iual,  rents  were  formed,  some  of  which  were  so  wide  that  tiiey  could  not  be  leaped  over : 
tliin  gradual  sinking  continued  to  the  end  of  the  month.  About  the  middle  of  this  period 
an  opening  took  place  in  the  subsiding  land,  about  three  feet  in  diameter ;  through  these 
continued  to  flow,  for  three  hours,  a  stream  of  mud,  which  covered  a  space  sixty  feet  long 
anil  thirty  feet  broad ;  the  mud  was  saltish  and  composed  of  chalky  marl  and  a  viscid  clay, 
with  fragments  of  crystalline  limestone;  it  smelt  of  sulphur  and  petroleum.  On  the  Kith 
Juno,  1819,  at  Cutch  in  Bombay,  a  violent  earthquake  took  place,  Airing  which,  independent 
of  otlier  changes,  the  eastern  and  almost  abandoned  channel  of  the  Indus  was  much  altered : 
this  estuary  was,  before  the  earthquake,  fordablo  at  Luckput,  being  only  a  foot  deep  when 
the  tide  was  at  ebb,  at  flood  tide  never  more  than  six  feet ;  but  it  was  deepened  at  the  fort  of 
Luckput,  after  the  earthquake,  to  more  than  eighteen  feet  at  low  water,  showing  that  a  enn- 
biderable  depression  hod  taken  place.  The  channel  of  the  river  Runn  was  so  much  sunk 
that,  instead  of  being  dry  as  before,  during  that  pori(xl  of  the  year,  it  was  no  longer  tbrdable 
except  at  one  place ;  and  it  is  remarked  by  Captain  Macmurdocli, — and  the  observation  is  of 
hin;h  geological  import,  as  connected  with  the  formation  of  valleys,  of  river  districts,  &,c. — - 
"should  the  water  continue  throughout  the  year,  wo  may  perhaps  see  an  inland  navigation 
along  the  northern  shore  of  Cutch ;  which,  from  stone  anchors,  &.c.  still  to  be  seen,  and  the 
tradition  of  the  country,  I  believe  to  have  existed  at  some  former  period."  Sindree,  a  sniull 
niiul  fort  and  village  belonging  to  the  Cutch  government,  situated  where  the  Runn  joins 
the  Indus,  was  overflowed  at  the  time  of  tlie  shodk.  The  people  escaped  with  difficulty, 
and  the  tops  of  the  houses  and  walls  are  now  alone  seen  above  water.  In  the  year  1700, 
in  the  Caraccas,  during  an  earthquake,  a  portion  of  granite  soil  sunk,  and  left  a  lake  800 
yards  in  diameter,  and  from  eighty  to  an  hundred  feet  deep ;  it  was  a  part  of  the  forest  of 
Aripao  which  sunk,  and  the  trees  remained  green  for  several  months  under  water. 

(7.)  Agitations  of  the  sea.  We  have  already  noticed,  in  a  general  way,  the  agitationa 
observed  m  the  sea  during  earthquakes ;  we  shall  now  add  some  particulars  illui'trative  of 
these  motions.  During  the  Lisbon  earthquake  of  175.5,  the  sea  rose  along  the  coast  of 
Spain;  and  at  Cadiz  it  advanced  in  the  form  of  vast  waves  sixty  feet  high.  At  Lisbon 
about  sixty  thousand  persons  perished.  The  sea  first  retired,  and  laid  the  bar  dry ;  it  tlien 
rushed  in,  rising  upwards  of  fifty  feet  above  its  ordinary  level.  At  Kinsale,  in  Ireland,  the 
sea  rushed  into  the  harbour,  and  invaded  the  land.  At  Tangier,  in  Africa,  it  rose  and  fell 
eighteen  times  on  the  coast.  At  Funchal,  in  Madeira,  it  rose  fifteen  feet  above  high-wntcr 
murk ;  although  the  tide,  which  ebbs  and  fluws  there  seven  feet,  was  then  half  ebb.  Even 
ships  at  sea,  a  considerable  distance  from  land,  felt,  in  the  midst  of  these  convulsive  motions, 
as  if  hurried  across  a  ridge  of  rocks.  This  took  place,  to  a  distance  of  100  or  270  nautical 
miles  from  the  coast,  during  the  earthquake  at  Lisbon  in  1816.  During  the  Lisbon  earth- 
quake of  1755,  the  shock  was  felt  at  sea,  on  the  deck  of  a  ship  to  the  west  of  Lisbon,  and 
produced  nearly  the  same  feeling  as  on  land.  At  San  linear,  the  captain  of  the  Nancy 
frigate  felt  his  ship  so  violently  agitated  that  he  thought  ho  had  struck  on  the  ground ;  but, 
on  heaving  the  load,  found  he  was  in  deep  water.  Captain  Clark,  from  Derina,  in  N.  lat. 
36°  24',  between  nine  and  ten  in  the  morning,  had  his  ship  shaken  as  if  she  had  struck 
upon  a  rock,  so  that  the  seams  of  the  deck  opened.  Dr.  Shaw  relates,  that  in  1724,  being 
on  board  the  Gazello,  an  Algerine  ship  of  50  guns,  they  felt  such  violent  shocks,  one  after 
another,  as  if  the  weight  of  twenty  or  thirty  tons  had  been  let  fall  from  a  good  height  on 
the  ballast.  Schouten,  speaking  of  an  earthquake  which  happened  in  the  Moluccas,  says, 
that  tha  mountains  were  shaken,  and  ships  that  were  at  anchor  in  thirty  or  forty  fathoms' 
water  were  jerked  as  if  they  had  run  ashore,  or  come  foul  of  rocks.  Le  Genii  says,  "  that 
ships  at  sea  and  at  anchor  suflTer,  during  earthquakes,  such  violent  agitations  that  they  seem 
to  be  falling  asunder;  their  guns  break  loose,  and  their  masts  spring." 

(8.)  Notices  of  particular  Earthquakes.  A  fiill  account  of  all  the  principal  earthquakes 
that  are  known  would  much  exceed  our  limits ;  we  shall,  therefore,  select  only  a  few  of  the 
more  interesting. 

No  part  of  Europe  is  more  visited  by  earthquakes  than  Italy  and  the  neighbouring 
islands.  The  first  earthquake  particularly  worthy  of  notice  was  that  which,  in  the  year 
63,  destroyed  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii.  Since  that  period  they  have  frequently  visited 
Italy  and  Sicily,  but  much  eeldomer  from  A.  D.  63  to  the  twelfth  century,  than  from  that 
period  till  modem  times,  that  is,  till  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries.  Of  these 
we  shall  describe  one  of  the  most  recent  in  Calabria,  and  another  of  still  later  date  in 
Sicily. 

Earthquake  of  1783.  The  earthquake  that  so  much  aflbcted  Calabria,  and  destroyed  the 
city  of  Messina,  raged  at  unequal  periods  from  the  5th  of  February  till  the  28th  of  March, 

19* 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


PA«Tn. 


17H:).  According  to  Sorcia,  ita  principal  seat  was  tho  small  town  of  Oppido  in  the  neigh- 
bfiiirhoo(i  of  Atramonte,  a  snow-covered  peait  of  tho  Apennines.  From  this  point,  savs  Sir 
William  Hamilton,  around  to  a  distance  of  twenty-flvo  miles,  comprehends  the  surtaceof 
coniitry  which  suffered  most,  and  where  all  the  towns  and  villa(fe8  were  destroyed.  If  wc 
doHcril)©  the  circle  with  a  radius  of  seventy-two  miles,  it  will  mclude  the  whole  country 
which  was  in  any  way  affected  by  the  earthquake.  The  first  shock,  on  the  6th  February, 
in  two  minutes  threw  down  the  greatest  part  of  the  houses  in  all  the  cities,  towns,  and 
villa|rcs  from  the  western  acclivities  of  the  Apennines,  in  Calabria  Ultra,  to  Messina  in 
Sicily,  and  convulsed  the  wholf»  surface  of  tho  country.  Another  shock,  which  took  place 
on  the  25th  of  March,  -vna  nearly  equally  violent.  The  granite  chain  which  extends 
through  Calabria  fVnr,  north  to  south  was  Lul  slightly  agitated,  the  principal  shocks  being 
pn)pagalod  with  a  wave-like  motion  through  the  tertiary  sands,  sand-stones,  and  clays,  from 
west  to  east.  It  was  remarked  that  the  violence  of  the  shock  was  greatest  at  tho  line  of 
junction  of  the  granite  and  tertiary  rocks,  occasioned  probably  by  the  interruption  of  the 
umluliitory  movement  of  the  softer  strata  by  the  harder  granite.  The  granite  range  also 
provontod  the  passage  of  the  shocks  to  the  countr  )s  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  mountain- 
range.  About  2(K)  towns  and  villages  were  destroyed,  more  than  one  hundred  hills  slid 
down,  fell  together,  dammed  up  rivers,  and  formed  lakes :  numerous  rents,  oflen  of  vast 
magnitude,  were  formed;  many  subsidences  and  also  upraisinofs  of  the  ground  took  place; 
and  the  general  features  of  the  country  were  so  much  changed  that  they  could  scarcely  bo 
recognised.  Thus,  in  a  very  short  space  of  time,  the  whole  country  was  as  much  changed 
as  if  it  had  been  exposed  to  common  influences  for  many  thousand  years.  T  he  total  num- 
ber of  human  oeings  that  perished  was  estimated  at  1(H),(KM),  and  it  was  difficait  to  find  even 
distant  relations  to  succeed  to  the  property  of  some  families. 

Earthquake  of  lAsbon  in  1755.  In  no  part  of  southern  Europe  has  so  tremendous  an 
earthquake  occurreu  us  that  which  began  on  the  Ist  of  November,  1755.  On  the  morning 
of  that  day,  at  thirty-five  minutes  afler  nine,  without  the  least  warning,  except  a  noise  like 
thunder  heard  under  ground,  a  most  dreadfiil  earthquake  shook,  by  short  but  quick  vibra- 
tions, the  foundations  of  Lisbon,  so  that  many  of  the  principal  edifices  fell  to  the  ground  in 
an  instant :  then,  with  a  scarcely  perceptible  pause,  the  nature  of  the  motion  changed,  now 
resembling  that  of  a  wagon  driven  violently  over  rough  stones,  which  laid  in  ruins  almost 
every  house,  church,  convdnt,  and  public  building,  with  an  incredible  destruction  cf  the 
people.  It  continued  in  all  about  six  minutes.  At  the  monient  of  its  beginning,  Eome  per- 
sons on  the  Tagus,  near  a  mile  firom  the  city,  heard  their  boa',  i  dke  a  noise  as  if  it  had  nin 
agrotmd,  though  then  in  deep  water,  and  saw  at  the  same  th.ie  hoi'ses  fiilling  on  both  sides 
of  the  river.  Four  or  five  minutes  afler,  the  boat  made  the  like  noise,  caused  by  another 
shock,  which  brought  down  more  houses.  The  bed  of  the  Tagus  was  in  many  places  raised 
to  its  surface.  Ships  were  driven  from  their  anchors,  and  jostled  togetlier  with  great  vio- 
lence ;  and  the  masters  did  not  know  if  they  were  afloat  or  aground.  The  large  quay  called 
Caes  de  Prada,  was  overturned,  crowded  with  people,  and  sunk  to  an  unfathomable  depth 
in  the  water,  not  so  much  as  one  body  afterwards  appearing.  The  bar  was  seen  dry  from 
shore  to  shore ;  then  suddenly  the  sea,  like  a  mountain,  came  rolling  in,  and  about  Belem 
castle  the  water  rose  fifty  feet  almost  in  an  instant ;  and  had  it  not  been  for  the  great  bay 
opposite  the  city,  which  received  and  spread  the  great  fli.x,  the  lower  part  must  have  been 
under  water.  As  it  was,  it  came  up  to  the  houses,  and  drove  the  inhabitants  to  the  hills. 
About  noon,  there  was  another  shock,  when  the  walls  of  several  houses  which  were  yet 
standinpr  were  seen  to  open  from  top  to  bottom  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  yard,  but  closed 
affain  so  exactly  as  to  leave  scarce  any  mark  of  injury.  It  is  remarked,  that  on  the  1st  of 
November,  1756,  being  the  anniversary  of  the  fatal  tragedy  of  this  unhappy  city,  another 
shock  gave  the  inhabitants  so  terrible  an  alarm  that  they  were  preparing  for  their  flight  into 
the  country,  but  were  prevented  by  several  regiments  of  horse  placed  all  around  by  the 
king's  orders.  Many  of  the  largest  mountains  in  Portugal  during  the  great  earthquake  were 
shaken  as  it  were  to  their  foundation,  and  many  of  them  opened  at  their  summits,  split,  and 
rent,  and  huge  masses  of  them  were  cost  down  into  the  subjacent  valleys.  The  same  dread- 
fiil visitation  was  experienced  at  Oporto.  We  are  told  that  at  about  forty  minutes  past  nine 
in  the  morning,  the  sky  being  serene,  was  heard  a  dreadful  hollow  noise  like  thunder  or  the 
rattling  of  coaches  over  rugged  stones  at  a  distance ;  and  almost  at  the  same  instant  was 
felt  a  severe  shock  of  an  earthquake,  which  lasted  six  or  seven  minutes,  during  which  every 
thing  shook  and  rattled.  It  rent  several  churches.  In  the  streets  the  earth  was  seen  to 
heave  under  the  people'' s  feet,  as  if  in  labour,  The  river  was  also  amazingly  affected ;  for 
in  the  space  of  a  minute  or  two,  it  rose  and  fell  five  or  six  feet,  and  continued  to  do  so  for 
four  hours.  The  river  Douro  was  observed  to  burst  ooen  in  some  parts,  and  discharge  vast 
quantities  of  air ;  and  the  agitation  was  so  great  in  the  sea,  beyond  the  bar,  that  it  was  ima- 
gined the  air  got  vent  there  also. 

On  the  fatal  dny  of  the  great  eartliquake  of  Lisbon,  at  Aynmonte,  near  where  the  Gua 
diana  fiills  into  the  bay  of  T'adiz,  a  littio  before  ten  o'clock,  immcdintely  on  a  rushmg  noise 
being  heard,  a  terrible  earthquake  was  felt,  which  during  fourteen  or  fifteen  minutes  damaged 


Book  II. 


GEOGNOSY. 


2J» 


bIiikmI  all  the  huildinffs.  In  little  more  than  half  an  hour  afler,  the  Ma  and  rivfi,  with  nil 
tiieir  ciui.iIh,  overfloweu  their  bounds  with  jfroiit  violence,  liiyinfj  under  water  all  the  conflta 
of  tlu!  inlands  adjacent  to  the  city  and  it^  nei^hbourluxxl,  Howinf;r  into  the  Btroets.  Tlio 
wiitfr  rose  three  titnes,  atlor  it  had  att  many  tiinuH  HubHidod.  One  of  tlie  ewclU  wua  at  the 
tiiiii-  (if  clib.  The  water  came  on  in  vaHt  black  muuntaiuH,  white  with  tbom  at  the  top,  and 
(Iciiioiislied  more  than  half  of  the  town  at  the  bar  called  l>e  Canala.  The  earth  wan 
olwurved  to  open  in  several  places,  and  from  the  apertures  tlowod  vast  (|uantities  of  water. 

At  Cadiz,  m  the  same  mommg,  some  minutes  alter  nine,  the  whole  town  was  shaken 
will)  a  violent  earthquake,  which  lasted  about  five  minutes.  The  water  in  the  cistemR 
iimler  ground  rolled  backwards  and  forwards.  At  ten  minutes  atler  eleven,  a  wave  was 
8c>en  coininff  from  sea,  eight  miles  otf,  at  least  sixty  feet  higher  than  usual.  It  dashed 
Bi;iiiiist  the  west  part  of  the  city ;  at  last  it  came  upon  the  walls,  beat  in  the  breust-work, 
ami  carried  pieces  of  eight  or  ten  tons  weight  forty  cr  fitly  yards  from  the  wall.  When  the 
w.ive  was  gone,  some  parts  that  are  deep  at  low  water  were  left  quite  dry,  for  the  water 
rrtirned  there  with  the  same  violence  as  it  came.  On  the  same  eventful  morning  Gibraltar 
w:iH  agitated  by  an  earthquake.  It  lasted  about  two  minutes.  The  guns  on  the  buttery 
vtirf  »*:<»■  to  rise,  olheru  to  sink,  the  earth  having  an  undnlativff  motion.  Most  people 
were  seized  with  giddiness  and  sickness,  and  some  fell  down,  others  were  stupefied,  though 
iiuiny  that  were  walking  or  riding  felt  no  motion,  but  were  sick.  The  sea  rose  six  feet 
every  titlecn  minutes,  and  fell  so  low  that  boats  and  ii'l  the  small  craft  near  the  shore  were 
letl  aground,  as  were  numbers  of  fish.  Ships  in  the  bay  seemed  as  if  they  had  struck  on 
rocks.  The  flux  and  reflux  lasted  till  six  next  morning,  having  decreased  gradually  from 
two  in  tlie  afternoon. 

This  earthquake  excited  much  attention,  from  the  incredibly  great  extent  at  which  slighter 
contemporary  shocks  were  experienced.  They  extended  from  Greenland  and  Iceland  to 
Norway,  Sweden,  Germany,  Britain,  Switzerland,  France,  Spain,  Morocco,  Salee,  Fez, 
Teiitan,  and  even  to  the  West  Indies  and  the  lake  Ontario  in  North  America. 

However  dreadful  many  of  the  earthquakes  of  Europe  were,  they  bear  no  comparison 
witli  those  which  have  desolated  many  parts  of  Asia.  Passing  over  those  which  were 
observed  in  tlie  islands,  on  the  eastern  continent,  and  in  the  environs  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
our  attention  is  particularly  drawn  towards  Syria,  on  account  of  the  ravages  it  has  frequently 
experienced. 

Gibbon,  in  the  forty-third  chapter  of  his  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  gives  the 
following  account  of  the  earthquike  that  took  place  at  Antioch  in  A.  D.  526,  May  30. 
"  The  near  approach  of  a  comet  may  injure  or  destroy  the  globe  which  we  inhabit ;  but  the 
cimiiges  on  its  surface  have  been  hitherto  produced  by  the  action  of  volcanoes  and  earth- 
quakes. The  nature  of  the  soil  may  indicate  the  countries  most  exposed  to  these  formidable 
concussions,  since  they  are  caused  by  subterraneous  fires,  and  such  fires  are  kindled  by  the 
union  and  fermentation  of  iron  and  sulphur.  But  their  times  and  effects  appear  to  lie  beyond 
the  reach  of  human  curiosity,  and  the  philosopher  will  discreetly  abstain  from  the  prediction 
of  earthquakes,  till  he  has  counted  the  drops  of  water  that  silently  filtrate  on  the  inflam- 
mable mineral,  and  measured  the  caverns  which  increase  by  resistance  the  explosion  of  the 
imprisoned  air.  Witliout  assigning  the  cause,  history  will  distinguish  the  periods  in  which 
tiicse  calamitous  events  have  been  rare  or  frequent,  and  will  observe,  that  this  fever  of  the 
earth  raged  with  uncommon  violence  during  the  reign  of  Justinian.  Each  year  is  marked 
by  the  repetition  of  earthquakes,  of  such  duration,  tliat  Constantinople  has  been  shaken 
above  forty  days ;  of  such  extent,  that  the  shock  has  been  communicated  to  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  globe,  or  at  least  of  the  Roman  empire.  An  impulsive  or  vibratory  motion  was 
fi'lt:  enormous  chasms  were  opened,  huge  and  heavy  bodies  were  discharged  into  the  air, 
the  sea  alternately  advanced  and  retreated  beyond  its  ordinary  bounds,  and  a  mountain  was 
torn  from  Libanus,  and  cast  into  the  waves,  where  it  protected,  as  a  mole,  the  new  liarbour 
of  Botrys,  in  Phoenicia.  The  stroke  tJiat  agitates  an  ant-hill,  may  crush  the  insect  myriads 
in  the  dust ;  yet  truth  must  extort  a  confession,  tiial  man  has  industriously  laboured  for  his 
own  destruction.  The  institution  of  great  cities,  which  include  a  nation  within  the  limits 
of  a  wall,  almost  realizes  the  wish  of  Caligula,  that  the  Roman  people  had  but  one  neck. 
Two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  persons  are  said  to  have  perished  in  the  earthquake  of 
Antioch,  whose  domestic  multitudes  were  swelled  by  the  conflux  of  strangers  to  the  festival 
of  the  Ascension.  Tlie  loss  of  Berytus  was  of  smaller  account,  but  of  much  greater  value. 
That  city,  on  the  coast  of  Phoenicia,  was  illustrated  by  the  study  of  the  civil  law,  which 
opened  the  surest  road  to  wealth  and  dignity :  the  schools  of  Berytus  were  filled  with  the 
rising  spirits  of  the  aga,  and  many  a  youth  was  lost  in  the  earthquake  who  might  have  lived 
to  be  the  scourge  or  the  guardian  of  his  country.  In  these  disasters,  tlie  architect  becomes 
the  enemy  of  mankind.  The  hut  of  a  savage,  or  the  tent  of  an  Arab,  may  be  thrown  down 
without  injury  to  the  inhabitants ;  and  the  Peruvians  had  reason  to  deride  the  folly  of  their 
Spanish  conqssoror",  v/ho  with  so  much  cost  and  labour  erected  their  own  sepulchres.  The 
rich  marbles  of  a  patrician  are  dashed  on  iiis  own  head  ;  a  whole  people  is  buried  under  tlie 
ruins  of  public  and  private  edifices,  and  the  conflagration  is  kindled  and  propagated  by  tho 


»l 


SCIF.Nf'K  OK  (JH(MJHAI'IIY. 


Part  II. 


tniiiiiuttriil>li>  lirrit  which  nro  iHtcowMtry  lor  tho  miiIwihIoik'))  hihI  iiiiiniithrturt'H  of  n  jrrf  ii  <'iiy, 
III  iiiul  of  the  iiiutii<il  Kyiii|Hilfiy  wliit'h  iiii)j;ht  comlitrt  unil  aitn\Ht  tho  ilistrcHNrd,  tln^  Ji-ri,!. 
liilly  i<x|»i'riiiii(')i  llio  vu'ch  aiiii  |ki»<hioiih  wliii  Ii  iiro  rclimMi'il  t'roni  tlin  I'mr  ol'iniinxhiiiciil :  ili,* 
lotlrrin^  hoiiHiH  ur)<  pilluK«'<l  )>y  ititri<|iiil  iivancK  ;  r<>V)Mi^ii  cinhnircH  thi<  iiioiiKMit,  anil  hcli,  in 
tint  victim;  iiiul  tlic  carlli  olt.cn  hwuIIowh  the  iinMiHHiii  or  the  riivinhcr  in  tlio  coiihtiiniimiii.n 
ut  their  criiiicH,  SiipcrHtilioii  iiivolvcH  tlc>  prcHciit  ihin^cr  with  iiiviNihlc  tcrmrN;  iiml  if  tlm 
iiioi^o  ol'  ilciith  may  NonictimcH  he  Hiil)»iervieiit  to  tho  virtue  or  rcpoitMiice  of  iniliviihmlH,  an 
iiHriKhtcd  pouio  is*  moro  torcihly  moved  to  ex|MHa  the  end  of  the  worlil,  or  tode|in'ciiie  with 
Morvile  homii^e  li..*  wrath  ot'  an  iiveii^inu;  Deity."  In  IIIH)  Hiii^le  Hhix-kx  coiitiinii'd  liir  liinr 
nioiitliN;  and  in  I'JO'i  unother  (<arthi|iiuke  dchtroytMl  many  citicH,  tilled  np  the  viiliiyN  nt' 
l.ehaiion,  and  nliuttcred  the  iMiwiitic  ilii'trictH  ol'  llauran,  ho  that,  according  to  the  e.xpn -HKin 
then  iMirrent,  it  i/v/s  no  loiifirr  poHnihlr  lo  miif,  litre  ulnoil  lltin  or  that  rili/.  A  (Imultiil 
oarllii|iiake  took  place  in  17r>i);  the  Mlioi-kn  contimieil  lor  nix  nionfiiH.  At  the  llrnt  nIi.mI<  tlio 
cilicH  ol'AnliiK'h,  UalUtc,  Acre, 'l'ri|H)ii,  itc.  were  laid  in  rninn,  und  !Mt,(KM(  iierwuiN  kilinl, 
'riic  more  recent  eartlupiake,  of  lH'i2,  luntcd  Htill  lon^fer,  and  committed  dreadful  ravii^'iH. 
On  tho  i:Uh  of  Auj^imt,  in  one  horrible  niffht,  AlemM),  Anti(M:h,  Dilm,  (ieHHcr,  indeed  every 
Hinjile  villa(f*i  and  cottage  within  the  paHhnlic  of  Alep|)o,  wan,  within  ttMi  or  twelve  MccdiulH, 
completely  destroyed,  and  converted  into  a  heap  of  r  ll)l)i^^h:  no  Ichh  than  'J(MKM)  peimle  just 
their  livcH,  and  many  moro  weru  nnitilated;  a  very  ffruiit  nninhor,  couHidcrinfi;  tiie  low 
population  of  tlume  placen. 

Atiica  in  very  little  known,  and  wo  iiro  thnrofiiro  ignorant  of  any  rnrtlxpiakcH  in  itx 
interior,  whore  they  may  (K-ciir  an  t'reqnently  an  in  other  placeM.     'J'ho  Honthern  exlteniily  of 
this  continent  is  rarely  vi.iited  by  sliyht  sh(H;ks,  hut  they  are  "more  numerous  in  the  imrtli, 
where,  in  March,  IH'J."),  thoy  did  coiiHiderable  damajjii  to  Alij;ii<rt«  and  Hlida.    On  the  (;ontriiry, 
Amerirti,  iwirticularly  in  thos<,)utherni>artH,  is  inferior  to  no  part  of  the  worhl  for  the  miiirnitinlc, 
luunber,  and  duration  ot'  its  eartli<piakes.     Wo  shall  now  mention  a  few  of  the  ;rreiili'st 
recorded  hy  naturalists.  To  these  behm^r  the  oiirtlnpiakeof  I7l<i,  which,  within  live  mimilcH, 
destroyed  the  greater  part  of  Lima;  (^alluo  was  immdated ;  and  of  4(HH)  piTsoiis,  yiH)  eiily 
escaped.     The  destruction  of  New  Andalusia,  on  the  '21st  of  October,  17(i(i,  was  e(|niilly 
terrible.  Tho  shocks  tixtended  over  runmiia,  Caraccas,  Mariicaibo,  the  shorchof  the  Casiuiiir, 
tho  Meta,  the  Orinoco,  and  Ventures;  and  tho  pfranito  districts  in  tho  mission  of  Kiiraranmlii 
were  also  shaken  hy  tluur  violence.    An  eartlupiake,  in  17!)7,  destroyed  a  great  iwirt  of  I'crii. 
It  priR'eodetl  from  the  volcano  Tunjjurofjua,  continued  with  slifjlit  shocks  duriiifj  tlu'  wlmlc 
of  February  and  March,  and  roturiuHl  on  the  li'jth  of  April,  with  increased  violenco.     Miniy 
places  wero  tilled  up  by  the  suminita  of  inounlains  tumhlinjj  down ;  nuiddy  wattM'  llowed  I'ldin 
tho  volcano;  and,  sproadinjf  over  the  country,  became  atl<!rwards  an  indurated  crust  ofdiiy. 
Tho  entiro  number  of  persons  who  porishe<l  on  this  occasion  was  1(),(HK).     No  earthqiiikc 
could  well  be  more  destructivo  to  any  place  than  that  which  destroyod  tlu?  Caraccas  in  Wi, 
and  of  which  Humboldt  has  pivon  an  excellent  doscri])tion.     The  ('araccas  wa«  thoiiixiit 
.socnro  on  account  of  its  primitive  mouiitains,  althoufjh  in  10-11,  17(K<,  and  177H,  violent 
eartlupiakos  were  experienced,  niid  a  slijrlitor  shock  in  IHOy.    Hinnboldt,  from  actual  inspec- 
tion, had  no  doubt  but  this  country,  from  hoinjy  in  a  volcanic  region,  nnist  be  liable  to  nurli 
disasters.     In  December,  1811,  various  shocks  were  felt;  on  tho  12th  of  March,  1HI>,>,  ilio 
city  of  Caraccas  was  destroyod.     Tlie  sky  was  clear,  and  in  Venezuela,  there  had  not  b  en 
a  drop  of  rain  for  five  months:  thero  was  no  forowarninpr  projjnostic,  tlir  the  tirst  shod;  at 
seven  niinntos  past  tour  in  the  atlernoon  cnmo  on  unexpocteflly,  and  set  the  hells  a  rinf/iiiir. 
This  was  inunedintely  succeeded  hy  a  second  shock,  which  caused  a  wavinffj  and  ro'lini> 
motion  in  tho  earth,  then  a  subterraneous  rumblin"  noise  was  heard,  and  there  was  a   liini 
shock,  in  which  the  motion  was  perpendicular,  and  sometimes  rolling  hoiiznntally,  w  tli  a 
violenco  which  nothiup  could  withstand.     The  people,  in  place  of  tlyiiiK  directly  tc  tlio 
open  fields,  flocked  in  crowds  to  the  churches,  where  urraiifrements  had  been  made  .'or  a 
procession ;  and  tho  multitudes  assembled  there  were  buried  beneath  the  ruins.  Twoclnnnlies 
1.50  feet  hiph,  and  supported  by  colunms  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  foil  in  a 
mass  of  rubbish,  and  were  tor  the  most  jmrt  pround  into  dust.     The  Caserne  el  Quiirti  1 
vanished  almast  entirely,  and  a  reijiment  of  soldiers  stntioned  there,  and  about  to  join  the 
proce-ssion,  disappeared  at  the  same  time  alonp  with  it ;  a  few  individuals  only  escapee! ;  iiine- 
tenths  of  the  city  were  completely  destroyod,  and  most  of  tho  houses  that  rcmaincrl  were 
rendered  uninhabitable;  the  numl>er  of  people  killed  was  reckoned  at  nearly  10,0()(),  without 
includinjj  those  who  jjerished  afterwards  from  bruises  and  want  of  sustenance.     Tho  clouds 
of  dtist  hnvmjr  fallen,  were  succeeded  by  a  serene  nisjht,  which  formed  a  frightful  contrast 
with  the  destruction  on  the  earth,  and  with  the  dead  bodies  lyinjjf  scattered  amonnr  the  ruins 
The  duration  of  each  particular  shock  was  reckoned  by  some  5()  seconds,  by  others  1  minute 
12  seconds.     These  shocks  extended  over  the  provinces  of  Venezuela,  Varina.s,  Maracaibo 
and  into  the  mountains  in  the  interior.     I^a  Guayra,  Mayquatia,  La  Vepa,  St.  Felipe  and 
Meridn,  were  almost  entirely  destroyed.  In  I.a  Guayra  and  St.  Felipe  tlie  num'oer  of  persona 
ifilied  was  about  6000.     On  the  5th  of  April  another  violent  earthquake  took  place,  during 


J'akt  II. 

Hllll..,|l;    |,,„ 

Y<  "ml  fcl,.,.,, 

';  ""•'  'fill,. 

i^'I'IiimIn,  ,i„ 

'|>r<'fiil|.  „„|, 

J""''  '<■'!•  liMlf 

I"   vnllry,  „,• 
^  <lrc)i,|(i,| 

[•Ht  Nihick  dm 

h'liN  |(|||,,,|^ 

l'''il  rjivd^'i.s, 
lidi'cd  every 
live  HcciirnlH, 
l"'«>/»li)  liisl 

l''«r  tlio  i„w 

mlo«H  in  i,H 
'xUctiiilv  „f 
['  "•''  iicirfli, 
'"■•■Kiifniry, 
""i«-ni(iii|,., 
"■  iirri'iKcst 
V(»  iiiiiiii(,..M^ 
iH.  y(K»  „||Iy 
'"H  ''<(llii|)y 

.  J«-  ('iisiirijir, 

'''"<''iniii)h|,i 

"rtofl'erii, 

'  the  wliol,. 

'<"".     Miiiiy 

""\vo(l  rn.iii 

"Ht  oCcliiy. 

P»r(}i(|iiiil((. 

HH  in  ls|«j^ 

'l-"    tlloiljrjit 

~K  violent 
ml  iri.xpec. 

•Il'  to  Hllcll 

IHIS,  llio 

I  not  Iveii 
t  sliof  l(  at 

II  rinrWllfr. 

ul  rdhnn 
'isn  liin) 
y,  w  til  11 
\y  tc  tiip 

ihIo  ior  ;i 
clint.'^lies 

tMJ  ill  ii 

Qniirtij 
joiii  tiie 
'I ;  iiinc- 
Lvl  wore 
witlmiit 

(.'liiiids 
•ontriinl 
I!  ruins, 
niiiiiite 
(iciiibo 
pe  iuid 
•orsons 
during 


B()<i>  11. 


(iWMJNOMY. 


wliii'li  I'liorniuiiii  tVa(i<i)<'i>t*  vin>n  dflBkii  tVuin  thu  iiitniiituiiia.     It  waH  Mid  tliut  tliL>  iiioun. 
Iiiiti  Sillii  l<ml  fViiin  :<."»<1  to  ;MMI  foot  ofltHhf'i^lit  tiy  hinkiiiK. 

Ciiiini'  '>/'  HiirUiiiiiiikfu. — 'lilt!  iiri|(iiiiil  tiy^iotiii'HiM,  winch  uttriliiiird  volcniiic  i>r'i|tti()nH  mid 
('iirili<|iiiikeH  to  tli(!  (i|iiMiiii<  N  of  (X'ntml  lirt>,  wuh  iit  tirxt  ntliutked  cliielly  liy  Sliikely,  wlio, 
trmii  III"  |*liriiiiiiii-Mii  lit  two  «<artli(|«iukoM  obitorvcd  ut  i.(ind(iti  on  tlic  Htli  Felinmry,  mid  Hth 
III  Miiii'li,  17'tll,  niideiiviiiired  to  pruvu  ttiat  tliity  woro  iMiiitMid  liy  ii  lii^rlilv  overt  liiir^ej 
Htiile  of  till'  electric  lliiid,  Arulruw  Ifcim  utliniiK,  that  they  urti  Hiidden  exjdowioii!*,  cmi>*««l 
liv  i;iiM  in  the  interior  of  tin;  ourtli,  which  hu  iNdiiwoH  would  ho  tiiuiid  theri>  int'luH^d  ii. 
ri'serviiirN  ot'  Miilphiir  mid  'utunion.  IWiccuriii,  u  in  known,  iMideavonred  to  iittrihiite  to  elec* 
tririty  I'very  lliinu;  tlmt  :,.,il  iiny  prolmhie  iiltinity  lor  it;  heme  he  tielieved  that  nn  nccunin- 
iHlion  of  It  in  tho  uriiMt  ut  tliti  iMirili  produnod  conciitMioiiM  with  tliu  cloiido,  mid  thun  fxhibitod 
tli(>  ii|i|ieiiriini'<t  of  eurtlii|niikeH.  lliiiiilK>ldt  loiiiid  it  to  he  ii  prevailing  opinion  in  Airicrii^n 
tliiit  ciirth(|imkt*s  ure  tjlectriciil  pheiioiiiena ;  hut  ulMerven,  thai  this  niUHt  ho  o.xciiMod  liy 
nuMin of  liio  iHirtiality  entertained  tiir  Kriinklin.  The  invention  of  the  Voltaic  pile,  and 
till)  ulwervution  of  itM  Hinf^iilur  o|M!nitionH,  induced  many  philonopherM,  at  leHHt  tlioHo  natunilii*tH 
who  were  purfootly  intiiimto  with  the  naturii  of  Ihiit  niniarkahln  apiNiratiiH,  to  coiiMider  tho 
wlinlii  earlli  lui  a  cohinin  ur  pih)  of  thiH  dt-Mcription,  or  that  it  coritaiiiH  un  HpjxirutUH  of  thm 
(iiihcriplion  in  its  iiiUirior.  'I'hoHo  tiuicioH,  howover,  lead  to  nothing  witintiictory.  W'hero 
tlitiii  Clin  wu  Mciik  tiir  tho  ciiimi)  or  caiiMw  of  eiirthipiakc-H  !  Tim  Huhject  it*  entirely  hypothc- 
tii'iil,  ari  we  have  no  nieiiiis  of  reaching  the  Hciit  of  tliem  reniurkahlo  pheiioniunu.  The 
tliuory  of  the  eartlu|uako  in  tho  Mime  uh  that  of  the  volcano.  The  uf^itiitioiiN  iiiuy  h<>  produced 
by  the  iiiotioiiM  uf  tho  liijuid  and  (faMuuuM  mutter  at  a  ffreat  dtptk  in  the  crunt  of  the  earth 
tndi:avourinf(  to  hhchjm;, 

Skct.  V. — Account  of  Ihr  different  Structures  otiservnlile  in  the  Crn»t  of  the  Earth. 

Before  the  time  of  Werrnr,  little  liiid  been  accoinpli»'  ed  in  rej^ard  to  the  dctermiimtiun 
of  the  HtriictureH  that  occur  in  the  cruHt  of  tho  earth.  Homo  maintained  that  everywhere 
irref.'ularity  prevailed,  and  that  it  waH  in  vain  to  look  tor  order  or  ref^nlarity  in  the  couna 
rucky  miiHseH  of  which  mountaiiiH,  IuIIh,  mid  plaiim  are  com|M)Hed.  Werner,  however,  on 
f^imural  ^rruundti,  OHHumed  that  if  determinate  HtriictureM  and  arraiif^cmentH  occurred  in  the 
vc^retalih!  mid  iinimal  kinirdoniH,  the  Ktiiiie  miiHt  hr;  the  cumc  in  the  mineral  kingdom,  not 
only  in  Hiinple  niineralH,  but  uIhu  in  th(!  great  and  more  frencmllv  diHtributed  manseH  of 
which  the  criiMt  of  the  earth  in  principally  compoHed.  His  inveMtigatioiiH  fully  coiilinncd 
the  truth  of  this  opinion,  for  minerals  he  found  aH  well  clmructeriHed  sm  plantn  mid  uniiiialH 
and  the  lullowing  detail»  will  mIiuvv  that  tliitro  oxiHts  aiiiung  mountain  rocks,  or  thobu  grea 
niiiwies  of  which  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  com|K)Hed,  u  beautiful  Beriea  of  structure,  from  that 
of  luind-specimi-ns  to  the  (reiieriil  arranpetneiitK  of  tho  greiit  rock  formation.'*.  We  Hhall 
coiiHiiler  those  structurcH  in  the  following  order,  beginning  with  the  Binallest  and  terminating 
with  the  greatest. 

SuBflEOT.    — Different  Structures. 

1.  Structure  of  mountain  n)ck8  in  hand-specimens. 

2.  Structure  of  Htnita  and  beds. 
^^    Structure  of  tormations. 

4,  Arrangempiits  of  formations  in  regard  to  each  other. 

5.  Structure  of  veins. 

(1.)  Structure  of  mountain  rocks.  The  kinds  of  structure  occurring  in  mountain  rocks 
are  the  tbllowing : — 1.  ('oiiipiict.  2.  Slaty.  !).  (Jranular.  4.  I'orphyritic.  T).  Amygda- 
loidiil.  0.  Conglomerated.  In  the  compact  structure,  the  mass  is  unitorm,  without  slaty 
or  any  other  arrangement,  aiul  when  broken  exhibits  various  fractures  as  earthy,  splintery, 
coiiclioidiil,  even,  &c.  Common  compact  quartz  is  an  exauiplc  of  this  kind  of  structure. 
Ill  the  slali/  structure  the  rocks  split  rea<lily  into  thin  layers  or  slates,  as  in  common  roofing 
8liit(\  Rocks  having  the  frramilar  structure  arc  composed  of  granular  concretions  or 
iniporfect  crystals,  as  in  jirimitive  limestone  or  statuary  marble.  In  tlie  porphyritic  structure 
there  is  a  basis  or  ground  with  imbedded  crystals,  generally  of  felspar  or  quartz,  or  both. 
Rs"  in  porphyry :  in  the  amijffdaloidal  structure  there  is  also  a  basis  or  ground  ;  but  here  the 
base  does  not  contain  imbedded  crystals,  but  amygdaloidal  cavities,  which  are  either  nearly 
empty,  half  filled,  or  completely  filled  with  minerals.  The  rock  named  amygdaloid 
exhibits  this  kind  of  structure.  Ijastly,  the  conglomerated  structure  is  that  which  we 
observe  in  the  rock  named  conglomeiute,  which  is  composed  of  fregments  imbedded  in  a 
basis  or  ground. 

(2.)  Structure  of  strata  and  beds.  When  a  mountain  or  hill  is  composed  of  tabular 
masses  of  the  same  kind  of  rock,  as  of  sandstone,  that  extend  throughout  the  hill,  it  is  said  ta 
be  stratified,  and  the  individual  tabular  masses  are  named  strata,  as  in  Jig.  58.  If  among 
these  strata  there  occur  tabular  maasea  of  a  different  rock,  the  mosses  are  named  beds :  a.  fig 

Vol.  I.  'i  D 


m  SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  H. 

•VB,  represents  a  bed  of  limestone  in  tlie  cliff  of  stratified  sandstone.     These  strata  and  beda 

58 


vnry  in  position ;  sometimes  they  are  flat  or  horizontal,  or  they'are  more  or  less  inclined  until 
they  become  vertical,  or  are  set  on  their  edges.  They  also  vary  in  the  point  of  the  compass 
towards  which  they  are  inclined,  or  dip ;  but  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  dip  is  always 
at  right  angles  to  the  range  or  direction  of  the  strata;  and  that  if  the  dip  is  given,  we  know 
the  direction :  but  a  knowledge  of  the  direction  will  not  give  us  the  dip.  Their  direction 
also  varies.  The  position  of  strata  is  determined  by  a  well-known  instrument,  the  clinometer, 
which  is  a  compass  with  an  attached  quadrant  When  we  examine  the  structure  of  indi. 
vidual  strata  and  beds,  several  varieties  may  be  discovered :  thus,  in  some  beds,  the  rock  is 
arranged  in  columns,  as  in  basalt ;  in  others,  the  arrangement  is  in  tables,  as  in  porphyry ; 
or  in  balls,  as  in  granite  and  greenstone, 

(3.)  Structure  of  formations.  The  idea  of  formations  was  first  clearly  brought  out  by 
Werner.  To  his  views  on  this  most  important  subject  we  can  trace  the  new  character  of 
geology,  and  the  great  progress  made  in  geognosy  within  these  last  thirty  years.  But  this 
is  not  the  place  for  discussing  the  subject.  All  those  rocks  which  appear  to  have  been  formed 
at  the  same  time,  and  in  the  same  or  similar  circumstances,  and  which  agree  in  position, 
structure,  mass,  petrifactions,  imbedded  minerals,  &.c.  are  said  to  belong  to  the  same  formation. 
These  formations  are  divided  into  simple  and  compound.  Simple  J  jrmations  are  those  prin- 
cipally composed  of  one  rock ;  compound  formations,  of  more  than  one  species  of  rock : 
granite  is  an  example  of  a  simple  formation ;  the  first  secondary  sandstone,  or  the  great 
coal  formation,  of  a  compound  formation,  because  it  contains  several  rocks ;  viz.  sandstone, 
slate,  limestone,  coal,  and  ironstone. 

(4.)  Arrangement  of  formations  in  regard  to  each  other.  When  two  formations  occui 
together,  and  the  one  rests  upon  the  other,  the  subjacent  formation  is  named  the  fundamen- 
Uil  roc..',  and  that  which  covers  or  lies  upon  the  other,  the  superincumbent.  The  line  where 
the  two  rocks  or  formations  meet  is  called  tlie  line  of  separation  or  line  of  junction.  In 
fg.  59.  a  is  the  fundamental  rock,  and  b  the  superimposed  rook,  and  c  c  the  line  of  junction. 


When  the  strata  of  the  superimposed  formation  is  parallel  with  the  strata  of  the  fiindamental 
or  subjacent  rock,  the  stratification  is  said  to  be  coi\formable,  asfg.  60  where  a  formation  o 

.1     ™ 


wp  shall  say  of  limestone,  rests  on  b,  of  sandstone.    If  the  strata  of  the  superimposed 
formation  are  disposed  as  at  c,  fg.  61.,  they  are  said  to  be  uncorformable.    Lastly,  if  the 


ttrata  lie  over  the  ends  of  the  strata  of  the  fundamental  rock,  as  at  b,  mfg.  59.,  they  aie  said 


PartJI. 

I  strata  and  beds 


|J  inclined  untij 
lof  the  compass 
p  dip  is  always 
hven,  we  know 
fheir  directum 
/■he  clinometer, 
lucture  of  indi. 
Ids,  the  rock  is 
'"  in  porphyry; 

rought  out  by 
V  character  of 
are.  But  this 
e  been  formed 
'e  in  position, 
ime  formation, 
ire  those  prin- 
Scies  of  rock: 
or  the  great 
iz.  sandstone, 

lations  occui 
^^  fundamen- 
he  line  where 
function.  In 
le  of  junction. 


fimdamenta' 
lifrmation  a 


ponmposed 
fitly,  if  the 


Book  II.  GEOGNOSY.  227 

to  be  unconformable  and  overlying.  If  the  strata  rest  on  the  fundamental  rook,  as  represented 


'jDjig.  62.,  they  are  said  to  be  taddle-ahaped ;  if  as  represented  in^^.  63.,  they  are  said  to 


be  mantle-sJiaped ;  if  disposed  in  a  bason-shaped  hollow,  as  in  fig.  64.,  they  are  eaid  to  be 


basm-shaped;  if  in  a  lengthened  or  trough-like  hollow,  as  in  fig.  65.,  thev  are  said  to  be 


trough-shaped.  In  a  mountain  or  natural  section  of  Neptunian  or  aquatic  rocks,  as  limestone, 
sandstone,  slate,  &c.,  the  undermost  or  lowest-lying  strata  are  considered  to  be  the  oldest : 
therefore,  on  ascending  a  mountain,  as  that  in^^.  66.,  from  a  to  6,  we  pass  fix>m  the  newer 

66 


to  the  older  rocks ;  but  if  from  c  to  6,  from  the  older  to  the  newer.  Formations  were 
formerly  more  continuous  than  at  present,  portions  only  remaining  of  extensive  deposits. 
The  remaining  portions  occupying  different  situations  have  received  particular  names,  ac- 
cording to  the  situations  in  which  they  occur.  When  in  patches  on  the  summits  of  hills,  as 
represented  at  a  a  a  in  fig.  67.,  they  are  called  mountain-caps.  When  in  hollows,  as  at  ft  6, 
they  are  named  upfillings. 


yaiesaid 


(5.)  Structure  of  Veins.  These  are  tabular  masses  that  intersect  the  strata  and  beds  of 
the  mountain  or  tract  in  which  they  occur.  The  tabular  masses  of  trap  or  whinstone  veins 
that  cut  across  the  strata  of  Great  Britain  are  there  popularly  known  under  the  name  of 
whin  difkes.  Veins,  like  strata,  vary  in  position,  being  sometimes  vertical,  at  other  times 
not  mucii  inclined  to  the  horizon ;  their  direction,  inclmation,  and  dip  are  determined  in  the 
snrne  manner  as  in  strata.  These  intersecting  masses  vary  in  breadth  from  an  inch  or  less 
to  many  fathoms ;  in  length,  tirom  a  few  inches  to  several  miles ;  and  in  dcnih.  from  a  few 
inches  to  an  unknown  and  vast  depth.  Veins  appear  to  have  been  originally  open  rents  or 
fissures  traversing  the  strata,  which  have  been  filled  by  an  after-process  with  the  mineral 
matters  they  now  contain.    This  being  the  case,  we  naturally  expect  to  find  the  strata  on 


22? 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  U. 

the  walls  of  veins  exhibitin"'  the  same  plienomoria  as  occur  in  the  walls  of  rents.     When 
rents  cut  across  strata,  llioy  sometimes,  as  in  ^i,' .  (iH.,  at  a,  h,  produce  no  deranj^emem 


while,  in  other  cases,  the  strata  on  the  opposite  sides  of  th  f  rent  do  not  correspond,  owing 
to  the  strata  on  one  side  sinking  down,  as  represented  in  Ji^ .  69. :  this  derangement  is  call- 
ed a  shijl,  slip,  or  fault. 

69 


Such,  then,  are  the  different  structures  observable  in  the  great  masses  of  whicli  the  cnist 
of  the  earth  is  composed.     We  next  proceed  to  give — 

Sect.  VI. — An  Account  of  the  different  Classes  and  Species  of  Rocks  of  which  the  Cnisl 

of  the  Earth  is  composed. 

It  was  at  one  time  a  general  opinion  that  the  formations  of  which  the  crust  of  the  earth 
is  composed  were  destitute  of  all  regularity  in  distribution  and  in  individual  characters. 
Lehman,  a  German  miner,  was  early  convinced  of  a  certain  degree  of  order  in  their  arraiisje- 
ment;  and  in  his  well-known  work,  first  stated  their  division  into  Primitive  and  Seconduri/: 
under  the  first  including  those  destitute  of  fossil  organic  remains,  while  under  the  other  lie 
arranged  all  those  containing  petrifactions  or  fossil  organic  remains.  The  first,  he  said, 
were  generally  in  highly  inclined  strata,  the  other  in  horizontal  strata.  Werner  first  dis- 
tinctly characterised  these  two  classes  of  rocks,  and  added  to  them  other  two  classes,  viz. 
the  Transition  and  Local,  or  what  are  now  called  the  Tertiary.  The  whole  rocks,  from 
the  oldest  to  the  newest,  were  arranged  by  Werner  under  the  following  names  and  in  the 
following  order: — 1.  Primitive.  2.  Transition.  3.  Secondary,  4.  Local,  the  Tertiary  of 
the  present  geology.  5.  Alluvial.  6.  Volcanic.  This  arrangement,  more  or  less  modifiel, 
still  remains,  being  adopted  by  the  principal  geologists  in  Europe  and  America. 

Primitive  rocks.  The  rocks  of  this  class  lie  under  those  of  the  succeeding  classes.  Coun- 
tries in  which  they  predominate  are  in  general  more  rugged  and  lofty  than  tliose  composeii 
of  rocks  of  the  other  classes ;  fiirther,  their  cliffs  are  more  extensive,  their  valleys  narrower 
and  deeper,  and  more  uneven,  than  those  in  secondary  countries.  The  strata  of  primitive 
mountains  are  very  frequently  highly  inclined ;  a  circumstance  vvhich  contributes  in  an 
especial  manner  to  the  increase  of  the  ruggedness  and  inequalities  of  the  surface  of  primi- 
tive regions.  The  primitive  strata  in  many  countries  maintain  a  wonderftil  uniformity  of 
direction.  Thus,  in  Scotland  the  general  direction  of  the  strata  of  primitive  mountains  i? 
from  N.  E.  to  S.  W. ;  and  the  same  is  nearly  the  case  in  the  vast  alpine  regions  of  Norway. 
and  in  many  of  the  lofty  and  widely  extended  primitive  lands  of  other  parts  of  Europe.  The 
rocks  of  which  primitive  mountains  and  plains  are  composed  are  throughout  of  a  crystalline 
nature,  and  present  such  characters  as  intimate  their  formation  from  a  state  of  solution 
These  characters  are  the  intermixture  of  the  concretions  of  which  they  are  composed  at 
their  line  of  junction,  their  mutual  penetration  of  each  other,  their  considerable  lustre,  pure 
colours,  and  translucency.  Thtis,  in  granite  the  concretions  of  felspar,  quartz,  and  mica  are 
joined  together  without  any  basis  or  ground ;  and  at  their  line  of  juncture  are  either  closely 
attached  together,  or  are  intermixed;  and  frequently  branches  of  the  one  concretion  shoot 
into  the  other,  thus  occasioning  a  mutual  interlacement,  as  is  observed  in  bodies  that  have 
been  formed  simultaneously  and  from  a  state  of  solution.  These  characters  show  that  the 
concretions  of  granite  (and  the  same  applies  to  the  concretions  of  limestone,  gneiss,  mica 
elate,  and  other  rocks  of  the  primitive  class,)  are  of  a  crystalline  nature,  and  have  been 
formed  at  tlte  same  time.  The  strata  are  so  arranged  as  to  show  that  they  are  crystalline 
formations. ,  Primitive  rocks  contain  no  organic  remains,  hence  are  inferred  to  have  been 
formed  before  animals  and  vegetables  were  called  into  existence.     Primitive  rocks  aboun(^ 


Part  H, 

rents.     When 
derunjreiiieiit^ 


BookIL 


GE(   JNOSY. 


229 


Mpond,  owino 
Igement  is  call. 


vhich  the  crust 
fitch  the  CrusI 

St  of  the  earth 
lal  character. 

their  arraiio-e- 
id  Secondury: 
Jr  the  other  ii,. 

first,  he  said, 
'rner  first  (lis- 
'o  classes,  viz. 
•le  rocks,  from 
103  and  in  tlie 
le  Tertiary  of 
less  modifieil, 

Jasses.  Coun- 
>se  composeii 
eys  narrower 

of  primitive 
ibutes  in  an 
ce  of  primi- 
iniformity  of 
mountains  is: 

of  Norway. 
urope.  Tlin 
I  crystalline 
of  solution 
omposed  at 
lustre,  pure 
id  mica  are 
;her  closely 
etion  shoot 

that  have 
•w  that  the 
neiss,  mica 
have  been 
crystalline 
have  been 
ks  ttbounc' 


very  much  in  metalliferous  minerals,  and  hitherto  no  metal  has  been  met  with  which  does 
not  occur,  either  exclusively  or  occasionally,  in  this  class  of  rocks.  Tin,  wolfram,  lead,  cop- 
peri  iron»  cobalt,  zinc,  manganese,  arsenic,  and  mercury,  occur  either  disseminated,  in  beds 
011(1  veins,  or  imbedded  in  various  rocks  of  this  class,  and  many  primitive  distjicts  are  char- 
acterised by  the  metalliferous  deposits  they  contain. 

Tlie  most  beautiful  of  all  productiais  of  the  mineral  kingdom,  the  gems,  occur  in  great 
variety  in  primitive  rocks.  Nothing  can  be  more  beautiful  than  the  drussy  cavities  met  with 
in  primitive  mountains,  whose  walls  are  lined  with  pure  and  variously  tinted  and  crystallized 
topaz,  beryl,  rock  crystal,  fluor  spar,  and  calcareous  spar ;  the  gneiss,  granite,  and  mica 
plate,  with  their  imbedded  crystals  and  grains  of  sapphire,  chrysolite,  and  garnet;  and  the 
viiiis  in  granite,  clay  slate,  and  other  primitive  rocks,  with  their  emeralds,  axinites,  and 
spinel  rubies,  afford  to  the  mineralogist  highly  interesting  combinations. 

Impedes  of  primitive  rocks. — The  following  are  the  species  of  rocks  that  form  the  primi- 
tive parts  of  tlie  crust  of  the  earth : — 1.  Granite.  2.  Syenite.  3.  Protogine.  4.  Trap. 
5.  Serpentine.  6.  Porphyry.  7.  Gneiss.  8.  Mica  slate.  9.  Clay  slate.  10.  Quartz  rock. 
11.  Limestone, 

Of  these  rocks  one  set,  consisting  of  certain  granites,  with  trap,  gneiss,  mica  slate,  clay 
slate,  quartz  rock,  and  limestone,  are  said  to  be  of  Neptunian  origin,  that  is,  have  been  de- 
piisited  from  a  liquid,  probably  water;  the  other  sot,  including  certain  granites,  with  syenite, 
porpiiyry,  protogine,  serpentine  and  diallage  rock,  are  named  Plutonic  or  igneous,  it  being 
probable  that  ^hey  have  been  formed  from  a  state  of  igneous  solution.  We  shall  describe 
tiist  the  Neptunian,  and  next  the  Plutonian  primitive  rocks. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Neptunian  Primitive  Rocks. 

(1.)  Granite  is  a  granular  compound  of  felspar,  quartz,  and  mica.  It  occurs  in  beds  and 
in  imbedded  masses,  and  also  in  included  veins  in  gneiss,  mica  slate,  and  clay  slate.  From 
its  intimate  connexion  with  these  rocks,  it  is  inferred  to  be  a  Neptunian  deposit, 

(2.)  Trap.  Under  this  name  we  include  all  those  granular  primitive  rocks  in  which 
hornblende  is  the  sole  or  predominant  constituent  part.  These  rocks  sometimes  appear 
arranged  like  the  steps  of  a  stair ;  hence  the  name  trap,  from  the  Swedish  word  trappa,  a 
stair. 

(3.)  Gneiss  is  a  granular  slaty  compound  of  felspar,  mica,  and  quartz, 

(4.)  Mica  slate  is  a  slaty  compound  of  mica  and  quartz.  Talc  slate  and  micaceous  talc 
rnrks  may  bo  arranged  under  this  head. 

(5.)  Clay  slate  is  a  slaty  rock,  frequently  entirely  composed  of  minute  scales  of  mica. 

(6.)  Quartz  rock.  This  rock  is  almost  entirel'  composed  of  quartz,  either  in  granular 
concretions  or  in  the  compact  tbrm ;  and  grains  of  telspar  and  scales  of  mica  not  unfrequently 
occur  in  it.  When  the  felspar  increases  in  quantity,  the  compound  at  length  passes  into 
granite.    When  the  scales  of  mica  increase  and  the  felspar  disappears,  mica  slate  is  formed. 

(7.)  Limestone.  This  rock  has  generally  a  white  or  gray  colour,  is  composed  of  shining 
jjranular  concretions,  and  is  more  or  less  translucent.  It  fi-equently  contains  scales  of  mica 
and  grains  of  quartz,  seldom  or  never  grains  and  crystals  of  felspar. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Plutonian  or  Ignigenous  Primitive  Rocks, 

(I.)  Granite.  The  structure  and  composition  of  this  granite  is  in  general  the  same  as 
fluit  of  the  Neptunian  kind  already  noticed.  It  differs  from  it  in  occurring  in  vast  and  often 
wiilnly  extended  masses,  which  form  the  central  parts  of  mountain  groups,  and  appear  to 
have  come  from  below  after  tJie  deiwsition  of  the  Neptunian  rocks  that  rest  upon  them. 
Tlio  highly  inclined  position  of  the  primitive  strata  is  considered  to  have  been  occasioned  by 
this  granite,  with  its  syenites  and  porphyries. 

(2.)  Syenite  is  a  compound  of  felspar,  hornblende,  and  quartz :  in  short,  it  is  a  granite  in 
wiiicli  the  mica  is  replaced  by  hornblende.    Some  of"  the  primitive  traps  belong  to  this  head, 

{■].)  Porphyry  is  a  rock  with  a  felspar  basis,  including  grains  and  crystiils  of  felspar  and 
quartz,  and  sometimes  scales  of  mica.     This  porphyry  is  a  mere  modification  of  granite. 

(4.)  Protogine  is  a  granular  compound  of  felspar,  quartz,  and  chlorite.  It  differs  from 
granite  in  the  mica  being  replaced  by  chlorite. 

(5.)  Serpentine  is  a  simple  green-coloured  rock,  with  a  compact  fracture,  feeble  trans- 
luccncy  on  the  edges,  which  yields  readily  to  the  knife,  and  feels  greasy. 

(0.)  Diallage  rock  is  a  compound  of  felspar  and  diallage.  It  belongs  probably  to  the 
primitive  trap  series. 

Sect,  VII. — Transition  Rocks, 

Thf  rocks  of  this  class,  in  the  regular  succession,  rest  immediately  upon  tliose  of  the 
primitive  class.  Most  of  the  rocks  are  distinctly  stratified,  and  the  strata  are  frequently 
vertical,  and,  like  those  of  the  primitive  class,  exhibit  the  same  general  direction  tlirough- 
oiit  LTcat  tracts  of  country.  Soiiif  of  tln>  deposits  are  of  a  chemical,  others  of  a  mechanical 
nature :  1  niestone  is  an  example  of  a  chemical,  greywacke  of  a  mechanical  deposit.    They 

Vol.  I,  20 


280 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


are  distin^ished  from  primitive  rocits  by  the  presence  of  fossil  ornimic  remains,  and  Uie 
positive  ciiaracters  are  drawn  from  the  occurrence  of  certain  fossil  ciiistiiceous  animals, 
shells,  and  corals.  The  extensive  deposits  of  limestone,  particularly  of  tiio  viiriegutcd  kinds 
so  highly  prized  for  ornamental  purposes,  which  tliey  contain ;  the  fine  {rnuiites  and  por. 
phyries  which  they  afford ;  and  the  ores  of  lead  and  copper  distributed  among  them,  are 
proofs  of  their  importance  in  the  arts.  In  this  class  there  are  also  Neptunian  and  Plutoniiin 
rocks.  The  Neptunian  are  the  following,  viz.  1,  Greywacke.  2.  Transition  clay  slate.  3, 
Gneiss  and  mica  slate.  4.  Quartz  rock.  5.  Red  sandstone.  6.  Limestone.  7.  Glance  coal. 
The  Plutonian  are,  1.  Granite.    2.  Syenite.    3.  Porphyry.    4.  Trap.    5.  Serpentine. 

SimsKCT.  1, — Neptunian  Transition  Rocks. 

(1.)  Greywacke  is  a  conglomerated  rock,  having  a  basis  of  clay  slate,  in  which  fragments 
of  various  primitive  rocks,  as  clay  slate,  quartz  rock,  &c.  occur  imbedded.  Wlien  the 
imbedded  fragments  become  "^ry  small,  and  the  quantity  of  the  basis  increases,  tlie  rock 
acquires  a  slaty  fracture,  and  j  named  greywacke  slate. 

(2.)  Transition  clay  slate.  This  is  the  rock  known  under  the  name  roofing  slate.  It 
Bometimes  contains  trilobites. 

(3.)  Gneiss  and  mica  slate.  These  have  the  same  general  aspect  as  the  varieties  met 
with  in  primitive  regions. 

(4.)  Quartz  rock.  This  rock  very  much  resembles  the  kinds  met  with  in  primitive  moun- 
tains. ^ 

(5.)  Limestone.  It  frequently  occurs  with  less  lustre  and  translucency  than  primitive 
limestones,  and  often  exhibits  in  the  same  bed  various  tints  and  shades  of  beautiful  colours. 
It  is  frequently  traversed  by  veins  of  calcareous  spar.  Some  varieties  are  conglomerated, 
forming  the  brecciated  marble  of  artists ;  and  others  contain  fossil  shells  and  corals,  and  also 
the  characteristic  trilobite. 

(6.)  Glance  coal,  or  Anthracite.  Beds  of  this  coal,  known  by  its  metallic  lustre,  and 
burning  without  flame  or  smoke,  are  met  with  in  transition  districts. 

SiiBSECT.  2. — Plutonian  Transition  Rocks. 

(1.)  Granite.  This  rock  does  not  differ  materially  from  that  of  the  primitive  period.  It  is 
principally  distinguished  by  its  being  intermingled  with  greywacke  and  other  transition  rocks. 

(2.)  Syenite.  This  rock,  which  has  the  same  mineralogical  characters  with  tlie  primi- 
tive varieties,  very  generally  contains  crystals  of  sphene. 

(3.)  Porphyry.  This  porphyry  has  sometimes  a  basis  of  felspar,  sometimes  of  clay  stone, 
and  as  usual  contains  imbedded  grains  and  crystals  of  felspar.  It  occurs  either  alone,  or 
associated  with  syenite  and  trap,  forming  mountains,  and  even  ranges  of  mountains. 

(4.)  TVap.  In  this  as  in  the  primitive  trap,  the  sole  or  predominating  mineral  is  horn 
blende.     It  passes  into  syenite. 

(5.)  Serpentine.  This  rock  does  'lot  differ  materially  from  the  primitive  rock  of  tite 
same  name :  geognostically  it  is  distinguished  from  it  by  its  alternating  with,  and  sometimes 
traversing  in  the  form  of  veins,  greywacke  and  other  characteristic  transition  rocks. 

Sect.  VTII. — Secondary  Rocks. 
This  very  interesting  class  of  rocks  rests,  in  the  regular  succession,  immediately  upon 
those  of  the  transition  class.  Much  of  the  mineral  matter  of  which  they  are  composed 
appears  to  have  been  deposited  from  a  state  of  mechanical  suspension,  a  circumstance  which 
may  be  considered  as  distinguishing  them,  in  some  measure,  from  the  transition  class,  where 
chemical  deposits  prevail  over  those  of  a  mechanical  nature.  They  abound  in  fossil  orijanic 
remains,  and  it  is  here  that  for  the  first  time  we  meet  with  remains  of  vertebrated  animals, 
as  lacerta  and  other  species  of  the  same  general  description.  Coal,  which  occurs  but  in 
small  quantity  in  transition  deposits,  is  profusely  distributed  among  secondary  formations. 
Of  ores,  by  far  the  most  abundant,  and  at  the  same  time  most  important  in  an  economical 
view,  are  those  of  iron  and  lead :  of  these  the  iron  (it  is  the  common  clay  ironstone,  the 
aluminous  carbonate  of  iron,)  is  the  most  abundant  and  most  widely  distributed.  In  tliis,  as 
in  the  preceding  class,  there  are  Neptunian  and  Plutonian  rocks.  The  Neptunian  rocks  are 
the  following: — 1.  Sandstone.  2.  Slate.  3.  liimestone.  4.  Gypsum.  5.  Coal.  The 
Plutonian  are,  1.  Granite.    2.  Porphyry.    3.  Trap. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Neptunian  Secondary  Rocks. 

In  the  primitive  and  transition  classes  geologists  have  not  hitherto  observed  any  very 

determinate  arrangement  among  the  Neptunian  deposits ;  whereas  in  the  present  class  a 

determinate  order  has  been  discovered  throughout  the  whole  series.      In  our  sketch  we 

shall  follow  the  order  of  succession,  beginning  with  the  oldest,  and  finishing  our  account 


with  a  descriotion  of  the  newest  f' 


/M»»V»"* 


on. 


whole  Neptunian  series  is  divide:!  intr 


formations  of  saiiu.jtone  and  formations  of  limestone :  the  other  members  of  the  series,  as  the 
slate,  gypsum,  coal,  and  ironstone,  occurring  subordinate  to  these. 

First  secondary  formation ;  or  the  old  red  sandstone.    This  formation  is  a  sandstone  of  a 


Part  If. 

■mains,  and  the 
f fous  animak 
Iriegutod  kinds 
J-nites  and  por- 
lonfT  tliem,  «re 
l"'»l  PJutonian 
■cJajrsluto.  a 
■•  Glance  coal 
lentino. 


khfrngnienfs 
When  tlie 
ises,  the  rock 

'ing  slate.    \\ 

varieties  met 

[Jmitive  moun- 

iin  primitive 
itiful  cnl,nir.<. 
•"glonioruted, 
iralfi,  and  ai.so 

=  lustre,  and 


5  period.  It  is 
nsition  rocks. 
til  the  primi- 

of  clay  stone, 
her  alone,  or 
ains. 

-ra!  is  horn 

rock  of  the 

^  sometimes 
cks. 

liatoly  upon 
3  composed 
ancc  which 
lass,  wheie 
3sil  orjranic 
5d  animals, 
urs  but  in 
■tinnations. 
'conomical 
istone,  the 
In  this,  as 
rocks  are 
sal.     The 


any  very 
t  class  a 
Jetch  we 
account 
idp:l  intf 
3s,  as  the 

tone  of  a 


Book  II. 


GEOGNOSY. 


2Sl 


red  colour,  and,  being  the  oldest  of  the  sandstones,  is  named  Uie  old  red  sandstone.  It  is 
conHKJsed  of  particles  of  quartz,  with  occasional  scales  of  mica  and  fragments  of  felspar, 
iieid  tojrether  by  an  iron-shot  bafii»  or  ground.  Sometimes  it  is  associated  with  a  conglome- 
tale  made  up  of  fragments  of  transition  and  primitive  rocks. 

Second  secondary  formation,  or  mountain  limestone,  or  metalliferous  limestone,  or  cat 
Imiferous  limestone  of  geologists.  This  deposit  rests,  generally  conformably,  sometimes 
also  unconformably,  on  the  old  red  sandstone.  It  is  distinctly  stratiiied,  and  the  strata 
are  frequently  more  or  less  inclined.  Its  colours  are  generally  gray;  the  fracture  is 
compuct.  Sometimes  it  has  a  granular  foliated  structure,  particularly  where  it  occurs  in 
cuntuct  with  trap  rocks.  Some  varieties,  viz.  those  nnmed  lucullite,  have  a  black  colour. 
It  contains  fossil  organic  remains  of  animals  of  various  descriptions.  Of  these  the  mosi 
characteristic  are  genera  of  the  trilobite  tribe. 

Third  secondary  formation ;  or  the  second  secondary  sandstone,  or  the  great  ^oal  forma- 
tion. This  very  important  deposit  is  a  compound  formation,  therefore  consists  of  difierenl 
rocks.  Of  these  rocks  the  predominating  one  is  sandstone.  The  rocks  of  the  formation 
are  the  following : — 1.  Sandstone.  2.  Slate.  3.  Clay.  4.  Limestone.  5.  Coal.  .6.  Iron- 
stone. 1.  Sandstone.  The  general  colours  are  white  and  gray ;  sometimes  also  it  is  reddish; 
and  then  it  much  resembles  the  old  red  sandstone.  Some  varieties  are  entirely  com- 
posed of  particles  of  quartz,  held  together  by  a  very  inconsiderable  basis  or  ground ;  others 
contain,  besides  quartz,  also  felspar  and  mica ;  these  are  by  some  geologists  named  arko.se. 
It  irequeni-ly  contains  coaly  matter,  and  casts  and  impressions  of  plants. — ^2.  Slate.  Of  the 
slate  there  are  two  kinds,  named  slate  clay  and  bituminous  shale,  both  of  which  are  mere 
modifications  of  clay  with  the  slaty  structure.  Tl»ese  also  contain  fossil  organic  remains. — 
3.  Clay.  This  is  compact/  clay  without  the  slaty  structure,  and  from  its  use  in  the  arts  is 
named  fire  clay. — 4.  Limestone.  This  limestone  very  much  resembles  the  mountain  lime- 
stone which  lies  below  the  coal ;  but  hitherto  no  trilobites  have  been  found  in  it.  It  alternates 
in  beds  with  the  other  rocks  of  this  formation.  Some  geologists  refer  it  to  the  mountain 
limestone,  and  consequently  that  limestone  to  the  coal  formation ;  an  opinion  which  mny  be 
correct. — 5.  Coal.  The  coal  in  this  formation  occurs  in  beds  that  alternate  with  the  slates, 
siuidstone,  and  limestones.  The  coal  is  bituminous  or  black  coal. — 6.  Ironstone.  This  iron- 
stone is  the  common  gray  clay  ironstone  of  mineralogists.  It  ie  an  aluminous  carbonate  of 
iron,  and  is  the  species  of  ironstone  which  affords  most  of  the  iron  manufactured  in  Great 
Britain.     It  occurs  in  beds  or  imbedded,  and  most  frequently  in  the  slate  of  this  formation. 

Fourth  secondary  formation ;  the  second  secondary  limestone ;  the  magnesian  and  (dpi ne 
limestone  of  authors.  This  formation,  in  the  regular  succession,  rests  immediately  upon 
tlie  coal  formation.  It  contains  several  varieties  of  limestone.  One  of  these,  whicii  fre- 
quently occupies  the  lowest  part  of  the  deposit,  has  a  brownish  black  colour,  a  thick  slaty 
fracture,  and  emits  an  animal  bituminous  smell,  and  is  immed  bituminous  marl  slate. 
Another  variety  has  a  yellowish  gray,  or  even  at  times  an  ochre  yellow  colour,  with  a 
compact  or  small  granular  foliated  structure,  with  a  low  degree  of  lustre,  and  is  named 
magnesian  limestone.  Another  variety  has  a  brownish  or  yellowish  colour,  is  sometimes 
compact,  sometimes  granular  or  cavernous,  impregnated  with  sparry  iron,  forms  the  upper 
part  of  the  deposit,  and  is  called  calcaire  ferrifere.  When  this  variety  becomes  charged 
with  bitumen  and  cavernous,  it  is  named  by  German  miners  rauchwacke.  It  abounds 
in  tlie  fossil  shell  named  Productus  aculeatus.  This  formation  does  not  abound  in  fossil 
organic  remains.  No  true  ferns,  but  fossil  fuci  and  zostera,  occur  in  it.  Remains  of 
tlie  monitor,  and  it  is  said  also  of  the  crocodile,  have  been  met  with  in  it.  Fishes  of  the 
genus  cheBtodon  and  of  other  tribes,  and  numerous  remains  of  shells  and  corals,  occur  more 
or  less  frequently  in  different  varieties  of  the  limestone.  The  trilobite  tribe,  so  abundant  in 
the  '..ansition  period,  and  also  in  the  first  secondary  limestone,  occur  here  along  with  nrtho- 
cemtites.  It  is  the  species  named  trilobites  bituminous.  Entrochi  and  pentacrini  of  great 
size  also  occur  in  it.  The  shells  are  not  distributed  throughout  the  whole  mass  of  the  beds, 
but  rather  occur  in  particular  parts.     The  following  are  the  shells : — 


Encrinus  racemosus. 

Productus  rxigosus. 

Mytilus  rostratiis. 

Terebratula  ovata,  lacunosa,  trigonella. 


Orthoceratites,  very  rare. 
Ammonites  gibbosus. 
Terebratula  paradoxa. 
Terebratula  elongata. 
Spirifer  alatus. 

Fifth  secondary  formation ;  the  third  secondary  sandstone,  or  variegated  sandstone,  or 
new  nd sandstone.  In  this  formation,  besides  the  sandstone,  there  are,  when  the  deposit 
is  complete,  also  beds  of  marl,  with  gypsum  and  rock-salt  The  inferior  part  of  this  forni- 
ntion  is  a  red  coloured  sandstone  conglomerate,  which  rarely  contains  subordinate  beds  of 
dolomite,  but  no  fossil  organic  remains.  Above  this  reposes  what  may  be  called  the  middle 
pari  of  the  deposit,  which  is  the  variegated  sandstone,  so  named  because  it  sometimes 
exhioits  different  colours,  principally  red,  with  yellow  and  gray  blotches.  It  is  composed 
of  fine  grains  of  quartz,  with  a  little  mica,  and  sometimes  felspar,  held  together  by  a  base 


232 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


of  ferruginous  clay.  It  contains  but  few  organic  remains,  principally  of  vegetables.  The 
upper  part  of  the  deposit  is  generally  composed  of  beds  of  a  clayey  marl,  always  more  or 
IcsH  slaty,  and  generally  alternating  in  the  lower  part  with  beds  of  the  sandstone.  lu 
colours  are  red,  gray,  and  yellow ;  sometimes  it  is  variegated  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
sandstone  with  which  it  alternates.  It  contains  subordinate  beds  of  gypsum,  and  rock-salt, 
and  sometimes  also  beds  of  dolomite.  It  contains  littoral  shells  and  bones  of  saurian  aniinaU. 

Sixth  secondary  formation ;  the  shell  limestone,  or  muschel  knlkstein.  This  interesting 
dc|)08it,  in  the  regular  succession,  rests  immediately  on  the  variegated  or  new  red  sandstone 
foririation.  This  limestone  is  of  a  gray,  yellow,  or  reddish  tint  of  colour. — It  is  compact, 
but  the  fracture  surfaces  exhibit  numerous  shining  facets  from  animal  fossil  remains.  Beds 
of  marl,  which  are  sometimes  oolitic,  alternate  with  it.  It  often  abounds  in  well  preserved 
fossil  shells;  hence  the  name  shell  limestone.  It  sometimes  contains  gypsum  and  rock-salt. 
It  contains  besides  numerous  species  of  fossil  shells,  often  very  well  preserved,  bones  of  great 
s:iiirian  animals,  and  impressions  of  ftici  and  ferns.  Corals  and  echinites  are  rare,  but 
entrochites  are  sometimes  so  abundant  that  in  some  parts  of  Germany  it  is  named  trochilal 
limestone  (trochiten  kalk).  The  oncrinites  liliiformis,  very  common  in  this  formation,  is 
considered  to  be  characteristic  of  it.  Of  the  fossil  shells,  the  Ammonites  nodosus  and  Avicula 
socialis  are  considered  as  characteristic  of  tlie  shell  limestone. 

Seventh  secondary  formation ;  the  third  secondary  sandstone,  red  ground,  marnes  irisies, 
Keiiper.  This  deposit  is  principally  compijsed  of  sandstone,  marls,  and  dolomites  with  salt 
and  gypsum.  It  has  been  divided  into  the  following  four  groups: — 1.  Konper  salt  and 
gypsum.  2.  Inferior  keuper,  3.  Variegated  mar's.  4.  Upper  or  superior  keupcr. — Tlie 
salt  and  gypsum,  with  their  marls  and  beds  of  saline  clay,  the  most  important  members  of 
this  formation  in  an  economical  point  of  view,  occupy  the  lowest  part  of  the  series.  Several 
extensive  salt-mine.<!  occupy  this  situation. — The  inferior  keuper,  that  whicii  rests  on  the 
gypsum  and  salt,  is  a  sandstone  which  is  red  in  the  upper  strata,  but  gradually  passes  into 
gray  in  the  lower.  This  sandstone  sometimes  alternates  with  marls,  slate  clay,  and  dolomites, 
and  contains  beds  of  gypsum  and  coal.  The  slate  clay  contains  bivalve  shells,  a  species  of 
Ophiura,  and  several  species  of  Equisetum,  Filices,  and  also  some  Cycadaceee. — The  varie- 
gated marls  (marnes  irisees),  resting  upon  the  inferior  keuper,  exhibit  alternate  stripes  of 
white,  green,  violet,  red,  gray,  and  blue;  they  are  generally  compact  or  slaty,  and  soft. 
Ttiey  contain  few  or  no  organic  remains,  very  little  gypsum,  and  no  rock-salt. — The  tipper 
keuper  is  sandstone  of  a  gray,  yellow,  or  variegated  colour.  It  is  composed  principally  of 
gr.ims  of  quartz,  generally  but  loosely  held  together,  so  that  the  mass  can  fretiuently  be 
pressed  into  grains  between  the  fingers.  Contains  some  traces  of  coal,  and  a  few  fossil  shells 
an;]  impressions  of  plants. 

Eighth  secondary  formation,  ot  fourth  secondary  limestone,  contains  the  lias  and  oolite 
limestones  and  Jura  limestone  of  authors.  This,  which  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  and 
important  of  the  secondary  formations,  may  be  divided  into  the  following  members;  pro- 
ceeding, as  usual,  from  below  upwards : — 1.  Lias.  2.  Oolite.  3.  Oxford  clay.  4,  Coral  rag. 
5.  Kimmeridge  clay.   6.  Portland  oolite. 

(1.)  Lias.  Lias  is  a  provincial  name  applied  to  limestone  shales,  and  marl  stones,  and 
some  sandstones  that  occur  along  with  thtm.  The  marls  are  sometimes  very  bituminous, 
and  contain  beds  of  lignite  or  brown  coal,  and  also  fossil  shells,  and  occasionally  beds  of 
gypsum.  The  fossil  vegetables  of  the  lias  are  lignites,  fossil  wood,  sometimes  siliceous 
impressions  of  ferns,  cycadaces,  and  fiici.  The  animal  remains  are  numerous  and  interest- 
ing. It  is  in  this  deposit  that  bones  and  skeletons  of  extinct  tribes  of  saurian  animals  are 
mot  with ;  such  as  the  genera  geosaurns,  ichthyosavrus,  and  plfsiosaunts.  Different  species 
offshes  and  of  crabs  also  occur.  The  lias  contains  an  immen.se  quantity  of  fossil  shells,  of 
which  the  predominating  one  is  the  Gryphcea  arcuata ;  hence  the  marl  stones  or  limestones 
of  the  lias  have  been  named  gryphite  limestones.  Besides,  the  following  may  also  be 
mentioned  as  characteristic  fossils,  viz.  Ammonites  Buclandii,  Plagiostoma  gigantea, 
Belrmnites  paxillosus,  and  Belemnites  digitalis. 

(2.)  Oolite.  The  oolite  is  divided  into  inferior  oolite  and  great  oolite.  Inferior  oolite. 
This  is  a  limestone  composed  of  round  granular  concretions,  resembling  the  roe  of  fishes; 
hence  the  name  oolite,  or  roestone,  given  to  it.  It  is  associated  with  compact  limestones 
and  marls,  and  sometimes  it  abounds  in  fossil  organic  r  mains.  It  contains,  as  at  Brora  in 
Sutherland,  beds  of  cotil.  The  fossil  vegetables,  which  are  numerous  and  often  vvoll  pre- 
served, are  of  the  fern  and  cycas  tribes.  It  also  contains  bones  and  skeletons  of  groat 
extent,  saurian  animals,  also  tortoises  and  crabs.  Species  of  the  tribe  echinus,  which  makes 
its  first  appearance  in  the  eighth  secondary  formation,  arc  not  uncommon ;  the  crinoid  family 
has  also  representatives  here,  so  also  have  several  genera  of  the  coral  tribe.  The  charac- 
teristic fossil  shells  of  the  inferior  oolite  are  the  Belemnites  aale.nsis  and  Bel.  sulcatns. — 
Great  oolite.  Tliis  is  a  tliick  deposit,  composed  chiefly  of  an  oolitic  limestone.  It  contains 
beds  of  dolomite,  and  sometimes  rests  upon  beds  of  fullers''  earth.  Resting  upon  this  oolite 
is  the  Bradford  clay ;  next  \hc  forest  marble,  to  svliicli  belongs  the  lithographic  limestones 
of  Bavaria.     This  forest  marble,  which  includes  also  the  Stoncsfield  slate,  contains  remains 


Rook  II. 


GEOGNOSY. 


vm 


'"ic»  irisees, 
tea  with  salt 
•cr  salt  and 
'"Per.-Tlie 
members  of 
es.    Several 
rests  on  the 
passes  into 
"'  fJolomites, 
a  species  of 
-TJie  varie. 
-e  stripes  of 
y.  and  soft. 
7The  iipper 
mcipaJly  of 
■e'luentiy  be 
fossil  shells 

and  oolite 
;ensive  and 
"I'ers;  pro- 

Coral  rag. 

atones,  and 
ituminons, 
liy  beds  of 
'  siliceous 
rl  intcrcst- 
limals  are 
nt  species 
shells,  of 
imestones 
'  nlso  be 
rigantea, 

or  oolite, 
f  fishes; 
nestones 
Brora  in 
fpU  pre- 
dI'  g'roat 
h  makes 
1  family 
charac- 
atiis. — 
on  tains 
s  oolite 
c.stovcs 
emains 


of  flyinff  reptiles,  terrestrial  mammi/era  ?  saurian  animals,  insects,  marine  shells,  and 
tefietables.  The  upper  member  of  this  great  oolite  series  is  named  cornbrash,  which  is  s 
bluish  and  whitish  compact  limestone  with  marl. 

(;).)  Oxford  clay  and  Kellowuy  rock.  The  Oxford  clay  ia  a  bluish  argillaceous  marl. 
which  becomes  brown  on  exposure  to  the  air.  It  contains  subordinate  be<is  of  calca''ei.«m 
miirl,  ami  also  the  calcareous  clayey  nodules,  named  septaria.  Underneath  is  the  Kelloway 
rock,  a  particular  kind  of  calcareous  rock.  The  marls  sometimes  contain  bones  of  the  ich- 
tliyosaurus.  The  fossil  shells  are  pretty  numerous,  but  our  limited  space  will  not  allow  an 
emimcration  of  thom. 

(4.)  Coral  rag  is  a  loosely  aggregated  calcareous  rock,  abounding  in  different  species  of 
niiilrepores ;  the  rock  is  sometimes  marly,  and  of  a  gray  colour.  Below  the  coral  rag  is  a 
bcii  of  ferruginous  siliceous  sand,  containing  a  calcareous  grit  or  sandstone,  and  siliceo* 
calcareous  concretions.  It  is  in  this  part  that  the  fossil  organic  remains  are  most  abundant 
and  most  perfectly  preserved.  Fossil  Cycadacea  occur;  also,  as  in  the  calcareous  grit, 
b,)ni!s  of  saurian  animals.  Nearly  all  the  madrepores  belong  to  the  genera  Astrea,  Caryo- 
phiflka,  and  Meandrina.  Echinites  of  the  genera  Cidaris  and  Clypeus  are  met  with. 
Tlio  fossil  shells  have  not  been  thoroughly  examined, 

(,).)  Kimmeridge  clay.  The  lo'ver  beds  of  the  preceding  deposit  alternate  with  a  blue  or 
vpllowish  gray  marl,  which  is  ir.'  e  or  less  slaty,  and  contains  beds  of  a  very  bituminoua 
siiile,  and  even  true  lignite  or  brown  coal,  sometimes  forming  beds  of  considerable  thickness. 
All  ichthyosaurus  different  from  that  in  the  lias  is  found  here;  also  remains  of  the  plesio- 
g;iiirus,  and  bones  of  whales,  it  is  .said,  have  been  found  in  the  Kimmeridge  clay ;  also  fine 
impressions  of  fishes.  Serpnla,  also  species  of  cidaris  and  aslerias,  occur  in  this  formation. 
Many  species  of  different  genera  of  marine  shells  are  enumerated  as  occurring  in  it,  parti- 
cularly ammonites,  belemnites,  &c.  It  would  appear  that  the  prevailing  fossil  shells  in  the 
whole  oolite  formation  are  ammonites  and  belemnites.  The  belemnites  do  not  occur  lower 
down  in  the  series  than  the  lias. 

(6.)  Portland  oolite.  This  is  a  limestone  which  is  frequently  loosely  aggregated,  some- 
times oolitic,  forming  the  last  deposit  of  secondary  limestone  with  this  structure,  none  of  the 
superior  or  newer  secondary  limfestones  possessing  it.  It  contains  petrified  monocotyledonous 
an;l  dicotyle<lonou8  plants.  Remains  of  large  saurian  animals,  and  also  of  fishes,  are  met 
with  in  it.  Ammonites,  trigonia,  and  grypkites,  are  abundant.  The  most  characteristic 
eliolla  are  the  Ammonites  triplicatus  and  the  Fecten  lamellosus.  A  cidaris  and  madrepore 
have  also  been  discovered  in  it. 

yiinth  secondary  formation.  Wealden  clay  and  Purbeck  stone.  This  remarkable  form- 
ation abounds  in  fresh-water  shells  and  lantl  plants ;  but,  in  England  at  least,  contains  no 
mirine  species ;  hence  it  is  an  example  of  a  fresh-water  deposit  between  two  marine  depo- 
sits, viz.  the  oolite  and  chalk.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  future  observations  will  prove 
that  even  in  England  it  contains  marine  shells.  There  are  two  members  of  this  formation, 
viz.  the  Weald  clay,  and  Purbeck  stone. 

(1.)  Weald  Clay.  This  is  a  bluish  or  grayish  coloured  clay,  containing  subordinate  beds 
of  argillaceous  limestone.  The  limestone  abounds  in  shells  belonging  to  the  fresh-water 
genus  paludinte  ;  also  a  great  quantity  of  the  crustaceous  tribe  named  cypris.  Brotcn  iron 
ore,  beds  of  lignite,  and  beds  of  sandstone  much  resembling  some  of  the  varieties  of  the 
coal  formation,  also  occur  in  it.  It  contains  impressions  of  ferns,  but  of  different  species 
from  those  in  the  coal  formation. 

(2.)  Purbeck  stone  is  a  clayey  limestone,  which  alternates  with  marls.  It  abounds  in 
piiludinee,  also  contains  beautifiil  impressions  of  fresh-water  fishes,  and  of  tortoises  and 
crocodiles. 

Tenth  secondary  formation,  or  chalk  formation.  This  formation  is  well  characterised, 
by  its  organic  remains  and  flints.  Five  beds  occur  in  this  formation ;  viz.  1.  Lower  green 
sand;  2.  Gault  clay ;  3.  Upper  green  sand ;  4.  Tuffaceous  chalk;  5.  Chalk. 

(I.)  Lower  green  sand.  This  sand  does  not  differ  from  the  upper ;  but  the  fossil  organic 
remains  are  less  abundant.  The  shells  are  ammonites,  terebratulites,  trigonia,  &c.  In 
Great  Britain  the  trigonia  alaformis  is  considered  as  characteristic  of  this  lower  green 
sand. 

(2.)  Gault.  The  green  sand  is  divided  into  two  by  a  very  thick-  bed  of  bluish  gray  clay, 
known  in  many  of  the  districts  where  it  occurs  under  the  name  of  gault  It  contains  am- 
monites and  other  shells,  particularly  the  Inoceramus  sulcatus. 

(3.)  Upper  irreen  sand.  The  lower  part  of  the  tuflaceous  chalk,  containing  a  prodigious 
quantity  of  fossils  and  of  iron  pyrites,  becomes  more  and  more  charged  with  green  points, 
and  we  reach  a  mass  composed  of  a  green  sand  more  or  less  marly,  and  often  a  green  coloured 
calcareous  sandstone.  Fragments  of  silicified  wood,  and  also  parts  of  shells  penetrated  with 
silica;  teeth  of  fishes,  but  part4»  of  no  other  vertel3rated  animals,  occur  in  it.  The  fossil 
shells  are  very  numerous :  species  of  the  genera  cidaris  and  upatangus  .are  met  with,  and 
also  corals  of  various  kinds. 

(A.)  Tuffaceous  chalk,  which  is  generally  composed  of  a  cretaceous  matter,  clay  and  sand. 

Vol.  I.  20*  2E 


284 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAF'HY. 


Part  II. 


(t  is  softer  than  chalk,  and  towards  the  liwer  part  of  the  mass  the  clay  predominates,  oiid 
nlaty  clay  marl  is  tbund.  When  the  sana  predominates,  a  lixwely  .ajjfrrefjate  (jrayJMh  sand- 
stone is  formed.  No  flints  occur  in  this  tuftaceous  chalk,  their  place  being  taken  by  chert, 
Fossil  vegetables,  oven  lignite,  are  found  in  it.  Fossils  are  most  abundant  in  the  lower  \mti 
of  this  deposit  The  chief  are  belemniteg,  ammonites,  nautilitea,  hamiles,  buculiteH,  turru 
liles,  echinite$,  with  madrepores  and  encrinites. 

(5.)  The  uppermost  is  tne  chalk  properly  so  called,  of  which  tliero  are  two  principal 
kinds,  viz.  the  upper  or  soft  or  common  chalk,  which  abounds  in  flints  in  beds,  veins,  ami 
imbedded  masses ;  and  the  lower  or  hard  .chalk,  in  which  flint  is  more  rarely  met  with. 
These  chalks  also  contain  iron  pyriteu  and  calcareous  spar.  The  fossils  are  vertebra  and 
teeth  of  fishes ;  numerous  echinites  waA  terebratulites  occur  throughout  the  whole  niaas; 
and  in  the  descending  order,  ammonites  wad  belemnites  first  moke  Uieii  appearance  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  chalk.  ....       ;  «•     ..i  ,y  ,    ,     ,,  , 

SuBSEOT.  2. — Plutonian  or  Igneous  Secondary  Rocks. 

Igneous  rocks  appear,  at  diflerent  determinate  periods,  to  have  broken  in  among  the 
Neptunian  rocks  of  this  class,  and  also  to  have  forced  up  through  them  older  rocks  of  various 
descriptions,  forming  mountains,  mountain  ranges,  and  groups  of  mountains.  The  igneous 
rocks  are  porphyry,  and  sometimes  also  granite  and  syenite. 

Sect.  IX. — Tertiary  Rocks. 
SuBSECT.  1. — Neptunian  Tertiary  Rocks. 

The  rocks  of  this  class  were  first  pointed  out  by  Werner ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  publi- 
cation  of  the  excellent  work  of  Cuvier  and  Brongniart  on  the  geology  of  Paris,  that  their 
importance  was  felt  and  acknowledged  by  geologists.  In  the  regular  succession  they  rost 
immediately  upon  the  chalk  or  uppermost  member  of  the  secondary  class.  Although  tho 
rocks  are  looser  in  texture  than  those  of  the  secondary'  class,  yet  among  thein  beds  occur 
equally  compact  with  those  of  the  secondary  class,  '1  hey  abound  in  fossil  rema'jis  of  the 
animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms ;  although  many  species  are  diflerent  from  the  present  ones, 
many  of  the  genera  are  the  same.  The  following  are  the  Neptunian  rocks  in  the  order  of 
their  occurrence,  from  below  upwards :  1.  Plastic  clay.  2.  Calcaire  grossier.  or  liondon 
clay.  3.  Gypsum  with  bones.  4.  Superior  marine  sandstones  and  sands,  aandstone  of  Fon- 
tainebleau.  5.  Upper  fresh-water  formation. 

(1.)  Plastic  clay.  This  clay  is  frequently  divided  into  two  beds  by  a  bed  of  sand ;  the 
upper  bed  is  more  or  less  mixed  with  the  sand,  the  lower  bed  is  pure,  kneads  completely  with 
water,  and  is  infiisible  in  the  porcelain  furnace.  The  upper  bed  abounds  in  fossil  remains ; 
the  lower  bed  contains  none.  Jet  and  brown  coal,  which  are  fossilised  remains  of  dicotyle- 
donous and  monocotyledonous  plants  occur,  in  it.  Remains  of  the  palm  tribe  are  very 
frequent ;  but  ferns  have  not  been  met  with.  Insects  well  preserved  in  amber  are  also  met 
with.  The  fossil  shells  are  partly  fresh-water,  partly  marine,  which  are  sometimes  separate, 
sometimes  mixed  together. 

(2.)  Calcaire  grossier,  or  d  cerites  of  French  authors,  the  London  clay  of  Englisii 
geologists.  This  deposit  is  sometimes  separated  from  the  plastic  clay  by  a  bed  of  sand, 
which  occasionally  contains  pure  and  solid  sandstone,  but  no  petrifactions.  Resting  upon 
this  sand  is  a  bed  of  shelly  limestone,  abounding  in  ^reen  coloured  grains  of  silicate  of 
iron,  and  which  sometimes  passes  into  a  kind  of  sand;  it  is  in  this  limestone  that  the  num- 
mulite  shells  are  so  abundant,  and  which  are  mixed  with  corals  and  numerous  shells  in  a 
high  state  of  preservation.  Immediately  above  this  lies  the  great  bed  of  true  calcaire 
grossier.  It  is  so  compact,  that  in  the  Paris  basin,  where  it  abounds,  it  is  used  extensively 
as  a  building-stone.  It  is  the  common  building-stone  in  Paris.  It  contains  marine  sIipUs 
well  preserved,  and  also  remains  of  plants.  In  some  districts  it  is  divided  into  two  beds 
by  an  interposed  bed  of  lignite  or  brown  coal,  which  is  intermixed  with  fresh-water  shells. 
It  is  interesting  to  notice,  that  here  a  limestone  abounding  in  marine  shells  is  separated 
into  two  beds  by  an  interposed  mass  of  coal,  filled  with  fresh-water  shells.  Around  London 
there  is  a  great  deposit  of  clay  abounding  in  the  same  shells  as  occur  in  the  calcaire  grossier; 
thence,  for  this  and  other  reasons,  it  is  considered  rs  the  equivalent  of  the  Paris  calcaire 
grossier.  The  uppermost  part  of  this  formation  consists  of  sand,  hornstone,  and  sandstone, 
with  alternating  beds  of  limestone.     It  sometimes  abounds  in  cerites. 

(3.)  Gypsum  with  bones.  This  deposit  may  be  considered  as  consisting  of  three  stages ; 
a  lower,  a  middle,  and  an  upper.  The  lower  part,  or  that  which  rests  immediately  upon 
the  calcaire  grossier,  consists  of  gray  and  white  limestone,  more  or  less  compact,  penetrated 
in  all  directions  by  silica.  This  silica,  when  it  finds  its  way  into  cavities  in  the  limestone, 
lines  them  with  chalcedony  or  with  quartz  crystals.  It  contains  species  of  the  fresh-water 
genera  Lymnea  and  Planorbis.  The  middle  part  is  composed  of  gypsum  which  alternates 
with  layers  of  marl.    It  is  in  this  gypsum  that  remains  of  the  genera  Palaotherium,  Anaplo- 


Pa«t  II. 

Jominates,  a„d 
(f'lyiHh  8u„d. 

uker.  by  chert, 
the  lower  jwrf 


Book  H. 


,YII'}/ 


GEOGNOSY. 


AKff; 


fculites 


turn. 


J  Jwo  principal 
|as,  veins,  and 
|ely  met  witli. 
■  vertebra  and 

•  whole  mass; 
parance  in  the 


In  among  the 

Pcks  of  various 

The  igneous 


til  the  publi. 
18,  that  their 
'on  they  rDst 
Although  the 
1  beds  occur 
oiafjis  of  the 
present  ones, 
the  order  of 
■"•  or  Ijondon 
itone  of  Fon- 

of  sand ;  the 
ipletely  with 
sj]  "-emains ; 
I  of  dicotyle- 
ie  are  very 
ire  also  met 
les  separate, 

of  English 
ed  of  sand, 
-sting  upon 
silicate  of 
t  the  nnm- 
shells  in  a 
c  calcaire 
xtensively 
ino  slipjis 
tvvo  beds 
;er  shells-, 
separated 
i  London 
gros.sicr ; 
'  calcaire 
mdstone, 

'■  stages ; 
ely  upon 
netrated 
nestone, 

ih-V'atPr 

ternates 
inaplo- 


MTJum,  of  various  caiTiivr  ra,  also  difleront  species  of  birds  and  of  fresh-wator  fidhes,  like- 
wine  the  'IVonex,  Tealud',  and  Crocodilus,  are  met  with  :  and  of  the  Bheiis,  tiie  inowt  ciiur- 
acteristic  is  the  Cycloatomi  tnumia.  Here  also  in  tho  marls  occurs  that  curious  kind  of 
opal  named  menilite  ;  a  m  .leral  which  in  some  degree  may  be  considered  as  characterising 
this  gypsum  deposit  In  t,-iis  gypsum  ia  situated  the  salt  of  Wielickza.  The  upper  pan 
conBists  of  marls,  with  fresi'-water  shells  r-  the  lyu.  "a  and  planorbis  tribes,  remains  of 
tiahcs,  and  frequently  remains  of  the  pain  t..oe. 

(4.)  Superior  marine  tantU  and  aandatonea.  The  lower  part  of  this  deposit  is  a  green- 
coloured  argillaceous  marl  witli  celeatine,  upon  which  there  are  marls  containing  fossil 
oyHera.  The  middle  part  consists  of  micaceous  sands,  and  sandstones  without  shells.  The 
upper  part  is  sandstone  with  marine  shells. 

(5.)  Upper  freah-water  formation.  The  lower  part  of  this  deposit  consists  of  sands,  marls, 
and  vesicular  quartz  or  millstone  (tneuliere),  without  shells.  The  millstone  occurs  rarely 
in  bcdp^  usually  in  angular  masses  m  the  marls  and  sands.  The  upper  part  consists  of  cal- 
careous marls,  limestones,  and  millstones,  containing  fresh-water  shells.  This  tbnnatiun 
contains  of  fossil  plants,  species  of  Exugenites,  Lycopoditea,  Poacites,  Chara,  and  Nymphea. 
It  is  further  characterised  by  the  numerous  fossil  fresh-water  shells  of  the  same  genera  us 
occur  at  present  in  the  neighbourhood,  but  of  difl'erent  species.  The  genera  are,  Lymnata, 
Planorbis,  Potamidea,  Cycloatoma,  Helix,  and  Bulimua,  The  gyrogonites  of  Lamarck, 
which  are  small  round  grooved  bodies,  are  not  animal  remains,  but  seeds  of  the  plant  chara. 

M.  Desnoyers  describes  a  marine  deposit  met  with  in  the  basin  of  the  Loire,  as  resting 
upon  the  upper  fresh-water  formation.  The  deposit  appears  to  be  the  same  as  the  crag  oi 
English  geologists,  and  has  been  lately  met  with  also  m  Provence. 

SvBSECT.  2. — Plutonian  or  Ignigenoua  Tertiary  Rocks.  r        . 

The  rough  felspathose  porphyries,  known  under  the  name  trachyte,  which  occur  in  vast 
abundance  in  many  countries,  appear  to  be  of  the  same  age  with  the  tertiary  rocks.  Bamlt, 
a  grayish-black  compound  of  angite  and  felspar,  in  which  the  minerals  are  not  distinguisha- 
ble by  the  naked  eye  ;  greenstone  or  doleri'e,  a  compound,  but  of  a  green  colour,  in  which 
the  augite  and  felspar  grains  are  distinguishable ;  wacke,  which  is  a  clayey  greenstone ; 
amygdaloid,  which  is  greenstone  or  wacke  with  the  amygdaloidal  structure ;  and  clinkstone 
or  phonolite,  which  is  a  slaty  felspar,  are  found  associateawith  tertiary  rocks.  Some  classes 
of  mountains,  as  Mont  Blanc,  and  the  Scandinavian  ranges,  are  conjectured  to  have  been 
upraised  partly  during  and  partly  after  the  deposition  of  the  tertiary  rocks. 

Sect.  X. — Alluvial  Rocka. 

Under  this  head  we  include  the  various  calcareous  deposits,  peat,  clays,  loams,  sands,  gra- 
vels, and  rolled  masses  or  bo»)lders,  which,  in  the  regular  succession,  rest  upon  tlie  newest 
or  uppermost  rocks  of  the  tertiary  class.  These  deposits  have  been  variously,  arranged  ac- 
cording to  their  supposed  relative  antiquity  :  probably  they  may  bo  arranged  with  sufticipnt 
distinctness,  according  to  their  situation,  in  the  following  manner: — 1.  Littoral  or  sea-coast 
alluvium,  as  downs.  2.  River  alluvium,  that  met  with  on  the  bottom  and  sides  of  rivers. 
3.  Lake  alluvium,  that  on  the  sides,  &c.  of  lakes.  4.  Spring  alluvium,  that  formed  by 
springs,  as  calc  tuffa,  calc  sinter,  travertine,  siliceous  sinter.  Sic.  5.  Rain  alluvium,  that 
deposited  by  and  moved  by  rain-water.  6.  Plutonian  alluvium,  that  formed  and  distributed 
over  tracts  of  country  by  the  upraising  of  chains  of  mountains. 

In  this  alluvium,  remains  of  vegetables  an«5  animals  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  Tho 
vegetables,  as  far  as  is  known  at  present,  are  either  foreign  species  or  species  identical  with 
those  of  the  country  where  their  remains  are  found.  In  the  older  or  Plutonian  alluvia, 
neither  remains  of  human  industry  nor  bones  of  the  human  species  have  been  found ;  but 
numerous  bones  and  skeletons  of  land  quadt  jpeds. 

These  quadrupeds  are  either  of  extinct  species  of  living  genera,  as  the  elephant,  rhino- 
ceros, hippopotamus,  tapir,  bear,  and  lion ;  or  of  living  species,  as  the  beaver,  rat,  ox,  deer, 
sheep,  and  dog ;  or  species  of  extinct  genera,  ma  mastodon  and  megatherium.         , 

Sect.  XI. — "Volcanic  Rocks. 

These  are  rocky  masses  which  owe  tlicir  origin  to  volcanoes.  They  are  divided  into  old 
and  new,  or  ancient  and  modern. 

Ancient  volcanic  rocka.  Under  this  division  we  include  those  volcanic  rocks  connected 
with  volcanoes,  which  have  not  been  in  a  state  of  octivity  since  the  commencement  of  our 
history.  These  rocks  very  much  resemble  basalt,  and  have  been  sent  fi"om  the  interior  of 
the  earth  in  the  form  of  streams  or  currents.  In  almost  every  country  where  they  occur, 
we  find  craters  from  whence  they  have  streamed.  These  dark-coloured  basaltic-like  rocks, 
are  accompanied  with  puzzolana  and  scoriee,  very  much  resembling  chose  of  active  volcanoes. 
Sometimes  lighter  coloured  lavas,  Jiamed  Uucostine,  and  which  resemble  trachyte,  occui 
along  with  the  darker  varieties. 

Modern  volcanic  rocks.  These,  as  already  enumerated  and  described  at  p.  213,  214.,  are 
lavas,  scoris,  ashes,  sands,  &c. 


286 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


PABxa 


BOOK   III. 


.\ 


GENERAL 


PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY  UNDER  ITS  RELATION  TO 
ORGANIZED  AND  LIVING  BEINGS. 


In  considcrinj]f  the  extonsivo  ranpc  of  subjocts  which  this  book  embraces,  wo  have  armnged 
them  lie  tlioy  si'cccssivoly  rise  above  the  scale  of  inanimate  niitnre. 

Tiio  first  chapter  treats  of  geonfraphy,  in  its  relation  to  botany,  or  to  the  distribution  of 
plants  over  the  surface  of  tiie  globe. 

The  second  chapter  considers  it  in  its  relation  to  zoology,  or  the  distribution  of  animals, 
including  man  viewed  simply  as  to  his  physical  condition. 

The  third  chanter  views  geography  in  reference  to  human  society,  to  man  in  his  political, 
moral,  and  social  condition. 


1  .  •  '  I  'Ti 


CHAPTER  I. 


GEOGRAPMY  CONSIDERED  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  DlSTRinUTIOV  OF  PLANTS. 

In  proportion  as  our  knowledge  increases  relative  to  any  of  the  sciences,  we  find  a  more 
intimate  relation  and  connexion  between  them.  Fornterly  geography  was  only  studied  lu  it 
regarded  the  surface  of  the  earth  itself,  its  figure,  tlic  constitution  of  the  several  regions  and 
countries,  their  boundaries,  &c. ;  and  botany  has  had  too  many  votaries  wlio  devoted  their  attpn- 
tion  almost  exclusively  to  determining  the  generic  and  specific  names  of  plants,  neglecting  the 
more  beautiful  and  philosophical  jmrts  of  the  science.  Of  late  years,  indeed,  our  s^y^^tenis  of 
geography  have,  in  some  instances,  contained  a  meagre  catalogue  of  the  vegetable  produc- 
tions of  the  diiferent  regions,  but  nothing  that  could  give  the  least  information  with  respect 
to  the  laws  of  their  general  distribution:  and  now  that  some  of  the  most  able  natuniliBts  and 
philosophers  of  our  day  have,  by  their  labours,  thrown  new  light  upon  this  interesting  sub- 
ject, we  ahould  feel  that  our  work  would  ill  merit  the  character  which  wo  hope  it  may  obtain 
with  the  public,  were  we  to  omit  a  notice  of  it.  At  the  same  time,  the  limits  of  our  publica- 
tion  will  permit  us  to  give  only  a  sketch  of  what  indeed  must  be  considered  as  still  in  its 
infancy ;  and  those  who  have  most  devoted  their  attentton  to  botanical  geography  will  most 
readily  join  with  Mirbel  in  declaring  that  "  we  are  even  yet  far  from  having  arrived  at  that 
period  when  it  will  be  possible  to  write  a  good  history  of  this  subject.  What  we  do 
know  of  climates  and  of  vegetation,  is  little,  in  comparison  with  what  we  have  yet  to  learn; 
and  hence  it  would  be  rash  in  us  to  form  an  estimate  of  what  we  do  not  know  by  what  we 
are  already  acquainted  with.  The  surest  way  is  to  confine  ourselves  to  collecting  and 
arranging  facts,  leaving,  to  those  who  may  follow  us,  the  charge  of  discovering  and  de- 
veloping the  theory." 

To  exhibit  tiie  present  state  of  botanical  science,  we  shall  endeavour  to  put  together  the 
more  interesting  facts,  collected  principally  from  the  writings  of  our  most  authentic  travel- 
lers and  naturalists;  and,  devoting  this  memoir  to  vegetable  geography  in  its  more  en- 
larged and  general  sense,  shall  afterwards,  in  the  difltrcnt  countries,  under  the  head  of 
botany,  point  out  some  of  the  most  striking  and  important  productions  of  their  respective 
regions.  As  the  nature  of  the  present  work  does  not  permit  us  to  enter  minutely  into  tlie 
subject  in  all  its  bearings,  we  shall  give  a  popular  view  of  it,  as  little  encumbered  as  possible 
vvitii  technical  terms. 

That  certain  vegetables  are  confined  to  certain  districts  or  limits,  depending  in  a  great 
measure,  but  by  no  means  altogether,  upon  soil  and  climate,  must  be  familiar  to  the  most 
careless  inquirer  into  tiie  works  of  nature.  In  regard  to  climate,  the  two  extremes  arc  re- 
presented by  the  country  within  the  tropics,  and  that  which  approaches  the  poles.  In  the 
one,  nature  exhibits  herself  in  her  most  lovely  and  her  most  magnificent  and  exuberant  form, 
and  the  earth  is  covered  with  vegetables  which  indicate  a  never-ending  summer;  whilst  in 
tlin  others  a  brief  summer,  a  few  days  of  freedom  from  frost  and  snow,  call  into  existence  a 
thinly  scattered  vegetation  of  small  and  stunted  flowering  plants,  which  scarcely  rise  above 
the  mosses  and  lichens  that  surround  them ;  and  the  intermediate  zones  will  be  found  to  be 
occ'ipied  by  other  races,  gradually,  however,  increasing  in  diflerence  as  they  approach  to 
one  or  other  of  these  extremities.  The  same  gradation  exists,  we  know,  upon  a  lofty  moun- 
tain, situated  within  the  tropics.  At  its  base  may  be  seen  those  plants  which  are  peculiar 
to  the  tropics ;  and  the  beauty,  the  grandeur  and  perpetual  verdure  will  gradually  dirnini.sli 
in  the  ascent,  until  a  soil  and  climate  be  found  on  the  higlier  Kummits  similar  in  respect  to 
ciim.itc  .■inri  prorluctions  to  those  in  the  vicinity  of  the  poles. 

In  regard  to  climate  and  vefret:ible  productions,  our  globe  has  been  aptly  compared,  in  it? 
two  Ijemispheres,  to  two  iiiiinenHC  mountains,  placed  bas«  to  base,  Uie  circumference  of 


PABta 


>NT0 

\ve  arranged 
Ribution  of 
I  "f  nnimals, 
i'«  political, 


Its. 

^'"<J  a  more 
tudifd  (u  it 
■^^'ions  and 
"'ciratten- 
Jpctinj^'tiie 
"Metiis  of 
"fi  Produc- 
'fh  rospocf 
niliHts  and 
'stiriff  sub- 
Tiay  obtain 
"•  Piiblica- 
siilJ  in  itg 

will  most 
'ed  at  tlidt 
It  we  do 

to  learn  ; 

what  we 
:tin<r  and 
■  and  de- 

'tlior  the 
c  travel- 
nore  en- 
Iiead  of 
spoctive 
nto  the 
possible 

a  great 
e  most 
are  re- 
in the 
t  form, 
iJst  in 
Jnce  a 
above 
to  be 
ich  to 
loun- 
:nliar 
inisli 
ci  to 

1  it? 

3  of 


Book  TIT. 


IN  ITS  RRI,ATION  TO  BOTANY. 


287 


which  at  the  ftiot  is  roimtitiitnil  by  the  equntnr,  and  the  two  poles  roprwunt  thr  miinmita, 
crowned  with  pprpntiin!  ^jlncierH. 

Thai  almost  ovcry  country  poHBOHsrs  a  vegetation  peculiar  to  itself,  is  also  well  known ;  imd 
this  is  |Hirticularly  the  case  with  countries  whosn  natural  IxMindnrieH  are  fonned  by  nnnm- 
tains,  seas,  or  descrtB,  even  in  the  same  or  different  degrees  of  latitude.  Kiirope  exhibiin  a 
widely  different  class  of  plants  fVom  that  part  of  North  America  which  lies  immediotely  op- 
posite to  it.  The  botany  of  Southern  Africa  has  little  or  no  resemblance  to  that  of  the  sariio 
prallcls  in  South  America,  or  to  that  of  New  Holland.  In  Great  Britain,  some  plants  ore 
confined  to  the  eastern  and  some  to  the  western  side  of  the  island.  !n  Scotland,  the  'I'vt- 
Bane  and  the  Isle  of  Man  Cabbage  are  never  found  but  on  the  westt  rn  nide  of  the  country, 
and  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  pale  Bnttfrwort  (I'ingnicula  liUsitanica),  both  in  England 
and  Scotland.  Nature  has  constituted  the  barrier,  for  by  art  they  may  be  cultivated  as  well 
Qii  one  as  tlie  other  side  of  the  island. 

Botanical  geography  is  constituted  by  considering  plants  in  relation  to  their  habitation, 
region,  or  the  country  m  which  they  grow,  and  in  regard  to  their  locality  or  particular  atatvm, 
and  forming  a  collection  of  facts,  deduced  from  these  circumstancf..,  irom  which  geucrni 
laws  may  bo  derived :  nor  is  this  a  science  destitute  of  advantages ;  such,  we  mean,  as  are 
immediately  manifest ;  for  there  are  few,  in  the  present  artc^  who  will  be  disposed  to  den> 
that  the  study  of  the  works  of  nature,  like  every  thing  that  can  exalt  and  refine  the  mind, 
is  highly  deserving  of  our  attention.  Vegetable  geography  is  intimately  connected  with  hor- 
ticulture. Our  gardens  will  be  better  stocked  with  vogptal)les  and  fruits,  our  forests  with 
trees,  our  fields  with  corn,  and  our  pastures  with  grasses,  in  proportion  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  relation  of  plants  with  the  exterior  elements.  Nay,  Schouw  has  justly  observed,  that  a 
good  chart  of  the  distribution  of  the  vegetable  forms  over  any  givc-n  country  will  afford  a  far 
more  correct  idea  of  the  productive  strength  of  that  country  than  many  statistical  tables 
The  systematic  botanist  may  thence  derive  benefit;  for  by  it  he  will  be  better  able  to  deter 
mine  whether  certain  kinds  of  plants  are  species  or  varieties ;  he  will  consider  that  a  dif- 
ferent local  situation  produces  different  effects  upon  thorn ;  that  those  growing  in  wet  places 
are  less  haifv  or  downy  than  those  growing  in  dry ;  that  at  great  elevations  plants  are  more 
dwarf  in  thc.r  stature,  with  fewer  leaves,  but  With  larger  and  more  brilliant  flowers  than 
those  found  at  lesser  heights.  The  station,  too,  of  certain  plants,  or  groups  of  plants,  fre- 
quently leads  to  a  discovery  of  characters  diverse  from  other  individuals  of  other  countrip* 
with  which  they  had  been  associated.  Thus  the  Canadian  Straicherrtj  and  the  Canadian 
chickweed  Wintergreen  (Trientulis),  though  long  confounded  with  the  European  Strawber- 
ry and  Trienlalis,  are  found  to  be  quite  distinct.  The  regions,  too,  and  the  limits  of  those 
regions,  of  very  important  medicinal  drugs,  are  determined  by  vegetable  geography. 

Sect,  I. — Progress  of  Botanical  Geography. 
This  branch  of  science  had  been,  howevor,  for  a  long  time,  wholly  neglected.  Linnmus, 
indeed,  with  whom  originated  so  many  improvements  in  botany,  besides  what  related  to  sys- 
tematic arrangement,  was  the  first  writer  who  gave  stations  for  plants,  os  ho  called  them,  or 
rather  habitations,  or  frequently  both  combined,  and  this  plan  has  been  followed  by  every  suc- 
ceeding systematic  botanist.  Yet  although  these  stations  or  habitations  are  frequently  con- 
sulted in  the  geographical  arrangement  of  plants,  they  are  too  vague  and  imcertain  to  be 
generally  depended  upon ;  and  they  must  be  employed  with  caution.  De  Saussure,  who  so 
assiduously  studied  vegetable  physiology,  was  particularly  attentive,  on  tbnt  account,  to  the 
elevation  at  which  plants  grow  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  and  appe?irs  to  have  been  the 
first  to  ascertain  that  elevati  m  barometrically.  Mr.  Younj^,  the  celebrated  agriculturist,  in 
his  Travels  upon  the  Continent,  determined  with  considerable  accuiucy  the  northern  boun- 
daries of  several  of  the  most  important  cultivated  plants,  the  Olive,  the  Vine,  and  the 
Maize ;  whilst  Soulavie,  in  the  south  of  France,  has  characterised  the  limits  of  them,  and 
of  the  Orange  and  Chestnut.  These,  and  other  authors  of  less  note,  prepared  tiie  way, 
during  the  last  century,  for  the  mote  important  labours  of  the  present,  when  the  study  has 
begun  to  rank  as  a  science.  Stromeyer  described,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  boundaries  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  in  a  work  entitled  "A  Specimen  of  the  History  of  Vegetable  Geogra- 
phy," Gottingen,  1800.  The  work  of  Kielmann,  entitled  "  A  Dissertation  concerning  Vege- 
tation in  the  Alpine  Regions,"  Tubingen,  1804,  was  followed  by  that  of  Treviranus,  named 
"  Biologic,"  which  seems  to  be  the  first  wherein  attention  was  paid  to  the  distribution  of 
plants  according  to  their  natural  families ;  the  latter  author  dividing  the  globe  into  regions 
or  distinct  Floras ;  and  De  Candolle,  about  the  same  time,  partitioned  France  into  regions  in 
the  same  way,  and  wrote  on  the  influence  of  height  upon  vegetation.  To  the  celebrated 
Humboldt,  however,  we  are  indebted  for  the  most  valuaMe  writings  on  vegetable  geography 
which  have  first  given  it  the  true  character  of  a  science.  His  "  Essai  sur  la  Geographie 
des  Plantes,"  in  1607,  and  his  beautiful  "  Tableaux  de  la  Nature,"  contained  his  first  ideas 
on  the  subject;  while  his  calebra.ced  ^^Prolegomena  de  distributione  gevgtaphica  Planla 
'um  secundum  cceli  temperiem  et  altitudinem  montium,"  forming  the  introductory  chapter 
'o  tlie  botanical  part  of  Ilk  travels;  his  invaluable  "  Me7notr  mi  Isotherrnal  Lines  and  the 


388 


SCIENCE  OP  OEOORAPHY, 


Pa«tII 


Dittrihulian  qf  Heat  over  the  Globe,  publmhed  in  the  Memoirei  d'Arcueil,  and  tran«lat«4 
into  liri'WHter'H  aiul  Jniiii>M)n*H  I'liiloMipliical  Journal,  vol.  iii. ;  t(>i;ctlit>r  with  hiv  later  wurk 
on  Ihu  Hubject,  "  New  Etuiuiriet  into  the  Imwi  which  are  obaerved  in  Ike  IHttribution  of 
Vef(i:tahle  Forms"  likewiitc  inneritxl  in  thu  Edin.  I'hil.  Journal,  vol.  vi.,  may  bo  coniiidored 
art  thu  nuMt  important  diiiHertationii  ua  a  cuuiprohonHivc  ticalo  that  havo  yot  appeared.   In  the 
nifui)  time,  otlier  eminent  naturaliMtit,  by  their  well-directed  laboum,  contributed  niatoriiiHy 
to  e.xtiMi<i  the  Hcience :  Wahlunber)^,  for  example,  in  his  admirable  Flora  Lapponicu,  niul  in 
that  of  a  (lortion  of  Switzerland,  and  of  tlio  Carpathian  Alpa;  whilst  Von  Buch,  m  hJH  'Pra- 
tt U  in  Norway,  detailed  many  curious  facts  reepectiiif;  tho  diHtrihution  of  vc^^ctablea  in  that 
climate,  and  also  in  his  interostin(f  Voyaae  to  the  Canaries,  made  in  company  with  Pro- 
foHKor  8mith.     Mr.  R.  Brown  haa  publinneu  memoirs  which  rank  among  tlie  most  valuable 
that  have  appeared  on  this  suliject.  We  ^rticularly  allude  to  his  "  Remarks,  (Jcoffraphical 
and  Systematic,  on  the  Botany  of  Terra  Australis,  1814,"  and  "  Observations  on  the.  Her- 
barium  collected  bt/  Prqfcssor  Christ.  Smith,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Congo,  1818."    Dr. 
Scliouw  compiled,  wi  1824,  an  admirable  history  of  tho  science,  of  which  some  portions  have 
b(;on  translated  into  Browster'a  and  Jameson's  Journaln.     This  valuable  work  is  accompa- 
niod  by  an  Atlas  of  several  maps  of  the  world;  each  exhibiting  the  geographical  extent  of 
certiin  tribes  or  families  of  vegetables,  indicated  by  ditl'erent  colours ;  so  that  wo  see,  at  one 
view,  u|)on  a  plan  of  the  world,  the  countries  in  which  these  plants  are  found,  their  bounda- 
ries, and  tiieir  comparative  abundance,  indicated  by  the  greater  or  less  depth  of  colour  em- 
ployed.     Do  CundoUe,  in  the  "  Nouveau  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences  Naturelles,"  has  given 
an  admirable  resume  of  these  writers,  and  has  added  mucli  important  original  information. 
A  somewhat  similar  plan  is  adopted  by  M.  Brongniart  in  tho  "  Dictionnaire  Classique 
d'/tisloire  Naturelle.      Mr.  Allan  Cunningham,  both  in  Mr.  Barron  Field's  "  Memoirs  of 
New  South  Wales,"  and  in  the  second  volume  of  "  Captain  Xing'" s  Survey  of  the  Inter- 
tropical  Coasts  qf  Australia,"  has  furnished  some  excellent  remarks  upon  the  distribution 
of  vegetables,  especially  of  the  less  Irequented  parts  of  New  Holland.    The  "  Memoires  rftt 
Museum  tCHistoire  Naturelle"  contain  some  important  papers  on  this  subject,  particularly 
that  of  Mirbel,  "  Sur  la  Geogravhie  dex  Coniferes,"  a  trilxj  of  plants  valuable  for  its  eco- 
nomical uses ;  and  his  "  Recherches  sur  la  Distribution  Geogravhiquc  des  Vegitaux  pha- 
nerogames  dans  rancien  Monde,  depuis  VEquateur  jusquau  F6lc  Arctique :  and,  lastly, 
we  snail  name  a  useful  little  manual,  entitled  a  "  Lecture  on  the  Geography  of  Plants,"  by 
Mr.  J.  Barton. 

Sect,  II. — On  the  Ir{/luence  of  the  Elements  on  Plants. 

In  regarding  the  limits  to  which  certain  plants  are  circumscribed  upon  tho  suriace  of  tho 
globe,  we  sliall  see  that  it  is  with  them  as  with  the  mighty  ocean  ;  they  are  equally  subject 
to  that  fiat  of  the  Almighty,  "  Thus  far  shalt  thou  go  and  no  farther."  The  Palms,  the 
Tree-Ferns,  the  parasitical  Orchideo?,  are  ever  confined  lo  the  tropics;  the  Cruciferous  and 
Umbelliferous  plants  almost  exclusively  to  the  temperate  regions ;  while  the  Coniferous 
plants,  and  many  of  the  Amentaceous  triboj-  flourish  in  those  of  the  north ;  and  since  these 
are  all  affected  by  physical  agents,  we  must  consider,  before  proceeding  any  fartJier,  tho 
influences  which  the  elements  or  exterior  agents  exercise  uix)n  plants.  These  M.  de  Can- 
doUe  considers  to  be  Heat,  Light,  Moisture,  Soil,  Atmosphere. 

SoMECT.  I. — On  the  Influence  f  Heat. 
Heat  is  the  most  obvious  and  powcrfiil  agent  in  afl^«>cting  the  existence  and  growth  of 
plants :  and  of  this  we  have  continual  i^xperience  before  our  eyes.  In  winter  all  vegetation 
IS  at  a  stand,  and  we  can  only  cultis  ate  those  plants  which  are  in  a  continued  state  of 
vegetation,  by  artificial  heat.  Plants  are  nourished  either  by  water  alone,  or  by  substances 
dissolved  or  suspended  in  the  water  Hence  vegetation  is  arrested  when  the  temperature 
ia  below  the  freezing  point;  for  the  water  becoming  solid,  cannot  enter  the  vegetable 
tissue.  A^in,  as  in  the  great  deserts  of  many  countries,  the  heat  may  be  so  great  that  the 
earth  is  dried  up,  and  camiot  part  with  its  nutritive  properties.  Those  effects,  however,  it 
is  but  reasonable  to  suppose,  are  more  remarkaWe  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth  than  ot  a 
considerable  depth :  hence  it  happens  that  trees  which  have  long  tap-roots  resist  both  the 
extremes  of  temperature  better  than  those  whose  roots  are  nearer  to  tne  surface ;  their  fibres 
penetrate  into  a  soil,  whose  temperature  is  greater  in  winter  than  that  of  the  outer  air,  so 
that  the  fluids  imbibed  keep  the  interior  of  large  trees,  as  has  been  ascertained  by  experi- 
ment, at  a  degree  of  heat  pretty  nearly  the  same  as  that  indicated  by  a  thermometer  placed 
at  the  roots  of  such  trees.  Hence,  the  greater  the  thickness  of  the  stem  or  branch,  and  the 
greater  the  number  of  layers  intej-posed  between  the  pith  (the  softest  part  being  the  mol^•le»t 
and  the  most  susceptible  of  cold)  and  the  exterior  air,  the  better  are  they  able  to  resist  the 
severity  of  the  co'd.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  a  shrub  or  tree  as  it  grows  older  becomes 
more  hardened  Oj.  ;inst  frost.  De  Caimolie  relates  that  at  Montpellicr  the  Pride  of  India 
(Melia  Azedaracli^  when  young  is  destr.  yed  by  a  moderate  degree  of  cold ;  but  that  when 


'*  inter  Work 
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f«  conjiidcred 
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prt'ona  have 

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distribution 
timoires  du 
particularly 

'or  its  ceo- 
ftattx  pha. 
and,  lastly, 
Plants,"  iy 


ft«e  of  the 
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Palms,  the 
feroua  and 
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perature 
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when 


Book  TIT. 


IN  ITS  REI^TION  TO  BvlTANY. 


S9U 


it  attniriH  a  moro  lulvancoil  ajfo,  it  will  ondure,  in  the  (farden  at  Geneva,  an  intenaity  of 
atnii)H|)li<To  fuiir  tininn  an  Hcvoru  an  that  wliich  killed  tliu  yiiuii(f  plant  in  the  stoiith  uf  France. 
,\g\i\u,  in  proportion  as  tlio  exterior  layora  aro  deprived  of  Mip  or  wat<!ry  fluid,  and  tbrtiHed 
bv  II  i|p|)OHit  of  carbon  and  roHinous  matter,  the  more  powerfully  thav  withatand  the  cold. 
i^vory  ^iirdenor  and  cultivator  i.t  ucquiiinted  with  t'ln  fact  that  in  cold  and  wet  Hummora 
when  the  Hiin  and  heat  have  been  inautflcient  to  produce  |?o<nI  bark  uiton  the  now  ahootfl  uf 
Iho  trait-trocB,  they  are  liable  to  bo  afft'ctod  by  a  very  mfwerato  frost  in  thn  onsuinff  winter. 
Siicculint  planlt  and  Monoeolylednnmis  planln,  in  ((eneral,  which  have  no  distinct  bark, 
irn  hii^lily  suHceptiblc  of  cold ;  whilot  the  Birch,  which  la  fcnce<i  around  with  numerous 
layerH  of  old  and  dry  bark,  and  tho  tHr,  whoee  bark  abounds  with  reuin,  endure  an  inton»o 
di>(frfiP  of  it  without  injury.  At  Fort  Enterprise,  in  North  America,  lat.  (M°  30",  Dr. 
RicliiirdHon  has  ascertained  that  the  Bankiiian  Pine  (Pinus  Uanksiuna),  tho  while,  the  red, 
and  black  Spruce,  the  small-frniled  iMvch,  and  othor  Amentaceous  trees,  boar  a  doffree  of 
cold  c(|Uiil  to  44°  below  zero  of  Fahrenheit ;  and  in  Hiboria,  lat.  6ft°  28",  the  common  Larch, 
the  Siberian  Stone  Pine,  tho  Alder,  Uirch,  and  Juniper,  &.c.  attain  their  {froatest  size,  and 
iro  not  nrt'ected  by  tho  oxtromost  cold  of  that  severe  climate. 

I*»wcrfiil  summer  heats  are  capable  of  cauHiii)^  trees  and  shrubs  to  ondure  the  most  tryinff 
etfoctR  of  cold  in  tho  onsuinj;  winter,  as  we  Knd  in  innumerable  instances;  and  vtcc  veraa. 
Ilcnco,  in  Great  Britain,  so  many  vefjetables,  fruit-trees  in  particular,  for  want  of  a  suffi- 
ciently powerful  sun  in  summer, aro  affected  by  our  comparatively  moderate  frosts  in  winter; 
whilst  u|)on  continents  if  the  same  dejrree  of  latitude  the  same  trees  arrive  at  tho  hif^hest 
deffioe  of  perfection.  Even  in  tho  climate  of  Paris  the  PiBtacia  tree  and  the  Oleander  will 
not  bear  the  winter.  Yet  the  winters  there  are  mild  in  comparison  with  those  which  prevail 
in  the  environs  of  Peking,  where  the  Oleander  was  found  by  Lord  Macartney  to  remain 
abroad  the  whole  year ;  and  at  Cosbin  in  Persia,  where  Chardin  assures  us  that  the  Pistucia 
nuts,  produced  in  tho  open  air,  arq  larper  than  those  of  Syria.  •  On  tho  other  hand,  the 
hnit  of  those  two  countries  in  summer  is  infinitely  greater  tlian  that  at  Paris ;  tl.3  summer 
tpinperature  of  Peking  especially  nearly  wiuii's  that  of  Cairo,  and  surpasses  that  of  Aljjfiers. 
For  the  same  reason,  too,  the  Weeping  Willow  becomes  a  largo  tree  in  England ;  while  in 
Hnotlnnd,  where  tho  winters  are  at  least  as  mild,  but  where  tho  summer  affords  much  loss 
warmth,  this  beautiful  tree  can  only  be  cultivated  in  highly  favoured  situations,  and  even 
there  its  vegetation  is  exceedingly  languid :  its  young  snoots,  not  ripened  by  the  summer 
sun,  are  destroyed  even  by  a  slight  frost. 

Hence  tho  influence  of  temperature  upon  the  geography  of  plants  is  pointed  out  by  M, 
de  Candolle  under  three  points  of  view :— 1.  The  mean  temperature  of  tho  year.  2.  The 
cxtrcinio  of  temperature,  whether  in  rofrord  to  cold  or  heat.  3.  The  distribution  of  tempera- 
ture in  tho  different  months  -^f     c  y,-    . 

Tho  mean  temperature,  '  ,  point  which  it  has  for  a  long  time  been  tho  great  object  to 
ascertain,  is  in  reality  uU»t  is  of  the  least  importance  in  regard  to  the  geography  of  plants. 
In  a  general  view,  it  may  he  useful  to  take  it  into  consideration ;  but  the  mean  temperature 
is  oflcn  determined  by  cirt-umstances  so  widely  different,  that  the  coimequcnces  and  the 
analogies  to  be  deduced  (tvim  them  relative  to  vegetables  would  be  very  erroneous. 

By  attending  to  liw  extreme  points  of  temperature,  results  more  limited,  but  far  more 
exact,  are  to  Iro  obtained.  Thus,  every  locality  which,  though  at  only  short  intervals,  affords 
a  degree  of  cold  or  heat  of  certain  intensity,  cannot  but  prodiicn  plant8  which  are  capable 
of  supporting  tlioso  extreme  degrees.,  When,  however,  these  widely  different  temperatures 
recur  at  very  long  intervals,  man  may  cultivate  in  such  a  ci  untry  a  vegetable  which  cannot 
exist  in  a  wild  state ;  either  because,  when  destroyed  by  the  rigour  of  the  season,  he  restores 
it  by  seeds  or  by  plants  derived  from  a  more  temperate  country ;  or  because  he  shelters  it 
from  the  inclemency  of  the  air;  or,  because  he  is  satisfied  with  tho  product  of  the  plant, 
although  it  should  not  bring  its  seeds  to  perfection.  And  thus  it  is  that,  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  the  Vine,  Olive,  and  Orange  trees  often  vegetate  exceedingly  well  for  all  the  pur- 
|X)ses  for  which  they  are  required,  though,  if  left  to  thems*'lves,  they  could  not  propagate 
themselves,  nor  sustain  the  winter.  Thus  we  see  a  wide  difference  in  the  geography  of 
plants,  between  those  in  a  state  of  nature,  and  those  individuals  whose  growth  is  artificially 
encouraged  by  man. 

This,  indeed,  is  a  subject  closely  connected  with -the  accHmatation  of  plants,  or  the 
power  which  man  is  supposed  to  exert  over  them  fn  inuring  them  by  degrees  to  a  climate 
not  originnlty  natural  to  them.  This  power  is,  however,  denied  by  very  able  vegetable 
physiologi.stH.  Mirbel,  in  particular,  declares  that  he  has  known  many  species  indeed 
whose  wants  have  been,  to  a  certain  degree,  artificially  supplied ;  but  not  one  whose  con- 
stitution has  been  changed.  "  If,"  he  says,  "  from  time  to  time,  exotics  mingle  themselves 
with  our  indigenous  tribes,  propagate  as  they  do,  and  even  dispute  the  very  possession  of  the 
soil  with  the  native  inhabitants ;  this,  assuredly,  is  not  the  work  of  man,  but  it  is  the 
climate  winch  dispenses  this  faculty  of  naturalization,"  Cultivators,  however,  maintain  that 
seedlings  from  Myrtles,  which  liad  ripened  their  fruit  in  Devonshire  in  the  open  air,  are 
better  able  to  endure  tlie  cold  uf  tlie  climate  than  those  seeds  perfected  by  artificial  heat,  or 


940 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II. 


that  have  come  from  the  warmer  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  true,  tlie  power  of  so  acclimatiiiir 
itself  already  exists  in  the  vegcUible  ;  but  it  is  man  that  calls  it  into  action,  for  niiUirdlly  the 
myrtle  would  never  extend  itself  to  these  latitudes.  Nay,  something  of  the  sauit;  kind 
M.  Mirbel  himself  allows,  where  he  says,  "  When  we  consider  that  the  Vine  is  cultivuted 
in  the  plains  of  Hindostan  and  Arabia,  between  the  13th  and  15th  parallels ;  that  it  is  cul- 
tivated on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  and  Maine,  in  lat.  51° ;  in  Thibet,  at  an  elevation  above 
the  level  of  the  sea  of  from  9,000  to  nearly  11,000  feet,  under  the  32d  degree  of  latitude; 
what  astonishes  and  interests  us  the  most  is,  .lot  that  the  vine  inhabits  countries  so  remote 
from  one  another,  or  that  it  grows  at  so  great  an  elevation  above  the  sea,  but  that  it  possesses 
in  so  eminent  a  degree  the  property  of  accommodating  itself  to  different  climates ;  a  pro 
perty,  mdeed,  much  more  restricted  in  a  great  number  of  vegetables,  which  extend  from  the 
equator  to  the  tropics  on  both  sides,  without  ever  crossing  them ;  for  notwithstanding  the 
greater  distance  between  the  23d  degree  of  south  latitude  and  the  23d  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude, the  climatic  differences  are  much  less  from  one  tropic  to  the  other  than  from  the  plains 
of  Hindostan  to  the  banks  of  the  Maine." 

The  distribution  of  heat  at  different  months  of  the  year  is  what  we  shall  find  to  be  of 
the  most  importance  in  regard  to  vegetable  geography.  Some  climates  are  eminently  uni- 
form ;  a  certain  mean  temperature  is  produced  by  a  mild  winter  and  a  moderate  degree  of 
warmth  in  summer.  This  is  frequently  the  case  on  the  sea-coasts,  because  the  extremes  of 
heat  are  continually  modified  by  the  sea ;  that  vast  reservoir  of  nearly  equal  temperature, 
which  therefore  imparts  heat  in  winter  and  cold  in  summer,  and  enables  even  tropical  plants 
to  subsist  in  some  situations  of  the  temperate  zone.  Such  are  the  western  shores  of  Europe 
and  America,  and  a  great  portion  of  the  southern  hemisphere.  A  similar  mean  temperature 
may  indeed  be  produced  by  a  combination  of  very  severe  winters  and  very  hot  summers,  as 
in  the  great  continents  compared  with  islands,  or  the  shores  of  those  continents ;  or  the 
eastern  side  of  continents  as  compared  with  the  western ;  or  the  northern  with  the  southern 
hemisphere ;  but  these  two  climates,  as  may  be  expected,  will  produce  a  very  different 
vegetation. 

Annual  plants,  which  require  heat  during  the  summer  to  ripen  their  seeds,  and  which 
pass  the  winter,  so  to  say,  in  torpidity,  in  the  state  of  grain,  indifferent  to  the  intensity  of 
cold,*  abound  most  in  those  regions  where  the  extremes  are  the  greatest ;  whilst  the  peren- 
nial plants,  which  can  better  dispense  with  the  maturing  of  their  seeds,  and  which  are 
injured  by  the  severities  of  winter,  affect  the  temperate  climates.  Of  these,  again,  those 
kinds  which  have  deciduous  leaves  accommodate  themselves  best  to  unequal  temperatures; 
whilst  the  individuals  on  which  the  foliage  remains,  or  evergreens,  give  the  preference  to 
districts  where  the  temperature  is  more  constantly  equal. 

Mirbel  reckons  that  there  are  about  150  or  160  natural  groups  or  families  of  plants  in  the 
Old  World,  types  of  all  which  exist  in  the  tropical  parts  of  it.  Beyond  these  limits,  a  {jreat 
number  become  gradually  extinct.  In  the  48th  degree  of  latitude,  scarcely  one  half  of 
that  number  appear ;  in  the  65th,  not  40 ;  and  but  17  in  the  vicinity  of  the  polar  renions. 
He  further  estimates,  that  within  the  tropics  the  proportion  of  woody  species,  trees  and  shrubs, 
equals,  if  it  does  not  exceed,  that  of  herbaceous,  annual,  biennial,  and  perennial  plants. 
The  relative  number  of  the  woody  species  to  the  herbaceous,  annual,  biennial,  and  perennial, 
decreases  from  the  equator  to  the  poles ;  but,  as  an  equivalent,  the  proportion  of  perennial 
to  annual  or  biennial  plants  goes  on  increasing.  Near  the  extreme  limits  of  vegetation 
these  are,  at  least,  as  twenty  to  one. 

We  must,  however,  by  no  means  conclude  that  the  same  elevation  in  correspondinji 
degrees  of  latitude  is  necessarily  suited  to  the  vegetation  of  the  same  plants.  A  number  of 
circumstances  may  exist  to  modify  the  degree  of  heat  at  the  same  elevation.  In  Switzer- 
land, for  example,  the  elevation  of  the  valley  of  Untersee  is  the  same  as  that  of  Gestcin ; 
yet  the  thermometer,  in  1822-3,  fell  only  to  8°  below  zero  in  the  former  spot ;  whereas 
at  Gestein  it  fell  to  10^°,  and  at  Berne  to  16°.  The  depth  of  the  valleys  influences 
vegetation ;  the  deeper  they  are,  the  more  intense  is  the  cold  on  the  summits  of  the 
surrounding  mountains.  Thus,  the  pine  does  not  thrive  on  the  Bragel,  at  a  height  of  51(10 
feet;  whereas  it  succeeds  perfectly,  at  the  same  elevation,  on  the  Rhetian  Alps,  the  vallevs' 
of  the  Linth,  the  Muotta,  and  Kloen  being  deeper  than  those  of  the  latter  districts.  In  like 
manner,  in  the  valley  of  the  Davos,  agricultural  produce  is  certain  in  places  much  more 
elevated  than  the  Bernese  valleys,  because  the  latter  are  deeper.  The  warm  winds  from 
Italy  have  a  perceptible  power  over  the  vegetation  of  the  contiguous  parts  of  Switzerland ; 
but  the  degrees  of  that  influence  depend  upon  circumstances.  In  the  valley  of  the  Inn, 
barley  and  flax  are  cultivated  with  success  at  an  elevation  of  more  than  5400  feet ;  whereas 
at  Laret,  in  the  valley  of  Davos,  though  the  height  is  only  4900  feet,  no  grain  will  thrive. 
Yet,  these  valleys  are  alike  in  most  respect",  and  are  surrounded  by  monntflins  of  simila* 
altitudes ;  they  are  both  sheltered  from  the  north-east  wind ;  their  soil  is  of  the  same  nature ; 

•Seeds  Ix'ini;,  in  general,  furnisheil  with  tew  urRnns  which  abound  in  moisture,  are  in  a  degree  inffinsible  to 
ihe  cxtrem<'8  of  hnat  and  cold ;  whr'nci;  it  uriBCM  that,  in  conveying  ttK^m  fyom  one  country  to  another,  they  past 
lliruugh  u  variety  uf  climate  uninjured. 


Part  II. 

[so  acclii„mj„„ 
imiitiirally  t|,g 
Ihe  same  khid 
Me  18  cultivutud 
that  it  is  cul. 
fevation  above 
F.eoflatitude; 
pes  so  remote 
|at  it  possesses 
fmates;  a  pro- 
ptend  from  the 
^standing;  tJie 
^of  north  Imi. 
pm  the  plains 

find  to  be  of 
Eminently  unj. 
^".te  degree  of 

extremes  of 
temperature, 
tropical  plants 
res  of  Europe 
» temperature 
t  summers,  as 
nents;  or  the 
the  southern 
very  different 

s,  and  which 
■  intensity  of 
1st  the  peren- 
nd  which  are 
<  again,  those 
emperatures ; 
preference  to 

plants  in  the 
mits,  a  frreat 
one  half  of 
olur  reo'ions. 
s  and  shrubs, 
inial  plants. 
id  perennial, 
of  perennial 
f  vegetation 

rrespondin^ 
'  number  of 
In  Switzer- 
3f  Gestein  ; 
t;  whereas 
influencps 
lits  of  tiie 
ht  of  51(10 
tlie  vallev« 
^s.    In  lilce 
luch  more 
'inds  from 
itzerlumi; 
r  the  Inn, 
;  whereas 
ill  thrive. 
I'f  simila- 
e  nature ; 

isinsible  to 
r,  they  past 


BookIII. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  Tu  BOTANY 


241 


mit  in  the  valley  of  the  Inn,  the  warm  winds  from  Italy  are  irteicepteii  only  by  a  single 
cliiin  of  mountains,  whereas  two  chains  lie  between  Italy  and  the  valley  of  Davos;  and, 
liesiiies,  the  latter  being  of  smaller  extent  than  the  former,  it  admits  of  the  reception  of  less 
solar  heat.  In  the  Oberland  of  Berne,  an  increase  in  height  of  2000  feet  diminishes  the 
crop  one  third.* 

0      SuBSECT.  2.— On  the  Influence  of  Light. 

The  influence  of  the  solar  light  upon  vegetation  De  Candolle  considers  to  be  as  importan 
as  that  of  temperature ;  and  although  it  acts  less  powerfully  upon  the  geographical  distri- 
bution of  plants,  it  nevertheless  merits  a  particular  notice. 

Light  is  that  agent  which  operates  in  producing  the  greatest  number  of  phenomena  in 
vegetable  life.  It  determines,  in  a  great  measure,  the  absorption;  for  plants  imbibe  less 
humitlity  during  the  night  and  in  darkness.  It  completely  inflyences  the  watery  exhalations 
of  the  green  parts  of  plants ;  for  these  parts  do  not  exhale  during  the  night  or  in  obscurity, 
whilst  these  exhalations  are  very  considerable  during  the  day,  and  especially  under  the 
direct  influence  of  the  rays  of  the  sun.  The  light  affects,  in  most  cases,  the  decomposition 
of  the  carbonic  acid ;  and  consequently  the  deposition  of  carbon  in  vegetables,  their  sub- 
stance and  their  growth,  the  intensity  of  their  sensible  properties,  and  the  direction  of  many 
organs.  It  is  the  principal,  and  perhaps  the  only,  cause  of  those  singular  movements  known 
by  the  name  of  the  sleep  of  plants ;  and,  lastly,  during  the  absence  of  light  the  green  parts 
absorb  a  certain  quantity  of  oxygen  gas.  Although  these  different  causes  affect  all  vege- 
tables, yet  they  are  not  affected  in  the  same  degree. 

Light  is  more  equally  distributed  than  heat  upon  the  surfiice  of  the  globe ;  but  its  mode 
of  diffusion  induces  some  very  important  consequences.  In  the  countries  situated  under  the 
equator,  an  intense  light,  since  it  acts  more  perpendicularly,  influences  vegetables  nearly 
equally,  during  twelve  hours  each  day,  throughout  the  whole  year.  In  proportion  as  we 
recede  from  the  equator  and  approach  the  poles,  the  intensity  of  the  more  oblique  rays  gra- 
dually diminishes ;  but  in  regard  to  the  distribution  of  these  rays,  the  light  is  completely 
wanting  during  the  winter,  wlien  the  absence  of  vegetation  indeed  renders  it  nearly  useless 
to  plants ;  and  it  is  continued  during  almost  the  whole  period  of  vegetation,  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  its  lengthened  influence  compensates  wholly  or  in  part  for  its  want  of  intensity. 
Thus  we  see  that,  independently  of  what  concerns  the  temperature,  plants  which  lose  their 
leaves  can  better  exist  in  northern  countries,  and  that  those  whose  vegetation  is  continued 
have  need  of  the  southern  regions.  And  another  beautifiil  and  just  remark  is  made  by  De 
Candolle,  in  reference  to  the  distribution  of  light ;  namely,  that  those  plants  whose  foliage 
and  flowers  maintain  habitually  and  constantly  the  same  position,  can  live  in  northern  cli- 
mates, where  the  light  is  almost  continued  in  summer;  whilst  it  is  in  the  regions  of  the 
south  that  we  find-,  as  might  naturally  be  expected,  those  species  which  are  remarkable  for 
the  alternate  closing  and  expanding,  or  sleeping  and  waking,  of  their  flowers,  a  motion 
which  has  an  intimate  connexion  with  the  alternation  of  days  and  nights.  Thus  we  see 
why  it  is  found  so  lifficult  in  our  country  to  cultivate  many  of  the  tropica'  vegetables,  or,  at 
any  rate,  to  bring  them  to  perfection.  M.  de  Humboldt  has  proved  that  it  is  less  owing  to 
the  absence  of  heat  than  to  the  want  of  sufficient  solar  light  that  the  Vine  does  not  ripen 
its  fruit  beneath  the  foggy  skies  of  Normandy ;  and  M.  Mirbel  has  satisfied  himself  that  the 
uninterrupted  action  of  the  sun's  rays,  during  a  great  number  of  days,  is  the  cause  of  the 
astonishingly  rapid  developement  of  alpine  plants  in  high  northern  regions. f  Dr.  Richard- 
son, till),  states  that  the  sugar-boilers  in  the  Canadian  forests  observe  that  the  flow  of  sap  in 
tiie  Siifrar  Maple  (Negundo  fraxinifolium)  is  not  so  immediately  influenced  by  a  high  mean 
temperature  as  by  the  power  of  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  The  greatest  quantity  of  sap  is 
collected  when  a  smart  frost  during  night  is  succeeded  by  a  warm  sunshiny  day.  Again, 
Humboldt  assures  us,  that  in  all  places  wiiere  the  mean  temperature  is  below  62°  6',  the 
revival  of  nature  takes  place  in  spring  in  that  month  whose  mean  temperature  reaches  42^ 
8',  or  46°  4'.    At  Cumberland  Ilouse,  Dr.  Richardson  found  vernation  to  begin  in  May, 

*We  may  here  mention  n  curious  fact  nf  vejietation  rostinz  upon  a  basis  of  ice.  The  glacier  of  Roccosecco, 
which  fi)rms  one  of  tin-  hraiiches  of  the  Beriicrin,  has  on  its  summit  a  valley  filled  with  ice ;  and  on  this  the  ava- 
IhiicIics  linvo  brought  down  nms.scs  of  earth,  This  earth  produces  a  number  of  alpine  plants,  that  alford  abun- 
dant anil  iiourishini;  food  to  the  flocks  of  tile  inhabitants  of  gamaden.  This  singular  pasture  has  been  used  ever 
since  the  year  1.530. 

t "  Vnitctables,"  says  M.  Mirbel,  in  his  EUmtna  d»  Physiologic  Vtgilale,  "  when  secluded  from  the  light,  send  out 
long,  thin,  and  whitish  shoots ;  tlieir  substance  becomes  lax,  and  without  firmness;  in  fact,  they  are  bleached. 
Thi'  oppration  of  the  luminous  beams  on  these  organised  bodies  consists  chiefly  in  separating  the  constituent 
piirts  of  water  and  carbonic  acid,  which  they  contain,  and  in  disengaging  the  oxygen  of  the  latter.  The  carbonic 
ariil,  with  the  hydrosen  and  oxygen  of  the  water,  pro<luce  those  gums,  resins,  and  oils,  which  flow  in  the  vessels 
nnil  which  fill  the  cells.  These  Juices  nourish  the  membranes,  and  bring  them  into  the  ligneous  state  ;  a  result 
which  lii!cnmes  more  marlted  as  (lie  light  is  strongest  and  its  action  most  protracted.  Darlcness  and  light  produce, 
theretiire,  diameirirriily  opposite  efli'Cts  nn  vegetation.  Darkness,  by  keeping  up  the  softness  of  the  vegetable 
parts,  favours  their  increase  in  length  ;  light,  by  ministering  to  their  nouriniiiiii-nt,  cnngnlidates  themi  and  arrests 
their  growth.  Hence  it  follows  that  a  flue  state  of  vegetation,  such  as  unites  in  just  pro|>nrtions  size  and  strensth, 
must  depend,  in  a  measure,  on  the  nicely  balanced  alternation  of  day  and  night.  Now,  the  hyperborean  plants 
tpring  up  at  a  period  when  the  sun  is  constantly  above  the  horizon,  and  tlie  light  which  incessantly  acts  upon 
UicMi  confirms  and  perfects  them  bi'foro  they  have  time  to  attain  a  cansiderable  degree  of  length.  Their  vegeta- 
tion is  active,  but  soon  over ;  tliey  are  robust,  but  small.'* 

Vol.  I  21  .  2  F 


■7  rr'y^f^'^lWWrT  1 


242 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


when  the  mean  temperature  was  only  49°,  nearly  3°  below  that  which  Baron  Humboldt 
considered  necessary  tor  the  evolution  of  deciduous  leaves ;  but  he  adds,  "  the  influence  of 
(he  direct  rays  of  the  $un  toat  at  this  time  very  great,  and  the  high  temperature  of  the  last 
decade  of  the  month  compensated  for  the  first."  We  can  imitate  the  native  climes  of  many 
of  the  delicate  exotics,  as  far  as  regards  temperature ;  and  in  summer,  when  the  days  are 
long,  we  see  them  flourish  almost  as  if  they  were  in  their  natui^al  situalions ;  but  in  winter 
tiiey  languish,  and  often  die,  especially  the  more  tender  species,  such  as  the  Hedysarum 
iryran^,  and  the  humble  plant  (Mimosa  pudica).  It  is  evident  that  they  want  that  distribu- 
tion of  light  which  is  mo^t  congenial  to  them. 

Plants,  then,  are  arrange<l  in  their  diiferdht  localities,  according  to  the  certain  quantity  of 
liglit  which  they  may  require.  All  those  with  very  watery  leaves,  which  evaporate  much, 
which  are  of  a  succulent  nature,  which,  having  few  pores  or  organs  of  evaporation,  need  a 
stimulus  to  determine  their  action,  all  which  nave  a  tissue  abounding  in  carbtm,  or  which 
contain  very  resinous  or  oily  juices,  or  which  offer  a  great  extent  of  green  surface,  require 
much  light,  and  are  generally  found  in  exposed  places ;  the  rest,  according  as  they  are  more 
or  less  distinguished  by  these  properties,  exist  either  under  the  slight  shadow  of  bushes,  or 
bennath  the  more  powerful  shelter  of  hedges  and  walls,  or  of  forests ;  or,  as  is  the  case  with 
many  Fungi,  in  caves  and  darkness.  These  last  are,  indeed,  destitute  of  any  green  colour; 
but  Mosses,  Ferns,  and  even  some  evergreens,  such  as  the  Ivy,  flourish  best  beneath  the 
shade  of  dense  forests,  if  the  trees  of  those  forests  have  deciduous  leaves ;  and  in  situations 
where  plants  that  vegetate  only  during  the  summer  could  scarcely  live. 

The  subject,  however,  of  the  action  of  light  upon  vegetation,  has  not  yet  received  the 
attention  which  it  deserves.  Many  more  observations  and  experiments  are  required  before 
we  can  employ  it  with  certainty  in  connexion  with  botanical  geography. 

SvBSECT.  3. — On  the  Influence  of  Moisture. 

Water  being  the  vehicle  by  means  of  which  nourishment  is  conveyed  into  the  plant,  and, 
indeed,  itself  yielding  a  large  proportion  or  even  the  whole  of  tlie  nutriment  of  many  ve- 
getables, it  follows  that  this  element  is  not  only  of  tlie  highest  importance  in  vegetable 
economy,  but  one  of  the  causes  which  aifccts  most  powerfully  the  geographical  distribution 
of  plants  upon  the  surface  of  the  globe. 

Those  vegetables,  in  particular,  necessarily  absorb  a  great  quantity  of  water,  which  have 
a  large  and  spongy  cellular  tissue ;  those  which  possess  broadly  expanded  soft  leaves,  fur- 
nis>hed  with  a  great  number  of  cortical  pores;  those  having  few  or  no  hairs  on  their  surface; 
tliose  whose  growth  is  very  rapid,  which  deposit  but  little  oily  or  resinous  matter ;  those  of 
which  the  texture  is  not  subject  to  be  changed  ci  corrupted  by  humidity;  those,  in  fine, 
wliose  roots  are  very  numerous,  generally  need  to  absorb  much  moisture,  and  cannot  li\e 
but  in  places  where  they  find  naturally  a  large  proprtion  of  it.  On  the  other  hand,  those 
plants  which  are  of  a  firm  and  compact  cellular  tissue,  which  have  small  or  rigid  leaves, 
furnished  with  very  few  pores,  which  are  abundantly  clothed  with  hairs,  of  which  the 
growth  is  slow,  and  which  deposit,  during  the  progress  of  their  vegetation,  much  oily  or 
resinous  matter ;  those  whose  cellular  tissue  is  liable  to  be  changed  and  decayed  by  too  much 
moisture,  and  of  which  the  roots  are  not  numerous,  require  little  water,  and  prefer,  for  their 
natural  situation,  dry  places.  Great  differences,  however,  are  produced,  according  to  the 
naturo  of  the  water  that  is  absorbed ;  the  less  it  is  charged  with  the  nutritive  principle,  the 
more  necessary  is  it  that  the  vegetable  shall  absorb,  in  a  given  time,  enough  to  suffice  for  ito 
support.  Again,  the  more  the  water  abounds  with  sutetances  which  alter  its  fluidity  or 
transparency,  and  which,  inasmuch  as  they  are  solid  particles,  tend  to  obstruct  the  orifices 
of  the  pores,  or  to  impede  absorption  by  their  viscosity,  the  less  do  such  vegetables  imbibe  in 
a  given  time. 

The  very  nature  even  of  those  substances  dissolved  or  suspended  in  the  water  has  a  great 
influence  upon  the  topographical  distribution  or  the  locality  of  plants.  The  matters  so  dis- 
solved are,  1.  Carbonic  acid.  2.  Atmospheiic  air.  3.  Animal  and  vegetable  substances.  4 
Alkaline  principles  or  earths.  Those  plants  whose  cellular  tissue  is  found  to  contain  much 
rarhon,  such  as  trees  producing  hard  wood,  avoid,  more  than  others,  the  vicinity  of  waters 
which  are  extremely  pure,  and  which  contain  but  little  carbonic  acid  gas.  Plants  whicii 
exhibit  much  azote  in  their  chemical  composition,  such  as  the  Cruciferous  Plants  and  the 
Fungi,  seek  those  spots  where  there  is  much  animal  matter  in  solution.  Those,  again,  which 
present,  when  chemically  analyzed,  a  considerable  quantity  of  certain  eartiiy  substances 
such  as  silica*  in  the  Monocotyledonous  Plants,  gypsum  in  the  Leguminosec,  &c.  will  re- 
quire it  in  1  greater  or  less  proportion  in  the  soil  where  they  grow ;  and  if  it  does  not  exin 
there  natu  ally,  the  agriculturist  must  supply  it  artificially;  and  those  species  which  yield, 

*  Thin  silica,  we  know,  ahniinds  in  the  grasnpR,  an  well  as  in  other  innnnrnti'!*!'!onn!:s  plants ;  and  M.  <ie  Candoije 
nhsi-rVeii,  iMfii  li  in  in  cnnsi'iiunnrp  of  its  exii=toni!f!  in  the.  iiraseea,  tc  anrt  of  ihr  roniparntivc  indissolubility  which 
is  the  rcs'ill,  Hint  it  is  iireA'tred  hy  almost  all  nations  of  fho  world  for  :i  covi  ring  to  their  houses.  The  peoplo 
nf  the  North  thus  employ  straw  for  thn*.  purpose,  on  the  same  principle  that  thuse  uf  the  tropics  use  the  leaves  of 
(lie  palms. 


pahtii    ■   BooKin- 


I"  HumboJdt 
mi/luence  of 
\  of  rJie  last 
ps  of  many 
pe  days  are 
t*  11  winter 
ffedysarum 
pat  distribu. 

Iquantityof 
frate  muci,, 
|»n,  need  a 
P>  or  which 
Ice,  require 
y  are  more 
f  bushes,  or 
9  case  with 
len  colour  J 
pneath  the 
J  situations 

reived  the 
red  before 


lant,  and, 

many  ve- 

yegetable 

istribution 

hich  have 
saves,  fur. 
f  surfece ; 
those  of 
e,  in  fine, 
nnot  live 
™d,  thas" 
i  leaves, 
hich  the 
^  oily  or 

00  much 
for  their 
r  to  the 
pie,  the 
e  for  ito 
idity  or 
orifices 
ibibe  in 

1  great 
so  dis- 
cs.   4 
much 

voters 
whicii 
d  the 
vhich 
noes, 
|]  re. 
Cxi* 
'ield, 


loniie 

eopio 
enot 


Book  HI. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY. 


fMt 


when  burned,  a  more  abui}dapt  portion  of  alkaline  subetancos  than  usual,  can  only  flourish 
'  or  even  live  where  these  matters  abound.  The  species  which  have  need  of  carbonate  of 
soda  will  only  grow  successfully  near  the  sea  or  saline  lakes  or  springs.  Thus  the  different 
property  of  the  substances  dissolved  in  the  water  is  evidently  one  of  the  many  causes  which 
dptennme  the  stations  of  the  vegetable  species. 

SuBSECT.  4. — On  the  Influence  of  the  Soil. 

The  influence  of  soil  M.  de  Candolle  considers  as  perhaps  more  complicated  than  that  of 
the  preceding  agents.    He  reduces  it  to  the  following  heads : — 

(1.)  The  soil  serves  an  a  means  of  support  to  vegetables,  and  consequently  its  consistence 
or  tenacity  ought  to  possess,  in  this  point  of  view,  a  peculiar  fitness  for  sustaining,  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  plants  exhibiting  very  various  forms.  Thus,  soils  composed  of  blow- 
ing sand  can  only  serve  as  a  support  to  vegetables  which  are  of  very  humble  stature  and 
prostrate  growth,  so  that  the  winds  may  not  overturn  them ;  or  to  trees,  furnished  with  very 
deep  and  branching  roots,  which  may  attach  them  into  this  moveable  matrix.  The  contrary 
holds  good  in  regard  to  very  compact  soils.  Small-rooted  plants  may  thus  be  firmly  enough 
tixed,  and  they  may  subsist ;  but  the  very  large  roots  are  incapable  of  penetrating  into  soils 
that  are  very  tenacious.  The  two  extremes  of  these  soils  present  an  equally  sterile  vege- 
tation. Sands  which  are  not  sufficiently  stationary  (as  those  very  remarkable  ones  on  tiie 
northern  shores  of  the  Moray  Frith),  water  which  is  subject  to  very  rapid  currents,  clay  of 
an  extremely  compact  nature,  or  rocks  of  great  hardness,  are  equally  unfriendly  to  the 
growth  of  plants. 

(2.)  The  chemical  nature  of  the  earths  or  stones  of  which  the  soil  is  composed,  affects 
tlie  choice  of  vegetables,  as  regards  their  flourishing  in  such  situations.  But  this  subject, 
simple  as  it  appears  at  first  sight,  is  in  reality  very  complicated.  For  the  different  earths 
net  upon  vegetation  by  physical  circumstances ;  as,  for  example,  according  as  they  absorb 
the  "111.-.  •  '--q;  water  with  more  or  less  &cility,  retain  it  with  more  or  less  force,  or  part 
with  n  )r  less  easily.    Now,  the  celebrated  Kirwan  ascertained  by  a  comparative 

analys    ;  lis  which  were  reckoned  excellent  for  the  growth  of  wheat  in  various  coun- 

, tries,  tisai  uiey  contain  more  silica  if  the  climate  is  more  subject  to  rain,  more  alumine  if 
the  contrary  be  the  case ;  in  short,  that  the  soil,  to  be  good  for  any  given  vegetable,  ought 
to  have  the  power  of  absorbing  more  moisture  in  a  dry  climate,  less  in  an  humid  atmosphere : 
whence  it  is  plain  that  in  dif^rent  localities  the  same  species  of  vegetable  may  be  found  in 
different  soils. 

(3.)  Every  kind  of  rock  has  a  certain  degree  of  tenacity,  and  a  certain  disposition  to 
decompose  or  become  pulverized :  whence  results  the  greater  or  less  fiicility  of  particular 
soils  to  be  formed  either  of  sand  or  gravel,  and  to  be  composed  of  fhigments  of  a  nearly 
determined  form  and  s?.ze.  Certain  vegetables,  firom  causes  which  we  shall  presently  indicate, 
will  prefer  such  or  such  of  this  sand  or  gravel ;  hv*.  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  soil  does  not 
act  here  immediately;  thus,  when  we  find  calcareous  rocks  which  decompose  like  argilla- 
ceous schist,  the  same  species  of  vegetation  is  observed.  These  two  considerations  are 
particularly  applicable  to  lichens. 

(4.)  Rocks,  according  to  their  colour  or  their  nature,  are  more  susceptible  of  being  heated 
by  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun;  and  consequently  they  may,  in  some  degree,  modify  the 
temperature  of  a  given  place ;  and  influence  also,  though  slightly,  the  choice  of  plants 
capable  of  succeeding  upon  them. 

But,  independently  of  all  these  physical  causes,  it  may  be  asked,  whether  the  chemical 
nature  of  rocks  has  any  effect  upon  vegetables  ]  It  is  generally  considered  to  be  so ;  but  it 
must  be  allowed  that  this  action  has  been  frequently  very  much  exaggerated.  Bory  de  St 
Vincent,  indeed,  has  assured  us  that  calamine,  or  native  carbonate  of  zinc,  in  the  yicinity  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  is  always  indicated,  to  a  certainty,  by  particular  plants ;  and  the  fact  is 
confirmed  by  a  little  work,  since  published,  called  A  Flora  of  the  Environs  of  Spa.  The 
yellow  heartsease,  a  small  variety  of  the  common  evebrisht  (Euphrasia  ofiicinalis),  the  white 
Campion  (Silene  inflata),  a  Sandwort  (Arenaria),  a  shrubby  Lichen,  a  species  of  Bromua 
(Brome-grass),  constitute  this  poor  but  constant  vegetation.  These,  however,  no  doubt, 
grow  in  greater  abundance  and  perfection  in  other  soils :  the  wonder  is  that  they  do  not 
nltogcther  perish  here ;  for  even  the  gallinaceous  birds,  which  eat  gravel  to  triturate  their 
food,  die  from  swallowing  fragments  of  calamine.  It  must  be  remarked,  in  reality,  that  plants 
do  not  oflon  live  upon  pure  rock,  but  among  the  decomposed  matter  of  that  rock ;  that  the 
rooks,  even  though  very  circumscribed,  often  present  very  different  natures ;  that  vegetable 
mould  is  not  only  formed  by  the  rocks  which  immediately  surround  it,  but  also  by  the 
admixture  of  earthy  substances  carried  by  the  waters,  and  transported  by  the  winds,  or  by 
tlic  remains  of  animals  and  vegetables  which  have  before  existed  there.  Hence  it  will  be 
understood  how  the  vegetable  eartlis  dilter  much  less  in  themselves,  than  the  rocks  which 
produce  them  or  serve  to  support  them ;  and  that  the  greater  number  of  plants  yield,  in  mosj 
situations,  the  alimentary  earths  which  are  necessary  for  them.  Inde-rd,  after  varip 
botanical  'ourneys  made  through  France,  M.  de  Candolle  has  found  nearly  the  same  pJ 


244 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  It. 


vegetating  spontaneously  in  alinwt  all  the  different  rocky  substances.  It  has  been  said  that 
the  Box  (Buxus  sempervirens)  grows  only  in  calc  ir<;ous  Hoils,  and  it  certainly  prelbrs  them ; 
but  it  is  found  abundantly  in  t)ie  argillaceous  calcareous  schistose  rocks  of  the  Pyrenees; 
and  it  is  even  seen  among  tJie  granite  of  Britany  and  upon  the  volcanic  parts  of  Auver{;iie. 
Tiie  Chestnut  has  been  said  to  avoid  a  calcareous  country ;  but  there  are  beautiful  chestnuu 
on  botli  sides  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  at  the  foot  of  the  calcareous  mountains  of  Jura  and 
Chablais. 

Pure  magnesia,  M.  Carradori  has  found,  by  chemical  experiment,  acts  as  a  poison  on  most 
plants :  yet  M.  Dunal,  in  visiting  a  portion  of  the  environs  of  Lunel,  where  the  soil  presents 
a  great  qua  ily  of  almost  pure  magnesia,  found  there  the  sa'ne  plants  as  in  the  surrounding 
calcareous  bill,  and  the  roots  flourisning  in  tlie  clefts  of  this  magnesian  rock.  Thus  we  must 
be  careful  not  to  attach  too  much  importance  to  the  nature  of  the  earth,  which  is  frequently 
acted  upon  by  causes  purely  physical. 

V  .  SuBSEOT.  5. — Atmospheric  Influence. 

The  atmosphere,  taken  in  its  pure  state,  we  know  to  be  composed,  at  all  times,  of  the 
same  proportions  of  azote  and  oxygen ;  and  m  such  cases  we  may  suppose  its  action  to  be 
similar  upon  all  vegetables.  But  the  atmosphere  also  is  of  different  degrees  of  transparency 
or  density ;  it  holds  in  solution  other  matters  or  substances,  which  mix  with  it  in  certain 
places,  and  render  it  more  or  less  suitable  to  certain  species  of  plants.  In  mines,  for  instance, 
the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  or  of  hydrogen,  may  be  so  great  as  to  preclude  vegeta- 
tion altogether  :  or  to  allow  only  of  the  growth  of  such  individuals  as  are  very  strong  and 
vigorous,  or  particularly  absorbent  of  these  substances.  Then,  too,  the  air  charged  with 
saline  emanations  fi"om  the  sea  injures  some  plants,  and  on  the  other  hand  encourages  tlie 
devclopement  of  such  as  require  carbonate  of  soda ;  as  may  be  seen  in  the  valleys  of  tlie 
south  of  Europe,  where  moritnne  plants  aflFording  soda  may  be  cultivated  at  a  considerable 
distance  firom  the  ocean,  provided  tliat  they  lie  open  towards  tlie  sea,  and  are  exposed  to  the 
winds  that  blow  from  it. 

We  cultivate  in  our  inland  gardens,  languidly  and  but  for  a  year  or  two,  many  of  the 
maritime  plants,  such  as  the  Idthospermum.  The  Nitraria  Schoberi  is  improved  by  ini- 
ploying  salt  where  it  is  grown.  Many  of  the  Statices  may  be,  however,  easily  cultirated,  * 
and  one  of  them,  thecomnion  Thrift  (S.  Axmeria)  even  succeeds  in  crowded  towns,  whence 
its  English  name;  yet  its  native  coimtry  is  either  on  the  shores  of  the  seaorin  salt  marshes, 
or  upon  the  summits  of  the  highest  mountains. 

The  most  general  influence,  however,  exercised  by  the  atmosphere,  is  its  power  of  con- 
taining and  parting  with  moisture,  or  its  hygroscopic  action.  The  atmosphere  is  habitually 
charged  with  moisture ;  sometimes  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  invisible,  and  then  only  ascer- 
tainable by  the  hygrometer ;  at  other  times  visible  in  a  state  of  vapour  or  dew ;  and  we  find 
that  vegetables  in  genf  ral  succeed  better  in  a  climate  where,  at  a  given  degree  of  tem- 
perature, the  air  is  moderately  moist,  than  in  another  where  it  is  either  too  much  saturated 
with  moisture  or  too  dry.  This  is  a  circumstance  which  cannot  well  be  imitated  in  the  cul- 
tivation of  plants  in  the  open  air:  but  in  our  stoves,  and  especially  by  the  aid  of  steam,  the 
various  degrees  of  humidity  necessary  to  a  vigorous  vegetation  may  be  produced  to  the 
greatest  nicety. 

The  agitation  or  movement  of  the  air  by  winds  and  other  causes  exercises  some  power 
over  vegetation ;  but  we  are  too  little  acquainted  with  this  subject  to  be  able  to  deduce  any 
particular  theory  from  it. 

Of  all  the  atmospheric  influences,  the  most  difficult  to  reduce  to  its  proper  value  is  that  of 
density ;  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  the  influence  of  height  or  elevation  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  This  M.  de  Candolle  has  made  the  subject  of  a  memoir  in  the  volume  of  the  Soci- 
ety of  Arcueil,  and  we  shall  here  give  his  general  ideas  upon  it. 

In  proportion  as  we  are  elevated  in  the  air,  the  temperature  as  well  as  the  moisture  con- 
tinues to  diminish ;  a  circumstance  which  appears  to  depend  upon  this,  that  the  rare  air  has 
more  capacity  for  heat  than  dense  air.  The  fiicts  that  go  to  prove  that  the  diminution  of 
the  temperature  upon  high  mountains  is  one  of  the  causes  which  most  aflfect  the  distribution 
of  vegetables,  are  the  following : — 

(1.)  The  natural  situation  of  erch  plant  at  a  determined  elevation  above  the  level  of  the 
sea  is  so  much  the  greater  in  proportion  as  :he  country  is  nearer  the  equator,  and  less  in 
more  temperate  regions ;  that  is  to  say,  the  &rther  we  recede  from  the  equator,  the  greater 
influence  has  the  exposure  upon  the  temperature. 

(2.)  In  temperate  climates,  as  France,  for  instance,  those  plants  which  are  but  little  affect- 
ed by  temperature,  and  which  grow  in  all  its  latitudes,  are  found  also  at  all  those  elevations 
where  the  earth  is  not  covered  by  eternal  snows  ;  from  the  level  of  the  sea  to  the  summits 
of  the  mountains^  M=  de  Candolle  has  detected  about  7U0  examples  of  this  law ;  the  com- 
mon Heath,  the  Juniper,  the  Birch,  &c.  grown  indifferently  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  at 
a  height  of  10,000  feet. 

(3.)  If  plants  which,  accorimg  to  Uieir  nature,  avoid  either  too  high  or  too  low  a  degree  of 


Thestt 

are  both  i 

the  actioi 

When  w 

monntair 

mivjntaii 

America 

for  in  sy 

TlieK 

hind  of 

of  that 

anil  sur 

thirty,  '■ 

circams 

growtn 

of  the 

ins;  tl« 

Ltjmei 

proVi^ 

veiTotn 

thus  fi 

game  > 

'rh( 

bill'". 
ficVls 
of  t!ii 

*TI 


Part  If. 

Jnsaid  thai 
■elers  them  • 
J.  i'yi-enees;' 

I  -AliVtT/riip. 

I^.chestniits 
■of  Jura  ani 

won  on  most 
|oiJ  presents 
iurrounding 
|u8  wemust 
]  frequently 


'es,  of  the 
t'on  to  be 
insparency 
^n  certain 
>r  instance, 
de  ve^feta- 
strongf  and 
irged  with 
"rages  the 
eys  of  the 
•nsiderable 
ffled  to  the 

iny  of  the 
ed  by  ci.i. 
cultiT-atcfi,  • 
S(  whence 
t  marshes, 

'er  of  con- 
habitually 
nly  ascer- 
id  we  find 
e  of  tem- 
saturated 
1  thecul- 
earn,  the 
d  to  the 

e  power 
luce  any 

I  that  of 
level  of 
le  Soci- 

re  con- 
air  has 
tion  of 
ibution 

of  the 
less  in 
reater 

iffect- 

ations  j 

nmits  j 

com-  I 

nd  at 

ieof 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY. 


245 


tcinpemture,  yet  grow  at  different  latitudes,  we  may  obHerve  that  it  is  at  heights  where  the 
effect  of  .  ■  vaMon  may  compensate  that  of  latitude;  thus  the  native  plants  of  the  northern 
plains  will  '-.  seen  to  grow  upon  the  mountains  of  the  south. 

(1)  Plr.iits  which  are  cultivated  upon  a  large  scale  are  guided  by  laws  which  entirely 
corr.jspond  with  the  preceding ;  those  which  are  cultivated  m  various  latitudes  will  grow 
indifferently  at  various  heights ;  those  which  are  only  found  at  certain  latitudes  will  extend 
no  farther  than  to  proportional  elevations.  The  potatoe,  which  succeeds  so  well  in  our 
plains,  is  cultivated  in  Peru  at  an  elevation  of  10,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea :  the 
olive,  which  nowhere  passes  44°  north  latitude,  will  not  grow  at  a  height  exceeding  1250 
feet 

(5.)  The  elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  when  wo  compare  the  temperature  of  the 
seasons,  establishes  effects  very  analogous  to  those  which  result  from  the  distance  from  the 
equator ;  so  that  there  is  the  more  analogy  between  the  results  on  vegetation  in  the  two 
cases.  In  proportion  as  we  rise  in  a  direct  line,  it  follows,  from  the  lessened  density  of  the 
air,  that  the  mtenseness  cf  the  solar  light  continues  to  increase;  this  effect  is  represent- 
ed in  the  line  of  distances  from  the  equator,  because  the  perpetuity  of  light  during  the 
continuance  of  vegetation  is  so  much  the  greater  in  proportion  as  the  latitude  is  more 
elevated. 

(G.)  In  proportion  to  the  greater  height  upon  the  mountains,  so  will  the  hygrometer  be  seen 
to  indicate  a  less  degree  of  humidity ;  the  same  general  effect  takes  place  as  we  recede  from 
the  equator  towards  the  poles. 

On  mountains,  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  where  the  plants  are  constantly  nioistenei'i 
with  water  in  a  freezing  state,  those  species,  to  which  a  worm  temperature  is  unfriendly, 
will  live  at  inferior  heights  to  those  which  they  brave  in  the  same  latitude,  when  they  ere 
not  watered  from  those  cold  sources. 

It  would  appear  therefore,  from  all  ',nese  considerations,  that  the  situation  or  fixed  locality 
of  plants  at  certain  heights  depend?  mainly  on  the  fall  of  the  temperature  attributable  to 
that  elevation.  Now,  the  only  purely  theoretical  point  of  view,  says  M.  de  CandoUe,  accord- 
inj,'  to  which  we  can  comprehend  how  the  rarefaction  of  the  air  bears  in  itself  a  direct  influ- 
ence upon  vegetation,  is  this ;  that  plants  require  to  absorb  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  oxy- 
gen gaa  in  their  green  or  their  coloured  parts.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  there  is  a  certain 
point  of  elevation  where  the  atmosphere  becomes  too  much  rarefied  to  supply  the  wants  of 
plants ;  but  where  this  is  the  case  the  vnn'mtains  are  always  clothed  with  snow.  M.  de 
Humboldt,  too,  inclines  to  think  that  the  pressure  of  t!ie  air  may  act  in  encouraging  and  in- 
creasing the  quantity  of  evaporation.  But  we  must  say  that  direct  experiment  is  still  want- 
ing to  confirm  these  opinions  (and  this  is  perhaps  unattainable  in  the  present  state  of 
science),  in  order  that  we  may  form  a  conclusive  judgment  on  their  value. 

Sect.  III. — Station  and  Habitation  of  Plants. 

The  station  and  habitation  of  plants  must  next  engage  a  portion  of  our  attention.  They 
are  both  important :  the  former  implies  their  situation  as  regarding  local  circumstances,  and 
the  action  of  physical  causes  upon  vegetables ;  the  latter  implies  the  geographical  position. 
When  we  say  that  such  a  plant  is  found  in  marshes,  on  the  sea-shore,  in  woods,  or  upon 
mountains,  in  England,  in  France,  in  North  America;  by  the  marshes,  sho'-e,  woods,  or 
mnuntaina,  we  mean  what  we  here  term  the  station ;  and  by  England,  France,  or  North 
America,  the  habitation :  such  is  the  sense,  at  least,  in  which  we  shall  here  use  the  terms ; 
for  in  systematic  botanical  writings  the  meaning  is  by  no  means  always  thus  restricted. 

Tiie  seeds  of  plants,  by  varied  and  beai'tifiil  means,  are  widely  dispersed  by  the  liberal 
hand  of  nature  ;  whilst  some,  however,  fall  upon  barren  ground,  or  a  soil  unfit  for  the  nature 
of  that  particular  vegetable,  others  take  root  in  situations,  both  with  regard  to  the  earth 
and  surrounding  medium,  which  are  in  harmony  with  their  growth,  and  produce,  "  some 
thirty,  some  sixty,  and  some  an  hundredfold."  There  are,  again,  tribes  which,  under  these 
circumstances,  increase  so  prodigiously  that  they  destroy  vegetables  of  a  less  vigorous 
growtn,  and,  to  the  exclusion  of  others,  appropriate  to  themselves  a  great  extent  of  the  surface 
of  the  earth.  Such  are  termed  by  Humboldt  social  plants.  In  this  way,  and  notwithstand- 
inn;  the  extreme  poverty  of  the  soil,  the  Seaside  Sedffe  (Carex  arenaria),  the  vpright  Sea 
Lymcffrass  (Elymus  arenarius),  and  the  Sea-reed  or  Marram*  (Arundo  arenaria;,  occupy  a 
proligious  surface  of  the  sandy  shores  of  Great  Britain,  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
vegetation;  their  long,  creeping,  and  entangled  roots  serving  to  bind  the  sands  together,  and 
tiius  foiming  a  barrier  to  the  encroachments  of  the  sea.  Thus  it  is  with  the  heaths  in  the 
same  country,  where  the  sterile  moors  are  purple  with  the  blossoms  of  the  heath. 

The  flowers  of  the  Gentians  cover,  as  with  a  carpet  of  the  most  brilliant  ultramarine 
bill",  the  sides  of  the  alpine  hills  in  Switzerland  and  the  south  of  Europe.  In  England  the 
fii>!ls  are  t(X)  often  red  with  Popyies,  and  the  mar-ihos  ;ire  whitened  with  the  "snowy  beard" 
of  t!iR  Colton,i(rass,  and  tlie  pastures  with  the  blossoms  of  the  Cardamine  pratensis,  so  that 

*  Til"  C.'ltir  iimnc  "f  f'i^  plant  is  Mnraim.     A  villnirc  iipfm  the  son  coast  of  Nurfulk  is  named  Marhain,  from 
Ulc  grcul  ubuiulaiicu  in  vv.ilrli  the  Arundo  arenaria  ^tows  in  its  vicinity, 

21* 


246 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pait  II, 


they  appear  at  a  distance  as  if  covered  with  linen  laid  out  for  bleachinjr,  whence  arises  tiic 
vulgar  English  name*  of  the  latter  planl.  Some  of  these  plants  tluw  livinjf  in  society  are 
continually  striving  with  their  neighbours,  the  strongest  obtain  the  victory.  Many  lo« 
perennial  and  herbaceous  vegetables  are  ovn|)owered  by  a  colony  of  taller  shrubs;  such  as 
the  Whin  or  Furze  and  the  Broom:  and  these  in  their  turns  must  occasionally  give  place 
to  trees  and  shrubs  of  a  larger  and  strongei-  growth.  Mr.  Brown  has,  however,  noticed  a 
curious  fact  in  regard  to  the  Field  Eryngo  (Eryngium  oampestre,)  and  the  Starthisik 
(Centaurea  Calcitrapa),  which  cover  much  cultivated  ^und  upon  the  continent :  viz.  timt 
these  two  engrossers  are  never  mixed  together  indiscriminately,  b"*  '".at  each  forms  groups 
of  partial  masses,  placed  at  certain  distances  from  their  rivals. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  plants,  which,  from  the  circumstance  of  their  not  increasinu 
much  by  root,  or  bearing  few  seeds,  or  such  seeds  as  from  their  li^ht  and  volatile  nature  ar^ 
much  dispersed,  and  which  are  not  particular  in  their  choice  of  soil,  do  net  form  groups,  but 
lie  scattered  {Planles  eparses,  eereneeg,  or  rares,  of  the  French). 

The  former  kind,  or  "  social  plants,"  are  those  which  it  will  bo  most  important  for  us  to 
consider  in  relation  to  Botanical  Geography. 

The  stations  of  plants  being  thus,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  liable  to  the  influence 
of  physical  agents,  it  becomes  necessary  to  define  them  by  terms  which  are  calculated  at 
once  to  point  out  the  places  and  the  circumstances  in  which  they  grow.     This,  however,  is 
a  task  of  no  small  difficulty ;  for,  without  swelling  the  list  to  an  immeasurable  length,  it  will 
be  impossible  to  define  the  various  local  situations  of  plants.    There  are  many  situations 
which  produce  only  one  or  two  kinds :  for  example,  the  snow,  in  the  highest  arctic  regions 
to  which  travellers  have  attained,  has  been  found  to  nourish  and  to  bring  to  the  greatest  per- 
fection that  highly  curious  vegetable,  the  Red  Snow  (Protococcus  nivalis).    The  triiffli- 
(Tuber  cibarium)  is  found  entirely  hid  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth.     Some  funffi  are 
detected  upon  the  dead  horns  and  hoofs  of  animals  (no  plant  exists  upon  living  bodiesj),an(l 
upon  dead  chrysalides;  and  both  fungi  and  mosses  grow  on  the  dung  of  animals.     Paper 
nourishes  the  minute  Conferva  dendroidea:  the  glass  of  windows,  and  the  glass  table  of  tJie 
microscope,  if  laid  by  in  a  moist  state  for  a  certain  length  of  time,  produce  the  Conferva 
fenestralis.    Wine-casks  in  damp  eel*  .rs  give  birth  to  the  Racodium  cellare :  and  Dutroclipt 
has  detected  living  vegetables  in  Madeira  wine  and  in  Goulard  water,  (a  solution  of  Saturn). 
These,  however,  and  many  others  that  might  be  noticed,  may  be  numbered  among  the  extra- 
ordinary stations,  and  they  principally  affect  cryptogamic  vegetables.     In  a  popular  view  of 
the  subject,  though  we  cannot  altogether  omit  the  notice  of  such  minute  yet  curious  vege- 
table productions,  we  .shall  mainly  direct  our  attention  to  the  more  conspicuous  plants ;  and 
they  may  be  thus  divided.     1.  Maritime  or  saline  plants.     Theseaie  terrestrial,  but  grow- 
ing upon  the  borders  of  the  ocean  or  near  salt  lakes ;  as  the  Saltworts  (Salsolffi)  and  GVf/ss- 
iDorts  (Salicorniae),  &c.     Hence  these  plants  abound  in  .the  interior  of  Africa  and  the  Rus- 
sian dominions,  where  there  are  saltpans,  as  well  as  on  the  shores.     2.  Marine  Plants. 
This  tribe  is  indeed  mostly  cryptogamic,  and  comprises  the  Alga,  Fuci,  Ulvee,  Sic.    The 
phcenogamoua,  or  perfect  marine  plants,  are  the  Sea-wracks  (Riippia  and  Zostera),  and  a 
few  others  allied  to  them.     3.  Aquatic  plants.     Growing  in  fresh  wattr.     Botli  stagnant 
pools  and  running  streams  in  various  situations,  abound  in  plants.     Some  are  entirely  mh- 
merged,  but  in  this  case,  with  the  rare  exception  of  the  little  Awlwort  (Subularia  aqiiatica), 
the  flowers  rise  to  the  surface  of  tiu;  water  for  the  purpose  of  fructification.^     4.  Marsh  or 
swamp  plants.    5.  Meadow  and  pasture  plants.   6.  Field  plants.   This  tribe  often  includes 
such  as,  introduced  with  the  grain  sown  in  those  districts,  are  equally  ])laced  there  by  the 
hand  of  man.     7.  Rock  plants,  which  may  include  the  natives  of  very  stony  spots,  and  mch 
as  grow  upon  walls.     Walls,  although  artificial  structures,  are  known  to  produce  many  plants 
in  greater  perfection  than  natural  rock;  yet  we  must  not  suppose  that  any  vegetable  is 
exclusively  confined  to  this  habitat.     The  Holosteum  umhellatum  and  Draha  murnlis  may 
be  cited  as  examples  of  this  tribe  in  England  ;  and  amongst  mosses,  the  Grimmia  puhinnta, 
Tortula  muralis,  &c.     8.  Sand  Plants.     9.  Plants  of  dry  moors,  where  heaths  (Erica") 
abound.     10.  Plants  which  attach  themselves  to  the  vicinity  of  places  inhabited  by  man. 
Such  are  the  Dock,  Nettle,  &c. ;  these  species  follow  everywhere  the  human  footsteps,  even 

*  Lady's  Smock.    Such  plants  were  in  olilcn  time  dodicatcrl  to  Our  Lady  the  Virgin  Mary. 

t  S<houw,  indeed,  hnsa  trilieofplnnts  whictilie  calls  "  Planto!  F.pitoic"  attnchedtolivivg  animaUi,  Thiif,  hn  snys, 
Fuci  and  other  .^Igai  are  attached  tn  whnlea,  mnssels,  and  barnacles.  But  in  this  case  the  plants  manifestly  aillure 
to  a  dead  portion  of  the  animal ;  like  tho^e  veeetakles  which  exist  upon  the  outer  and  dead  part  of  the  bark  of  irci's 

1  Raymond  certainlv  observed,  in  the  Pyrenees,  a  species  of  Oon/oot,  the  Wattr  Crinr/ao*  (Ranunculii?  miun- 
tilis.)  producing  Its  flower  and  ftnit  whnlly  under  water ;  but  upon  a  closer  investigation  of  the  phennnii'iinn.  he 
found  that  in  these  rases  the  calyx  enclosed  a  globule  of  air,  with  which  this  important  function  of  fertilizatinn 
was  performed.  The  curious  aquatic,  VaUUneria  spiralis,  has  a  still  more  wonderful  contrivance  for  bringing  ilic 
male  and  female  flowers  in  contact.  The  plant  is  diiKcious.  The  female  flower  is  attached  to  the  parent  pl.iiit 
by  means  of  a  very  long  stalk,  spirally  twisted  like  a  corkscrew,  so  that  when  it  is  in  perfection,  it  riso  tn  the 
surface  by  the  untwistinc  of  the  stalk.  The  male  flower.-.,  u;io;i  n  separfttB  jiiani,  are  almost  sessile,  borne  on  a 
very  short  straight  stem,  wliich  never  could  reach  the  surface  without  detaching  themselves  fTom  the  plant.  This 
they  do  at  the  proper  season  ;  they  float  upon  the  top  of  the  water  along  with  the  female  flowers,  scatter  their 
pollen,  and  die.  The  female  blossoms  on  the  contrary,  by  the  spiral  twisting  of  their  atalks,  retire,  and  ripec 
their  wedi  under  water. 


J*A«T  ri. 

>ce  arises  the 
"  society  are 
Many  lo« 
"08 ;  sucli  as 
'y  give  place 
''er,  noticed  a 
e  Startkisllf 
>nt:  viz.  that 
torms  groups 

pt  increasing 
e  nature  m- 
groapa,  but 

mt  for  us  to 

le  influence 
calcniated  at 
,  however,  is 
ength.itwill 
ny,  situations 
relic  regions 
g'-eatestpor. 
Tlio  tniffl,- 
6  f'mffi  are 
'wJiesfXand 
Ills.     Paper 
I  tableoffli,> 
Je  Confi'rva 

id  Dutroclipt 

™  of  Saturn). 

Jff  the  extra- 

ulur  view  of 

irious  vege- 

plants;  and 

I)  but  grow- 

'  and  67«s,?. 

id  the  Rii#. 

ine  Plants. 

,  &c.    The 

iera),  and  a 

th  stagnant 

itiroly'  siib- 

laquatica), 
Marsh  or 

3n  includes 

ere  by  tlio 

5,  and  .«iirli 

lany  plants 

igetablc  i.s 

'■«^"4'  rn.ay 

piilmiftta, 

■s  (Ei-Ict) 

f  by  7nan. 

teps,  even   ' 


^11'.  hn  Hnvs, 
'slly  nil(if-re 
ark  of  iri'i's 
i^uliis  nqiia- 
imi'iinn.  hf 
iTtiliznliiin 
ri'iffint'iho 
irciil  pi.mr 
isfs  Id  the 
"rile  1)11  a 
niif.  This 
itfor  fhi'ir 
and  ripec 


Book  HI. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY. 


247 


to  the  huts  and  cabins  of  the  highest  mountains ;  encouraged,  perhaps  by  the  presence  of 
animui  substances,  und  the  azote  which  in  such  substances  is  known  to  abound.  II.  Fore*' 
nlanli,  consisting  of  such  trees  as  live  in  society.  12.  Plants  of  the  hedges,  as  are  innny 
climbing  plants,  the  Honeysuckle,  the  Traveller's  joy,  the  Bryony,  &c.  13.  Subterranean 
plants.  Those  that  live  in  mines  and  caves,  and  which,  though  tolerably  numerous  and  im- 
portant, are  yet  mostly  cryptogamous.  One  species,  a  fungus,  yields  a  pale  phosphoric  light 
of  considerable  intensity.  14.  Alpine  or  mountain  plants,  for  it  is  very  difficult  to  drav/  the 
limit,  and  indeed  they  will  depend  much  upon  latitude.  A  plant  which  grows  upon  a  hill  of 
inconsiderable  elevation  in  Norway,  Lapland,  and  Iceland,  will  of  course  inhabit  the  lotlies-t 
Alps  of  the  south  of  Europe.  Again,  upon  mountains  that  have  no  perpetual  snow  lying  on 
them,  alpine  plants  will  be  found  much  higher  than  on  such  as  have  continued  streams  of 
cold  snow-water  descending,  whic'  affect  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  at  much  lower  regions. 
15.  Parasitic  plants,  such  as  the  Misseltoe,  che  various  species  of  Loranthus,  &c.,  and  the 
most  wonderful  of  all  vegetable  productions,  the  Rafflesia  Arnoldii :  these,  as  their  name 
implies,  derive  nourishment  from  a  living  portion  of  the  vegetable  to  which  they  attach 
themselves.  This  is  the  case,  too,  with  many  Fungi  which  subsist  upon  the  living  foliage; 
of  plants ;  some  exclusively  on  the  upper,  others  as  invariably  on  the  lower  side  of  these 
leaves ;  and,  lastly,  the  name  of  16.  Pseudo-parasites  has  been  given  to  a  very  extensive 
tribe,  which  subsists  upon  the  decayed  jjortions  of  the  trunk  or  branches  of  the  trees  to 
w'lich  they  are  attached,  as  many  of  the  Lichens,  Mosses,  Sic. ;  or  which  are  simply  attach- 
ed by  the  surface  of  their  roots  to  tropical  trees,  obtaining  no  nourishment  from  them,  but 
from  the  surrounding  element.  Among  this  number  may  be  reckoned  that  numerous  and 
singular  family  of  the  Orchideee,  called,  from  their  nature  and  property,  "  air  plants." 
Greatly  as  this  list  might  be  swelled,  we  shall  find  that  even  here  there  is  a  gradation  and 
an  approximation  of  one  tribe  to  another ;  but  these  are  amply  sufficient  for  our  purpose. 

We  have  been  able  to  account  in  some  measure  for  the  stations  of  plants,  affected  as  these 
are  by  local  circumstances;  but  the  study  of  the  succeeding  part,  which  refers  to  their  Imbi- 
tutioits,  considered  in  their  most  extensive  scale,  for  instance,  as  belonging  to  certain  regions 
or  countries,  we  shall  find  to  be  much  more  difficult ;  and  we  must  frequently  be  content  to 
study  and  to  admire  the  amazing  variety  of  vegetable  forms  which  the  beneficent  hand  of 
nature  has  scattered  over  the  different  parts  of  our  world,  without  being  able  to  account  for 
these  important  phenomena.  In  New  Holland  we  find  almost  exclusively,  all  the  species 
of  Banksia,  Goodenia,  and  Epacris,  and  the  curious  Acacia  without  leaves,  but  with  peti- 
oles so  much  enlarged  as  to  assume  the  shape  and  perform  the  functions  of  leaves.  At  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  Fig  Marigolds  (Mesembryanthema),  the  Stapelia,  the  nuniorous 
kinds  of  Ixia,  Gladiolus,  Pelargonium,  and  Prolea  abound.  The  Aurantiacea,  the  tiimily 
of  plants  to  which  the  Orange  and  Lemon  belong,  are  of  Asiatic  origin ;  as  the  CamcUia 
and  Thea  are  of  Chinese.  Those  curious  plants,  the  Mutisia,  the  various  species  of  Fuch- 
sia, the  Cinchona;  or  medicinal  harks,  the  Cacti,  are  all  peculiar  to  South  America.  If  a 
few  of  them  are  found  in  other  countries,  such  circumstances  are  of  very  rare  occurrence, 
and  do  not  overturn  the  general  laws  for  the  exclusive  existence  of  many  plants  in  certain 
countries.  There  are  in  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe  one  s])ecies  of  Ixia,  one  of  Ghidio- 
Im,  and  in  the  north  of  Africa  and  south  of  Europe  a  few  kinds  of  F^g  Marigold.  Within 
the  tropics  the  genera  of  plants  throughout  Asia,  Afirica,  and  America,  ore  similar,  but  rare- 
ly are  the  species  the  same.  This  rule  nearly  holds  good  on  the  opposite  continents  in  tem- 
perate climates.  We  find  the  Oriental  Plane  (Platanus  orientalis)  in  the  old  world,  and 
the  Occidental  Plane  (P.  occidentalis)  in  the  new.  Even  in  the  two  hemispheres,  in  simi- 
lar parallels  of  latitude,  the  genera  of  plants  have  a  great  affinity :  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  great  continent  of  America  has  many  in  common  with  the  north  of  Europe ;  and  the 
plants  of  the  latter  region,  transported  thither,  succeed  extremely  well. 

To  what  extent  plants  migrate,  unaided  by  man,  it  is  not  easy  to  say ;  but  that  such  mi- 
gration is  going  on,  by  various  means  and  causes,  cannot  be  questioned.  Islands  which  lie 
near  to  continents,  and  which  evidently  appear  at  one  period  to  hav_  ^n  joined  with  them, 
a.«  England  for  example,  although  they  may  contain  a  vegetation  similar  \,o  that  of  the  neigh- 
bouring continental  shores,  have  always  a  smaller  number  of  species ;  and  this  can  only  be 
accounted  for  by  the  interruption  which  straits  or  seas  occasion  to  the  progress  of  the  seeds. 

The  Field  Eryngo  (Eryngium  campeslre),  to  which  we  have  rlreidy  alluded,  the  Venus' s 
lonking-glnss  (Campanula  Speculum),  und  many  other  plants  of  France  and  Germany,  seem 
to  stop  at  the  line  formed  by  the  sea;  yet  these,  and  many  other  vegetables  of  France,  reach 
a  limit  upon  the  same  continent  more  northern  than  any  part  of  England. 

The  migration  of  plants  may  be  reckoned  to  be  facilitcted  by  the  following  causes.  1.  Th 
sea  and  its  currents,  but  to  a  very  limited  extent ;  for  if  the  seed  be  of  such  a  natcre  tha 
the  water  penetrates  its  integuments  and  reaches  the  embryo,  life  ia  destroyed.  Yet  to  such 
a  distance  are  they  carried  by  this  medium,  that  upon  the  coasts  of  Britain,  of  Iceland,  and 
Norway,  the  seeds  of  the  West  Indies  are  frequently  cast,  and  it  is  said  sometimes  even  in 
a  fit  state  for  vegetation.  2.  Rivers,  by  the  continual  movement  of  their  waters,  corwey 
many  plants  to  a  considerable  distance  from  their  original  place  of  growth ;  and  the  banks 


^48 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pabt  n. 


of  streama  are  generally  adorned  with  a  vegetation  of  a  more  varied  kind  than  the  districta 
remote  trom  them.  Thus,  too,  tlie  diflerent  species  of  Saxifrage  and  other  alpine  planu 
are,  in  mountainous  regions,  brought  down  trom  the  higiier  situations,  and  flourish  in  the 
valleys.  3.  Winds,  which  wafl  the  light,  winged,  and  pappose  seeds  to  immense  distanceH, 
and  by  means  of  which  they  ore  widely  dispersed.  4.  Animals,  which,  in  wandering  from 
place  to  place,  often  carry  on  their  coats  those  seeds  which  have  licoVod  bristles,  &.c.  5, 
Birds,  which,  swallowing  berries. and  other  truita,  pass  the  seeds  in  a  perfect  state,  and,  ii 
is  even  said,  sometimes  better  fitted  for  germination  than  before.  In  this  manner  the  acedr 
arc  often  deposited  in  the  places  necessary  for  their  growth,  and  to  which  they  could  not 
otherwise  have  reached  ;  of  which  a  familiar  instance  is  found  in  the  Misseltoe. 

Man  is  however  the  most  active  agent  in  the  dispersion  of  plants,  and  we  must  not  over- 
look the  important  consequences  of  his  influence.  Sometimes,  indeed,  the  causes  are  acci> 
dental,  but  more  frequently  intentional.  The  shipwreck  of  a  vessel  on  the  island  of  Guernsey, 
having  some  bulbs  on  board  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  caused  a  plant  to  propagate  in  tlie 
sands  upon  the  shores  of  that  mild  climate,  to  which  has  been  since  given  the  name  of  Ama- 
rijlUa  Sarniensis  or  Guernsey  Lily,  and  a  branch  of  trade  of  some  importance  is  carried  on 
in  the  sale  of  this  very  root  At  Buenos  Ayres,  a  species  of  ArttcAofce  (Cynara  Cardun- 
cuius)  has  increased  so  much  by  seeds  imported  from  Europe,  that  Mr.  Head,  in  his  amusing 
"  Sketches  of  a  Journey  across  the  Pampas,"  &c.  tells  us  that  "there  are  three  rogions  of 
vegetation  between  Buenos  Ayres  and  the  h-se  of  the  Cordilleras;  a  space  of  900  miles: 
the  first  of  which  is  covered,  for  180  miles,  with  clover  and  thistles.  This  region,"  tlie 
author  continues,  "  varies  with  the  seasons  of  tlie  year  in  a  most  extraordinary  manner.  In 
winter,  the  leaves  of  the  thistles*  are  large  and  luxuriant,  and  the  whole  surface  of  tiie 
country  has  the  rough  appearance  of  a  turnip  field.  The  clover  in  this  season  is  extremely 
rich  and  strong;  and  the  sight  of  the  wild  cattle  grazing  in  full  liberty  on  such  pasture  i> 
vory  beautiful.  In  spring  the  clover  has  vanished,  the  leaves  of  the  thistles  have  extended 
along  the  ground,  and  the  country  still  looks  like  a  rough  crop  of  turnips.  In  less  than  a 
month  the  change  is  most  extraordinary ;  the  whole  region  becomes  a  luxuriant  wood  of 
Riiormous  thistles,  which  have  suddenly  *hot  up  to  a  height  of  ten  or  eleven  feet,  and  are  all  in 
full  bloom.  The  road  or  patli  is  hemmed  in  on  both  sides;  the  view  is  completely  obstructed; 
not  an  animal  is  to  be  seen ;  and  the  stems  of  the  thistles  are  so  close  to  each  other,  and  so 
strong,  that,  independent  of  the  prickles  with  which  they  are  armed,  they  form  an  impene- 
trable barrier.  The  sudden  growth  of  tliese  plants  is  quite  astonishing ;  and  thounrji  it 
would  be  an  unusual  misfortune  in  military  history,  yet  it  is  really  possible  that  an  invading 
nniiy,  unacquainted  with  tliis  country,  might  be  imprisoned  by  these  thistles  before  it  lind 
timo  to  escape  from  them.  The  summer  is  not  over  before  the  scene  undergoes  anotiier 
riipid  change :  the  tliistles  suddenly  lose  their  sap  and  verdure,  their  heads  droop,  the  leaves 
s'lrink  and  fade,  the  stems  become  black  and  dead ;  and  they  remain  rattling  with  the 
brt'oze,  one  against  another,  until  the  violence  of  the  pampero  or  hurricane  levels  them  with 
the  frround,  when  they  rapidly  decompose  and  disappear,  the  clover  rushes  up,  and  the  scene 
is  again  verdant." 

The  strong-scented  Everlasting  (Elichrysum  foetidum),  a  native  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
ha;!  found  a  soil  and  climate  equally  suited  to  its  growth  on  the  shores  of  Brest,  where  it 
covers  a  great  portion  of  the  sands,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  aboriginal  natives  of  the  soil. 
Wheat  is  supposed  to  be  indigenous  to  Barbary.  The  potatoe,  first  found  in  South  America, 
is  now  cultivated  all  over  the  world.  JRtce,  from  Asia,  is  grown  to  an  immense  extent  in 
Aniorica,  &c. ;  these,  and  many  other  plants  similarly  circumstanced,  which  we  could  men- 
tion, together  with  those  that  adorn  our  gardens,  often  owe  their  wide  diffusion  to  having 
escaped  into  uncultivated  places,  and  become  to  a  certain  degree  naturalised  there. 

But  there  are  limits  to  migration,  for  some  of  which  we  can  account,  and  for  others  we 
cannot.  Even  many  garden  plants,  which,  escaping  by  accident,  or  designedly  placed  in 
uncultivated  spots  so  as  to  appear  wild,  have  only  for  a  time  maintained  a  languid  existence, 
and  then  have  disappeared  altogether.  Thus  we  know  that  the  beautiful  Genlianella  (Gon- 
tiana  acaulis)  cannot  have  a  title  to  a  place  in  the  British  Flora,  nor  can  some  others,  which 
are  mere  outcasts  fi"om  gardens.  Some  plants  are  wholly  confined  to  particular  spot^,  and 
can  h"  found  nowhere  else.  The  Tree-Pink  (Dianthus  arboreus)  grows  still  on  the  single 
i;vk  in  the  island  of  Crete,  where  Prosper  Alpinus  first  detected  it;  and  the  Double  Cocoa- 
uut  of  the  isle  Praslin,  one  of  the  little  group  of  islands  called  the  Seychelles,  notwitli- 
star.iling  the  annual  migration  of  its  iixits  for  many  thousands  of  miles,  has  never  established 
its(Mt'  in  any  other  place.  Nature  has  pla  ited  the  common  Thrift  (Statice  Armeria),  the 
Scurry  Grasses  (Cochlearia  anglica  and  danica),  and  the  Rose-root  (Rhodiola  rosea),  in 
rocky  und  stony  places,  upon  shores  and  on  the  tops  of  the  highest  mountains;  yet  Uiose 
plants  arfl  never  found  in  any  intermediate  places. 

The  vis'ble  obstacles  to  the  migration  of  plants  are — 

(1.)  The  sea,  whicii,  though  we  have  introduced  it  as  a  means  of  extending  the  habitatjjiis 

*  Prom  spcrimnna  in  mir  Tl.'rhnrimri,  "i-  have  imrprtnined  timt  rliis  Ihhtte  is  tlH'  Cariloim  (Cyiiiirn  CnrilunculuS;, 
introduced  no  doubt  from  Europe  as  an  urticic  of  food,  but  now  growing  wild,  useleiis,  and  puriiicious. 


^n  the  districta 
»iP'"e  plant! 

"""'ish  in  ty 
l^nse  difltaiicea; 
underin^  from 

M08,  &c.      5 

I'  state,  and,  i,' 
pnei-  the  scedr 
m  couJd  not 

'U8t  not  over, 
^uses  are  acci. 
•of  Guernsey 
>P«i?ate  in  thj 

iameof4ma. 
I  18  carried  on 
nara  Cardun- 
n  his  anuisino 
N  ro^rions  of 
•Jf  900  miles- 
•■effion,"  tJie 
nmnner.    Jn 
lurfacc  of  t|,e 
's  extreintly 
ch  pasture  j> 
ave  extended 
n  less  than  a 
iant  Wood  of 
and  are  all  in 

y  obstructed; 

other,  and  so 

"  an  impene- 

nd  thoufrJi  it 

t  an  invading 

hefore  it  had 

ifoes  anotlier 

'J>.  the  leaves 

"S'  with  the 

Is  tliem  with 

id  the  scene 

Good  Hope, 
5t,  where  it 
of  the  soil. 
h  America, 
8  extent  in 
could  men- 
'  to  having^ 
e. 

others  we 
placed  in 
existence, 
e//fl  (Gen- 
-rs,  which 
'Pot>-,  and 
lie  sin^rle 
'■e  Cocott. 
notwith- 
tablished 
Tia),  the 
)sea),  in 
et  tliose 


'itatijns 


uncuius;. 


BooE  m. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  BOTANY. 


949 


of  plants,  is  yet  a  fkr  greater  impediment,  by  the  injury  it  does  to  the  Bcedi,  and  the  diffi- 
culty of  their  being  conveyed  to  distant  countries  in  a  aulficicntly  short  time  to  prevent  the 
natural  death  of  the  seed.  It  must  be  observed,  too,  that  the  greater  number  of  seeds  have 
a  specific  gravity  heavier  than  tliat  of  water  when  in  a  living  state.  Tlie  Double  Cocoa- 
nut,  when  found  floating,  has  always  lost  its  vegetative  property.  The  living  nut  is  im- 
inciiHely  heavy,  and  would  inevitably  sink. 

(:2.)  Dry  und  burning  deserts.  These,  in  spite  of  their  oases,  which  have  been  happily 
asihiniilated  to  the  isles  of  the  ocean,  prove  a  powerful  obstacle  to  the  transport  of  seedn. 
ThiLs,  those  districts  of  Africa  which  are  separated  from  one  another  by  the  scorching  saiida 
of  Sahara  exhibit  a  great  dissimilarity  in  their  vegetation.  The  plants  of  Morocco  and  the 
northern  parts  of  Africa  have  little  resemblance  to  the  indigenous  growth  of  Senegal ;  whilst 
tliu  alilnity  of  the  vegetables  brought  by  Caillaud  from  Upper  Egypt  to  those  collected  by 
Puiisot  de  Beauvois  in  Oware  and  Benin  would  in  itself  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  no  very 
great  and  continued  deserts  intervene  between  these  tar  distant  countries. 

(:).)  Mountain  ranges.  The  barriers  which  these  present  would  almost  be  insurmountable^ 
were  it  not  for  the  deliles  which  here  and  there  occur,  forming  passages  for  men  and  ani- 
mal»t,  as  well  as  for  plants.  Thus,  the  plants  on  the  Italian  side  of  the  Alps  are  quite  differ- 
ent from  those  on  the  Switzerland  side ;  those  of  the  Spanish  Pyrenees  firom  those  of  the 
Frinch  Pyrenees;  and  it  was  a  subject  of  peculiar  regret  to  the  enterprising  Drumniond, 
when  lie  reached  the  summits  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  North  America,  that  his  commit- 
iimx  did  not  allow  him  to  penetrate  farther  into  the  western  side  of  that  great  continent, 
where  he  found,  every  step  he  took,  a  vegetation  very  different  from  what  had  been  presented 
to  him  by  the  eastern  side. 

A  knowledge  of  the  Natural  Orders  of  plants  is  in  no  department  of  botany  so  important 
as  in  treiting  of  their  geographical  distribution.  The  system  of  Liimaius,  or  tho  Artificial 
Arran^dment,  does  not,  as  we  know,  regard  the  habits  and  aiiJnities  of  vegetables,  but  simply 
and  beautifully  points  out  to  us,  by  certain  characters,  the  means  of  arriving  at  the  know- 
leilire  of  any  given  species.  The  natural  method,  which  owes  so  much  to  the  labours  of 
Jiissieu,  Decandolle  and  Brown,  has  a  higher  object  in  view,  that  of  grouping  plants  together 
according  to  their  natural  affinities ;  and  by  such  an  arrangement  we  are  otlen  led  to  other 
anil  very  important  results.  The  primary  divisions  of  the  Natural  Method  are,  first,  acotv- 
LEDONEs,  or  plants  which  have  no  cotyledons  to  the  seed :  these  are  synonymous  to  the 
Cryptogamia,  and  include  the  Mosses,  Lichens,  Sea-weeds,  Fungi,  Ferns,  &c. ;  secondly, 
HONocoTVLRDONES  ?  thosc  whoso  sceds  have  one  cotyledon,  such  as  the  Grasses,  Liliaceous 
Plants,  the  Rushes,  Sedges,  the  Palms,  4*(. ;  and,  thirdly,  dicotyledones,  or  the  plants 
whicli  have  two  or  rarely  more  cotyledons  to  the  seed,  such  as  our  Shrubs  and  Trees,  and 
very  many  Herbaceous  Plants.  Each  of  these  possesses  external  characters  which,  though 
not  very  easily  defined  in  words,  yet  cannot  fail  to  strike  the  observer  who  devotes  his  atten- 
tion, even  for  a  little  while,  to  the  subject ;  and  we  find  that,  in  a  great  proportion  of 
iii.s»ance8,  they  have  nrt  only  a  peculiar  station,  but  that  their  geographical  distribiition  is 
difleront. 

The  AcoTYLEDONovs  plants  increase  in  number  in  proportion  to  the  other  great  classes,  as 
we  recede  from  the  equator  to  the  poles ;  with  the  exception,  however,  of  the  Ferns.  The 
latter  abound  more  within  the  tropics  than  any  v.here  else :  not,  however,  so  much  in  open 
plains  as  in  the  sheltered,  moist,  and  hilly  countries ;  so  that  their  maximum  is  in  the  moun- 
tainous part  of  the  tropics.  The  island  of  Martinique  afforded  to  the  Abbe.Plumier  a  rich 
and  abundant  harvest  of  ferns ;  and  some  isles  of  small  extent  are  said  to  have  one-third  of 
their  vegetation  composed  of  this  kind  of  plants. 

Among  the  monocotyledonous  Plants,  the  Palms  are  exclusively  contnned  to  the  lro])ic8 : 
tho  lAliaceov^  plants  abound  there  and  in  the  warm  zones ;  the  three  families  of  Grasses, 
Sfidges  (Cyperaceae),  and  Rushes  (Junci),  present  some  important  differences  in  regard  to  a 
comparison  with  the  phrenogamous  or  flowering  plants.  The  disparity  between  these  latter 
and  the  grasses  is  not  great  in  each  of  the  zones ;  whilst  the  two  other  families,  the  Cype- 
racea  and  Junci,  diminish  near  the  equator  and  increase  towards  the  north.  Nevertheless, 
there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule ;  for  the  grasses  are  very  rare  upon  the  coasts  of  Greenland. 
In  what  we  have  now  said,  we  allude  to  the  grasses,  &,c.  in  a  wild  state ;  having  no  refer- 
ence to  those  regions  where  so  many  of  the  grass  tribe,  as  the  Wheat,  Barley,  Oat,  Maize, 
Rye,  Rice,  Sic,  are  found  simply  in  a  state  of  cultivation. 

Tlie  DICOTYLEDONOUS  plants  are  the  most  extensively  distributed,  and  we  must  offer  some 
further  remarks  upon  them.  The  Compound  or  Syngenesious  plants  (Composita;),  as  every 
one  knows,  form  a  very  extensive  natural  family.  They  are  diffused  throughout  the  whole 
earth,  but  they  are  most  abundant  in  the  temperate  and  tropical  climates.  Fewer,  however, 
of  them  are  found  in  the  warm  regions  of  equinoctial  America  than  in  the  sub-alpine  and 
temperate  diBificta  of  the  same  country.  At  the  Congo  and  Sierra  Leone  in  Africa,  in  the 
East  Indies  and  New  Holland,  they  exist  in  comparatively  smaller  numbers  than  in  other 
regions  situated  in  sunilar  parallels,  but  which  afford  situations  more  congenial  to  theii 
Vol.  1.  2G 


iMO 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  n, 


IfTowth.     A^in,  in  thn  fVozon  zone,  in  KanitBcliatkn  atui  Iiapland,  the  relative  proportion  of 
plants  of  tliifl  tiiniily  in  one-lialf  1cm  than  in  the  tein|)nraf(>  clinmtes. 

The  LeguminouB  plania  (to  which  the  Pea,  the  litmn,  &c.  boionp,  and  such  ah  hoar  popi. 
lionacoous  flowers,)  abound  moat  in  the  equinoctial  regions:  they  diminish  gradually  in  nnch 
hemisphere  in  diverging  th)m  the  equator,  except  indco<l  in  certain  countries  where  particu- 
lar genera,  by  the  multiplicity  of  their  species,  give  a  peculiar  feature  to  the  vegetation,  as 
in  Siberia  and  the  vast  provinces  of  Russia,  where  so  many  Aatraffali  or  Bitter-vetcheB  are 
(bund. 

Mr.  Brown  has  judiciously  separated  the  natural  order  of  Rubincea  into  two  proiipg 
those  with  verticillate  leaves  and  no  sti^.ulcH  (the  Stellutm  of  Linnreus),  to  which  beion<,'  the 
Ooosegraas  (Galium),  Madder  (Rubia),  &c.,  and  which  are  almost  peculiar  to  the  temiHTiite 
zones;  and  the  true  Ruhiace<B,  with  opposite  puirs  of  loaves,  and  two  opposite  stipnie.s 
(which  are  in  fact  abortive  leaves,  and  thus  mIiow  their  affinity  with  the  Stellata),  to  which 
ueiong  the  real  medicinal  barks  (or  Cinchona*),  and  i^ome  otiier  nearly  related  plants  pog. 
sessing  similar  virtues:  these  latter  are  almost  wholly  confined  to  the  equinoctial  regionH. 

The  two  well-known  and  extensive  natural  tiimilica,  the  VmbelWeroun  and  Cnicifirnut 
plantg,  are  very  rare  in  the  tropics,  if  we  except  the  mountains.  They  abound  in  the  south 
of  Europe,  and  especially  about  the  vall<  >  or  basin  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Skot.  IV. — View  of  Botanical  Regions. 

To  divide  the  globe  into  botanical  regions  or  districts  will  not  be  difficult,  seeing  that  ccr- 
tain  countries  possess  a  peculiar  vegetation,  and  that  numerous  inipedimcnts  prevetit  emi- 
gration; seeing,  too,  that  certain  forms  ur  tribes  are  incompatible  with  certain  ciimntcs. 
M.  De  Candollo  has  constituted  twenty  of  those  regions ;  but  although  each  is,  to  a  certain 
degree,  peculiar  in  its  vegetable  productions,  it  would  require  more  space  than  we  can  devote 
to  such  a  subject  to  characterise  them.  We  must,  therefore,  content  ourselves  with  giving 
a  bare  list.  I.  Hyperborean  region.  This  district  includes  the  northern  extremity  of  Asia, 
Europe,  and  America ;  and  gradually  merges  into  the  following.  •  2.  European  rcffion ; 
comprising  all  Europe,  except  the  part  bordering  upon  the  pole,  and  the  southern  districts 
approaching  the  Mediterranean.  To  the  eaat  it  extends  to  the  Altaic  mountains.  3.  Sihe- 
rian  region,  comprehending  the  great  plains  of  Siberia  and  Tartary.  4.  Mediterranran 
region ;  comprising  all  the  basin  of  this  great  inland  sea ;  that  is,  Africa  on  this  side  the 
Sahara,  and  that  part  of  Europe  which  is  sheltered  from  the  north  by  e  more  or  less  conti- 
nued range  of  mountains.  6.  Oriental  region ;  thus  called  relatively  to  southern  Europe, 
and  containing  the  countries  liordering  upon  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas.  6.  India,  with 
its  archipelago.  7.  China,  Cocliinchina,  and  Japan.  8.  iVeio  Holland.  9.  The  Cape  nf 
Good  Hope,  or  southern  extremity  of  Africa,  beyond  the  tropics.  10.  Abyssinia,  Nubia,  and 
the  Mozambique  Coast  (imperfectly  known).  11.  Equinoctial  Africa ;  \L.  the  nciglibour- 
hood  of  the  Congo,  the  Senegal,  and  Niger.  12.  The  Canary  Isles.  13.  The  United 
Slates  of  North  America.  14.  The  Western  and  Temperate  Coasts  of  North  America. 
in.  The  West  Indian  Isles.  16.  Mexico.  17.  Tropical  South  America.  18.  Chili.  19. 
Southern  Brazil  and  Biienos  Ayres.    20.  The  Straits  of  Magellan. 

Many  of  the  productions  of  these  regions  will  be  considered  somewhat  at  large  in  other 
parts  of  this  work ;  and  we  shall  conclude  our  introductory  sketch  of  Botanical  Geography 
by  a  notice  of  Professor  Schouw's  Phy to- Geographies  or  General  Botanical  Division  of  the 
Globe.  This  is  illustrated  by  a  map,  which  accompanies  this  memoir.  Unlike  M.  De  Can- 
doUe,  Professor  Schouw  characterises  the  regions  by  the  most  remarkable  feature  of  their 
vegetation,  adopting  commonly  used  geographical  terms  only  where  he  conceives  that  n  cer- 
tain division  of  the  earth  ought  to  constitute  a  distinct  region,  but  is  not  sufficiently  acquainted 
with  its  productions  to  determine  and  define  their  forms.  He  makes  the  characteristic  fea- 
ture of  his  regions  to  depend  on  these  facts:  first,  that  at  least  one-half  of  the  species  should 
be  peculiar  to  that  region ;  secondly,  that  at  least  a  quarter  of  the  genera  should  belong 
exclusively  to  it,  or  at  least  have  there  a  decided  maximum,  so  that  their  species  in  other 
districts  might  merely  be  considered  as  their  representatives;  and,  thirdly,  that  individual 
families  of  plants  be  either  peculiar  to  the  region,  or  else  have  their  maxima  there ;  ncvnr- 
theless,  when  this  last  characteristic  is  wanting,  whilo  the  diflTerence  in  genera  and  species 
is  very  considerabL ,  it  may  yet  be  admitted  as  a  region. 

Professor  Schouw  in  this  manner  reckons  twenty-two  regions : — 

(1.)  Region  of  Saxifrages  and  Mosses,  or  the  Alpine  Arctic  Flora. — This  corresponds 
with  De  CandoUe's  first  region,  and  comprehends  all  the  countries  within  the  polar  circle; 
namely,  Lapland,  the  north  part  of  Russia  and  Siberia,  Kamtschatka,  Russian  America,  y)art 
of  British  America,  Greenland,  and  Iceland ;  but  Professor  Schouw  adds  to  it,  with  much 
propriety,  part  of  the  Scottish  and  Scandinavian  mountains,  as  tar  as  they  fall  within  the 
alpine  region,  as  also  the  mountains  in  the  souther.i  and  central  parts  of  Eurofie,  inapmuch 
us  they  are  related  to  the  alpine  regions.  It  is  characterised  by  the  abundance  of  mosses 
and  lichens,  the  presence  of  the  Saxifrages,  Gentians,  Chickweed  tribe  (Alsinese),  Sedges, 
and  Willows ;  an  entire  absence  of  tropical  familie«i ,  a  considerable  decrease  of  the  peculiar 


Past  n. 

f"""P('rtion  of 

J"'"y  in  ench 
r'""**  partici). 

J-vetc/ies  are 

Jo  temjKTiitp 
[''«  stipule., 
W\  to  wliici, 
Jplunfa  p,«. 
■''■efrions. 

'  'no  eouth 


fir  that  cer. 
^'fnt  omi. 
cJinintes. 
°  n  certnin 
can  devote 
'ith  pivinn 
ty  of  Asia, 
rcfrion; 
'n  districts 
3.  AW>e. 
tcrrarifan 
's  side  the 
'ess  conti- 
n  Kurope, 
i</««,  with 
Cape  of 
^"f>in,  and 
siffJibour- 

imprira. 
Hi.    19. 


BooKin. 


IN  IT8  RELATION  TO  BOTANY. 


301 


in  other 
OiSrapliy 
1  of  til9 
)e  Can- 
5f  their 
t  n  cer- 
laintcd 
tic  fi>a. 
should 
belonn- 
other 
cidiml 
lover- 
)ecies 


V)nds 
rele; 

part 
Hich 

the 
luch 
sses 


liar 


forinH  of  the  tomporate  zone;  by  the  tbroHta  of  beech  orjir,  or  oUe  tlie  total  want  of  trees; 
the  scarcity  of  anitiiuls,  and  the  provaUmce  of  caiHpitoM)  plants,  whosu  bloMboms  aiu  lurj^e  in 
mopurtion,  and  (foiiorally  of  a  pale  colour. 

(2.)  Rtgion  of  the  Vmbell\feroui  and  Cructferoug  plants. — Thin  tribe  takoH  in  the  whole 
of  Europe,  except  what ;  jlon(|fB  to  the  proccdin^f  diviwion,  from  tho  Pyrencen,  the  niountiiins 
of  tho  Honth  of  France,  of  Switzerland,  and  the  north  of  Greece,  the  groutor  jMirt  of  Hiberia, 
and  the  country  about  Mount  Caucasus.  Schouw  has  characterized  it  by  the  truc\firout 
and  umbellifernuii  plants,  because  ttiey  form  a  larger  portion  of  the  total  number  than  any 
otiicr  kinds,  and  because  it  may  thus  be  best  separated  from  tho  ve(;etation  of  North  America 
in  tiie  same  parallel.  It  is  not  easily  distinguished  from  the  next  region ;  but  it  may  be  said 
of  it,  that  Fun/fi  abound  more,  that  the  Romceous  family  and  the  Croi/)/«o<»(Ranunculacca!), 
tiie  Amentaceous  and  Coniferous  tribes  (i'ines),  fonn  rather  a  large  proportion ;  that  it  bears 
a  resemblance  to  many  of  tho  polar  ibrms,  especially  in  tho  abundance  of  its  Si(If(es  (('ype- 
roceaO;  that  its  meadows  are  most  flourishing,  and  that  almost  all  tlio  trees  are  dcciduouH  in 
winter.  In  the  northern  part  of  this  region,  tho  Cichoracea  (a  tribe  of  the  ComiKJwitie  or 
syngcnesious  plants,  including  the  Endive,  Lrltuce,  Dandelion,  &.c.)  much  prevail ;  vviiile 
in  it^  southern  division,  or  in  northern  Asia,  the  Cynarocephala  (Artichoke  and  Thistle 
tribes),  together  with  the  Butter-vetches  (Astragali),  and  Saline  plants  (Sea-worts  and  Glass- 
worts),  seem  to  have  their  maximum. 

(3.)  Reffion  of  the  Labiate  flowers  and  Caryophijllca  (to  which  tho  Pink,  the  Catchjhj, 
the  Sandworts,  &.c.  belong);  or  the  Mediterranean  Flora. — This  is  bounded  on  tho  norlii  by 
the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps  of  Switzerland  and  of  tlif  Houth  of  France,  and  the  north  of  Greece, 
and  thus  includes  the  three  peninsulas  of  southern  Europe,  namely,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Greece ; 
on  the  east  by  Asia  Minor  and  its  islands ;  on  the  south  it  takes  in  Egypt  and  all  the  north 
of  Africa  aa  far  as  the  deserts;  and,  lastly,  it  includes  tho  Canary  Islands,  Madeira,  and  tlio 
Azores.  It  is  marked  especially  by  the  two  families  above  mentioned,  which  are  much  rarer 
both  to  the  north  and  south  of  tho  countries  just  enumerated,  and  in  the  corresponding 
parallels  in  Nortii  America.  The  Composita,  the  Stellaia  {Goosegrass,  Madder,  &.c.),  and 
the  rough-leaved  plants  {Asper\foU<e),  are  here  in  considerable  numbers,  as  well  as  in  tiie 
similar  latitudes.  A  few  tropical  plants,  or  individuals  allied  to  them,  now  appear ;  one  or 
two  Palms,  the  Laurels,  the  Arum  tribe,  the  Tcrehinthacea  (Pistacia,  &c.),  some  tropical 
grasses  and  true  Cyperacea.  Nightshades  (Solanea;),  Legutninons  plants,  the  Mullinv  and 
Nettle  tribes,  and  the  Spurges  (Euphorbiacete),  increase ;  Evergreens  are  numerous ;  vc(>e- 
tation  never  entirely  ceases,  but  verdant  meadows  are  more  rare.  Tliis  region  may  be  kiiI)- 
divided  into  provincea:  of  the  Cisti,  Spain  and  Portugal;  of  the  Sage  and  Scabious,  the 
south  of  France,  Italy,  and  Sicily;  of  the  shrubby  LubiattB,  the  Levant,  Greece,  Asia  Minor, 
and  the  southern  part  of  the  Caucasian  country ;  and  of  Ilouseleeks  (Semperviva),  the  Caiinry 
Isles,  probably  also  tho  Azores,  Madeira,  and  the  north-west  coast  of  Africa.  Many  Sim- 
pcrvivtB,  some  succulent  plants.  Spurges  and  Cacaliie,  characterise  especially  this  proviiiee. 

(4.)  The  Japanese  region. — The  eastern  temperate  part  of  the  old  continent,  iiiiincly, 
Japan,  the  north  of  China,  and  Chinese  Tartary,  probably  forms  a  peculiar  region ;  but  wo  are 
too  little  acquainted  with  tlie  botany  of  these  countries  to  admit  it  with  certainty,  and  ntill 
less  are  wo  able  to  define  correctly  the  characteristics  of  its  Flora.  Of  the  358  genera  fnimd 
in  Japan,  270  occur  in  Europe  and  the  north  of  Africa,  and  about  the  same  number  in  North 
America;  so  that  its  Flora  seems  to  occupy  a  middle  place  between  those  of  the  old  and  new 
worlds.  Its  vegetation,  indeed,  approaches  more  t.<  the  tropical  than  to  the  European ;  tor 
we  meet  with  the  Cycas  family,  the  ScitaminfO'.  (to  which  belong  the  Ginger,  Cardamom, 
&c.),  the  Bananas,  the  Palms,  the  Anonee  or  Custard-apples,  and  the  Sapindacea ;  so  that 
there  is  a  considerable  affinity,  as  might  be  expected  from  its  situation,  to  the  flora  of  India. 
The  f  imilies  of  the  Buckthorns  (Rhamni)  and  Honeysuckles  are  found  in  a  relatively  con- 
siderable number,  and  they  exhibit  some  peculiar  genera ;  thus,  perhaps,  this  region  mij^ht 
be  correctly  termed  that  of  the  Rhamni  and  the  Caprifoliacca;. 

(5.)  Region  of  the  Asters  and  Solidagos  (Michaelmas-daisies  and  golden-rods.) — The 
eastern  part  of  North  America,  with  the  exception  of  such  as  belongs  to  the  first  or  nrrtic 
district,  comprehends  without  doubt  two  regions;  for  amongst  417  genera  in  Walter's  Flora 
of  Carolina,  117  are  wanting  in  Barton's  Flora  of  Piiiladelphia.  The  northern  divisions  of 
t.ie  United  States  have,  indeed,  but  few  genera  which  do  not  occur  also  in  the  southern  ;  hut 
this  only  shows  that  a  similar  relation  exists  here  to  what  takes  place  between  the  nortli  and 
south  of  Europe.  The  southern  region  will  include  Florida,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississipj)!, 
Louisiana,  and  Carolina;  the  northern  contains  the  other  states  of  North  America.  What 
characterises  this  region  is  {besides  the  number  of  species  of  the  genera  Aster  and  SoUdtigo), 
the  great  variety  of  Oaks  and  Firs ;  the  very  few  Cruciferee  and  Umhellifera,  Cichorance 
and  Cynarocephala;  the  total  absence  of  the  genus  Erica,  and  the  presence  of  more  luime- 
rous  species  of  the  allied  family  of  Vaccinium  (Whortleberries)  than  are  to  be  met  witli  in 
Europe. 

(6.)  Region  of  Magnolice. — This,  which  comprises  the  southern  parts  of  North  America, 
in  "'eparated  trom  the  preceding  region  by  the  number  of  tropical  forms  which  here  appwart 


«u 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Paot  n. 


and  which  ihow  themtelvea  mora  tVc<iuontly  than  on  the  iiimilarparallnliiof  theold  continont 
(Much,  tor  indtanc'N  oa  the  ISntamin»ta,  Cycadea,  Atumacete,  Safnndacea;,  Mrlnntntnea, 
Cadi,  &.C.)  From  tho  old  world,  too,  in  corrospondin^f  latitudes,  it  ia  atill  flirther  dintin* 
ffiii»lied  by  a  anialler  proportion  of  Labiata  and  Caryophylletp  ;  and  bv  having  inoro  trttoi  uf 
ortHul-Hliiiiing  tbliago  and  upluiidid  blo8iw>inH,  (the  MnunoliM,  Uic  I'Htlip-trep,  tho  7/orie- 
chvsinut,  iic.)  and  with  piiwmtod  leaves  (the  (Jledilscnia:,  Robinite,  Acaciw,  Sic.) 

(7.)  Reffion  (\f  the  Cacti,  Pejtwra,  and  Mrlantomaa ;  a  very  extensive  region,  incluiling 
tho  lower  district**  of  Mexico,  Guutoniulii,  tho  Went  Indies,  New  Grenada,  Vencziiplu, 
(iiiiuna,  and  Peru,  perhapei  alwu,  u  part  of  Brazil ;  in  abort,  all  intertropical  America.  The 
throe  families  hero  mentioned  appear  ixiculiarly  to  characterise  these  countries ;  tor  the  tint 
belongs  oxclusively  to  Aiii'-rica,  and  of  the  other  two  there  exist  comparatively  few  species 
Hit  III  those  districts.  Falinn,  the  Rubiacea,  tho  Snlanea:,  (in  which  arc  classed  the  Sliffht. 
ikades  and  Potatoe),  the  rough-leaved  plants  (Boragincte),  the  Panaion-Jloweri  and  Comjto. 
$ito',  are  here  very  common.  It  may  anmit  of  several  provinces,  as  that  of  the  Ferni  und 
ihchidea  (in  tho  West  India  islands);  of  the  Palms  (tho  continent  of  South  America.) 
Drazil  ought  certainly  to  constitute  a  peculiar  province,  if  indeed  it  bo  not  a  distinct  region; 
and  the  works  of  Spix  and  Martius,  St.  Ililaire,  tho  Prince  dc  Neuwicd,  &c.,  will  soon  enable 
us  to  characterise  its  vegetable  forms.  Tho  Melastoma  and  Palms  appear  to  belong  to  the 
mure  numerous  inmates  of  this  region. 

(H.)  Reffion  of  the  Cinchona:  (or  Medicinal  Barks.) — It  appenra  from  Humboldt's  works 
tliat  tho  middle  districts  (such  at  least  in  respect  to  their  altitude)  of  South  America  should 
form  a  distinct  region  tWnn  thut  lost  mentioned,  ns  they  ditFrr  (■(Uisiderubly  from  the  low 
laiula;  and  the  name  now  projxjsed  seems  to  be  characteristic  of  ihoir  vegetation,  at  leusl  of 
Peru  and  New  Grenada,  though  certainly  not  of  Mexico,  where  ilio  species  (.fC»'ncAon«  are 
wanting. 

(9.)  Region  of  Escallonia,  Vaccinia  (Whortleberries),  and  Winterw-  (Winter's  Barks). 
— These,  according  to  Humlx)ldt,  occupy  the  highest  parts  of  South  America.  BcKides  the 
plaiitH  mentioned,  thoro  belong  to  this  region  many  sptscies  of  Lobelia,  Gentian,  Slijiptr- 
toort  {(Udceolaria),  Sage,  several  Kuropean  genera  of  Gra.infs,  liromc,  Featucn  and  I'au, 
tho  Cichoracea,  as  Hypocharis  and  Apargia;  as  well  as  tho  more  strictly  speaking,'  alpine 
plants  (Saxifrages,  Whitlow-grasses,  Sandworts,  and  Sedges.)  Perhaps  aluo  those  parts 
of  the  high  lands  where  tho  species  of  Oak  and  Fir  flourish  belong  to  the  same  region,  tlicugh 
in  all  probability  they  constitute  a  peculiar  province. 

(10.)  Chilian  region. — It  appears  that  Chili  should  form  a  distinct  region ;  for  amongst 
the  genera  which  appear  there,  not  one  half  are  found  in  the  low  districts  of  Soutli  Anioricu. 
Its  character,  perhajis,  most  resembles  that  of  the  mountainous  country  in  its  Slijipi  rwnrtg, 
Escallonia,  Weinmannia,  Baa,  Belljlowers,  and  Buddlea ;  but  yet  the  ditlbrt'iico  is 
scarcely  sufficient  to  constitute  it  a  province.  The  Flora  of  this  country  appears  to  be  essen- 
tially distinct  from  that  of  New  Holland,  the  Cape,  and  New  Zealand;  thougli  an  approiicli 
to  them  is  observable  in  Goodenia,  Araucaria  (Chilian  pine,)  tho  Protea  family,  Gunnera, 
and  Ancistrum. 

(11.)  Region  of  arborescent  Composita  (syngenesious  plants  with  tree-like  stems.) — 
This  takes  in  Buenos  Ayres,  and  in- general  tlie  eastern  side  of  the  temperate  part  of  South 
America.  It  has  been  already  remarked,  that  the  Flora  of  this  district  of  the  world  agrees 
to  a  considerable  degree  with  that  of  Europe ;  amongst  109  genera,  70  are  likewise  European, 
and  85  in  the  north  temperate  zone.  On  the  other  hand,  it  differs  considerably  from  the 
Floras  of  the  Cape  and  of  New  Holland,  for  the  Proteas,  the  Myrtle  tribe,  and  the  Mimosas 
are  either  wholly  wanting,  or  are  seen  but  sparingly ;  and  there  arc  no  Epacrida,  Heaths, 
Iridea,  Mesembryanthema,  or  Geraniums.  Nor  can  it  bo  compared  vvitli  the  Flora  of  the 
north-west  coast  of  America ;  for  amongst  189  genera  mentioned,  only  35  are  found  in  Chili. 
The  characteristics  of  this  region  seem  to  lie  in  the  great  number  of  Arborescent  Syngencsia, 
(pjirticularly  of  the  sub-family  Boopidea),  which,  however,  do  not  exclusively  appertain  to 
it   but  are  also  seen  at  the  Cape. 

(12.)  Antarctic  region. — This  includes  the  countries  near  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  There 
is  a  considerable  affinity  between  the  vegetation  here  and  what  is  seen  in  the  north  temperate 
zone ;  for,  amongst  82  known  genera  from  thence,  there  are  59  of  them  which  have  species 
in  the  northern  hemisphere.  The  arctic  polar  forms  also  appear,  such  as  Sedges  (Carices), 
Saxifrages,  Gentians,  Arbutus,  ond  Primroses.  Some  resemblance  to  the  highlands  of 
South  America  and  to  Chili  is  also  shown  in  the  Slipperworts,  Ourisia,  Baa,  Bolax,  Win- 
tern,  Escallonia ;  to  the  Cape,  in  the  genera  Gladiolus,  Witsenia,  Gunnera,  Ancistrum, 
Oxafrs ;  and  to  New  Holland,  in  Proteacea  and  Mniarum, 

(IJ?.)  Region  of  New  Zealand. — This  well  deserves  to  be  characterised  as  a  separate 
region,  although  its  vegetation  be  a  mi.\ture  of  what  prevails  on  the  nearest  onntinentH,  as 
South  America,  Southern  Africa,  and  New  Holland.  It  has,  in  common  with  South  Ame- 
rica, Ancistrum,  Weinmannia,  Wintrra ;  with  Southern  Africa,  the  Fig  Marigolds,  Giia- 
phaliinn  Xerauthrma  (Everla.stings),  Tetragonin  (the  famous  New  Zealand  Spinach),  Wund- 
aorrel,  and  Passerina ;  and  with  New  Holland,  the  Epacris,  Melaleuca,  Myoporum ;  with 


Book  HI. 


IN  ITS  RRLATION  TO  BOTANY. 


'■'«  narks). 
^t-'isidcH  the 

and  Pna, 

■'"l^'iilpiiio 
tJioso  j)arfg 
on,  thcu^rh 

"■  among'st 
'  AiiifiriL-a. 
'Wriimrtg, 
'eroncu  is 
'  te  e8.spn> 
ipproi.cji 
(junntra, 

stems.) — 
of  South 
Id  agrees 
luropean, 
from  the 
'yiimo.sas 
Heaths, 
a  of  the 
in  Ciiili. 
'fnesia, 
Ttain  to 

There 
iperate 
species 
U'icosJ, 
nds  of 

Win. 
ftrum, 

parate 

)tu       1113 
**■  J     M... 

A  me- 

(rnu- 

Vimd. 

V'ith 


botli  the  Utter,  the  fliinilica  of  Prntf.acea  and  RmtMcea:  Moriio  iipecii'M  alfoi  nrn  coinir.nii 
Iwth  to  N''\^'  II<'ll"i"<l  't'"l  Van  Dumiiimi'm  liiiul,  for  iimtunco  Mniarum  hijlitrum,  Suinoliig  lit- 
l(truli»,  (tfniiana  montuna ;  the  (irMt  aliM)  ii  native  of  the  Htmit«  of  Mutfellan. 

(14.)  Reffion  qf  Epacridet  and  Eucalypti:  cnmprohendinff  the  teniperulo  [xirtfi  of  Nt'W 
Holland,  tof^ether  witli  Van  Uiemen'ii  Land. — Ttiia  re^on  la  very  markud.  The  tamilion  uf 
Stackhouiea  and  Tremandrea  are  quite  peculiar  to  New  Holland,  ttio  Evacridca  nearly  ra. 
proteacca,  AcacitB,  Aphylla,  and  the  greater  number  of  the  Myr(/etiiniily(eit()ccially  of  the 
giMiurii  Eucalyptus,  ijeptofpvrmum,  Melaleuca):  the  Stylidea,  Retliacia;,  (Jatuarinea, 
iHomnea,  iteparato  it  from  other  reifions.  The  tropical  part  of  Now  Ilollnnd,  accnrdin);  to 
Uruwii,  can  hardly  bo  united  to  tliiH,  but  muat  be  either  a  particular  region,  wlioae  Fh)ra 
ro8etiil)leti  that  of  India,  or  else  a  province  of  this  latter  region. 

(If).)  Region  nf  EiffMarigoldn  (Mcaombryanthema)  anil  Stapelia$. — Thia  comprehendf 
the  Hodthem  extremity  of  AtVicn,  the  Flora  of  which  is  diBtinguished  by  a  high  degree  of 
[X'culiarity.  By  the  foniilieg  Proteacea,  Reatiacea,  Polyualte  (Nlilkworta),  Diotmea,  it  may 
be  recognised  from  moet  others,  except  New  Holland,  and  from  this  it  ia  distinguished  by  the 
two  numerous  genera  Metemhryanlhemum  and  Stapelia,  ami  by  the  ikmily  Ericeai,  which 
is  here  more  abundant  than  anywhere  else.  Further  cjiaracfi  ristics  of  this  region  mny  be 
found  in  the  many  Irideo),  Gerania,  Oxalidea,  and  the  extremely  largo  proportion  of  Com- 
pittitee.  On  the  other  hand,  there  exist  in  this  district,  as  in  New  Hollan<l,  but  very  sporii^gly, 
tliuBe  peculiar  forms  of  the  northern  temperate  zones,  the  Crucifera,  Ranunculacea,  Roso' 
cetp,  Vmhell\^er<e,  Caryophyllea. 

(IG.)  Region  nf  Wegtern  A^frica. — We  are  only  acquainted  with  Guinea  and  Congo,  the 
vef^ctation  of  which,  a^  wo  have  already  remarkeu,  possesses  but  few  pccuiiaritius,  and  is  a 
mixture  of  the  Floras  of  Asia  and  America,  though  most  resembling  the  forme  The  An;"- 
rican  tropical  families  of  Cacti,  Peppem,  Palmn,  Pastion-flowerB,  ore  cither  absent  entir  : ;/, 
or  they  occur  in  small  numbers,  Leguminota  are  more  numerous  than  in  America.  At  ve 
two  thirds  of  the  genera  and  some  of  the  species  of  Guinea  are  found  also  in  th  ^  ist 
Indies.  On  the  other  hand,  this  region  approximates  t'  America,  in  posseting  man)  Ru' 
hiacea,  as  also  in  the  genera  Schwenkia,  Elais  (a  palm),  Pnullinia,  Malpi,  i>r.  .  und  several 
mure  which  are  wanting  in  Asia,  and  in  several  species  which  it  has  in  rm  inor  with  Ame- 
rica. A  considerable  proportion  of  Oranses  and  Sedges  (Cypcraceee),  with  the  peculiar  gonuf 
Adansonia  (the  Baobab,  which  is  the  largest  known  tree  in  the  world),  belong  to  the  char- 
acteristics of  this  country.     The  interior  of  Africa  is  unknown  to  us. 

(17.)  Region  of  Eastern  Africa. — Of  the  coast  of  this  side  of  Africa  and  the  adjacent 
islands  our  knowledge  is  imperfect.  We  arc  tolerably  acquainted  with  the  islands  of  Bour- 
bon and  France ;  of  Madagascar  we  know  but  little ;  and  of  the  east  coast  itself  scarcely 
anything.  The  Flora  of  the  two  first-named  islands  has  a  considerable  re:  emblance  to  tlm* 
of  India.  Amongst  290  known  genera,  196  of  them  (equal  to  two  thirds)  are  found  also  in 
India;  and  of  the  species,  not  a  few  are  likewiHi;  Indian;  many  of  these,  however,  may  have 
been  introduced  by  the  constant  intercourse  that  takes  place  between  these  two  parts  of  the 
globe.  The  genera  Eugenia,  Ficus  (fig),  Urtica  (nettle).  Euphorbia  (spurge),  Hedysarum, 
Panicnm,  Andropogon,  Sida,  Pandanus  (screw-pine),  Dracesna  (dragon-wood),  Conijza 
are  very  numerous  in  species,  as  are  the  same  genera  in  India.  In  ferns,  these  islands  are 
peculiarly  rich.  Again,  their  flora  differs  considerably  fr  •  the  South  African;  an  anali)gy 
existing,  however,  in  their  possessing  single  representati-T'^  (jr  he  Capo  genera  Erica,  Ixia, 
Gladiolus,  Bleria,  Mesemliryanthemum,  Seriphium,  ana  s  vnral  arborescent  Syngenesia;. 
Still  less  is  the  affinity  to  the  extra-tropical  parts  of  New  Holland.  The  similarity  is 
stronger  to  the  tropical  portion  of  that  country,  of  which  the  flora  also  approaches  that  of 
India.  Single  genera  are  all  that  it  seems  to  possesf-  in  common  with  America;  for  instance, 
Melicocca,  Ruizin,  Dodonma,  Dichondra.  The  following  are,  perhaps,  peculiar  to  this 
region,  Latania,  Hubertia,  Poupartia,  Tristemma,  Fissilia,  Cordylina,  Assonia,  Femalia, 
Luhinia,  and  others.  The  flora  of  Madagascar  seems  very  oeculiar.  It  agrees  with  the 
islands  last  mentioned ;  and  several  genera  are  seen  nowhere  else  than  in  them  and  Mada- 
gascar ;  for  example,  Danais,  Ambora,  Dombeya,  Dufourea,  Didymomeles,  Senacea ;  several 
species  also  are  common  to  both ;  as  Didymomeles  Madagascariensis,  Danais  fragrans, 
Cinchona  Afro-inda,  Still,  among  the  161  known  genera  from  Madagascar,  54  only  are 
found  in  the  Isles  of  France  and  Bourbon ;  so  that  there  might  be  good  grounds  for  forming 
a  separate  region  of  the  first ;  unless,  perhaps,  the  east  coast  of  Africa  should  come  under 
the  same.  With  New  Holland  and  the  Cape,  Madngascar  has  probably  still  less  in  common 
than  the  two  other  islands. 

(18.)  Scitnminean  region  (of  the  Thirmeric,  Zedocry,  Cardamom,  Indian-shot,  &c.),  or 
the  Indian  Flora. — To  this  appertain  India,  east  and  west  of  the  Ganges,  together  with  the 
islands  between  India  and  New  Holland ;  perhaps,  also,  that  division  of  New  Holland  which 
falls  within  the  tropics.  Tiie  Scitaminas  are  here  in  far  greater  numbers  than  in  America ; 
also,  though  to  a  less  degree,  the  Leguminoste,  Cucurbitacea,  TiliacexB.  The  previously 
mentioned  South  American  forms  are  rare,  or  else  wantbg.  This  region  should  be  separated 

Vol,  I.  22 


254 


SCI  JNCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  II. 


into  several  provinces ;  but  as  yet  we  know  too  little  to  undertake  such  a  division  with  any 
de<jreo  of  certainty. 

(19.)  The  Indian  highlands  ought  to  form  one  or  perhaps  two  regions,  their  vegetation 
being  very  dissimilar  to  that  of  the  lowlands :  in  the  middle  region,  Melastoma,  Orchidea 
am)  Filices,  appear  to  prevail ;  in  the  higher,  the  vegetation  is  more  like  the  European  and 
Norti)  Asiatic,  and  probably  the  Japanese :  these  districts  perhaps  constitute  one  region  witli 
the  whole  of  Central  Asia;  but  of  all  these  countries  we  shall  know  much  more  when  the 
Flora  of  India  by  Pxjxburgh  and  Wallich  is  completed. 

(20.)  3'Ae  Flora  of  the  Sottth  of  China  and  of  Cochinchina  partly  resembles  that  of  India, 
especially  in  regard  to  families ;  but  still  Loureiro's  Flora  contains  a  great  many  peculiar 
genera.  It  is  true  that  perhaps  the  number  of  these  genera  might  be  reduced ;  but  even 
then,  the  vegetation  of  this  tract  will  probably  prove  sufficiently  peculiar  to  constitute  a 
distinct  region. 

(21.)  The  region  of  the  Cassia  and  Mimosa,  which  prevail  particularly  in  Arabia  and 
Persia,  seems  likewise  to  have  a  good  right  to  be  separated  from  India,  as  it  is  already 
sulKciently  distinct  from  the  Mediterranean  region  (No,  3.) ;  for,  of  281  genera  mentioned 
by  Forskal,  109  only  are  found  in  the  south  of  Europe.  It  is  more  probable  that  the  Flora 
of  Nubia  and  part  of  Central  Africa  appertains  to  this  region.  Abyssinia  perhaps  forms  a 
•distinct  region,  its  elevated  parts  possessing  such  a  different  climate. 

(22.)  The  islands  in  the  South  Sea  vhich  lie  within  the  tropics  form  perhaps  a  separate 
region ;  though  with  but  a  slender  degree  of  peculiarity.  Among  214  genera,  173  are 
found  in  India;  most  of  the  remainder  are  in  common  with  America;  for  instance,  Ohio- 
cocca,  Weinmannia.  Guajacum.  Of  the  species  which  exist  equally  in  them  and  Asia,  are 
Zapunia  uodijlora,  KylUngia  monocephala,  Fimhristylis  dichotoma,  Tournefortia  argentea, 
Plumbago  zeylanica,  Morinda  umbellata,  Sophora  tomentosa.  In  common  with  America, 
Dodonaa  viscosa,  Sapindus  saponaria  (soap-berry) :  with  both  Rhizophora  Mangle  (man- 
grove tree) :  it  has  also  some  in  common  witli  New  Holland,  as  Daphne  indica  (a  species 
of  Spurge  Laurel).  Peculiar  families,  or  such  as  have  there  a  decided  maximum,  can 
scarcely  be  cited ;  though,  on  the  other  hand,  most  of  the  species  are  peculiar.  The  Bread- 
fruit is  among  the  characteristics  of  these  islands ;  though  this  tree  is  not  confined  to  the 
South  Seas. 

The  limit  of  the  present  essay  does  not  allow  of  the  intended  introduction  of  the  geo- 
graphical situation  of  many  of  the  more  useful  and  important  plants,  which  Professor  Schouv' 
has  so  ably  delineated ;  such  as  that  of  the  Beech,  the  Vine,  the  FH.r  tribes,  the  Heaths, 
Com,  and  such  fruits  or  vegetables  as  are  employed  as  bread :  the  Palms,  the  Proteaca, 
whicii  tbrm  so  remarkably  striking  a  feature  in  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  in  New  Holland ; 
the  Composita,  which  are  perhaps  more  universally  diffused  than  any  other  kind  of  plant ; 
the  Cruciferce,  to  which  the  Cabbage,  Turnip,  Mustard,  Scurvy-grass,  &c.  appertain ; 
and  the  lep,uminous  tribes,  whose  seeds  (as  the  Pea  and  Bean)  are  so  valuable  for  man, 
and  whose  foliage,  as  the  Lupine  and  Trefoil,  &c.  affords  most  of  the  nourishment  to  cattle. 
We  must  endeavour  to  incorporate  these  with  the  vegeti>,tion  of  the  various  regions  where 
they  are  found  in  the  greatest  abundance. 


li' 


CHAPTER  II. 

GEOGRAPHY  CONSIDERED  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  DISTRIBUtlON  OP  MAN  AND  ANIMALS. 

The  geographic  distribution  of  animated  beings  is  a  branch  of  natural  history  which  only 
of  late  years  has  engaged  the  attention  of  philosophers.  The  celebrated  Blumenbach  was 
the  first,  we  believe,  who  generalized  the  numerous  fects  connected  with  the  physiology  of 
man,  and  proved  that  all  the  varieties  may  be  referred  to  certain  types  of  form,  equally 
distinct  in  their  physical  structure  and  in  their  geographic  distribution.  But  whether  from 
prejudice,  or  from  the  varied  and  comprehensive  sphere  of  zoology,  wiiich  renders  the  subject 
too  vast  for  the  power  of  any  one  mind,  certain  it  is  that  animal  geography  has  been  almost 
neglected.  Isolated  details,  relative  to  particular  countries,  classes,  or  families,  have  been  suc- 
cessfully investigated ;  but  no  one  has  yet  attempted  to  generalize  these  materials,  and  use  them 
towards  the  discovery  of  the  laws  of  creation.  An  attempt  to  ascertain  the  range  of  par- 
ticular species  simply  within  a  certain  district  or  kingdom,  is  merely  an  inquiry  into  their 
local  distribution ;  but  if  our  views  are  extended  beyond  such  confines,  and  we  embrace  a 
large  portion  of  the  globe,  tracing  the  relations  of  its  animals,  with  those  of  the  remaining 
portions,  it  is  then  only  that  we  enter  upon  the  comprehensive  subject  of  geographic  dis- 
tribution. 

The  inquiries  relative  to  physical  distribution,  when  directed  to  the  animal  world,  assume 
a  higher  importance  than  those,  however  interesting,  which  regard  plants :  for  not  only  do 
animals  appear  incalculably  more  numerous  than  vegetables,  but  their  natural  raiiare,  depen- 
dent on  a  multiplicity  of  concurrent  causes,  appears  to  be  much  more  distinctly  niarked. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN. 


J55 


Book  III. 

Plants,  indeed,  in  a  great  defjree,  are  stationaTy  beings ;  but  nature  has  wisely  provide*]  for 
their  n-nioval  and  dispersion  to  the  moat  distant  rejrions,  by  tiie  diversified  structure  or  tena- 
cious vitality  with  wnich  the  seeds  of  numerous  families  are  endowed;  hence  tlmy  become 
triins)K)ited  by  various  natural  causes  to  distant  shores,  and,  without  any  assistance  from 
liiMHiin  aid,  take  root,  flourish,  and  increase,  in  lands  far  distant  from  those  which  appear  to 
li;ivc  been  their  native  regions.  It  is  otherwise  with  animals:  they  may,  it  is  true,  be 
n'iiioved  from  their  birth-place,  and  even  become  domesticated  and  naturalized  elsewhere ; 
but,  with  the  exception  of  those  which  seem  to  have  been  originally  destined  for  the  service 
of  man,  such  naturalization  is  only  effected  by  artificial  means,  and  by  slow  degrees,  througJi 
saveral  generations.  If  such  transported  animals  be  left  to  tliemselves,  or  rather  to  the 
natural  resources  for  supporting  life  peculiar  to  their  new  abode,  they  almost  invariably  pine 
and  die.  Again,  plants,  from  being  mferior  to  animals  in  the  complexity  of  their  structure, 
are,  perhaps,  necessarily  dependent  on  fewer  causes  for  retaining  the  vital  energy ;  their 
dispersion  is,  consequently,  upon  the  whole,  much  more  extensive.  It  may  be  mentioned, 
in  support  of  this  remark,  that  out  of  600  plants  discovered  in  tropical  Africa  by  Professor 
Smith,  one-twelfth  have  been  ascertained,  by  Robert  Brown,  to  be  natives  also  of  India  and 
South  America.  Now,  if  either  the  vertebrated  or  invertebrated  animals,  not  aquatic,  of 
Western  Africa,  were  compared  in  a  similar  way  with  those  of  the  parallel  latitudes  in 
America  and  India,  the  proportion  LMlloctively  would  hardly  amount  to  one  in  a  hundred: 
indeed,  with  regard  to  the  vertebrated  orders,  it  is  very  questionable  whether  even  one  spe- 
cies is  truly  indigenous  to  tropical  Africa  and  to  America ;  so  totally  diflerent  are  the  zoolo- 
gical features  of  these  continents,  even  at  their  nearest  approximation :  and  yet,  in  the 
alwve  number  of  plants,  no  less  than  twenty-two  species  are  enumerated,  as  common  to  equi- 
noctial Africa,  India,  and  America.  These  facts,  while  they  strengthen  the  belief  that 
zoolojry  is  a  more  favourable  field  than  botany  for  discovermg  the  laws  of  natural  distribu- 
tion, lead  us  to  consider  the  modes  by  which  such  inquiries  are  most  beneficially  prosecuted. 

Sect.  I. — Modes  of  investigating  the  Subject. 

The  powerful  eflfect  produced  on  animals  by  temperature,  food,  and  locality,  are  known  to 
all :  whether  as  regards  the  range  of  any  particular  species,  or  the  numbers  of  which  it  may 
bo  composed.  The  effect  of  these  agencies  is  indeed  so  great,  that  some  writers  have  looked 
upon  tlieni  as  primary  causes,  and  have  imagined  that  by  such  laws  alone  has  nature  regu- 
lated the  distribution  of  the  whole  animal  creation.  Very  many  instances,  no  doubt,  from 
among  the  diversities  of  animal  structure,  may  be  urged  in  support  of  this  theory ;  but  ]iow 
far  it  can  be  reconciled  with  other  and  more  general  facts,  which  will  be  apparent  on  a 
wider  view  of  the  subject,  we  shall  hereafter  mvestigate.  It  is  clear  that,  by  whatever 
laws  Nature  may  have  been  guided,  numerous  exceptions  will  be  found,  proportionate  to  the 
vast  and  almost  infinite  variety  she  has  displayed  in  her  productions.  There  is,  perhaps,  no 
theory  professing  to  explain  the  laws  of  Nature,  whether  on  animal  distribution  or  natural 
affinities,  which  the  wit  of  man  could  possibly  devise,  that  might  not  be  supported  with  great 
plausibility,  by  certain  facts,  presented  by  those  radiating  threads  of  connexion,  and  those 
apparent  deviations  from  her  general  laws,  which  are  everywhere  apparent :  yet  these  will 
fi-equenlly  be  opposed  to  other  facts ;  and  thus  it  becomes  necessary,  before  determining  on 
which  side  the  preponderance  of  evidence  lies,  that  we  taka  as  wide  a  survey  of  the  general 
distribution  of  animals  as  the  existing  state  of  knowledge  will  admit.  To  set  out  with  the 
belief  that  the  laws  of  geographic  distribution  are  fnlly  ascertained,  and  that  nothing  remains 
but  to  niiike  ourselves  acquainted  with  the  range  of  individual  species,  is  a  doctrine  which 
can  only  be  compared  to  those  principles  of  classification  insisted  upon  by  the  methodists  of 
the  last  age  in  natural  history,  who  considered  that  all  the  generic  groups  had  been  discovered, 
and  that  future  naturalists  had  nothing  left  but  to  appropriate  to  them  the  newly  discovered 
species,  in  the  best  manner  they  could. 

Towards  the  discovery  of  the  natural  geography  of  animals  there  is,  however,  another 
mode  of  investigation,  analogous  to  what  we  now  pursue,  in  searching  after  the  true  series 
of  their  affinities :  this  is,  to  lay  aside  all  preconceived  theories,  and  to  begin  with  considering 
the  primary  causes  of  geographic  distribution  to  be,  what  in  truth  they  really  are,  totally 
unknown.  We  are  thus  compelled  to  take  a  general  survey  of  all  the  existing  animals  yet 
discovered,  and  now  dispersed  over  the  globe ;  and,  from  the  facts  so  elicited,  endeavour  to 
attain  such  froncral  inferences  as  arc  supported  by  a  prepondernnce  of  evidence,  furnished 
i)y  naturi!  horsnlf.  By  the  first  method,  as  it  has  been  truly  said,  we  make  nature  bend  to 
mir  own  arbitrary  theories;  while  by  the  second  we  humbly  endeavour  to  receive  her 
instructions ;  striving  to  cbtn  in  a  glimpse  of  that  stupendous  plan  which  can  never  be  fully 
understood  by  fallible  and  imperfect  mortals. 

The  geographic  distribution  of  man  is  connected  in  our  survey  with  that  of  animals ;  not 
so  much  in  compliance  with  the  popular  notion,  by  which  tlis  noblest  work  of  God  is  classed 
as  a  genus  next  to  the  brute,  but  because  we  may  fiiirly  presume,  from  the  great  diversity 


250 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pari  11. 


observed  among  the  human  soociea,  that  their  variation  and  dispersion  is  regulated  by  some 
{reiieral  plan;  and  tii;it  such  plan  may  be  analojjous  to  that  which  is  apparent  in  tht?  distri- 
bution  of  animals.  It  may  be  urged,  indeed,  that  such  a  remarkable  coincidence,  if  provil, 
might  tend  to  sanction  the  modern  theory  of  classing  man  and  brutes  together ;  but  the  only 
legitimate  construction  which  we  think  could  be  feirly  drawn  from  such  a  fiict  would  be, 
that  there  is  but  one  plan  of  geographic  distribution  and  of  creation  throughout  nature. 

Against  classing  man  with  quadrupeds  wo  must  enter  our  decided  protest.  And  here  we 
carmot  refrain  from  expressing  regret  that  a  naturalist  of  no  ordinary  talent  has  recently 
adopted  this  degrading  theory,  in  apparent  opposition  to  his  former  most  just  and  philosopliic 
views  of  the  subject.  He  admits  "  the  greatness  of  the  gulf  between  man  and  the  orann 
outang ;"  yet,  because  they  possess  certain  analogies  of  physical  structure,  is  it  a  necessary 
conclusion  that  they  form  one  group  1  {lAnn.  Trans,  xvi.  1.  p.  22.)  This,  at  least,  was  not 
the  opinion  (as  this  philosopher  candidly  admits)  of  either  Aristotle  or  Ray,  whom  he  justly 
considers  the  two  greatest  zoologists  that  have  ever  existed.  It  has  been  argued  that  the 
natural  pride  of  philosophy  withheld  such  men  from  classing  themselves  with  brutes ;  but 
we  are  more  disposed  to  think  they  were  influenced  by  higher  considerations.  However 
this  may  be,  there  is  an  innate  repugnance,  or  rather  a  disgust  and  abhorrence,  in  every 
human  mind,  enlightened  or  illiterate,  against  the  admission  of  such  a  relationship.  Reve- 
lation everywhere  places  man,  even  in  his  fallen  state,  in  absolute  contrast  and  contradiction 
with  "  the  beasts  that  perish."  It  is  not  merely  a  feeling  of  pride ;  it  is  an  innate  loathing, 
engrafted  in  our  nature,  apparently  for  the  very  purpose  of  teaching  us  how  immeasurably 
far  we  are  removed  from  the  brutes  that  have  no  understanding.  Man  has  fallen,  miserably 
fallen,  but  tiii.«i  is  from  the  corruption  of  that  pure  spirit  with  which  he  was  created :  hia 
form  was  then,  as  it  is  now ;  nor  are  we  to  suppose  that  man,  as  he  came  fashioned  by  his 
Creator,  without  sin,  was  clothed  in  a  different  form  to  that  which  he  now,  in  a  sinful  state, 
exhibits.  Are  we  then  to  place  such  a  being  in  a  zoological  circle,  surrounded  with  apes 
and  baboons  ?  or  are  material  and  immaterial  natures  so  closely  allied,  that  they  may  be 
classed  together  1 

There  is  another  argument  against  iiicluding  man  in  the  zoological  circle,  furnished  by 
the  very  theory  upon  which  that  hypothesis  is  built.  If  the  circular  system  is  part  of  the 
system  of  nature,  whicii  at  this  time  of  day  is  perfectly  demonstrable,  every  being  has  two 
affinities :  by  the  one,  it  is  connected  to  that  which  precedes  it ;  by  the  other,  to  that  by 
which  it  is  succeeded.  Now,  before  we  can  bring  man  within  the  circle  of  tlie  Quadriima- 
na,  on  the  strength  of  his  affinity  (whether  near  or  remote)  to  the  orang  outang,  we  must 
show  to  what  class  of  animals  he  is  connected  on  the  other  i  and.  What  then  are  our  dou- 
ble affinities  in  the  vertebrate  circle  1  We  may  be  allied  disirn'iy,  perliaps,  to  Simia.  But 
where  is  the  second  affinity  1  If  this  cannot  be  pointed  out,  the  whole  theory,  in  our  esti- 
mation, falls  to  the  ground,  since  the  presumed  type  of  the  animal  kingdom  contradicts  the 
laws  by  which  creation  is  supposed  to  be  regulated ;  man  exhibiting  a  single  affinity,  and 
the  rest  of  organised  matter  a  double  one.  Take  him  from  the  animal  circle, — place  him 
between  matter  and  spirit ; — and  his  double  affinities  become  at  once  apparent. 

A  general  sketch  of  the  physical  peculiarities  of  man  in  all  his  variations  will  first  claim 
our  attention ;  the  regions  inhabited  by  the  different  races,  and  the  affinities  by  which  th?y 
appear  connected,  v.ill  also  be  briefly  noticed.  This  part  of  our  subject  will  be  cone',  nted 
on  a  somewhat  different  plan  from  that  which  we  shall  pursue  in  the  sequel.  The  protound 
researches  of  Blumenbach  and  Cuvier,  and  the  acute  and  patient  investigations  of  Lawrence 
n  nd  Pritchard,  have  all  conspired  to  produce  nearly  the  some  general  conclusions  on  thasn 
points  to  which  we  sli  M  particularly  draw  the  reader's  attention.  These  conclusions,  more- 
over, demand  our  fulle-st  confidence,  from  being  fo«mded  on  as  rigid  analysis  as  the  nature 
of  the  subject  will  admit.  Hence,  we  have  no  need,  in  this  place,  of  entering  into  details, 
or  of  pursuing  the  same  mode  of  investigation  to  which  we  shall  have  recourse  when  sub- 
sequently treating  of  animal  distribution. 

Sect.  II. —  Varieties  of  the  Human  Race. 

The  varieties  of  the  human  race,  according  to  the  opinion  of  the  greatest  comparative 
anatomist,  may  all  be  included  under  three  primary  divisions,  between  which,  in  their  typi- 
cal examples,  a  very  marked  difference  is  obaervecl.  These  M.  Cuvier  has  termed,  1.  the 
fair  or  Caucasian  variety ;  2.  the  yellow  or  Mongolian ;  3.  the  black  or  Ethiopian. 

The  classification  proposed  by  the  celebrated  Blumenbach,  although  apparently  different, 
is  but  a  modification  of  that  promulgated  by  Baron  Cuvier.  The  former  considers  the  Ethio- 
pian type  as  divisible  into  three,  1.  the  American;  2.  the  Negro;  and  3.  the  Malay.  The  latter 
indicates  these  additional  races,  but  considers  their  peculiarities  as  less  prominent  than  those 
of  the  two  former ;  he  does  not  therefore  admit  tlicm  among  the  primary  divisions  of  the 
human  race.  Without,  at  present,  offering  any  opinion  upon  this  question,  we  shall  first 
take  a  rapid  survey  of  the  peculiarities,  physical  and  moral,  of  all  these  groupu. 


copious,  soft 

straight  face 

urn;  narrow 

The  mora 

degree  of  p 

birth  to  the 

cised  domin 

strength.    ' 

in  modern  1 

part  of  mP! 

witnesses  a 

luctual  end 

The  orif 

that,  lofty  ( 

Lawrence 

parents;  a 

beautifully 

branches  o 

of  each  be 

orinal  seat 

Of  the  1 

over  the  g 

with  the  I 

the  povver 

donis  of  n 

includes  t 

Egyptian' 
to  the  Ea: 
Scythian 
those  wai 
finally  o\ 
habits  of 
neighhoD 
race  lose 
C2.)l 


white  ( 
flatten 
craniu 
Cauca 
degret 
degre< 
many 
a  slro 
Vo 


ted  by  some 
I"  the  (listri. 
I'l  i'"  proi'..,| 
put  the  only 
P^  would  be, 
nature, 
ind  here  we 
"as  recently 
philosophic 
1  the  oranir 

[a  necessary 
%  was  not 
he  justly 

fied  that  tlie 

[brutes;  but 
However 

!e,  in  every 

''P-  Reve'- 
>ntradiction 
_te  loathing, 
measurably 
.  miserably 
•eated:  his 
•ned  by  his 
iinful  state, 
1  with  apes 
ey  may  be 

irnished  by 
part  of  the 
ng  has  two 
I  to  that  by 
ftuadriima- 
r»  we  must 
fe  our  don- 
mia.  But 
n  our  esti- 
radicts  the 
Rnity,  and 
place  him 

irst  claim 
hich  thf>y 
!on('.:otod 
proton  nd 
-■awrence 
on  tliasn 
US,  more- 
le  nature 
details, 
hen  sub- 


parative 

sir  typi- 

1.  the 

fferent, 

Ethio- 

3  latter 

I  those 
of  the 

II  /iret 


Bi)OK  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN. 


287 


^l)  The  Caucasian  race  (J?y.  70.)  is  typically  characterised  by  a  whito  skin ,  red  oheoka, 

70 


.,:l: 


copious,  soft,  flowing  hair,  p-enerally  curled  or  v/aving;  ample  beard;  small,  oval,  and 
straight  face,  with  the  featurw  very  distinct ;  expanded  forehead ;  large  and  elevated  crani- 
um ;  narrow  nose ;  and  small  mouth. 

The  moral  feelings  and  intellectual  powers  of  this  race  have  been  developed  in  the  highest 
degree  of  perfection  which  human  nature  has  ever  exhibited.  The  Caucasian  has  given 
birth  to  the  most  civilized  nations,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  and  has  always  exer- 
cised dominion  over  the  rest  of  mankind,  when  not  opposed  by  a  vast  superiority  of  physical 
strength.  The  mighty  nations  of  antiquity,  and  the  no  less  resistless  powers  concentrated 
in  mwlern  Europe,  evince  the  superiority  of  this  race  in  all  that  ennobles  the  immaterial 
part  of  man,  and  all  that  renders  him  formidable  to  his  fellow-creatures;  while  every  age 
witnesses  a  progressive  but  a  surprising  advance  in  all  those  qualities  which  indicate  intel- 
lectual endowment. 

The  original  seat  of  the  Caucasian  race  is  supposed,  as  the  name  implies,  to  have  been 
that,  lofty  chain  of  mountains  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas.  This  supposition,  as 
Lawrence  observes,  is  in  unison  with  all  that  can  be  traced  of  the  original  abode  of  our  first 
parents ;  and  is  further  confirmed  by  the  natives  of  these  regions  being,  to  this  day,  the  most 
beautifully  formed  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth.  From  the  Caucasian  Alps  different 
branches  of  this  race  diverge  in  every  direction,  as  from  a  common  centre ;  the  peculiarities 
of  each  being  modifi  d,  altered,  and  finally  lost,  in  proportion  as  they  recede  from  the  ori- 
ginal seat  of  their  tribe. 

Of  the  branches  of  the  Caucasian  race,  the  most  powerful  is  the  Pelasgic,  which  spreads 
over  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  Western  Asia  at  its  most  northern  limits,  wli'le  it  blends 
with  the  Mongolian  race  by  means  of  the  Fins  and  Laplanders.  From  this  branch  sprang 
the  powerful  nations  of  Greece  and  Rome,  which  have  been  succeeded  by  the  mighty  king- 
doms of  modern  Europe.  The  next  is  the  Syrian,  which  takes  a  southerly  direction  ;  and 
includes  that  portion  of  Asia  formerly  inhabited  by  the  Assyrians,  Chaldeans,  and  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  "^I'he  Indian  branch,  by  some  thouijht  to  be  the  same  with  the  Pelasgic,  passes 
to  the  East,  and  loses  itself  among  the  inferior  casts  of  Hindostan.  A  fourth  branch  is  the 
Scythian  or  Tartaric,  which  spread  over  the  more  northern  parts  of  Asia ;  and  gave  birth  to 
those  wandering  and  ruthless  hordes  who,  by  the  physical  power  of  numbers,  devastated  and 
finally  overthrew  the  polished  empires  of  Greece  and  Rome.  The  wandering  and  pastoral 
habits  of  this  tribe  have  conspired  to  preserve  their  peculiarities  unmixed  with  those  of  the 
neighbouring  nations;  except,  indeed,  in  Lesser  Tartary,  where  this  branch  of  the  CaucasiaH 
race  loses  itself  in  the  Mongolian. 

(2.)  The  Mongolian  variety  (Jig.  71.)  has  these  characteristics : — The  skin,  instead  of 


white  or  fair,  is  olive  yellow :  the  hair  thin,  coarse,  and  straight ;  little  or  no  beard ;  broad 
flattened  face,  with  the  features  running  together ;  small  and  low  forehead ;  square-shaped 
cranium ;  wide  and  small  nose ;  'ery  co.ique  eyes ;  and  thick  lips.  Stature  inferior  to  the 
Caucasian.  In  this  nee  the  mora,  and  intellectual  energies  have  been  developed  in  an  inferior 
degree.  Tradition,  indeed,  has  assigned  to  the  most  powerful  nation,  the  Chinese,  a  high 
degree  of  civilization,  at  a  oeriod  when  Europe  was  in  a  state  of  barbarism.  Yet  there  are 
many  circumstances  which  throw  considerable  suspicion  on  this  fact :  and  even  if  it  be  allowed, 
a  stronger  proof  could  not  possibly  be  produced  to  show  the  iunited  intellectual  powers  of  this 
Vol,.  I.  22*  -211 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


PartH 


race ;  for  while  tlie  European  Caucasian  nations  have  advanced  from  rude  savages  to  becuiue 
masters  of  the  world,  the  Chinese,  aOer  reaching  a  certain  state  of  civilization,  iiavo  rninain. 
t:<!  stationary,  in  every  respect,  through  a  long  series  of  ages.  Solitary  exceptions  cannot 
invalidate  the  fact;  and  while  we  know  tlvit,  not  only  in  our  own  times,  but  so  far  bacit  aa 
history  informs  us,  neither  the  sciences,  tiie  inventions,  nor  the  improvements  of  the  last 
three  centuries  have  changed  the  Mongolian  nations  from  what  they  then  were,  we  can  come 
to  no  other  conclusion  than  that  they  are  nationally  incapacitated  from  fiirther  improve- 
ment. Cuvier  supposes  that  tlie  origin  of  tiie  iVlongolian  race  may  have  been  in  the  moun- 
tains  of  Altai.  From  thence  it  has  spread  over  the  whole  of  central  and  northern  Asia 
where  it  is  lost  among  tlie  Esquimau-x  on  tiie  one  band,  and  tlie  Caucasian  Tartars  on  Ihe 
utl:c''  It  further  extends  to  the  Eastern  Ocean,  and  includes  the  Japanese,  the  Coreans, 
and  a  large  portion  of  the  Siberians.  Its  limits  to  the  south  appear  to  extend  no 
farther  than  to  tiiat  part  of  Hindostan  north  of  the  Ganges,  while  the  Mongolian  fea- 
tures only  predominate  over  those  of  the  Indo-Caucosian  in  the  lower  casts  of  the  Eastern 
Peninsula. 

The  origin  of  the  Esquimaux  and  other  polaric  nations  found  on  the  most  northern  limits 
of  Europe  and  America,  has  given  rise  to  great  diversity  of  opinion.  Arguments  of  nearly 
e.,.ial  weight,  but  of  opposite  tendency,  have  been  employed  to  show,  on  the  one  hand,  tiiat 
the  Esquimaux  belong  to  the  iVmerican  variety ;  and  on  the  other,  to  prove  their  structure 
more  in  unison  with  that  of  the  Mongolian.  The  latter  opinion  has  been  supported  by  Mr, 
Lawrence ;  and  although  we  consider  the  weight  of  argument  to  be  on  this  side,  it  appears 
not  at  all  improbable  that  botli  these  suppositions  are  in  part  correct.  We  have  before 
observed,  that  the  characters  of  each  race  become  less  and  less  apparent,  the  farther  tiiey 
are  removed  from  their  particular  type.  The  proximity  of  the  northern  regions  of  Asia  to 
tliose  of  America,  renders  it  highly  probable  either  that  their  respective  hihabitants  mingled 
their  races  at  a  remote  period,  or  Uiat  the  northern  Mongolians,  whose  civilization  is  sup- 
posed to  be  of  so  great  antiquity,  were  the  first  to  emigrate,  and  people  the  northern  regions 
of  America.  At  all  events,  it  appears  certain  that  the  Esquimaux  nations  unite  in  themselves 
many  of  the  characters  of  two  distinct  races ;  and  the  only  theory  by  which  we  can  recon- 
cile these  doubts  on  their  true  origin,  is  that  of  supposing  them  to  form  the  link  of  connex- 
ion between  the  Mongolian  and  that  race  which  spreads  over  the  remaining  portion  of  the 
new  world.  The  brief  notice  we  have  now  taken  of  the  two  most  powerful  races  or  varie- 
ties of  the  human  form  is  sufficient  to  show  their  marked  superiority  over  all  others,  whether 
OS  regards  the  symmetry  or  beauty  of  their  physical  structure,  or  the  still  more  striking 
developement  of  their  moral  powers.  Hence  they  both  become  typical,  although  in  different 
degrees,  of  that  perfection  which  the  Creator  has  bestowed  upon  man,  in  this  his  probatory 
stole  of  existence. 

The  thinl  primary  division  or  leading  variety  of  the  human  race,  according  to  the  views 
of  tlie  ilhistrious  Cuvier,  is  the  negro  or  Ethiopian.  This,  again,  presents  three  variations, 
considered  by  Cuvier  as  secondary,  and  by  Blumenbach  as  primary.  Although  these  varia- 
tions are  not  so  great  as  those  bclween  either  the  Caucasian,  the  Mongolian,  or  the  African 
(the  latter  being  considered  the  type  of  the  Ethiopian  variety),  still  they  are  sufficiently  im- 
portant to  merit  a  particular  specification  under  distinct  names;  and  they  are  accordingly 
termed  the  American,  the  Ethiopian,  and  the  Malay  varieties. 

In  the  American  variety  0%.  72.)  the  skin  is  dark,  and  more  or  less  red  •  the  hair  black, 

72 


straight,  and  strong,  with  the  beard  small ;  face  and  skull  very  similar  to  the  Mongolian, 
but  the  former  not  so  flattened ;  eyes  sunk ;  forehead  low ;  the  nose  and  other  features  being 
somewhat  projecting.  The  moral  and  intellectual  character  of  this  race  is  in  unison  with 
the  groMt  difference  it  presents  in  outward  form  from  the  Caucasian.  Like  the  MongciSan, 
it  has  remained  stntionnrv ;  hilt  stopped  at  a  point 


xrnrir    miinl* 
-  •  -  J     ■ 


V.«lf 


Asiatics  have  renched.  The  ancient  and  now  extinct  empires  of  Mexico  and  the  Incas 
may  be  consi<1(Tod  nnnlngous  to  those  of  China  and  India,  exiiibiting  the  highest  point  of 
civilization  to  wiiich  the  two  races  have  ever  reached;  but  liirther  than  this  the  conipiirison 
cannot  ho  carried.     Arts,  t^cionces,  and  all  those  intellectual  endi^wmonts  which  have  tol- 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN. 


26» 


thern  limits 
|ts  of  nearly 
'9  Jiwid,  that 
'ir  structure 
•ted  by  Mr. 
e,  it  appears 
have  before 
artlier  they 
'  of  Asia  to 
nts  mingled 
tioii  is  sup. 
lern  reg^ions 
themselves 
can  recon- 
of  connex- 
rtion  of  the 
es  or  varie- 
;rs,  whetlier 
Jre  striking 
in  different 
is  probatory 

0  the  views 
variations, 
hese  varia- 
the  African 
ciently  im- 
ccordingly 

hair  black, 


bngolinii, 
res  being 
ison  with 
wigciBan, 

hiCii    tii6 

lie  Incas 
point  of 
in|);irisoh 
liave  tol- 


lowed  the  progrosfl  of  the  Caucasian  race,  and  to  a  certain  extent  belonjf  also  to  the  Asiatics, 
appear  to  have  made  little  or  no  progress  among  the  Americans,  even  in  the  gorgeous  court 
of  Montezuma.  When  that  monarch  despatched  messengers  to  bring  him  an  account  of  the 
first  Spaniards  who  landed  on  his  territories,  so  ignorant  were  the  Mexicans  of  figure"  or 
of  writing,  that  their  report  was  made  in  complicated  hieroglyphics,  mixed  with  rude  figures 
of  the  horses  and  persons  of  these  unknown  invaders.  Their  idolatrous  worship  enjoined 
no  moral  duties,  like  those  of  the  superstition  of  Fo;  and  its  rites  were  celebrated  by  human 
sacrifices  of  such  a  revolting  nature  as  to  be  worthy  only  of  demons.  It  deserves  attention, 
that  while  the  central  portion  of  America  presented  in  its  original  inhabitants  such  a  de- 
graded picture  of  the  human  mind,  the  northern  nations  of  the  new  world,  partaking  more 
of  the  Mongolian  aspect,  evinced  a  higher  degree  of  intellect.  It  is  true  they  were  only 
wandering  tribes  of  hunters,  yet  they  appear  to  have  had  a  full  belief  in  the  existence  of 
one  "  Great  Spirit,"  and  in  a  blissful  immortality  for  themselves.  The  American  race, 
bkiiding  with  the  Mongolian  to  the  north,  spreads  over  the  whole  of  the  new  world ;  but 
whether  an^  traces  of  this  type  exist  beyond  these  limits,  is  a  question  which  has  not  hitherto 
been  investigated. 
1ji  the  Ethiopian  variety  (Jig.  73.),  the  skin  is  black;  hair  short,  black,  and  woolly ;  skull 

73 


compressed  on  the  sides,  and  elongated  towards  the  front ;  forehead  low,  narrow,  ard  slant- 
ing ;  cheekbones  very  prominent ;  jaws  projecting,  so  as  to  render  the  upper  front  teeth 
oblique;  eyes  prominent;  nose  broiad  ana  flat;  lips  (especially  the  upper  one)  particularly 
thick.  The  African  or  Ethiopian  race  has  ever  remained  in  a  rude  and  comparatively  bar- 
barous state.  Their  cities  are  but  congregations  of  huts ;  their  laws,  the  despotic  whim  of 
the  reigning  chief.  Incessantly  occupied  in  war  or  in  the  chase,  they  seek  not  to  perpetuate 
their  ideas.  They  have  no  written  language,  nor  even  a  code  of  hieroglyphics.  Abundantly 
supplied  by  nature  with  every  necessary  of  life,  they  have  retained  their  character  un- 
changed, atler  centuries  of  intercourse  with  the  most  enlightened  nations.  Different  branches 
of  this  type  spread  over  the  whole  of  the  African  continent,  excepting  those  parts  bordering 
the  north  and  east  of  the  Great  Desert,  which  are  occupied  by  the  Caucasian  Syrians,  and 
where  all  traces  of  the  negro  formation  disappear. 
The  Malay  variety  {fig.  74.)  varies  in  the  colour  of  the  skin  from  a  light  tawny  to  a  deep 

74 


brown,  approaching  to  black ;  hair  black,  more  or  less  curled,  and  abundant ;  head  rather 
narrow ;  bones  of  the  fiice  large  and  prominent ;  nose  full  and  broad  towanls  the  tip.  Under 
this  variety,  observes  Mr.  La'ftTence,  are  included  races  of  meivvery  difterent  in  organiza- 
tion and  qualities.  They  nevertheless  present  certain  general  points  of  resemblance,  which 
forbid  their  association  with  either  of  the  foregoing  varieties.  Under  this  head  are,  there- 
fore, included  the  inhabitants  of  Malacca,  of  Sumatra,  and  of  the  innumerable  islands  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago  and  the  great  Pacific  Ocean.  Most  of  these  tribes  are  stated  to  speak 
the  Malay  language,  which  may  be  traced,  in  the  various  ramifications  of  this  diversified 
race,  from  Madagascar  to  Easter  Island.    Their  moral  character  is  n*^'  ^ess  various  than  their 


^-rwh  t' 


JfiO 


.VffENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pakt  II 


outward  lurti.  Tn  such  as,  by  Ih,'  colour  of  their  skin  and  their  woolly  hair,  show  a  general 
appr'-.  :  .'vf.'yn  to  the  African  typf.  the  mental  powers  are  little  developed.  Their  langiiajre, 
ho\^  'Vt,,  >•  8*,nted  to  bo  peculiar,  and  thoy  appear  to  have  a  cupious  bushy  beard.  {Juiw. 
rrnce,  ').)  Dranches  of  this  division  of  the  Malay  race  spread  over  the  preat  islands  of 
Suinatii',  F/meo,  and  Andaman;  and  they  appear  also  to  occupy  the  Molucca  wnd  l'hili|)piiie 
Islands.  They  are  described  as  living  in  the  same  state  of  wild  and  !-iivujl|u  biuikuiiy  on  do 
the  Bushmen  of  T'outhem  Afticc,  nnd  such  other  branches  of  the  Etbiop-nn  variety  l-i  apptv  , 
♦he  lowest  in  the  scale  of  foni  and  intellect.  There  is,  however,  a  li'^iiter-coloured  ivn\ 
superior  race,  inhabiting  some  or'he  Indian  islands,  where  an  oval  <;ojnte»v:iice,  loiijier  Iihu, 
and  finer  ibrm,  evince  a  much  |'T<;ater  affinity  with  the  Indo-Caucnaian  ifye  on  one  si  \ 
and  a  strong  analogy  to  the  New  Zealanders  and  Pacific  iribes  on  'he  ot)'*'.)  ?>•  •  judirf 
along  the  same  insular  chain,  we  meet  with  "ne!.'ro-lik«  tnen'Miving  curiy  hur,  in  Hi- 
immense  island  of  New  Guinea,  nnd  in  tliose  south  western  groups  i'mominated  Now  iri;- 
land,  Ne'.'  Hebrides,  and  New  Caledonia.  Th'j  untives  of  Lue  vast  euvitinent  of  New  . lol- 
iand  show  strong  indications  of  tho  ssine  origin,  .i-id  of  the  rittue  untameable  barbariim; 
yet  their  features  are  described  as  noi.  impleasant,  t  ii?ir  skin  is  rather  copper-coloured  turn 
liiick,  and  their  hair  either  curling  or  straight.  The  nntived  of  the  iiiterior  hn^  e  !i,<mi 
described  as  somewhat  more  civilized,  and  as  speaking  a  ':  )igiiiig-  different  frc-m  thaf  um  1 
on  the  coast.  In  the  neighlniuring  island  >f  New  Z 'siinnd  a  coiividerable  change  fi*c:)i  tlie 
'  '■' ik  Malayan  tribes  takr  jilace.  The  superior  castes  of  dief^t  idaiiders,  in  f'  "-.v  peiK-ns 
nre  '.all,  actjv\  nTid  well  n;rtJe;  their  skin  is  brown,  and  tli'  ir  hr.ig  black  hair  is  '•*'.motiihi's 
dtiaipbt,  «ci)!i'<un.\--  curlh.'T  A  degroe  of  intellect,  tiuptiior  to  all  th-^  tribes  we  hiive 
ei^uiiierute-l,  ■.rcinpepiei?  (hose  personal  advantages.  Retaining  many  of  the  barbarous 
ciiflfom.i  of  thvir  uf^fli'.  .  .rt--,  the  ii^w  Zealanders  have,  nevertheless,  made  some  progross 
ill  the  arts  of  life  !ii!ice  clv^'ir  intercourse  with  Europeans:  they  bcheve  in  a  Supreme  Beinij, 
am!  ill  a  hajjpy  iniTic*' ';  liU  ;  and  f-viute,  m  various  ways,  a  desire  to  improve  their  condition 
ThiJ  :KU\v''.ri  of  tl:e  ftir  iidly  Islft  ads  have  the  dark  complexion  of  the  New  Zealanders,  but  an 
a  nmcli  biiperior  rijco.  They  ere  of  the  ordinary  European  stature,  though  some  are  above, 
six  feet  li'gh;  fheir  colour  is  a  deep  brown,  verging  in  the  bett(?r  classes  on  a  light  olive; 
their  f.'atmos,  like  those  of  the  New  Zealanders,  are  various,  approximating  in  some  resppcts 
to  them.,  and  also  to  the  true  Europeans.  Their  progress  in  civiHiration  and  in  intellectual 
deve'opeuient  is  considerable ;  as  a  proof  of  which,  it  is  mentioned  that  they  have  terms  to 
express  i. umbers  up  to  100,000,  The  Otaheitians  have  long  been  celebrated  for  their  per- 
sonal  beauty :  the  lower  orders,  indeed,  are  of  the  same  brown  tint  ho  generally  preval(>iit 
in  the  Frientuly  Islands,  but  in  these  of  a  superior  caste  this  is  gradually  lost,  until  we  find 
in  the  higiier  ranks  a  skin  nearly  white,  or  at  least  but  slightly  tinged  with  brown;  and 
Hltiiough  the  usual  colour  of  their  hair  is  black,  yet  it  is  of  a  fine  texture,  and  frequenf 
iii.s'^ances  occur  in  which  it  is  l  rown,  flaxen,  and  even  red.  Their  persons  are  well  made, 
their  features  sometimes  even  beautifiil,  and  a  blush  may  be  readily  observed  on  the  cheek 
of  the  women.  The  harmony  of  their  language,  and  their  simple  though  refined  manners, 
have  been  universally  remarked.  These  national  chamcteristics  extend  to  the  Society 
Islands.  Lastly,  The  natives  of  the  Marquesas  have  been  described  as  the  finest  race  in  the 
Southern  Ocean:  "in  form  they  are,  i)erhaps,  the  finest  in  the  world."  Their  skin  is 
naturally  "very  fair,"  and  the  colour  of  their  hair  exhibits  all  the  varied  shades,  (excepting 
red),  which  are  found  in  the  different  tribes  of  the  Caucasian  race. 

Sect,  III. — On  the  Causes  of  these  Varieties. 

Tne  following  questions  naturally  arise  fi-om  considering  these  characteristics  of  the  most 
prominent  varieties  of  the  human  race ;  founded  as  they  are  on  the  concurrent  testimony  of 
travellers,  and  generalised  by  the  most  eminent  physiologists: — 1.  Whether  these  races,  so 
dissimilar  in  their  typical  peculiarities,  have  originally  proceeded  from  one,  or  from  distinct 
stocks  1  2.  Are  they  so  strongly  marked  as  not  to  present  many  and  great  deviations  1  and, 
3.  To  what  causes  are  they  to  be  attributed  3 

In  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  human  race,  there  have  not  l'.on  wanting  those,  who, 
disbelieving  the  evidences  of  the  Mosaic  history,  have  attempted  "•  'nblish  the  hypothesis 
that  tliese  races  have  each  sprung  from  different  stocks ;  or,  tha  ure,  in  fiict,  so  many 

species.     Now,  this,  at  the  best,  is  but  an  assumption  perfectly  r   j'       us;  not  only  because 
every  record  from  whit-      could  receive  any  support  is  q>  .  '0«<i'      pposed  to  it,  but  because 
it  is  in  direct  violation  <         rimary  and  universal  law  of  Pi  ;(«* 
being  of  the  animal  c.  .  shrinks  instinctively  from  in','  i    ■ 

another.  It  has,  moreover^  been  fiilly  ascertained  that,  howu  . 
human  form  may  be,  such  variations  among  diflTerent  bree.'.'"  f"  .  lo  same  species  of  animal 
are  e»  m  greater.  Unless,  therefore,  it  can  be  proved  that  iie  In  v;;  r/  nature  with  respect 
to  mau  and  animals  are  contradictory,  we  shall,  by  attaching  the  weight  to  the  ab<)ve 

theory,  openly  violate  every  principle  of  philosophic  reasoning,  a^  .  ,  ivs  renounce  all  belief 
in  revealed  religion.  On  this  head  the  Mosaic  records  .re  cleai  .  explicit ;  and  howevf  r 
the  bceotic  may  deny  their  inspiration,  he  cannot  bring  forward,  on  his  side,  any  testimony 


law  by  which  the  lowest 
its  species  with  that  of 
;'reat  the  variations  of  the 


*  general 

M-     (Li/u,. 
|t  isliinils  oi' 

'*l"ilipi»iiie 
|itU-ily  OB  do 

'loured  (iMii 

one  si '•■, 
;■'■  •  .Jwii!  .f 
■ur,  in  i!f'. 
"  Now  I,,;. 
New  .lol- 
Imrbariiin; 
loured  timi 

that  i;«  I 
■e  frc;;i  tlie 
"'.'•  perx.iij! 
^••niotiiiK's 
we  hiue 
barbarous 
le  progross 
me  BeincT, 
■  condition 
irs,  but  an 
are  above 
isfht  olive; 
10  resppctd 
nteliectual 
'6  terms  to 
their  per- 
r  prevalent 
itil  we  find 
rown;  and 
d  frequen' 
ivell  made, 
the  check 
I  manners!, 
le  Society 
ace  in  the 
ir  skin  is 


Book  IH 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN. 


261 


of  eiicli  remote  antiquity,  or  of  such  generally  admitted  credibility.  As  to  the  second  quefi- 
ticin,  it  nniist  not  be  understood  that,  in  arranging  the  varieties  of  man  under  a  certain  num- 
ber ofdiviBions,  and  assigning  to  each  a  peculiar  ciiaracter,  there  does  not  occur  many  and 
very  remarkable  exceptions  m  each.  So  much,  indeed,  is  this  the  case,  tlmt  there  are  not 
wanting  instances  of  native  African  tribes  having  tho  light  tikin  of  Europeans,  Caucasians 
cinibiiiing  the  Mongolian  with  the  Malay  structure,  Americans  resembling  whites, and  Afri- 
cans with  the  copper-coloured  skin  of  tlio  American ;  nay,  even  in  the  same  island  or  pro- 
vince, a  great  diversity  both  in  language  and  in  physical  structure,  is  sometimes  apparent,  and 
this  between  tribes  bordering  close  upon  each  other;  so  that,  with  the  exception  of  a  com- 
jKiratively  small  portion  of  each  principal  race,  we  find  so  much  diversity  in  the  remaining 
or  aliorrant  branches — the  typical  peculiarities  become  so  mwlified,  altered,  or  evanescent, 
that  it  is  totally  impossible  to  ''raw  an  absolute  line  of  demarcation  between  them. 

This  point  has  frequently  jeen  adverted  to  by  a  well-known  physiologist,  who  says, "  there 
is  no  circumstance,  whether  of  corporeal  structure  or  of  mental  endowment,  which  does  not 
p:iss  by  imperceptible  gradations  into  the  opposite  character,  rendering  all  those  distinctions 
merely  relative,  and  reducing  them  to  diflerences  in  degree.  It  is  concluded,  therefore,  that 
every  arrangement  of  these  varieties  must  be  in  a  great  measure  arbitrary."  {Lawrence^s 
hrl.  p.  472.)  Yet,  admitting  this  variation  to  tho  fullest  extent,  it  cannot  alter  the  correct- 
ness of  the  principle  on  which  these  distinctions  are  founded.  Whatever  might  have  been 
formerly  thouglit  as  to  the  nature  of  terms  employed  by  naturalists  to  designate  the  particu- 
lar liToups  of  animals,  it  is  now  generally  admitted  that,  throughout  nature,  there  are  no 
i.silaling  distinctions,  save  such  as  separate  species.  The  characters  of  every  zoological 
;rr(iii|),  of  whatever  magnitude  or  denomination,  are  subject  to  exceptions  equally  numerous. 
Tlio  typical  peculiarities  may,  indeed,  be  prominent ;  but  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
objects  which  are  embraced  under  any  definition,  will  be  the  diversity  of  those  imperceptible 
gradations,  those  threads  of  connexion,  wiiich  shoot  out  in  all  directions,  and  unite  not  only 
jienera  and  orders,  but  the  primary  kingdoms  of  the  animal  and  the  vegetable  worlds.  Il; 
is,  tiierefore,  irrelevant  to  argue  that,  because  these  divisions  are  liable  to  numerous  excep- 
tions, and  are  not  always  uniform  and  constant,  they  are  either  artificial  or  objectionable 
for  as  we  find  that  all  natural  groups,  both  in  liie  animal  and  vegetable  worlds,  are  subject 
to  the  same  variations,  they  are  therefore  liable  to  the  same  objections.  In  short,  if  such 
reasoning  is  valid,  the  distinction  between  plants  and  animals  can  no  longer  be  maintained ; 
for  it  is  to  this  day  unsettled  at  what  point  the  peculiarities  of  one  are  lost,  and  those  of  the 
other  assumed. 

The  causes  that  may  have  led  to  these  variations  in  the  human  species,  form  the  only 
qiit.  tion  of  a  general  natu  3  remaining  to  be  discussed.  It  has  been  argued  by  some  writers, 
that  particular  climates,  food,  and  modes  of  life,  have  gradually  operated,  through  a  succes- 
sion of  ages,  to  produce  these  effects  on  the  colour,  stature,  and  intellect  of  different  nations. 
But,  however  greatly  these  causes  may  affect  individuals,  or  even  to  a  certain  extent  a  whole 
p  o|,ie,  tliey  entirely  fail  when  brought  to  solve  our  present  question  ;  were  it  otherwise,  the 
sunie  causes  would  naturally  have  the  same  effect  on  all  the  inhabitants  of  a  particular 
region ;  but  such,  as  is  well  known,  is  far  fiom  being  the  case.  The  negro,  under  a  tropical 
sun.  is  black  ;  whil,  an  Indian  of  Para,  in  the  same  degree  of  latitude,  is  reddish  brown.  No 
race  produces  men  more  athletic,  or  more  finely  formed,  than  are  witnessed  among  the  Gold 
(/oast  negroes ;  yettiiey  infiabit,  proverbially,  some  of  the  most  pestilential  districts  of  Africa. 
On  the  other  hand,  tlie  New  Hollanders,  and  the  South  African  Bushmen,  living  in  a  salu- 
brious climate,  are  described  as  lean,  squalid,  and  with  an  appearance  scarcely  human.  It 
is  therefore  obvious,  that  neither  the  physical  nor  the  moral  condition  of  man  can  be  so 
allect.ed  by  climate,  or  other  external  agencies,  as  to  produce  any  great  or  permanent  varia- 
tion in  his  form.  Indeed,  when  we  consider  that  such  agencies  have  not  produced  any 
physicn!  chancf^  in  any  <;nc  nation,  within  the  memory  or  the  records  of  man,  we  are  tempted 
ti:  lii.iie  ,•  tjiii.  i.i  ri  g>  nf...l  point  of  view,  their  influence  has  been  very  slight;  otherwise, 
ther"  T  jio  reason  to  'ioiii)t  but  that  the  same  natural  causes  which  operated  at  one  period 
e'  '  le,  would  still  comliiue  to  do  so  at  another;  and  that  we  should  find  the  descendants 
■.  Europeans  long  since  ,5  ttled  in  the  New  World,  and  in  Southern  Africa,  beginning  to 
nssnnie  the  red  tin;;e  of  the  American,  ,  r  the  black  .'skin  of  the  Ethiopian.  Still  less  can  it 
be  KU|)posed  that  this  departure  from  oi"  common  standard  has  been  otiected  by  civilization, 
a  consequent  developement  of  the  mental  faculties,  or  even  l)y  diversified  modes  of  life.  Man, 
in  remote  ages,  must  have  lived  pretty  nearlj'  tlie  siime  life  in  every  region ;  whether  as 
shc;>iierd.  hunters,  or  tillers  of  the  fiehi,  their  food,  habits,  and  mo<les  of  life,  must  have  been 
sini|)lo  and  regular.  Whence  conies  it,  then,  that  nations  which  still  retain  a  great  portion 
of  what  may  be  conceived  their  primitive  simplicity,  do  not  exhibit  a  corresjwnding  resem- 
■MaiicM  in  pliVaical  structure?  If  food,  raiment,  and  morn  1  inipro\pnient  have  sucli  a  powerful 
(effect  I':  codifying  the  human  frame,  it  would  iiatnr.iHy  follow  that  tribes  living  nearly  iii  a 
stati  ..  ::..'ijr<:  would  nil  show  a  close  approximation  to  one  (^oirinion  type;  that  fhey  would, 
in  si'.  1  .  r:\:vv.  Piojo  of  the  lineaments-  and  ciiunioters  which  nnu-t  linve  b»Ionged  to  onr  first 
pareii'-,  t'  i'     >  they  had  deviated  from  their  primitive  simplicity;  yet  tiie  very  reverse  of 


962 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Pmll 


this  is  the  fact.  The  apparent  aboriginos  of  every  nation  are  thofie  in  which  the  leadins 
characters  of  their  own  tribe  are  most  conapicuous ;  and  which  exiiibit  tiie  strongeHt  contrast 
to  tJioHe  of  others.  It  is  only  when  they  have  iniiile  some  progress  in  the  arts  of  life,  when 
conquest  or  commerce  has  led  to  a  union  witli  otiier  races,  that  the  national  characteristics, 
both  personal  and  mental,  give  way,  and  begin  either  to  blend  or  to  be  lost  in  other  modifica- 
tions. These  reaaons,  did  they  more  immediately  concern  the  purposes  of  tliis  essay,  mjirlit 
be  much  enlarged  upon,  more  particularly  as  they  have  been  offered  by  some  deservedly 
eminent  writers  as  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the  question  we  are  now  discussing.  Yet,  allow- 
ing to  all  these  causes  the  full  effect  they  are  known  to  have  produced,  we  must  yet  contps!- 
thoy  appear  to  us  totally  inadequate  to  explain  the  origin  of  the  races  of  man.  A  writer 
intimately  versed  on  thia  subject  has  well  observed,  that  "  external  agencies,  whether  phy- 
sical or  moral,  will  not  account  for  the  bo<lily  and  mental  differences  which  characterisi;  the 
•several  tribes  of  mankind."  {Lawrence's  Lectures,  p.  4JJ1.)  We  have,  in  short,  now  brou':lit 
the  inquiry  to  a  point  where  human  reason  is  baffled  :  there  is  neither  history  nor  tradition  to 
guide  us  in  a  research  which  carries  us  back  to  the  obscurity  of  a^^es ;  to  tiiat  remote  pnriml 
when  the  earth,  for  a  second  time,  was  again  peopled,  if  not  by  a  smgle  pair,  yet  by  the  thrvf 
eons  of  a  single  family. 

We  are  now  to  view  the  question  in  another  light.  It  has  been  generally  admitted,  even 
by  those  who  reject  the  Mosaic  testimony,  that  the  diversity  in  the  human  structure  can  in 
no  way  be  accounted  for  by  any  known  combination  of  natural  causes :  are  we,  tlierot'nre, 
to  suppose,  in  a  question  which  concerns  the  most  perfect  earthly  being  made  by  Oiniii]Hi. 
tence,  that  nothing  supernatural  is  to  enter  1  that  causes  which  effect  the  developenn-nt  not 
only  of  the  material  but  of  the  spiritual  essence  of  man,  have  been  left  to  chance?  Is  it  not 
more  reasonable  to  conclude,  that,  for  purposes  unknown  to  us,  a  supernatural  agency  irr/s 
employed  7  and  that  the  immediate  descendants  of  the  sons  of  Noah  were  as  distinctly  in.irlc- 
ed  in  their  outward  form  as  they  were  in  their  moral  character  1  The  sacred  writini,'^,  it  is 
true,  are  not  written  to  answer  philosophic  inquiries.  Those  who,  in  the  present  ajje,  liiivp 
been  the  most  profound  investigators  of  nature,  discover  in  every  part  of  creation  a  symbolic 
relationship;  a  mysterious  system  of  types  and  symbols,  which  extends  from  the  mof^f  com- 
plex to  the  most  simple  of  organized  beings:  and  when  we  know,  for  instance,  that  even  the 
colours  of  a  bird  or  an  insect  have  a  direct  reference  to  such  a  system,  and  are  employe«l  us 
typical  indications  of  its  station  in  nature,  can  it  be  supposed  that  such  a  system  does  not 
extend  to  man  1  That  this  will  not,  in  the  present  infancy  of  our  inquiries,  admit  of  snch 
direct  and  unanswerable  proof  as  amounts  to  mathematical  demonstration,  we  do  not  attpnipt 
to  deny ;  but  that  such  a  supposition  is  in  harmony  with  that  perfection  which  belon<rs  *n 
the  works  of  Omnipotence,  every  reasonable  person  must  admit.  Nor  are  there  wantinij 
circumstances  which  give  some  degree  of  sanction  to  this  belief.  The  curse  pronounce(l 
upon  Canaan  as  the  son  of  Ham  has  unquestionably  been  fulfilled.  Learnetl  commontiitors 
agree  in  considering  that  centrai  Africa  was  peopled  by  his  descendants,  and  these  have  been 
for  ages,  and  still  continue  to  be,  "  a  servant  of  servants,"  to  their  mo^e  favoured  brethren. 
Even  their  own  despotic  governments  render  the  subjects  but  slaves,  la  them  the  hunian 
form  is  most  debased,  the  divinity  of  mind  least  developed.  They  still  exhibit  those  leading 
ve«"'niblances  which  rendereu  Cain  a  type  of  Canaan :  with  few  exceptions,  they  are,  to  this 
day,  but  "  wanderers  and  vagabonds"  on  the  earth.  The  blessings  pronounced  on  the  two 
remaining  sons  of  Noah,  it  has  been  well  observed,  are  of  a  very  different  nature :  Shem  w  as 
more  peculiarly  favoured  than  his  brother ;  from  his  race  not  only  the  great  patriarchs  who 
typified  Christ,  but  even  Christ  himself,  descended.  The  peculiarity  of  the  Jewish  pfjlity, 
which  preserved  the  physical  peculiarities  of  their  race  pure  and  unmixed  through  successive 
generations,  leaves  us  in  no  doubt  that  they  belong  to  the  Caucasian  type,  in  which,  both 
in  structure  and  intellect,  a  marked  superiority  over  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  has  boon 
universally  admitted.  The  early  descendants  of  Japhcth,  as  is  plainly  intimated  by  iMoses, 
were  eminently  warlike.  All  writers  agree  in  considering  that  from  the  Mongolian  race 
descended  those  vast  and  overpowering  hordes  of  barbaric  warriors  who,  at  remote  periods 
of  time,  conquered  all  Asia,  and  devastated  Europe  under  Attila,  Zingis  Khan,  and  i'nmer- 
lane.  "  It  is  remarkable,"  says  Dr.  Scott,  "  that  the  first  king  of  whom  we  read  in  authentic 
history,  is  Nimrod,  the  mighty  hunter."  The  same  learned  writer  mentions  that  there  is 
soDie  ground  for  believing  that  the  greatest  part  of  Asia  (now  peopled  by  the  Mongolian  nice) 
descended  from  Japheth.  The  population  of  Asia  has  been  frequently  mentirncd  as  in  an 
equal  ratio  to  the  superiority  of  its  size  over  Europe,  or  rather  of  those  countries  over  which 
the  Caucasian  variety  has  spread.  Thus,  in  every  sense,  it  appears,  t.iat  the  promise  to 
Noah's  first  son,  "God  shall  enlarge  Japheth,  and  Canaan  shall  be  his  servant,'  has  literally 
and  figuratively  been  fiilfilled. 

That  the  three  sons  of  Noah  overspread  and  peopled  the  whole  earth,  is  so  expressly 
stated  in  Scripture,  that,  if  we  had  not  to  ar^ue  against  those  who  unfortunately  disbelieve 
such  evidence,  we  might  here  stop :  let  us,  however,  inquire  how  far  the  truth  of  this  decla- 
ration is  substantiated  by  other  consideratiouR.  Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  there  is  a 
curious,  if  not  a  remarkable,  analogy  between  the  predictions  of  Noah,  o*  the  future  descend 


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m  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN. 


269 


nnU)  of  Ilia  three  tonn,  and  the  actual  state  of  those  races  which  are  fjfenorally  ^'j]ipoi3ed  to 
liuve  Npruni;  from  them.  It  may  here  be  &gB.m  remarked,  that  although,  to  render  the 
guhjoct  more  clear,  we  have  adopted  the  quinary  arrangement  of  Blumenbach,  yet  that 
Cuvior  and  other  learned  phyeiologists  are  of  opinion  that  we  primary  varieties  of  tlie  human 
form  arc  more  properly  but  three ;  namely,  Caucasian,  the  Mongolian,  and  the  Ethiopian. 
Tills  number  corresponds  with  that  of  Noah's  sons :  assigning,  therefore,  the  Mongolian  race  to 
Japhnth,  and  the  Ethiopian  to  Ham,  the  Caucasian,  the  noblest  race,  will  belong  to  Shein 
lie  third  son  of  Noah,  himself  descended  from  Seth  the  third  son  of  Adam.  Tliot  the 
primary  distinctions  of  the  human  varieties  are  but  three,  hns  been  further  maintained  hy  the 
erudite  Pritchard,  who,  while  he  rejects  the  nomenclature  both  of  Blumenbach  and  Cuvicr. 
an  implying  absolute  divisions,  arranges  the  leading  varieties  of  the  human  skull  under  three 
sections,  differing  from  those  of  Cuvier  only  by  name.  That  the  three  sons  of  Noah,  who 
were  to  "  replenish  the  earth,"  and  on  whose  progeny  very  opposite  destinies  were  pro 
nounred,  should  give  birth  to  different  races,  is  what  might  reasonably  be  conjectured.  But 
that  the  observations  of  those  who  do,  and  of  those  who  do  7iot  believe  the  Mosaic  history 
should  tend  to  confirm  its  truth,  by  pointing  out  in  what  respect  these  three  races  do  actuully 
ditfer,  both  physically  and  morally,  is,  to  say  the  least,  a  singular  coincidence.  It  amounts, 
in  short,  to  presumptive  evidence  that  a  mysterious,  but  a  very  beautiful  analogy  pervades 
throughout ;  and  teaches  us  to  look  beyond  natural  causes,  in  attempting  to  account  tor 
ettects  apparently  interwoven  in  the  plans  of  Omnipotence. 

To  reconcile  the  different  theories  regarding  the  number  of  primary  variations  in  the 
human  form  is  our  next  object.  The  greatest  authorities  on  this  subject  are  Blumenlrach 
anil  Jjavvrence,  Cuvier  and  Pritchard.  The  first  two,  as  alreoily  observed,  maintain  that  the 
primary  divisions  are  five  ;  while  the  latter,  with  more  show  of  reason,  contend  that  there 
are  but  three,  although  they  readily  admit  the  distinctions  assigned  to  the  other  two.  In 
what  manner,  therefore,  can  these  opposite  theories  be  reconciled  7  To  do  this,  we  must 
revert  to  a  third  and  very  remarkable  one,  which,  although  it  has  hitherto  been  solely  di- 
rected to  the  animal  kingdom,  will  yet  be  found  to  exercise  a  very  important  influence  on 
the  present  question  :  we  allu<le  to  the  circular  theory  of  MacLeay.  It  is  the  opinion  of 
this  learned  naturalist  that  every  group  of  organised  beings  divides  itself,  as  it  were,  into 
two  branches  of  affinities,  which  finally  uniting  again  at  their  opposite  extremities,  tbrin  a 
circle;  and  that  this  disposition  of  aijjnities  holds  good,  not  only  in  every  group,  of  what- 
ever magnitude  or  denomination,  but  throughout  the  animal  and  the  vegetable  world.  It 
has  benn  further  shown  that  as  such  a  circular  arrangement  of  beings  cannot,  of  necessity, 
present  any  absolute  or  isolated  divisions,  (for  it  co'r.u  not  then  be  continuous  aid  circular), 
yet,  that  there  may  be  traced,  in  each  circle,  five  deviations  or  varieties  of  structure;  which, 
however  conspicuous  in  their  typical  examples,  are  blended  and  lost  the  nearer  they 
imate  to  each  other.  Now,  so  fiir  as  regards  the  afllinities  of  ani.i.als,  this  circular  ly 
has  been  demonstrated ;  but  it  long  remained  a  matter  of  doubt  what  number  of  primury 
divisions  every  group  contained.  Mr.  MacLeay  considers  there  are  five  ;  and  this  accords 
with  Blumenbach's  arrangement  of  the  human  species.  M.  Cuvier,  and  Dr.  Pritchard,  as 
we  have  before  stated,-  limit  the  leading  varieties  of  man  to  three.  In  our  arrangement  of 
the  order  Insessores  {North.  Zoology,  vol.  ii.),  one  of  the  most  comprehensive  divisions  in 
ornithology,  we  have  shown  that  the  primary  divisions  of  every  natural  group  are  only  three  ; 
one  of  which,  by  forming  a  circle  of  its  own,  includes  three  of  those  pointed  out  by  Mr. 
MacLeay, — thus  making  the  number  ^«e.  Now,  this  theory,  on  the  natural  divisions  of 
birds,  rests  upon  no  speculative  assumption ;  it  is  founded  on  the  most  rigorous  and  minute 
analysis,  and  has  thus  been  capable  of  nmthematic  demonstration.  The  question,  whether 
this  theory  is  applicable  to  one  part  only  of  the  animal  creation,  or  whether  there  is  pre- 
sumptive evidence  to  conclude  that  it  pervades  all  nature,  has  been  d'.-  -,  at  some 
lon^jth  in  the  "  Introductory  Observations  on  the  Natural  System,"  prefixen  u)  liie  same 
V  ork.  In  some  respects  the  trinary  and  the  quinary  theory  of  divisions  may  be  thought 
virtually  the  same ;  and  so  fur  as  regards  our  present  subject,  considered  abstractly,  this 
observation  may  be  true.  We  can  anolyze  a  group  of  insects,  of  birds,  or  of  other  animals, 
but  how  are  we  to  analyze  the  different  modifications  of  man  1  The  thing  is  utterly  impos- 
sible. Now,  as  every  true  theory  must  rest  upon  analysis,  our  present  views  on  this 
subject  v'O'.l'J  be  purelj  speculative,  did  they  not  so  strikiiif^ly  and  wonderfiilly  coincide 
with  t'  other  departments  of  nature,  into  which   ,ve  can  prosecute  minute  research, 

and  at"  .  ,^ical  demonstration.  Besides,  by  supposing  that  there  are  five  principal  varia- 
tions in  .nan,  e-'ch  equally  important  with  the  other,  we  entirely  destroy  t,'ie  beautiful 
oiialogy  betweer.  these  variations  and  the  sacred  writings.  But  without  ente  -ing  farther 
U]x;n  this  question,  it  will  be  sufficient  for  our  present  purpose  to  repeat,  that,  in  regard  tc 
man,  the  views  of  Blumenbach  and  Cuvier  are  virtually  the  same;  for  if,  with  the  former, 
we  rer  -on  five,  there  will  be  two  groups  more  conspicuously  typical  of  perfection,  and  three 
others,  vhich,  however  distinct  in  many  respecui,  wssess  several  characters  in  common.  Ifi 
on  the  ^  her  hand,  we  follow  Cuvier  and  Pritchard,  und  restrict  the  number  to  three,  we  have 
the  Caucasian  and  the  Mongolian  as  thi  tvo  prim.'pal  groups,  while  there  is  a  thurd,  typi- 


SCIENCE  OF  r.EOORAlMlV, 


Part  II 


cnlly  rrprodontpil  ir\tl«<0(l  by  the  Ktiiiopian,  but  Htill  txi  iliverMified  m  to  admit  of  a  tlircetbld 
iltviHton,  into  tlie  AiiKtriciin,  tbo  Al'rioaii,  anil  tiio  Miiluy  viirititioH. 

i'liiit  tlio  variation  of  iniii\  liai*  l)r<<n  regulated  by  Miinilar  laws*  to  tliiwo  wliicli  have  been 
IraiHMi  throiiu;!iout  natiire,  is  a  conclnsion  BU|)porU!d  by  strong  ami  prcHumplivo  evidence; 
liniwn  both  tWim  tho  iiacr<'(i  writin^fH,  and  trom  inlorunccH  in  zoolotfical  Hcioncn,  which  no 
one  hat*  vontiircd  to  ilit)|iii  o.  In  eHtublisliinff  thia  point,  I  have  Htiidioutily  confined  inysclf 
tonnch  factif,  connected  witl>  Mr- iihymciil  history  of  man,  an  roHt  on  high  and  indiMputtthio 
anthority.  On  a  Mubjcc  .  .  •'•  ,i  uicato,  illustratod  by  tho  united  labours  of  the  moat 
nciito  philneophors  mv  hviii^.  'i(  •  ilmt  is  now  could  bo  tutid,  and  that  littlo  nii((lit  imve 
bfcn  suspi'ctpd  of  li:'.',j»  hroi  jfht  Ibrwurd  to  favour  a  particular  theory.  In  tho  |  ri'cedinii| 
nkitoh  of  tiio  prim  ipul  diHerencog  in  man,  wo  have,  tiioroforo,  meroly  coudcnwod  the  obncr- 
viilKins  and  factn  dc  liled  in  the  writinjfs  of  Bluiaonbacli,  ('uvior,  I'rilchnrd,  Ijuwrence,  anj 
Kuinner  ;  rather  wishing,  that,  whatever  inferencoH  are  drawn  i'rom  such  ttourccii,  the  iiicta 
tiiemsclvcg  bhould  reat  on  tustimoniPH  of  bo  much  weifrlit. 

Tlie  order  in  which  theso  races  aro  hore  plac(*d  loadH  U8  to  other  considorations.  Blunion- 
bach  is  of  oi  iiion  that  tho  American  form  is  ii  to  between  the  CaucuHian  and  iMon- 

(folion;  but  we  have  failed  to  discmcr  ...^  aw^iKuod  ronw/..  for  Huch  a  disjXJHitiiin,  which 
also  seems  at  variance  with  the  progruBnion  of  d' velopoincnt.  The  ceographical  sitn/itinn 
of  tjje  two  continents,  as  wo  have  bclbro  ob«ervcd,  renders  it  highly  probable  that  tlio 
American  variety  is  more  immediately  coimected  with  the  Mon/irolion ;  and  the  simple  fiicl, 
that  ll  ■  Esquimaux  have  been  by  somo  considered  us  of  Asiatic  origin,  whiln  by  otlu!r;<  tli  .y 
are  th"'  fht  to  exhibit  more  of  tho"  American  type,  is,  perlmiw,  the  strongest  pnKif  of  thmr 
intimai'  rolationship  to  Iwth.  Neither  does  the  American  race  exhibit  any  direct  iiflinity 
to  the  Jiiiicasian;  whiln,  on  the  contrary,  Iwth  their  [hysical  structure  and  n^ental  devfldpc- 
nv  M  ^eim  to  place  them  in  close  approximation  to  tlio  Africans.  For  these  and  sulisequciit 
reasons,  we  have  felt  no  hesitation  \n  adopting  tho  series  intimated  in  tiie  liifiiir  Animal. 
We  must  now  advert  to  another  peculiarity  in  this  arrangement,  which  renders  itw  sirnili. 
tude  to  the  zoological  series  still  more  remarkable.  This  is  the  progressive  series  of  aniiiifics, 
resulting  from  ;;'acing  the  five  leading  varieties  in  tho  order  in  which  they  have  been  hero 
noticed.  The  Caucasian  and  the  Mongolian  races  present  the  highest  degree  of  civiliza- 
tion, although  in  very  different  degrees  whrn  compared  with  each  other:  tho  regions  tiicy 
respectively  inhabit,  in  like  manner,  approximate  so  closely  as  not  U^  be  i;led  by  wutcr. 
Vet  the  configuration  of  these  races  is  so  remarkalde,  that  they  cannot  be  liiistaken  or  con- 
founded. In  the  third  race,  comprehending  the  A:norican,  tho  Malay,  and  the  Ethiopi;in, 
V(  "v  marketl  deviations  from  the  typical  endowments  of  the  two  former  arc  manifetit  Tliia 
infrriority  is  first  shown  hi  the  American,  whose  outward  form  and  moral  caixioity  is  mvpr- 
tiieless  supeiior  to  Uie  African.  Yet,  as  nature  in  the  animal  kingdom  is  ever  prone  to 
retrace  her  steps,  ond  to  return  again  to  her  original  typo ;  so  we  observe  that,  after  cxhihit- 
ing,  in  some  of  the  African  liordes,  the  lowest  debasement  of  tho  human  form,  and  the  lenst 
Ciipacity  tor  mental  improvement,  she  'wgins,  as  Bhimenbach  observes,  in  tho  diversified 
races  of  the  Malay  variety,  to  shuw  a  ; -ogressivo  but  u  very  marked  inclination  to  return 
through  Uiem  to  tiie  Cauoasiiiu  i\\->e.  So  stro",',  indeed,  does  this  appear  in  many  tribes  of 
tho  South  Sea  Islander  ,  not  nly  i'l  tho  beat  »>  of  tlioir  f)rms,  but  in  tho  advance  they  are 
continually  making  to\,:i  .Is  intelijctual  imp  ement,  that  every  voyager,  who  has  visited 
Uieir  shores,  concurs  in  likening  them  to  Eun  |ioans. 

Tho  inferences  to  be  drawn  from  this  circular  disposition  are  important,  if  merely  con- 
sidered in  relation  to  those  sv^'^ms,  which,  by  presupposing  'i  lineal  scale  in  creation,  would 
pin -o  the  negro  in  immc'.iie  tontact  with  t'lo  monlf,oy.  .  ow,  without  laying  any  stress 
up(iii  that  primary  charactei'stic  of  man,  a  loasonin^,  thinking,  and  imma*orial  'oul,  of 
wiiich  tho  uody  is  but  a  temporary  recept;tclo,  wo  nr.iPt,  before  we  coiinont  to  this  hyiwlhesis, 
in't  overdifficultieswhich  appear  insurmonntab'  •.  I'hatthc  Ethiopian  holds  liie  lowest  station 
among  the  varieties  of  his  species,  is  dly  gi mtcd;  but  that  this  admission  implies  iin 
affinity  to  the  ape,  does  by  no  means  <  v.  T  iiere  may  he  an  approximation:  but  it  i* 
necessary,  before  we  decii'e  on  the  d<  •  of  ■  h  approximation,  that  we  should  examine 
the  relative  affinity  which  the  Ethicpian  bears  i  the  Caucasian.  For  if  it  should  appear 
tiiat  the  difference  between  tlie  most  ponect  and  the  most  imperfect  of  the  human  races  is 
nn<iuostionably  less  than  between  the  hitter  and  the  brutes ;  or,  in  other  words,  timt  the 
si;iiilaritics  between  the  ni  gro  and  the  Caucasian  are  decidedly  greater  than  those  between 
tlie  nogrp  and  tlie  ape;  we  must  admit  that  this  latter  approxhnation  is  too  slight  to  be 
termed  an  affinity.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  consider  man  only  as  a  material  being,  lie 
stands  so  far  removed  fiom  brutes — the  interval  between  him  and  them  is  so  great — that  it 
would  be  a  violation  of  natural  affinities,  and  certainly  an  insult  on  his  better  nature,  to  class 
hint  in  the  same  system.  To  arrive  at  a  just  conclusion  on  this  subject,  we  must  not  look  so 
much  to  any  one  point  of  comparison,  or  to  mere  anatomical  analogies,  but  bring  the  dis- 
tinguishing characters  of  each  into  direct  comparison.  Does  the  negro,  it  may  then  bo  askttl, 
tivincc  a  deficiency  of  those  qualities  which  belong  to  the  Caucasians!  wo  allude  not  to  tiie 
natural  affections,  for  tliesc  ore,  in  some  degree,  common  to  brutes ;  but  in  self-Drivutiou, 


fianiia--'*""''  '" 
.riN'T"*  '"^ 
would  iH!  l)f' 
I'livoiiruble  cit 
j,„l  oleiibintf 
wliicli  either 
propoiisllies  \ 
iMOrtt  clearly, 
i,„l  to  be  lo»ii 
of  other  race 
„t'  mankind.' 
Ill,"  least  indi 
would  be  rid 
is  ii>  tilling  1>1 
Olio  tliat  is  a 
wlucli  are  cc 
conclusive, 
bccuiise  bol 
alVoiities  as 
stormiiM. 
we  ciuiniit 
,  yiy  l>e,  til'' 
iiiiiverso;  y 
III-  liolouiu.- 
spirit;  thai 
1)0  most  ass 
nature  to  pi 

Tho  geoi 
Iho  geiiorii 
it  more  III 
tiori  has  1 
of  ovci}  l< 
branches  l! 
Ill  the  ii 
ic  same 
(liMwn  I'll* 
aside  all  ' 
on  siiiii 
thall  til-  '■ 
of  luiimal 
That  0 
tion  of  ar 
the  worli 
Such  ha 
whose  k 
siicli  vie 
could  be 
iiioMiitai 
therefor 
in  some 
cable  to 
tho  ere; 
"  A  chii 
longilui 
system, 
tiuiory  1 
uiiiinly 
one  of 
al  first 
of  anin 
an  ab? 
but  nu 
when 
rica,  1 
onotli( 
Vol 


Bo„«  HI.  IN  ITS  RELA'I     >N  TO  MAN.  260 

r(iiii|>a-'"*<<»i>  "'>*l  '>''roic  love  of  tlioir  couiitr  \rc  Ui«>^  iiiuiipahio  of  learninff  Eumixian 
jrb,  iir  of  iiui'iitin({  otIiorH  HuiUiblo  to  tli  ir  u  At*  or  liulntMl  To  ilt'iiv  tliciii  hiicIi  (|iialilioii 
tvdiild  Im!  |)rf|)ntilt!rouH;  tlioy  [iuhm-nh  i\n-  narmii  of  utliorH  inthiiU'ly  iiif^liLT,  which,  iiiulur 
liivdiimlih!  cinMiiiiHtiiiiceH,  hiivu  |)r(Kluc(<(l  export  urlituiiiH,  nlulful  phyHiciuiiN,  piuiiM  divifx^H, 
mul  uliiiihiiii;  )HM)tH.  "I  |)n>l('Ht  OH|H!ciRllyi"  ulMcrvos  Mr.  ljiwieno>,  " iiKuiimt  llin  opinion 
v/hk\i  ).>ithi!r  tleninti  to  Ihu  At'ricunu  the  enjoy ineiit  of  ruiiMoii,  or  luscribeH  to  thu  wholo  ruco 
iropriiriitieH  wiiicli  would  do^rriuh'  tiieiii  ovon  utdow  thu  level  of  the  briitu.  It  cun  be  proved 
iiidrit  cleiirly,  that  thero  \h  no  circuinttttinco  of  bodily  otructure  urt  jM^culiur  to  tho  nn^rro,  oh 
iiiit  III  bo  Ibuiid  uIho  in  other  tiir  diHUint  niitionM;  no  character  which  doen  not  run  into  thoHO 
of  (itlicr  ra(M>H,  by  iiH  intionsibic  ((nulationH  uh  tiioHU  wliich  connect  toffttther  ull  thu  vurietiuN 
(if  imuikirid."  (p.  42H.)  To  pur«uo  thin  conipariHon  tkrlhcr  in  neodleHti;  and  to  uhIc  whether 
llio  Ic'iht  indication  of  hiicIi  |M)werM  huH  ever  boon  nianifeste<l  by  the  (|imdruinanouH  uinniak 
wdiiiil  be  ridionlouH.  The  loarnod  and  elo<|uent  Bibhoi)  Siiinner  fiircibiy  olmervoH,  "Thero 
i»  iiotiiiiif;  pliilortophical  in  the  conipuriHon  of  a  Ixsin^f  iM>KH.'N.si!d  of  improvable  rt.MiKon  w  ith 
one  tiiut  in  (jfovcrne-d  by  natural  inHtinct,  becauHu  thero  ih  no  junt  affinity  betwcjcn  tho  lulentn 
wliicli  are  compared."  {RecwdK  of  Cruation,  vol.  i.  p.  2'<].)  We  conMidor  thiH  ur^'umcnt  as 
L'liiii'lusive.  'Vo  cla«H  man,  theretops  in  the  natno  /oolofrjcal  diviHion  with  a|H<H,  merely 
bee  iiiH(!  both  havo  a  hyoid  Ixmio,  in,  to  our  apprehonHion,  oh  >,'larinK  a  violation  of  natural 
nllimtii's  as  to  urranpe  batH  with  birdn,  bocauBo  Imth  Hy  in  the  air,  and  jjohhchh  a  crest  to  thi'ir 
htciiiiun.  So  far,  indeed,  from  couMideriji;;  man  as  the  tyim  of  a  za)lof;ical  order  of  bruteM, 
we  caiiiio'  allow  that  lie  even  lM'l()iiy;H  to  the  same  HyHtem  in  which  tli«!y  ore  arniii>{ed.  It 
. !  ly  be,  tliiit  tho  deviatiouH  of  Imh  Htructure  are  rejrululed  by  those  lawn  which  uovorn  tho 
iiiiivcrno;  yet,  neverthelcHH,  by  his  m  ''ior  qualities  (which  in  .fact  ore  his  true  distinctions) 
III'  lieloiii.  to  a  hi^iier  order  of  bun  ;s:  that  he  is,  in  short,  a  link  between  matter  ond 
s|)irit;  thnt  he  curries  this  evidence,  through  revelation,  within  himself;  and  will  horeatlcr 
lie  tiiost  ussur(  dly  rewarded  or  punished,  ttccordin}r  us  he  sutFers  his  spiritual  or  hia  earthly 
nature  to  pirpondoiate. 

SiicT.  IV. — On  the  Oeographic  Dintrihiition  of  Animals. 

Tho  1,'oofjraphic  distributinn  of  animals  over  the  t'lobe,  is  tho  next  subject  of  in<iuiry.  lu 
tho  (fcncral  outline  of  the  vurititions  in  man  which  has  been  j(iven  above,  we  have  deemed 
it  morr  iiniwrtunt  to  seek  after  j,'onenil  results  than  to  enter  upon  minute  details.  Our  atten- 
tion luis  1)1  II  tixed,  not  so  much  on  those  ramilications  which  shoot  out  near  the  extremities 
ofivin  i", inch,  and  become  tix)  indistinct  for  clear  elucidation,  but  rather  to  the  leading 
bidiiclu'^  themselves,  on  the  nature  of  which  there  has  been  littlo  diversity  of  opinion. 

Ill  the  mquiry  rctjurding  the  geofrraphic  distribution  of  animals,  on  which  we  now  enter, 
1  •  same  mode  will  be  adoptt;d,  but  with  this  differonco,  that  whereas  we  have  hitherto 
(Ir.twii  iiir  infenMicea  solely  from  the  tiicts  and  jroneral  o|)iniona  of  others,  we  shall  now  jiiit 
aside  ill  leories  heretofore  promul<ifated  on  the  distribution  of  animals,  and  merely  de|HMid 
(in  siiiij  icts  for  the  support  of  those  inferences  which  tiiey  may  apiKJur  to  sanction.  We 
siinll  Iir  .iriefl\  notice" those  principles  which  have  been  applied  to  elucidutc  the  plienomena 
of  iiniiiuil  (iistriliution,  and  then  impiire  how  fur  they  appear  coniliicive  to  that  end. 

'riiiit  cliiimte,  temperature,  soil,  and  food,  exercise  u  paramount  inlluence  on  the  distribu- 
tion of  animals,  has  been  generally  believed;  and  on  this  assumption  naturalists  have  divided 
tiio  world  into  climates,  zones,  or  provinces  regulated  by  degrees  of  longitude  or  latitude. 
Such  has  been  the  favourite  theory  not  only  of  physiologists,  but  of  professed  nnturnlists, 
whose  knowledge  of  details  migiit  havi;  furnished  them  with  insupf-nble  objections  against 
such  views.  Thus,  the  celt;braled  entomologist  Fabricius  conceivt.j  '.lint  tho  insect  world 
could  bo  naturally  divided  into  eight  climates;  one  of  which  is  made  to  ■Minprehend  all  those 
niiiiiiitains,  in  every  part  of  the  world,  whose  summits  are  covered  hy  eternal  snow.  It  is, 
tlieretbre,  not  surprising  that  M  Latrcille  should  coi  sider  such  a  thei^ry  as  altogether  vogue 
in  some  respects,  and  arbitrary  in  others.  But  will  not  the  latter  objection  bo  equally  nppli- 
caldo  to  the  distribution  which  this  eminent  naturalist  has  himself  proposed  for  this  part  of 
the  creation]  At  least,  si  i  is  the  opinion  of  one  fully  competent  to  judge  the  quer^tion. 
"A  cimrt  of  animal  geography,"  says  Mr.  Kirby,  "which  is  divided  into  climates  of  24°  of 
longitude  and  12°  of  latitude,  wears  upon  its  face  the  stamp  of  an  artificial  and  arbitrory 
sy^'tern,  rather  than  of  one  according  with  nature."  On  much  the  same  principles  another 
theory  has  been  built,  by  which  the  earth  is  divided  into  seven  zoological  provinces,  or  zones, 
iiiiiinly  dependent  on  the  respective  degrees  of  latitude  they  occupy.  Now,  so  far  as  regards 
OIK?  of  these  provinces — that  comprehended  within  tho  arctic  circle — this  view  of  tho  subject, 
al  first  sight,  appears  perlfctly  just :  for  there  is  not  only  a  strong  analogy  between  the  groups 
of  ariimuls  inhabiting  such  partsof  the  two  continents  as  enter  into  this  circle,  but  there  is  also 
an  absolute  affinity  between  them  ;  inasmuch  as  the  arctic  regions  contain  not  only  genera, 
but  niimemiis  species,  common  to  both  continents.  This  theory,  however,  loses  all  its  force 
when  applied  to  such  divisions  as  are  made  to  include  the  tropical  regions  of  Africa,  Ame- 
rica, and  Asia,  ''•  one  province,  ond  the  southern  extremities  of  America  and  Africa  in 
another.     Tl.e  zoologist  immediately  perceives  that  the  only  relation  which  these  countries 

Vol,  \  28  91 


RTIENCE  OP  ORfXJRAPHY, 


Part  II 


b»'ar  to  odch  other  in  thoir  nnimnl  prrxliictioim,  m  purely  aimlojjicnl ;  ■>■  '  wr  bfi*  thiiN  cum. 
IMtlUxl  to  rnlinqiiixli  a  tlirory  which  npiMXirM  rorrpct  only  in  om>  point  m  view.  'I'hfxp  i,,,,) 
other  IwHs  cinintMit  writont  appear  to  havn  frrod  in  th«>  vi'ry  f'oiieulution  pt"  tlii-ir  tiicthiHlj. 
They  aHmime  as  (granted,  what  haa  never  y«t  been  pmvwl,  that  toni]K>mtiiro  «'.\>i.  ihi-n  a  pri- 
nary  influence  on  animal  diatribution.  Were  Huch  the  case,  it  would  naturally  liillow  timi 
the  unimala  of  such  parts  of  America,  Africa,  and  Aaia,  as  are  placed  in  corroxixindini; 
dofifroes  of  latitude,  would  be  nearly  of  itimilar  Rpeciea ;  or,  at  lea^t,  of  the  wimt'  iintiira! 
flfenora.  Yet  such,  m  wo  shall  hereatler  nhow,  is  not  the  fUct.  Hetwcen  the  iininialH  of 
theae  reffioM  there  ia,  indemi,  in  very  many  inatancea,  a  atron^  nnalo^^v :  ruch,  ti*  iiiMtnnro, 
M  ia  ap|)ar«nt  between  the  'l\ochUul(r  of  the  New  World,  the  (Hnnyriila  of  Asia  and  M'rm, 
and  the  Melliphaffida  of  the  AuHtralian  ii«lands,  Huch,  a^in,  it)  that  between  the  ToiicmiH 
of  America  (Jiff.  76.  a),  and  the  hornbills  of  Asia  (^flff.  7ft.  b).    Yet  not  one  ap'oioM  Vtluw 

birds  occur  in  any  two  of  these  countries,     Nevertlit'lc!«H  ii 
cannot  bo  denied,  that  the  temperature  and  confipunition  of 
a  country  exercises  a  powerful  influence  on  the  (liNtrihntion 
of  animals.     But  these  effccta  are  of  a  secondary  nntiiro,  imd 
totally  fail  when  employed  to  elucidate  those  general  princi- 
ples which  appear  to  reio^ulate  the  whole  system  of  iininml 
pooffraphy.     Such  apcncies,  however,  may  be  safply  nilowpil 
to  poHsew*  much  weijyht,  when  we  descend  to  details  and  in- 
vestigate the  local  Fauna  of  any  particular  coimtry  or  ilia. 
trict.     It  has  been  observed  by  the  celebrated  Humboldt,  and 
confirmed  by  an  authority  of  nearly  equal  weight,  that,  with 
regard  to  certain  tribes  of  insects,  thnir  geographical  distribution  does  not  appear  to  depend 
Bolely  on  the  degree  of  heat  or  humidity  to  which  they  are  exposed,  or  on  the  pnrlirulnr 
situation  they  inhabit;  "but  rather  on  l(x;al  circumstances,  that  are  difficult  to  charaeferiHc." 
This  opinion  is  in  unison  with  the  whole  tenor  of  the  facts  to  which  we  shall  hereafter 
advert.     Wo  must,  therefore,  agree  with  Mr.  Kirby,  and  consider  tliat  the  distribution,  not 
only  of  insects,  but  of  animals  in  genf>ral,  is  "  fixed  by  the  will  of  the  Creator,  rather  tltnn 
certainly  regulated  by  any  isothermal  lines."   (Introduction  to  Entomology,  vol.  iv.  ]).  4HI.) 
The  distribution  of  animals,  in  connexion  with  that  of  the  human  race,  remains  to  be 
considered.     From  what  has  been  already  stated,  there  appears  strong  reason  to  believe,  timt 
the  variations  in  the  structure  of  man  and  of  animals  are  regulated  by  similar  laws;  and 
this  supposition  will  receive  considerable  weight,  should   it  appear,  upon   investigation, 
that  those  divisions  of  our  globe  which  have  been  apportioned  to  the  difl'erent  varieties  of 
man,  are  equally  characterised  by  certain  peculiarities  in  their  animal  tribes.     Now,  to 
establish  the  truth  of  such  a  theory,  it  is  necessary  to  waive  all  general  abstract  reawmino;, 
and  to  draw  deductions  fi-om  known  facts.     And  it  is  equally  obvious  that,  if  such  facts  are 
to  be  collected  from  the  whole  animal  kingdom,  this  essay  must  be  extended  to  several 
volumes,  even  admitting  that  our  materials  were  sufficiently  extensive  for  such  a  purpose. 
But  the  truth  ia,  that  the  data  for  such  a  comprehensive  investigation  are  so  few,  so  mengre, ' 
and  so  unsatisfactory  when  compared  with  the  diversity  and  vastness  of  the  subject,  that  they 
sink  into  insignificance.  Nor  will  this  appear  surprising,  H^we  consider  the  astonishing  nuniher 
of  animals  that  have  been  already  described  by  naturalists,  or  are  known  to  exist  in  cabinets; 
setting  aside  the  hosts  of  species  yet  unknown,  which,  in  many  departments,  may  possibly 
amount  to  dotible  or  treble  the  number  we  are  acquainted  with.     Yet,  as  details  of  some 
sort  must  be  gone  into,  it  becomes  absolutely  necessary  to  select  for  such  a  purpose  some 
one  department  of  nature ;  and  the  result  which  might  follow,  we  may  fairly  prostinio, 
would  be  in  unison  with  those  that  would  attend  the  investigation  of  other  divisions  of  the 
animal  world,  could  they  be  investigated  upon  the  same  principles.     Nature,  in  all  her 
operations,  is  uniform :  and  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  the  distribution  of  quadrupeds,  birds, 
insects,  or  reptiles,  would  each  be  regulated  by  different  laws. 

In  choosing,  therefore,  from  the  animal  kingdom  some  one  order  of  beings  for  particular 
investigation,  it  might  be  thought  that  the  distribution  of  quadrupeds  would  present  the  best 
field  of  inquiry.  It  possibly  might,  did  not  their  investigation  involve  certain  points  of  con- 
troversy connected  with  geology,  which,  however  important,  arc  not  so  intimately  connectnd 
with  our  present  object  as  to  render  their  discussion  necessary  in  this  place.  The  division 
of  reptiles  is  subject  to  the  same  objection,  and  is  not  sufficiently  extensive  for  our  purpose. 
The  annulose  animals,  on  the  other  hand,  are  so  numerous  that  they  appear  to  baffie  our 
inquiries;  nor  can  we  hope,  while  yet  in  the  infancy  of  geographic  natural  history,  to  do 
more  than  has  been  already  done  by  the  genius  of  Latreille.  Birds  alone  remain.  It  has, 
indeed,  been  argued,  that  no  very  certain  results  can  attend  the  study  of  their  distribution; 
because,  from  possessing  the  powers  of  locomotion,  and  the  instinct  of  migration,  in  a  hiirh 
degree,  they  appear  more  widely  dispersed  than  any  other  class  of  animals.  How  fiir  this 
may  be  true  has  never,  indeed,  hron  made  apparent ;  yet,  allowing  the  assertion  it'^  full 
weight,  we  may  safely  conclude,  that  if,  under  these  disadvantages,  any  definite  notions 
of  geographic  distribution  can  be  gathered  from  the  study  of  such  volatile  beings,  the 


The  om 
Cnucasian 

tion.     It  " 
north  otVtIi 
Asia.    Th 
investigate 
whi(  b  bav 
oftlie  arc 
of  a  distin 
to;  and  tl 
birdf,  IwtV 
to  more  t 
arc  found 
lar  latilutl 
The  BV 
perhaps, 
and  Nort 
Of  these 
mon  to  I 
eeven  to 
number 
Amor 
Buggesl 

as  nati\ 
birds,  a 


butcf 

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more 

Sout 

p^:y 

enid 

arct 

thr( 

Btn 


'"'lovvtlmi 
"■•'''•'J'on.lin^ 
P«'  iintiirnl 
"  nnmmlH  nf 

I  "1(1  ACrir,,,' 
[ne  '/'oiiciiw 

'"rHi,.|,.M„  „ 
puriifion  of 

'''"'nliiition 
mhiTo,  ,„|,| 
•Tnl  pri,„,j. 

I'  "'''"iiminl 

'»''«  nnd  in. 
itry  or  ,lis. 
Tiboldt,  and 
'  ''"It,  witli 
'  to  do|)«.nd 
Piirtifiikr 

'""'"'I,  not 

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IV.  p.  4Hi,) 
"liiis  to  be 
>Jioyn,  t|,„t 
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estijration, 
ariotips  of 

Now,  to 
rpiisnniiiw, 

fhetH  nro 
■o  Bi'vonu 

purpose. 
)  mon^rre, « 
that  tlicy 
T  niiniher 
3al)inots ; 

possibly 
of"  some 
so  .some 
rosiimo, 
9  of  the 
nil  Iier 

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lio  bnst 
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tions 

the 


RmR  ITT. 


TN  ITS  REI,AT10N  TO  A/^MALS. 


m 


rcHiiltH  would  b«  materially  iitrnn(^hnn*>(l  if  found  to  hBrmonizo  with  wfmt  in  almndy  known 
oil  tlio  dlHtribiition  of  other  ordorn  of  imiinalH,  which,  tVotn  Ihitir  |)hy«icnl  roiiHtruilion,  nrn 
{,>wH  ciiiMihlo  of  pxtnndinff  tlittir  (fpojifriiphic  ranj;;o.  It  in  horo,  howuvcr,  ni^renHnry  to  pn>niiso, 
thnt  in  thin,  an  in  all  other  braiiclum  of  natural  hiitory,  thu  accounts  and  rt'intioni)  of  tra- 
vclli^rH,  not  in  thnnisolvcs  zoolof^intn,  iniiBt  bo  received  with  jfroat  caution.  Uiiiicouainted 
with  thiwn  nice  diotinctionM  uiNjn  wliicii  not  only  the  difTerencoM  of  iipccic«,  but  ot  genera 
snd  tiiini'.ieH,  are  now  known  to  dp|)<>nd,  they  perpetually  contradict,  by  a  hniity  application 
of  wi'll-known  namo»,  oomo  of  the  most  acknowledged  truthi)  in  animal  pcoffraphy.  Nor 
can  the  facts  detailed  in  the  compilations  of  more  Hcientific  writers  bo  always  de|)ended  upon. 
Tlif  voluminous  works  of  a  most  industrious  and  zealous  omitholo(;istof  the  I.inna>an  school 
abound  with  mistakes  of  this  nature;  wherein  not  only  species  but  (genera  are  said  to  in- 
hiibit  countries  where  they  have  never  been  found  except  in  the  vague  and  orroncous 
narrative  of  travellers.  It  is  the  misfortune  of  those  who  complain  aeainNt  the  multiplieity, 
and  regret  the  adoption,  of  tnodcrn  divisions,  thnt  by  so  douig  they  oebor  thomBclvoH  from 
gtudyiriff  the  variations  of  physical  structure,  and  neglect  the  main  clue  to  enlarged  conci'i)- 
tionn  ot  zoologicnl  science.  It  is  necessary  to  make  these  allusions,  that  the  reader  may  bo 
apprised  of  our  adoption,  in  this  place,  of  the  principal  modem  genera ;  and  our  rejection  ot 
many  of  the  localities  erroneously  given  to  certain  species  in  the  general  historios  of  birds. 

1.  The  Caucanian  or  European  Province.  '   \ 

The  ornithological  features  of  the  Caucasian  range,  or  of  the  regions  over  which  tlio 
CaucaHinn  variety  of  the  human  species  is  said  to  be  distributed,  will  first  claim  our  atten- 
tion. It  has  been  already  shown  that  this  range  comprises  such  portion  of  Africa  us  lies 
north  of  the  Groat  Dosort,  nearly  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  a  conaidernbUi  extent  of  Western 
Aniii.  The  ornithologv  of  the  countries  bordering  upon  this  region  has  been  but  partially 
investigated;  yet  sufficient  is  known  to  show  that  it  presents  a  mixture  of  thwe  Hpocieg 
whii  h  have  their  chief  metropolis  in  other  countries.  It  has  been  thought  that  the  nniinals 
of  the  arctic  circle  are  so  peculiar,  as  to  justify  us  in  considering  that  region  in  the  light 
of  a  distinct  zoological  province.  The  objections  against  this  idea  have  already  been  alluded 
to;  and  they  become  move  forcible  when  wo  discover,  that  on  calculating  the  nujuher  of 
birds,  l)oth  terrestrial  and  aquatic,  which  occur  within  the  arctic  circle,  they  do  not  amount 
to  more  than  twenty-two ;  and  that  most  of  these,  durinp;  the  greatest  portion  of  the  year, 
arc  found  in  the  more  northern  parts  of  Britain  and  America.  They  probably  occur  in  bimi- 
lar  latitudes  on  the  Asiatic  continent ;  but  on  this  point  our  information  is  defective. 

The  swimming  birds  are  known  to  possess  a  very  wide  range;  but  this  is  less  extensive, 
perhap-s,  than  is  genemlly  imagined.  The  numbf;r  of  species  found  on  the  shores  of  Kurope 
and  Northern  Africa,  independently  of  those  more  peculiar  to  the  arctic  circle,  is  sixty. 
Of  those,  two  alone  have  been  discovered  in  the  four  quartern  of  the  globe;  tlirec  nro  com- 
mon to  Europe,  Asia,  and  America;  one  to  Europe,  Asia,  and  Southern  Africa;  nnd  twoiity- 
sevon  to  Europe  and  Northern  America:  thus  leaving  twenty-seven  (or  nearly  one-hiilf  tl  i 
number  of  European  natatorial  species)  as  peculiar  to  this  zoological  division  of  the  wo'' ' 

Among  the  Grallatores,  or  waders,  some  particular  species  are  so  widely  dispersed  :. 
BuggcHt  the  idea  that  the  geographic  range  of  this  order  is  even  wider  than  that  i^"  I'l' 
Nfitatorcs ;  and  this,  generally  speaking,  may  be  time.     Of  the  sixty-five  species  dei       ■  ! 
as  natives  of  Europe,  thirteen  only  occur  in  America,  nnd  two  only  can  be  reckoned 
birds,  although  several  others  occasionally  frequent  those  regions.     Of  the  romaindoi, 

occur  in  Asia;  two  in  Asia  and  Africa;  four  in  Asia  and 
America ;  seven  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America ;  and  the  Whim- 
brel  (Jifr.  76.)  (Niimcmvn  Phaipus)  is  said  to  be  the  same  in 
nil  the  five  divisions  of  the  globe.  It  is  consequently  among 
the  wading  birds  that  we  find  tho.se  whose  range  is  most  exten- 
sive ;  yet,  on  a  general  calculation,  the  number  of  species  pecu- 
liar to  Europe  is  considerably  greater  than  those  of  the  Natti- 
tores ;  the  former  being  as  one  to  two,  the  latter  nearly  as  one 
to  four.  It  thus  appears,  that,  even  among  birds  of  the  most 
vagrant  habits,  the  ornithology  of  Europu  is  characterised  by  a 
decided  superiority  in  the  number  of  its  own  peculiar  species. 
The  rapacious  birds,  next  to  the  aquatic  orders,  are  thought  to  be  the  most  widely  distri- 
buted ;  particularly  the  nocturnal  species.  It  is  very  remarkable,  that  out  of  thirteen  dif- 
ferent owls  inhabiting  Europe,  five  only  ore  peculiar  to  this  continent;  and  two  of  those 
more  particularly  frequent  the  arctic  regions.  Of  the  rest,  five  occur  in  America,  two  in 
Southern  Africa,  and  one  both  in  Asia  and  America.  The  FnlconidtP,  or  diurnal  birds  of 
phy,  ill  regard  to  their  species,  have  a  more  restricted  distribution;  yet,  of  these,  the  eagles 
enjoy  no  inconsiderable  range.  Out  of  eight  discovered  in  Europe,  one  is  more  properly 
arctic,  throb  have  been  found  in  soveral  parts  of  Africa,  nnd  one  occurs  in  America;  leaving 
three  only  to  Europe.  It  is  singular  that  those  rapacious  birds  which,  trom  the  peculiar 
Blructure  of  theh'  wings,  have  been  supoosed  to  enjoy  the  greatest  powers  of  flight  among 


Tho  Whimbrul. 


268 


SCIENCE  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  H 


tiieir  congeners,  are  those  most  restricted  in  their  geographic  limits.  This  is  proved  by  the 
lact,  that  out  of  eight  genuine  falcons  occurring  in  Etirope  and  Northern  Africa,  two  only 
have  been  discovered  in  America.  It  has,  however,  recently  been  stated  tliat  the  Falco 
percgrinus  of  Australia  is  identically  the  same  as  that  of  Europe :  neither  does  Southern 
Africa,  we  believe,  possess  a  single  European  species,  or  not  one  of  those  inhabiting  the 
northern  extremity  of  tiiat  peninsula ;  the  Monlu/rnard  of  Le  Vaillant,  long  confbumlcd 
with  the  European  Kestril,  being  a  decidedly  distinct  species.  Upon  the  whole,  the  distri- 
bution of  the  pDrty-tbur  species  of  European  Raplores  will  stand  thus:  three  are  Arctic, 
eleven  are  found  also  in  America,  two  in  Asia  and  Africa,  and  one  in  Asia  and  America; 
leaving  twenty-seven,  or  more  than  one-half,  peculiar  to  European  ornithology. 

The  Gallinaceous  genera  are  few ;  and  tiieir  wide  dispersion 
is  decidedly  against  tJie  theory,  that  all  birds  with  heavy  bodies 
and  short  wings  are  mo:e  limited  in  their  geographic  range  tlian 
other  terrestrial  tribes.  This  argument  has  been  ingeniously 
used  to  account  for  the  very  restricted  limits  within  which  many 
of  the  Indian  parrots  have  been  found ;  one  or  two  species  being 
frequently  confined  to  a  particular  island.  Ornithologists,  how- 
ever, need  not  be  told  tiiat  the  wings  of  the  Psittacidm  are  pecu- 
liarly adapted  for  strong  and  vigorous  flight ;  and  those  who  iiavo 
seen  these  birds  in  their  native  regions  cannot  tiiil  to  have  re- 
marked that  tiieir  flight  is  pcculiarli)  rapid ;  many  genera,  in 

this  respect,  passing  tiirough  the  air  with  the  celerity  of  tlie 

W'»i^.W/&^  hawk.     The  wide  dispersion  of  the  Gallinaceous  order  is  very 

., _   -  ^-aiS^r^"^''"  evident.     The  range  of  the  groat  bustard  {Jif;:  77.)  extends  from 

^v|3^^-»-^N^-j^  _      -a^    one  extremity  of  temperate  Europe  to  the  confines  of  Asia ;  and 

tiie  quail,  remarkable  for  its  heavy  body  and  short  wings,  per- 
The Great  Biutara.  forms  two  annual  migrations,  from  and  to  Northern  Africa,  over 

Europe  and  Western  Asia.  We  consider  very  fsw  of  the  European  Gallinaceous  birds  as 
truly  arctic ;  for  nearly  all  the  species  appear  to  occur  as  plentifully  beyond  those  regions 
as  within  them.  Many  of  tlie  meridional  European  birds,  as  Upupa  Epops,  Oriolus  galbula, 
Coraceas  garrulus,  &-c.,  might  with  equal  justice  be  classed  as  peculiarly  characteristic  of 
Central  or  Southern  Airica.  It  nevertheless  appears  tiuit,  even  among  the  Gnllinacem, 
fourteen  out  of  twenty-seven  have  their  principal  scat  in  Europe.  Tlie  remainder  are  t!iiis 
apiwrtioned :  five  extend  to  Western  Asia,  five  to  the  confines  of  the  great  African  desert, 
two  are  dispersed  in  Central  Asia  and  Africa,  while  two  only  orciir  in  North  America. 

•j^tj  The  Fissirostrnl  birds,  lypicnily  represented  by  the  swallow, 

are,  of  all  the  insectivorous  tribes,  mos„  conspicuous  for  their 
powers  of  flight.  With  but  one  exception,  tlie  European  Kini;- 
fisher  {Alctdo  euroytea,  fig.  78),  they  are  all  migratory:  hence 
we  find  that  most  of  the  species  occur  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
f]uropean  Fauna.  The  proportion  of  tliose  which  appear  confined' 
to  Europe  and  Northern  Africa  is  as  one  to  three. 

The  small  Granivorous  birds  not  only  present  a  great  diversity 
in  their  species,  but  a  considerable  preyK)nderance  in  their  nu- 
merical amount.  Forty-one  are  included  in  the  European  list; 
two  of  which,  at  certain  seasons,  freciuont  the  polar  regions  in 
great  numbers,  but  are  nevertheless  abundant  in  all  the  northern 
Eurnppan Kingfiaher.  latitudes;  sevcu  inhabit  North  America,  and  three  extend  both 

to  Asia  and  Africa;  so  tiiat  Europe  may  be  considered  the  metroiwlis  of  nearly  thirty  pecu- 
liar species. 

Tiie  Scansorial  birds  are  few;  yet  eight  out  of  the  fift;een  recorded  as  European  are 
unknown  in  other  regions.  It  is  among  the  Insectivorous  and  soft;-billed  birds  tliat  we  must 
l(K)k  for  the  principal  ornithological  features  of  any  particular  region.  Tiio  immense  family 
of  iluinniing-birds  in  tiio  New  World,  and  of  Mclliphagido?,  or  Iloney-suckers,  in  tiie  A"s- 
tralian  islands,  would  alone  be  sutlicient  to  mark  those  regions  with  a  distinct  zoologiriil 
character.  To  what  cause  we  are  to  attribute  the  fact  that  these  birds,  by  no  means  defioi'  ut 
in  the  iwwer  of  flight  (which,  indeed,  in  many  of  tliem  is  considerably  developed,)  sho'ld 
n'^vertheless  be  so  strictly  confined  within  certain  geograpliic  limits,  remains  unexplaii'-d. 
We  can  only  in  this  place  illustrate  the  fact.  Of  eighty-five  species  belonging  to  the  J  in- 
mean  genera  of  Tardus,  Sylvia,  Parus,  and  Muscicapa,  eighty-tw  i  are  strictly  Europe  m. 
Ill  this  number  we  of  course  include  those  which  migrate,  at  cer  ■  seasons,  to  Nortl>-^rn 
Africa  and  Western  Asia;  fJir  these  regions,  it  must  be  ai',vi\."  remenL'iereil,  come  wi  .lir, 
the  zoological  province  we  are  now  tre;iting  of;  yet,  if  we  i. ,'!..'  Mio  •  ,  iiiber  of  tliese  vv>>ti:l) 
hav(,'  actually  been  detected  in  i)arts  hri/nnd  the  shores  of  li  -diterrniiean    n  one  r-de, 

and  Western  Asia,  on  the  other,  they  will  amount  only  .o  t  "•  leavinir  seventy-two  i-'  a 
(parked  peculiarity  In  tiie  ornithology  of  i;urop(\  In  liirthei  in  \if  of  the  liinite,!  rino'  ■ '.' 
Uiese  fiimilies,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  three  only  out  of  eighty  ;••■(■  1  ave  been  d'.aettt.     ' 


Book  III. 


.N  ITS  RELATION  TO  ANIMAI-S. 


le  dispersion 
[heavy  bodies 
'  range  tlian 
ing:eiiiously 
wJiich  many 
ipecies  being 
I'ogists,  how. 
d(B  are  pecu- 
^se  vvlio  ]iavi.> 
I  to  have  re- 
'  genera,  in 
Jrity  of  tlie 
irder  is  very 
ixtends  from 
'*'  Asia ;  and 
\vinfl:s,  ppr- 
M'rica,  over 
ous  birds  as 
ose  rejrions 
'us  gaibiila, 
icteristic  of 
Gnllinaceffi, 
f;r  are  thns 
ifan  desnrt, 
lerieu. 
ic-  swallou-, 
s  for  their 
wan  KiniT. 
-ry:  hence 
nits  of  the 
ir  confiiied ' 

t  diversify 
1  tiioir  nii- 
poan  list; 
regions  in 
!  northern 
tejid  lx)ti, 
'ty  pocu- 

poaii  are 
wn  must 
'0  ffi roily 
the  A'^s- 

Hlloffiral 

:lefiei'  nt 
)sho..|d 
plaiii.'d. 
tlio  J  ,n- 
irop*  in. 
lorth-rrn 
'■  w]  oin 

ie  >-do, 
o  I.'  a 
in!>'  ■■'.' 
ctt,     > 


America ;  and  that  the  identity  of  one  of  these  (Parus  atricapillus  L.)  with  an  European 
species  (Parus  paiustris  L.)  i»  very  questionable. 

The  Omnivorous  birds,  as  the  Sturnidie,  Corvidte,  &c.,  are  the  last  requiring  notice.  A 
few  of  these  appear  widely  dispersed ;  but  upon  the  whole,  several  species,  and  even  peculiar 
irenera,  are  left  to  characterise  this  portion  of  the  world.  We  may  state  their  rumber  at 
Uventy-one :  thirteen  of  which,  or  more  than  one  half,  habitually  reside  in  Europe ;  four  occur 
in  Northern  and  Central  Africa ;  one  (Pastor  roseua  T.)  inhabits  both  the  table-land  of  Asia 
and  the  deserts  of  Central  Africa ;  and  three  have  been  found  in  Ame-ica. 

These  details,  tedious  perliaps  to  the  general  reader,  but  interesting^  to  the  man  of  science, 
it  becomes  necessary  to  dwell  upon,  before  any  valid  deductions  can  be  drawn  from  the 
tacts  tiiey  exhibit.  In  this  difficult  and  somewhat  laborious  investigation  we  have  boen 
much  assisted  by  .the  writings  of  Wilson,  Temminck,  and  Le  Vaillant ;  but  more  than  all  by 
tlie  liberality  which  throws  the  magnificent  collections  of  the  French  Museum  open  to  the 
use  of  ail  scientific  inquirers,  wliatever  their  object  or  their  nation  may  be,*  It  cannot, 
however,  be  supposed  that,  even  with  greater  sources  of  information,  some  fnaccuraciea 
may  not  have  occurred.  Such  calculations,  in  short,  from  their  very  nature,  can  nevjr 
be  perfect;  because  they  are  founded  upon  present  knowledge,  and  that  is  perpetually 
extending.  The  most  that  can  be  done  is  to  make  as  near  an  approximation  to  the  truth  as 
circumstances  will  admit;  and  having  done  this,  the  result  may  be  entitled  to  some  degree  of 
confidence. 

As  a  general  recapitulation  of  the  European  birds,  we  may  state  the  total  number,  exclu- 
sive of  a  few  which  occasionally  appear  at  remote  intervals  as  stragglers,  at  388.  Of  tliese, 
thirty-one  are  more  peculiar  to  the  arctic  regions  of  Europe,  America,  and  probably  of  Asia; 
the  proportion  being  as  one  to  thirteen.  Sixty-eight  (forty  being  oquatic)  occur  also  in  tem- 
perate America ;  nine  are  dispersed  over  four  divisions  of  the  globe,  to  neither  of  which  can 
tiiey  be  particularly  appropriated ;  and  either  one  (Numeniiis  Phoepus)  or  two  extend  to 
Australia.  With  these  deductions,  the  number  will  thus  be  reduced  lo  about  28U.  If  ii-om 
these  we  abstract  such  others  as  may  possibly  have  a  partial  range  beyond  the  limits  already 
defined,  the  number  may  be  further  reduced  to  about  250 ;  so  that,  even  with  this  allowance, 
nearly  two  thirds  of  the  birds  of  Europe,  Northern  Africa,  and  Western  Asia  may  safely  be 
considered  as  zoologically  characteristic  of  those  countries. 

Another  character  in  European  ornithology  deserves  attention.  This  regards  the  superior 
number  of  generic  types  which  it  exhibits,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  species.  I'hese 
genera  amount  to  108,  omitting  those  which  have  not  been  generp.lly  adopted,  or  which,  from 
the  modifications  of  form  being  but  slight,  should  more  pi'operly  be  termed  sections.  Tlie 
proportion  which  these  genera  bear  to  the  number  of  species  (estimated  before  at  388) 
amounts  to  more  than  two  to  seven ;  or,  in  other  words,  does  not  give  seven  birds  to  two 
genera.  It  is  further  remarkable,  that  most  of  these  exhibit  in  their  structure  the  greatmt 
perfection  of  those  orders  or  families  to  which  they  respectively  belong ;  and  which  groups 
are  denominated  by  naturalists  typical.  True  it  is  that  such  genera  are  widely  dispersed ; 
but  in  no  division  of  the  world  do  they  appear  so  numerous,  in  proportion  to  the  specie?"-  as 
in  Europe.  This  remark  not  only  applies  to  the  typical  genera,  but  is  frequently  ap;>  ■(-  '  '■; 
to  the  number  of  species  they  respectively  contain.  One  instance  may  suffice.  The  jioblo 
falcons,  or  those  to  whom  the  generii"  name  of  Falco  is  now  restricted,  are  gene  fiily  con- 
sidered the  most  typical  group  of  their  family :  of  these,  the  Kes'jil  {fg.  79.)  and  1;  v  c  otiKr-  ■? 

have  their  metropolis  in  Europe  and  Northoni  Africa.  T- 
whole  of  North  America  has  hitherto  produced  but  four.  Le 
Vaillant  enumeratss  the  same  number  from  Southern  and  Cen- 
tral Africa.  Those  of  Central'Asia  are  not  known;  but  only 
two  have  been  recently  described  as  peculiar  to  the  vttst  re- 
gions of  Australia.  Now,  if  we  merely  look  at  these  respective 
numbers,  the  difference  does  not  appear  very  remarkable ;  but 
when  the  great  inferiority  between  the  Caucasian  regions  and 
those  of  America,  AtVica,  and  Australia,  in  point  of^xlent,  is 
taken  into  the  account,  it  will  be  immediately  been  that  the 
proportion  of  these  eminently  typical  species  in  the  European 
regions  is  particularly  great.  Among  the  typical  groups  of 
the  wading  and  swimming  birds  this  is  still  more  apparent ;  so  that,  if  we  endeavour  to 
define  what  is  the  most  striking  featuio  in  the  ornithology  of  this  zoological  province,  none 
is  so  remarkable  as  the  number  of  purely  typical  groups.  This  peculiarity  will  be  more 
apparent  on  looking  further  into  the  matter.  The  total  number  of  birds  throughout  the 
world,  existing  in  museums  or  clearly  described  a  authentic  works,  may  be  estimated  at 
(iflOO,  These  have  been  arranged  under  about  380  genera ;  but  as  several  of  these  genera 
will  comprise  more  than  one  sub-genus,  we  will  put  down  400  as  o  nearer  approximation  to 


The  Kestfil. 


♦  We  'Imve  been  offir.ialbj  informed  that,  liy  the  Inws  of  the  ZonloBiial  Snciet /  nf  Lontlnii,  no  one  can  rcceivs 
permission  to  uiake  use  of  thuir  Museum,  ibr  f(enural  scimititic  purposes,  who  ib  not  a  member. 

23* 


270 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  II. 


(iorrectness :  this  would  leave  rather  more  than  fourteen  species  to  each  generic  group 
wiiile,  if  the  ornithology  of  Europe  and  Northern  Africa  is  alone  considered,  the  proportion 
is  no  more  than  one  to  three ;  and  even  this  will  be  further  diminished  when  those  geo- 
)i{raphic  groups  among  the  fVingillida:  and  Sylvaidee,  which  are  decidedly  peculiar  to  this 
portion  of  the  globe,  are  investigated  and  defined.  Now,  it  is  very  singular  that,  in  speak- 
mg  of  the  leading  varieties  of  the  Caucasian  race,  a  writer,  whose  testimony  is  no  mean 
authority,  .  bserves,  "  that  the  tribes  among  the  Caucasians  are  more  numerous  than  in  any 
other."  And  again — "  Whether  we  consider  the  several  nations  or  the  individuals  in  each, 
bodily  differences  arc  much  more  numerous  in  the  highly  civilized  Caucasian  variety  than  in 
either  of  the  other  divisions  of  mankind."  {Laiorence,  p.  442.  475.)  When  we  glance  over 
the  list  of  those  nations  generally  supposed  to  have  sprung  from  this  type,  we  are  struck 
with  the  justice  of  these  observations.  It  is  the  more  remarkable,  as  the  regions  they  occupy 
are  disproportionably  small,  when  compared  with  those  peopled  by  the  Mongolian  and  Ethi- 
opian  races.  That  there  are  mstances  wherein  typical  forms  of  higher  groups  than  genera 
do  not  occur  within  the  European  range,  is  a  circumstance  which  will  not  materially  atfoct 
the  question.  Thus  the  only  European  bird  belonging  to  the  Tenuirostres  of  M.  Cuvier 
is  the  European  Hoopoe  (  Upupa  Epops),  which  is  certainly  not  a  typical  example ;  but  tiiis, 
80  far  as  tribes  are  concerned,  is  the  only  exception  to  the  rule.  It  is  curious,  also,  thai  thia 
exception  should  occur  in  that  division  which  comprises  the  smallest  and  weakest  of  birds. 
If  we  descend  to  families,  tliere  is  scarcely  one  pre-eminently  typical  of  its  own  perfection 
which  is  not  European.  A  further  objection  may  possibly  be  urged,  that,  although  such 
forms  are  indeed  abundant  in  this  Fauna,  they  are  nevertheless  found  in  nearly  every  other 
part  of  the  world  ;  and  cannot,  therefore,  be  looked  upon  as  characterising  Europe  more  than 
any  other  country :  but  this  will  not  be  a  just  conclusion,  unless  it  is  first  shown  that 
the  proportion  of  such  types  to  the  total  number  of  European  species  is  not  decidedly 
greater  tlian  in  any  other  region.  Now  the  facts  we  have  already  stated  prove  this 
beyond  doubt. 

These  results,  obtained  from  unquestionable  data,  are  so  important  to  our  present  inquiry, 
that  tlieir  hasty  notice  would  not  have  been  sufficient.  The  materials  for  illustrating  the 
ornithology  of  Europe  are  naturally  more  numerous  than  can  be  expected  for  other  portions 
of  the  globe ;  and  it  became  very  desirable  to  ascertain  how  far  the  ornithology  of  those 
regions,  occupied  by  the  Caucasian  race,  presented  a  peculiarity  of  character  sufficiently 
strong  to  show  a  mutual  relationship  with  the  geographic  distribution  of  this  variety  of  man. 
We  are,  I  think,  sufliciently  authorised  to  consider  that  both  are  in  unison.  At  least,  there 
are  so  many  smgular  points  of  analogy,  as  to  render  it  highly  probable  that  there  exists  an 
intimate  relationship  between  the  distribution  of  one  race  of  mankind  and  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal geographic  divisions  of  birds. 

How  far  this  view  of  European  ornithology  would  be  bornt)  out  by  an  extended  investiga- 
tion of  other  orders  of  animals,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  Yet  even  if  our  present  limits  would 
permit  the  inquiry,  we  shouli'  have  to  rely  more  upon  theory  than  facts.  Many  of  the 
quadrupeds  of  Europe  have  long  been  slowly  but  certainly  disappearing,  in  proportion  as 
culture  and  civilization  have  advanced ;  and  any  conclusions  drawn  from  those  which  still 
remain  in  a  wild  state  would  be  open  to  great  objections,  particularly  as  the  question  must 
necessarily  embrace  the  nature  of  those  no  longer  existing,  but  whose  bones  occur  in  a  fossL 
state  throughout  Europe.  We  think  it  may  fairly  be  presumed  that,  in  all  those  convulsions 
which  have  agitated  our  globe,  birds  have  suffered  less  than  any  other  vertebrated  animals, 
Their  fossil  remains  are  few,  and  of  rare  occurrence ;  while  extensive  deposits  of  bones  and 
skeletons,  belonging  to  quadrupeds,  reptiles,  and  fish,  occur  more  or  less  abundantly  in 
almost  every  region,  and  attest  the  wide  destruction  to  which  such  animals  were  exposed. 
It  naturally  follows  that,  in  tracing  the  distribution  of  the  feathered  creation,  we  are  Icfl 
unshackled  by  geological  controversy. 

Tiie  few  observations  on  the  Ichthyology,  Entomology,  and  Conchology  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean we  shall  hereafter  make,  in  conjunction  with  those  of  Britain,  will  be  found  in  unison 
with  tho|if^  features  in  the  geographic  distribution  of  birds  we  have  already  traced ;  and  will 
equally  evince  the  propriety  o^  incluumg  the  whole  under  one  zoological  division.  Tl)is 
we  propose  to  name  the  Euro2)ean.  Such  a  designation  is,  indeed,  somewhat  objectionable, 
inasmuch  as  it  embraces  not  only  Europe,  but  Northern  Africa  and  Western  Asia;  yet  it 
will,  perhaps,  convoy  more  definite  ideas  than  if  the  name  were  adopted  frr  m  the  particular 
race  of  men  belonging  to  these  regions. 

2.  The  Monc^olian  or  Asiatic  Province, 
The  birds  of  the  Mongolian  range  will  be  now  adverted  to.  The  typical  nations  of  this 
variety  of  man  occupy  the  remaining  portion  of  the  vast  continent  of  Asia ;  while  their 
charactoristic  peculiarities  ."ppear  hieriilfd  with  the  Malays  in  the  more  eastern  islands  of 
the  Indian  Archipola!!o.  The  oriiithfiloury  of  such  a  va^t  proportion  of  Asia  is  as  varied  as 
it  is  remarkublo;  but  the  very  imperfect  nature  of  the  mntorials  hitherto  furnished  for  its 
elucidation,  renders  it  impossible  for  us  to  give  those  satisfactory  data  wliich  have  beer 


,„ by 

interest  to  tl 

likely  to  sup 

i„  the  East,  I 

naturalist,  re 

For  our  pi 

attirstUayc 

province,  ttie- 

of  the  typico 

anc^  even  ex' 


leric  group 
^  Pi-oportion 
'  fnose  geo. 
uliar  to  this 
f .  in  speak. 
Is  no  mean 
pnan  in  any 
P-^B  in  each, 
ffy  than  in 
plance  over 
fare  strucJt 
hey  occupy 
>  and  Ethi. 
'an  genera 
^'ally  affect 
M.  Cuvier 
I  -  but  this, 
fo.  that  tliis 
5t  of  birds, 
perfection 
ougli  such 
very  other 
more  than 
lown  tiiat 
decidedly 
prove  this 


Book  III. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  ANIMALS. 


271 


inquiry, 


It: 

rating  tiie 
-r  portions 
y  of  those 
ufficientlj 
ty  of  man. 
-ast,  tliere 
I  exists  an 
the  prin- 

investiga- 
its  would 
ly  of  the 
ortion  ae 
hicli  still 
on  must 
fi  a  foissi, 
ivuJsions 
animals. 
)nes  and 
antly  in 
'xposed. 
ire  left 

fediter- 
unison 
nd  will 

Ti)i8 

wabie, 

yet  it 

ticular 


f  this 
their 
dsof 
ed  as 
ir  its 
beer 


furnisiiod  by  writers  on  tiie  birds  of  Europe,  Naturalists  look  forward  with  the  greatest 
interest  to  the  speedy  termination  of  the  zoological  researches  of  General  Hiirdwicke,  aa 
likely  to  supply  these  deficiencies.  The  vast  stores  of  knowledge  which  a  long  residence 
ill  the  East,  and  an  ardent  passion  for  natural  history,  have  placed  at  the  command  of  this 
niitiiralist,  render  liim  peculiarly  qualified  for  such  an  undertaking. 

For  car  present  purpose,  minute  detail  is  not,  however,  essential.   Whatever  doubts  might 
at  first  have  arisen  on  the  propriety  of  considermg  Europe  as  the  centre  of  an  ornithological 
iirovince,  there  can  be  none  with  respect  to  Asia.    It  is  in  these  regions  that  the  chief  sea 
of  tiic  typical  Gallinaceo;  is  placed ;  they  abound  in  China,  Thibet,  the  Indian  Peninsula 
and  even  extend  to  those  islands  which  are  considered  the  confines  of  the  Mongolian  raco 

The  larger  species,  arranged  in  the  genera 
Pavo  and  Polyplectron.  appear  to  charac- 
terise tlie  more  elevated  and  central  parts 
of  the  continent ;  while  those  of  the  genus 
Gallns  are  more  numeruus  in  Sumatra, 
Java,  and  the  adjacent  islands.  The  phea- 
sants of  China  and  Thibet  form  a  no  less 
striking  feature  in  Asiatic  ornithology;  five 
species  of  magnificent  plumage  are  pecu- 
Tho  Silver  Pheasant.  ~     liar :  one  of  these,  the  elegant  Silver  Phea- 

eant  {Nycthemerus  argentatus)  (Jig.  80.)  has  been  long  domesticated  in  our  aviaries.  Three 
other  superb  species  represent  a  group  (Lophophorus  Teni.),  discovered  only  upon  the  con- 
tinent. The  whole  of  these  Gallinaceous  genera  are  totally  unknown  in  Africa,  Australia, 
or  in  the  New  World.  When  to  these  we  add  the  Hornbills  {Buceridxp),  the  Sun-birds 
{Cinni/riilce),  the  shorfr-legged  Thrushes  (G.  Brachypus),  the  short-tailed  Thrushes  (Pittip), 
certain  groups  among  the  Psittacidce,  and  many  others  totally  unknown  in  Europe,  Northern 
Africa,  and  Western  Asia,  yet  abounding  in  the  Mongolian  nations,  no  further  details  appear 
neressiiry  to  mark  the  ornithological  peculiarities  of  Asia,  as  distinct  from  those  of  Europe. 

From  the  Asiatic  islands  it  would,  perhaps,  be  more  natural  if  we  proceeded  at  once  to 
r.otice  the  Malay  or  Australian  range,  as  it  is  here  that  the  Faunas  of  these  divisions  of  the 
trinho  evidently  meet.  But  as  this  would  interfere  with  the  order  observed  in  the  early 
portion  of  this  essay,  we  shall  pass  fi-om  the  northern  regions  of  Asia  to  those  of  the  New 
World ;  particularly  as  both  present  a  mixed  race  of  men,  probably  originating  from  the 
Asiatic  continent. 

3.  TVie  American  Province. 
We  proceed  to  a  rapid  sketch  of  American  ornithology.  It  has  already  been  shown  tliat, 
excepting  the  Natatorial  birds,  there  are  fewer  species  comnion  alike  to  Northern  America 
and  to  Europe  thon  might,  perhaps,  have  been  supposed ;  yet,  were  the  proportion  much 
greater,  the  circumstance  would  only  prove  that  nature  knows  no  abrupt  distinction.  It  is 
not  to  the  remote  ramifications  which  she  employs  to  connect  her  chain  of  operations  that 
our  attt^ntion  is  to  be  fixed ;  for  they  are  too  subtih  to  be  unravelled  by  beings  with  facul- 
ties so  limited.  But  as  soon  as  she  quits  these  inexplicable  jnnzes,  and  again  displays  her- 
self in  a  new  but  decided  form,  we  may  hope  to  gain  some  acquaintance  with  her  laws. 
It  is  not,  therefore,  from  cither  extremity  of  the  Nov/  World  that  we  must  form  our  opinion 
on  its  zoological  peculiarities.  The  orrithology  of  the  Northern  latitudes  is  evidently 
blended  with  that  of  Europe,  and  m  all  probability  many  of  these  species  exist  in  Norlliern 
A.sia;  those  of  the  more  southern  parts  of  America,  beyond  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  Para- 
guay, are  nearly  unknown.  It  it  only  within  the  last  few  years  that  the  provinces,  elevated 
on  the  Mexican  Cordilleras,  and  now  constituting  a  great  republic,  have  been  opened  to  the 
natui.tlist;  and  although,  as  yet,  but  superficially  explored,  there  is  perhaps  no  region  in  the 
New  World  which  promises  to  yield  more  iiiieresting  facts,  as  connected  with  the  animal 
geography  of  that  hemisphere.  Even  the  configura.tion  of  the  continent,  at  the  junction  of 
it.'*  two  great  divisions,  is  typical  of  this  distribution.  It  appears  as  if  nature,  elevated  as 
on  a  throne  upon  this  vast  table-land,  7200  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  had  dispensed 
lior  forms  to  the  right  hand  and  to  the  left,  retaining  immediately  around  her  a  typical 
representation  of  every  group.  To  the  north  tihe  has  given  innumerable  flocks  of  slender- 
billed  insectivorous  birds  (Syhicola;  &.c.),  wh\c]\  .nuully  depart  to  breed  in  those  more 
temperate  climes.  These  are  accompanied  by  particular  species  f)f  Flycatchers,  Thrushes, 
Pigeons  and  Hangnests  (Ictcrhia);  the  two  latter  in  such  countle.ss  numbers  as  to  darken 
the  air.  To  Southern  America  hns  been  more  particularly  assigned  the  Macaws,  Toucans, 
Scansorinl  Creepers  {Denflrocolnptefi),  AnX.  Thrushes  (Mynthorina),  Ground  Doves  (CAc- 
mcppelid),  Tauiigers  {Tannprii),  Trogons,  Fruit-eaters  (Ampelidat),  and  the  numerous  and 
splendid  race  of  ITurnming-birds.  Yet  of  all  these  group?,  save  one  {Ampeliil<p).  typical 
exanfiples  are  concentrated  on  the  tab'Mnnd  of  Mexico.  These,  moreover,  arc  aerninpa- 
nied  by  some  peculiar  forms,  not  yet  discovered  in  citiier  portion  of  America,  and  by 
snecics  among  the  natatorial  tribes  hitherto  found  only  in  the  more  northern  latitudes. 


zn 


SCIENCF,  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  II, 


The  typical  Gallinaceous  birds  begin  to  sliowf  themselves  adjoining;  the  equator,  nuurly 
in  the  same  parallel  of  latitude  as  they  occur  in  Asia :  tliey  belong,  iiowevcr 
to  distinct  and  peculiar  types ;  as  the  genera  Meleagrip  Crax,  l*ei\Rloiie, 
Ourax,  Phosphea,  Ortalida,  and  Opisthoconius.  These  find  their  represent- 
atives, for  ttie  most  part,  in  the  ancient  continents,  but  not  one  species  lias 
been  detected  beyond  the  New  World.  The  foregoing  remark  applies  to 
tlie  two  great  divisions  of  the  Simia,  or  Monkeys,  so  accurately  illustratud 
by  tliose  distinguished  naturalists,  MM.  Cuvier  and  Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire. 

The  Melliphagous  groups  of  America,  at  the  head  of  which  shine  the 
splendid  family  of  Humming-birds  {fig.  81.),  form  the  chief  peculiarity  of 
its  ornithology ;  other  races,  scarcely  less  beautiful,  occur  in  Africa,  Asia, 
and  Australia :  yet  the  natural  genera  are  totally  distinct.  The  number 
of  species,  and  the  variety  of  forms,  among  the  frugivorous  birds  is  anotiier 
striking  feature  in  the  produi^tions  of  tlie  New  World.  Under  this  term 
Humming  Bird.  ^^  j^^gj  include  the  richly  coloured  Chatterers  {Ampelida  Sw.)  and 
Manakins  {Piprina  Sw.);  together  with  the  whole  femily  of  Tanagers  {Tanagrmat), 
Hangnests  {Icterina),  and  Parrots  (Psittacidte).  The  first  four  belong  solely  to  this  conti- 
nent, which  more  than  any  other  abounds  in  vast  forests  of  lofty  trees,  affording  a  perpetual 
and  countless  variety  of  fruits  and  berries,  adapted  to  nourish  ill  the  families  of  hard  and  .soft- 
billed  frugivorous  birds.  If  we  turn  to  the  other  orders  of  ve  :tebrated  animals,  the  Mollusca 
Annulosa,  or  RadiattB,  each  and  all  conspire  to  stamp  certain  peculiar  features  on  tiie 
zoology  of  the  New  World,  and  to  mark  it  as  a  distinct  zoological  empire. 

■  4.   The  Ethiopian  or  African  Province. 

The  chief  seat  of  the  Ethiopian  variety  of  our  species  is  central  Africa ;  while  most  writers 
agree  in  thinking  that  its  northern  limits  do  not  pass  tlie  Great  Desert.  The  pestilential 
atmosphere  of  tropical  Africa  has  been  an  insuperable  bar  to  the  researches  of  Europeans; 
and  all  the  ideas  that  can  be  formed  on  tiie  zoology  of  such  regions  must  be  gathered  fVom 
the  partial  gleanings  made  by  travellers  on  the  shores  of  Senegal  and  of  Sierra  Leone.  Tho 
ornithological  productions  received  fi'om  these  districts  evince  a  total  dissimilarity  from  those 
of  Northern  Africa,  but  intimately  accord,  both  in  species  and  genera,  with  the  ornitliolonry 
of  the  south:  to  this,  however,  there  are  several  exceptions.  The  Plantain-eaters  (Muso- 
phagida),  and  the  bristle-necked  Thrushes  {Trichophorus  Tem.),  are  among  the  groups 
hitherto  found  only  towards  Sierra  Leone.  The  Guinea  Fowl,  as  its  name  implies,  is  most 
abundant  in  the  interior  of  lliat  country,  where  three  species  have  been  discovered.  The 
common  Bee-eater,  and  the  Golden  Oriole  are  the  only  species  among  the  land  birds  ot 
Western  Africa  that  occur  in  the  European  range ;  and  these  extend  southward  to  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope.  The  whole  extent  of  Africa  south  of  the  desert  exhibits,  in  short,  a  marked 
difference  in  its  ornithological  groups  and  species  from  those  belonging  to  Europe,  Northern 
Africa,  and  Western  Asia.  The  comparatively  few  exceptions  of  birds  common  to  Europ*; 
and  the  Cape  cannot  diminish  the  general  force  of  this  remark,  but  merely  shows  that  a  few 
exceptions  must  never  be  taken  rs  tiie  groundwork  of  any  particular  theory.  It  is  to  one  of 
the  greatest  ornithologists  that  France,  or  indeed  any  other  nation,  has  produced,  that  wo 
are  indeWed  for  the  most  perfect  account  of  Soutii  African  ornitliclogy  yet  published ;  but  it 
must  ever  be  regretted  that  this  portion  of  M.  le  Vaillant's  labours  terminated  abruptly ; 
leaving  the  Gallinaceous,  Wading,  and  Swimming  orders  to  be  completed  by  sonic  other, 
who,  with  equal  enterprise  and  obnervation,  should  visit  the  same  regions,  and  record  their 
mannars  with  the  same  veracity. 

Between  the  ornithology  of  Africa  and  of  America  there  is,  vithin  the  same  parrjlels  of 
latitude,  a  \  ery  stro'ig  analogy,  although  (in  the  sense  in  whicli  wc  apply  the  tenn)  there  is 
none  of  affinity.  We  know  not,  in  short,  a  single  perching  bird  common  to  both  continents; 
although  in  the  rapacious  order,  which  among  terrestrial  birds  are  well  known  to  have  nearly 
the  widest  range,  two  or  three  species  occur  which  likewise  inhabit  both  extremities  ol 
Africa  no  less  than  North  Americi 

The  other  vertebrated  animals,  and  the  insects  of  Southern  Africa,  furnish  similar  results. 
On  examining  Uie  large  collection  (;f' insects  formed  by  Mr.  Burchell,  in  the  territories  of  the 
Cape  of  Gofid  Hope,  we  could  not  discover  one  out  of  many  hundreds  which  was  ♦'»  be  found 
in  a  much  more  confideralde  collet  tion  brought  by  us  from  South  America,  alt'i'^iigh  many 
generic  groups,  particularly  among  tix'  liepidoptera,  appeared  common  to  botn  contmenls. 

Between  the  faunas  of  Africa  and  America  the  difference  is  unquestionably  striking;  yet 
there  are  ei'veral  points  'rf"  connexion  between  the  ornithology  of  Africa,  Asia,  and  Aus- 
tralia; and  »h<!«e  appear  not  merely  in  generic  groups,  but  evwi  in  species.  Tlie  Drungo 
Shrikes  (G.  ndulius),  the  /iarva-eat«!ri»  (G.  Cehlipyria),  tlm  typical  Fiy-catchers  (G.  Mut- 
cipe'a,  C),  the  Crab-eaters  (O.  Halcyon),  the  Grakles  (Lamprotonis),  tha  African  SaxicolsSi 
the  two  groups  of  tropical  finohes  {EstrrhUi  Amadina  Sw.),  ar»riill  genera  common  to  those 
three  regions, — to  neither  of  which,  in  a  geogr;iphic  division,  can  they  be  exclusively 
assigned.     But  wo  need  not  dwell  further  on  such  resemblances,  which,  after  all,  are  but  sr 


The  region 

uon.  We  ha 
of  the  human 
or  history. , 

On  lookin 
thinking  tha 
are  peopled 
frequenUy  c< 
lespective  o 
usurped  the^ 
remarks  to  k 
those  smallc 
their  people 
That  the 
peculiar  ra( 
begin  to  dis 
be  altogeth 
respectively 
But  the  zoc 
not  only  by 
shall  in  thi 
islands,  wi 
India.    In 
the  Javanf 
,B  yet  unk 
vhese  groi 


The  I 

province 

India:  t 

&c.    In 

departui 

in  the  | 

lian.     ^ 

exhibits 

ing  reu 

learned 

to  the  ' 

thtit  th 

sunipti 

Austra 

these 

Vangi 

three  i 

the  F 

gleari.i 

mtm 

hitii«i 

oforn 

diviflii 

*»i 
IM 
Vc 


Part  U 


BooKin. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  ANIMALS. 


278 


ost  writers 
jestiloiitial 
Europeans; 
'lered  ftoiri 
one.    TIk 
trom  those 
•rnithciloTy 
rs  (Musu- 
'le  groups 
les,  is  niasi 
red.     The 
''•'  birds  of 
'  the  Cape 
a  marked 
Northern 
to  Eiirop«, 
'lat  a  few 
to  one  of 
that  w{j 
fJ ;  but  it 
ibruptJy ; 
10  otiier, 
t)rd  their 

"^ilels  of 
there  ig 
tineiits; 
!  neai'lv 
iiies  oi' 

results. 

'  of  the 

'  found 

many 

T.l8. 

Aus- 
rcngo 
Mus- 

these 
ivrjy 
ut  at 


many  points  of  connexion  between  geographic  divibions,  sufiiciently  distinct  in  their  nioro 
prominent  characters. 


■^^  i,  ti>  u^'ahi     5.  The  Malay  or  Auttralian  Province. 


'l.'ifi.   (11  •■...•:>;•»:> 


The  regions  peopled  by  the  Malay  tribes  is  the  last  zoological  division  requiring  elucida- 
uon.  We  have  already  adverted  to  the  great  diversity  of  tribes  comprised  under  this  variety 
of  the  human  race,  and  the  little  authentic  intbrmation  yet  collected  concerning  their  origin 
or  history.    The  zoological  results,  however,  ore  more  definite. 

On  looking  to  the  Indian  Archipelago,  as  to  that  region  where  physiologists  concur  in 
thinking  that  the  Malayan  form  is  first  apparent,  we  are  told  that  several  of  these  islands 
are  peopled  by  two  different  races  of  men  (^Lawrence,  p.  489.  and  Ouvier,  p.  187.)  ;  the  one 
frequently  confined  to  the  inland  tracts,  while  the  other  people  the  maritime  dfetricts :  their 
respective  origins,  however,  are  so  little  known,  that  it  is  still  a  matter  of  doubt  which  has 
usurped  the  territories  of  the  other.  {Marsdeti's  Sumatra,  326,  327.)  We  confine  these 
remarks  to  Sumatra  and  Java ;  for  witii  regard  to  the  vast  islands  of  Borneo,  Celebes,  and 
those  smaller  groups  to  the  eastward,  we  know  little  or  nothing  of  their  productions  or  of 
their  people. 

That  the  isthmus  of  Malacca  and  the  adjacent  islands  exhibit  the  first  indications  of  a 
peculiar  race  of  people,  is  a  fact  upon  which  all  writers  appear  to  agree ;  and  that  we  here 
begin  to  discern  the  indications  of  a  new  zoological  region  is  equally  certain :  yet  it  would 
be  altogether  rash,  with  our  present  limited  intbrmation,  to  hazard  any  theory  which  would 
respectively  assign  to  these  islands  a  definite  character  in  its  inhabitants  or  productions. 
But  the  zoology  of  Java  and  Sumatra  have  been  of  late  so  zealously  and  ably  investigated 
not  only  by  two  distinguished  British  naturalists,*  but  by  othersf  sent  from  France,  that  we 
shall  in  this  place  attempt  to  draw  some  results  from  their  labours.  The  omithologgr  of  these 
islands,  with  some  few  peculiarities,  differs  in  no  very  decided  manner  from  that  of  southern 
India.  In  both,  the  Gallinaceous  genera,  when  they  occur,  are  the  same,  although  some  or 
the  Javanese  species  differ.  Of  the  more  typical  Sturnidee,  common  to  the  Old  World,  but 
js  yet  unknown  to  the  Australian  or  Oceanic  islands,  no  less  than  three  inhabit  Java.  To 
vhese  groups  must  be  added,  Farus,  Sitta,  Bucco,  Cursorius,  Clareola,  Buceros,  Oriolns, 
02  Brachypus,  and  many  other  genera  characteristic  of  the  ancient 

continents.  The  number  of  typical  Scansorial  birds  within  the 
narrow  limits  of  these  two  islands  is  truly  remarkable.  Eig^t 
species  of  Picus  are  described  by  Dr.  Horsficld,  and  four  or  fi\e 
others ;  one,  the  Malacolophus  Concretus,  Sw.  {,fig.  82.),  of  a 
^^^^^^^  remarkably  small  size,  have  been  sent  to  France  by  M.  Diard. 

'"^  '^^^B^SS^  '^^^  ^^^^  absence  of  this  family  throughout  the  whole  Australian 
■'v^x'i^  , f^-pBIHF'  range,  is  a  circumstance  in  itself  sufficiently  strong  to  place  the 
ornithology  of  Java  and  Sumatra  beyond  such  limits ;  to  which, 
,Maiac')iophu«  Coiicretus.  nevertheless,  it  approximates  very  closely. 
The  birds  of  Java  and  Sumatra,  which  indicate  on  approximation  to  the  Australian 
province  belong  to  certain  genera  common  to  both  regions;  but  unknown  in  Africa  or 
India:  these  are.  Pitta,  Centropus,  Ocypterus,  Prinea,  Pogardus,  Crateropus,  Dacelo,. 
&.C.  In  the  Suctorial  birds  (the  Tenuirostres  of  M.  Cuvier,)  we  find  in  Java  an  evident 
departure  from  the  typical  form  of  Cinnyris  towards  the  Melliphagida  of  Australia, 
in  the  genus  Dic<eum;  lour  of  the  known  species  being  Javanese,  and  three  Austra- 
lian. What  little  is  yet  known  of  the  birds  of  New  Guinea,  and  its  surrounding  islands, 
exiiibite  a  still  greater  deviation  from  the  ornithological  features  of  India.  These  enchant- 
ing regions,  long  the  fiiiry-land  of  naturalists,  remained  nearly  unknown  until  visited  by 
learned  Frenclimen,  to  one  of  whom  has  been  assigned  the  distinguished  honour  of  giving 
to  the  world  the  fruits  of  their  scientific  and  important  discoveries.|  It  is  in  these  islands 
tliat  the  Melliphagous  genera  begin  to  be  developed  in  the  most  novel  forms,  and  the  most 
smiiptuous  plumage.  The  grand  Promerops  of  New  Guinea  can  only  be  likened  to  the 
Australian  Ptiloris.  Several  typical  Melliphagidee  are  in  M.  Lesson's  collections.  To 
these  we  can  now  add  two  species  of  genuine  Philedons  (Cuvier),  and  '•.wo  of  the  genus 
Vanga.  Th  d  group  of  which  the  Muscicapa  carinata  (Sw.)5  is  the  type,  displays  itself  in 
three  new  and  bcautifijl  birds,  accurately  described  and  figured  by  M.  Lesson.  The  stay  of 
the  French  naturalists  on  the  coast  of  New  Guinea  was  comparatively  short,  and  their 
!(]ea.vmgB  of  its  ornithology  could  not,  from  necessity,  be  otherwise  than  scanty ;  yet  it  is 
Burcrising  that,  among  the  birds  thus  procured,  so  large  a  proportion  should  belong  to  groups 
hitherto  supposed  peculiar  to  New  Holland.  It  is  clear,  therefore,,  in  a  natural  arrangement 
of  ornithological  geography,  that  the  islands  of  New  Guinea  may  be  safely  brought  into  that 
iJivi«ion  which  includes  New  Holland,  New  Zealand,  and  their  dependencies :  this  distribu- 


*  Mr  gtanilhrd  Rafllei  and  Dr.  Horsfletd. 
t  M  Leuon,  Vuyag«  autour  du  Monde. 


t  MM.  A.  liiivaueei  and  Diard. 
§  Zoological  Illuitrationt,  vol.  iii.  pi.  147.   Zool.  Joum.  i.  p.  300. 

2K 


'Wl 


SCIENCE  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 


PartH 


fe! 


Mdniira  Siipcrba 


tion  has,  indeed,  been  generally  adopted  by  geographers,  merely  from  the  relative  poaitiona 
of  tlicse  islands. 

On  the  zoology  of  New  Holland  it  is  scarcely  nscessary,  in  this  place,  to  expatiate.  All 
naturalists  concur  in  viewing  this  insular  continent  as  the  chief  metropolis  of  a  peculiar  ore. 
ation  of  animals ;  whose  limits  on  one  side  we  have  already  traced,  and  whose  range  on  the 
other  extends  over  the  ioQumerable  islands  scattered  in  the  great  Pacific  Ocean.  The  Menura 

Superba  (Jig.  83.)  is  the  moat  remarkable  gal- 
linaceous  bird  of  this  range.  The  Australian 
provmce  is  thus  in  full  accordance  v/ith  thedis. 
tribution  assigned  to  the  Malay  variety  of  oui 
species :  its  connexion  with  Asiatic  zoology  ia 
unquestionable ;  but  we  have  no  mcaiis  of  judg- 
ing into  which  of  the  three  remaining  divisiona 
it  blends,  at  its  opposite  extremity.  Of  the  biids 
peculiar  to  those  remote  clusters  of  islands  ad- 
joining the  north-west  coast  of  America  we  are 
completely  ignorant;  nor  are  our  materials 
8uflicie9t  to  nimish  even  a  plausible  conjecture 
on  the  subject.  Whether  the  Australian  province,  at  its  northern  limits,  unites  agam  with 
tlie  Asiatic,  the  American,  or  tlie  European,  must  therefore  be  left  to  future  discovery. 

We  have  now  completed  a  general  survey  of  the  distribution  of  birds  over  the  globe.  The 
fiicts  we  have  stated  show  the  propriety  of  arranging  the  wiiole  under  five  great  divisions  or 
provinces,  which  may  be  distinguiehed  as  the  European,  the  Asiatic.,  the  American,  the 
African,  and  the  Australian:  each  of  these  corresponds,  with  little  variation,  to  the  geogra- 
phic distribution  assigned  by  authors  to  the  different  races  of  man.  We  must,  therefore,  now 
adopt  one  out  of  the  two  following  conclusions :  either  that  there  is  just  and  sufficient 
ground  for  believing  that  the  distribution  of  man  and  aniniuls  in  general  has  been  regulated 
by  the  same  laws ;  or,  that  man  and  birds  have  been  distributed  alike,  and  all  other  animala 
differently.  To  us,  at  least,  the  latter  conclusion  appears  highly  improbable ;  not  only  as  being 
unsupported  by  the  least  shadow  of  evidence,  but  as  opposed  to  that  hannony  in  creation, 
which  is  more  apparent  the  more  it  is  viewed  in  all  its  relations. 

Sect.  V. — Oeneral  Summary  of  the  Subject. 

In  offering  these  elucidations  of  a  subject  so  vast  in  itself,  and  so  important  in  all  its 
Ijearings,  it  will  be  readily  perceived  that  two  diflferent  relations  between  animal  groups  are 
alluded  to ;  one  we  have  considered  as  of  affinity,  the  other  of  analogy ;  and  as  the  truth  or 
fallacy  of  these  views  will  mainly  depend  on  the  justness  of  these  distinctions,  a  few  obser- 
vations upon  them  appear  necessary.  Naturalists,  in  general,  have  considered  thos3  resem- 
blances which  exist,  between  certain  groups  placed  in  different  regions,  but  in  the  same 
parallels  of  latitude,  as  indicating  affinities;  and  on  this  supposition,  as  before  stated,  have 
framed  theories  by  which  animal  geography  has  been  divided  into  zones  or  provinces,  limited 
more  or  less  by  certain  degrees  of  latitude.  It  must  be  confessed  that,  upon  a  superficial 
view,  there  are  many  circumstances  which  appear  to  justify  such  a  theory.  Confining  our 
attention  to  that  department  of  nature  which  we  have  throughout  selected,  we  shall  partly 
recapitulate  our  former  observations. 

The  arctic  regions,  in  one  sense,  may  be  considered  an  ornithological  zone ;  for  not  only 
the  same  groups,  but  the  same  species  are  found  in  such  parts  of  Europe,  America,  and  pro- 
bably Asia,  as  enter  within  its  limits.  But  admitting  this  to  the  full  extent,  let  us  ask  if 
these  regions — by  the  number,  variety,  and  peculiarity  of  their  animals,  are  entitled  to  hold 
a  primary  rank  with  the  great  geographic  groups  already  mentioned  ]  Is  there  to  be  met 
with  among  the  arctic  birds  numerous  species  which  are  not  distributed  far  beyond  such 
limits]  Are  there  any  generic  or  sub-generic  groups  whicl.  do  not  occur  even  towards  the 
central  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America  1  These  questions  which  must  be  answered  in 
the  negative,  sufficiently  prove  that  the  Lrctic  regions  do  not  possess  the  characteristics  of  a 
primary  division;  they  must  rather  be  looked  upon  as  a  point  of  junction,  where  the  orni- 
thology of  the  three  northern  continents  blends  and  harmonizes  together. 

The  tropical  regions  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Worlds  have  likewise  been  united  in  one 
province.  How  widely  the  ornithology  of  these  countries  really  differs,  has  been  already 
explained.  True  it  is,  that  in  numerous  instances  one  group  typifies  another,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  American  Humming-birds  {7Vochilid<E)  being  represented  in  the  Old  World  by  the 
Sun-birds  {Cinnyridee) ;  and  such  relationship,  in  one  sense,  is  certainly  an  affinity,  inas- 
much as  in  the  natural  system  they  appear  to  follow  one  another ;  but  if  we  admit  such  a 
degree  of  affinity  to  be  a  suflScient  guide  to  a  distribution  of  birds,  we  must  also  do  the  same 
with  regard  to  the  varieties  of  man.  since  both  npnpiar  dispersed  upon  the  sumo  plan.  The 
red  Indian  of  America  as  certainly  represents  the  black  negro  of  Africa  as  the  latter  does 
the  sooty  inhabitant  of  New  Guinea;  yet  no  one  would  think  of  clnssyig  them  in  the  same 
race,  merely  because  they  inhabited  countries  under  similar  degrees  of  latitude.    The  di* 


BooKm. 


IN  I  rs  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY. 


Sill 


persion  of  particular  ffroups  and  of  their  species,  upon  the  whole,  is  more  in  a  longitudinal 
than  in  a  latitudinal  direction.  This  is  exemplified  in  a  remarkable  manner  by  the  migra^ 
tory  birds,  which  invariably  proceed  from  north  to  south,  or  from  south  to  north.  It  would, 
indeed,  appear,  that  if  animal  distribution  is  to  be  regulated  by  geographic  decrees,  as  accu-  , 
rate  notions  might  result  from  making  the  divisions  of  longitude  as  of  latitude :  both,  how- 
ever, would  be  clearly  artificial. 

These  parallel  relations  of  analogy,  which  everywhere  present  themselves  in  the  animal 
kingdom,  nevertheless  deserve  our  greatest  attention,  as  fraught  with  peculiar  interest  to 
the  reflecting  mind.  There  are  throughout  nature  so  many  immediate  and  remote  relations, 
eo  many  unexplamed  ties  of  connexion,  that  the  most  careful  of  her  students  are  perpetually 
misled  in  attempting  to  trace  her  footsteps.  In  ordinary  cases,  the  admirable  distinction 
that  has  been  drawn  between  affinity  and  analogy  (/for.  Ent.)  is,  perhaps,  the  best  that  can 
be  jrjven ;  yet  instances  might  be  named,  in  which  even  this  is  totally  inadequate  to  the  end 
proposed.  Natural  relations  are  so  complicated,  that  series  of  affinities  apparently  incon- 
testable, will  frequently,  upon  rigid  analysis,  turn  out  completely  erroneous ;  proving  no 
more  than  that  nature,  however  diversified,  presents  so  many  points  of  general  resemblance 
and  of  connexion,  that  partial  harmony  will  result  even  from  a  false  combination  of  parts. 
Let  us  not  therefore  conclude,  at  is  now  too  gensrally  done,  that  by  synthesis  alone  we  can 
exhibit  the  true  affinities  of  nature ;  that  we  may  henceforward,  without  hesitation,  assign 
to  each  of  her  productions  its  true  station  in  the  scale  of  being ;  that  we  have  suddenly, 
and  as  if  by  magic,  got  full  possession  of  that  mighty  secret  which  at  once  explains  her 
laws,  and  expounds  all  that  has  perplexed  the  wise  and  confounded  the  learned,  since  science 
first  dawned  upon  man.  That  the  circular  system  is  the  nearest  approach  yet  made  to  the 
true  disposition  which  pervades  nature, — a  system  which,  from  the  perfections  of  its  Creator, 
must  be  replete  with  order  and  beauty  surpassing  our  utmost  comprehension, — is  indisputable, 
because  none  other  has  attempted  to  explain  the  relations  of  parts  and  the  unity  of  the 
whole ;  but  farther  than  this  its  pretensions  must  not  be  carried :  it  still  involves  questions 
of  great  weight,  since  by  one  theory  the  number  of  its  primary  divisions  is  stated  to  he  Jive, 
while  by  another,  founded  on  much  more  extensive  analysis,  it  is  maintained  to  be  three. 
The  searcher  after  truth  will  give  to  those  his  patient  investigation,  his  cool  and  unpreju- 
diced judgment :  he  may  then  hope  to  make  one  step  nearer  to  truth ;  for  science,  in  all 
ages,  has  ever  remained  most  stationary  when  the  advocates  of  any  system  have  been  most 
prejudiced. 

It  is  with  these  qualifications  that  the  views  here  taken  on  the  distribution  of  man  and 
animals  are  given  to  the  reader.  It  has  been  our  desire  to  trace  a  connexion,  and  a  unity 
of  plan,  in  both,  and  to  simplify  a  subject  hitherto  involved  in  much  intricacy.  How  far 
this  object  may  have  been  attained,  it  is  not  for  us  to  determine ;  but  he  who  draws  proo& 
of  a  Divine  Creator  from  the  harmony  and  design  apparent  in  his  works,  has  surely  not  v/ritr 
ten  in  vain. 


CHAPTER  ni. 

GEOGRAPHY  CONSIDERED  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY. 

Man,  when  considered  not  as  a  mere  animal,  but  as  a  being  endowed  with  thought,  reason, 
and  contrivance,  capable  of  social  intercourse  and  union,  must  be  regarded  as  the  most  con- 
spicuous object  in  the  delineation  of  the  globe.  These  attributes  raise  him  to  the  first  rank 
in  tliis  lower  world ;  and  in  every  region  occupied  and  improved  by  him,  the  communities 
wiiich  he  has  formed  become  the  most  prominent  characteristic ;  all  other  beings  are  there 
subordinate  and  subservient  to  him.  The  description  therefore  which,  in  the  succeeding  part 
of  the  work,  will  be  given  of  the  different  regions  of  the  globe,  must  be  chiefly  employed  in 
delineatin"-  the  aspects  which  man,  as  an  active  and  social  being,  presents.  At  present, 
however,  it  would  be  premature  to  enter  into  the  numerous  details  which  this  subject 
embraces.  We  can  do  little  more  than  indicate  tlie  following  general  heads,  under  which 
it  will  be  treated : — 1.  Historical  Geography.  2.  Political  Constitution  of  the  different  coun- 
tries.   3.  Productive  Industry.    4.  Civil  and  Social  State  of  Man.    5.  Iianguages. 

Sect.  I. — Historical  Geography. 

A  survey  of  the  history  of  man  is  necessary  for  enabling  us  accurately  to  understand, 
and  duly  to  estimate  his  present  condition.  Not  only  inanimate  nature,  but  even  the  anima.. 
and  vegetable  kingdoms,  if  lefl  to  themselves,  would  remain  constantly  in  the  same  situation : 
the  changes  and  modifications  undergone  by  them  have  been  produced  entirely  bv  man's 
interposition.  That  improved  and  civilized  form  under  which  hn  now  appears,  is  the  result 
of  a  continued  succession  of  changes,  which  have  been  taking  place  from  the  earliest  periods 
of  authentic  history.  All  the  revolutione,  both  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  have  had  a 
greater  or  less  influence  in  producing  the  present  moral,  political,  and  social  condition  of  man 
in  the  more  improved  quarters  of  the  globe. 


276  •^"-      PMNCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY^  f  Paef  tt 

SvMKOT.  \.— Ancient  History. 

Ancient  history  is  generally  considered  as  compruhending  the  period  which  elapsed  from 
the  earlicat  authentic  records,  and  particularly  t'runi  the  rise  of  the  great  nionarcliies,  to  the 
downfall  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  various  forms  which  government  and  society  assumed 
during  that  long  period,  though  they  were  instrumental  in  preparing  those  which  have  exist- 
ed in  the  modern  world,  did  not  bear  any  exact  resemblance  to  them.  Through  the  conquest 
of  Rome  by  the  barbarous  nations,  with  which  the  first  of  these  eras  closed,  almost  every 
connexion  between  them  was  cut  oiT,  except  those  of  record  and  tradition. 

The  rise  of  the  great  monarchies,  Egypt,  Assyria,  and  Babylon,  constituten  tho  first  grand 
epoch  in  ancient  history  It  nearly  coincides  with  that  of  the  great  commer^.ial  republics, 
Tyre  and  Carthage.  Human  society,  which  had  before  existed  in  a  very  rude  and  imperfect 
shape,  began  to  assume  a  regular,  orderly,  and  even  splendid  character.  All  the  arts  which 
contribute  to  man's  support  and  : . jcommodation  were  carried  to  a  considerable  degree  of 
improvement ;  and  the  foundation  was  laid  of  those  intellectual  attainments,  which  were  to 
constitute  his  highest  honour.  Alphabetic  writing  was  invented  and  widely  diffused ;  the 
arts  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  made  a  considerable  progress ;  there  were  even 
formed  some  elements  of  science  and  philosophy.  During  this  periwi,  too,  while  the  world 
generally  was  buried  in  the  darkest  superstition,  a  divine  revelation,  preparatory  for  another 
more  perfect,  having  been  first  communicated  to  the  patriarchs,  was  more  formally  disclosed 
to  the  legislator  of  the  Jewish  nation. 

The  Persian  empire  embraced  a  wider  extent  of  the  globe  than  any  that  had  previously 
existed,  and  comprehended  those  countries  which  had  been  most  remarkable  as  the  seats  ot 
improvement  and  civilization.  Although,  however,  it  thus  became  instrumental  in  linking 
distant  nations  together,  it  bore  chiefly  the  character  of  empty  and  barbarous  pomp,  and  does 
not  appear  to  have  produced  any  material  advance  in  knowledge  and  improvement. 

Tho  rise  of  the  Grecian  States  formed,  perhaps,  the  proudest  era  m  the  history  of  the 
human  race.  The  constitutions  then  formed  afforded  a  degree  of  political  liberty,  and  a 
developement  of  the  higher  energies  of  the  human  mmd,  which  could  not  be  attained  in 
extensive  empires,  subjected  to  the  arbitrary  rule  of  a  single  individual.  The  military 
exploits  of  the  Grecian  poople,  by  which  they  baffled  the  force  of  almost  the  whole  known 
world  united  under  the  sway  of  Persia,  were  the  most  splendid  that  had  hitherto  illustrated 
the  annals  of  mankind.  Genius  was  exerted  with  nearly  unrivalled  power  in  every  depart- 
ment ;  the  historic  page  unfolded  its  utmost  degree  of  energy  and  beauty ;  and  many  sub- 
lime lessons  of  morality  were  taught  by  the  Grecian  sages.  The  fine  arts,  poetry,  painting, 
and  architecture,  reached  an  eminence  which  they  have  scarcely  since  regained,  and  in  each 
tht  purest  models  were  left  for  future  imitation.  After  Greece  had  long  maintained  a  glorious 
defensive  war  against  Persia,  her  arms  were  directed  to  conquest  The  reign  and  triumphs 
of  Alexander,  while  they  subverted  her  admired  forms  of  civil  polity,  diffused  her  languafje, 
her  arts,  her  knowledge,  over  a  wide  extent  of  the  eastern  world,  and  thus  ^spread  a  circle 
of  civilization,  the  traces  of  which  have  never  been  wholly  obliterated. 

The  dominion  of  Rome,  which  succeeded  and  overpowered  that  of  Greece,  extended  over 
a  still  greater  variety  of  countries  and  people,  than  had  been  comprehended  under  any  for- 
mer empire.  Her  character,  at  first  stern  and  austere,  was  gra<hiiil'  /  Hoftennd ;  and  on 
arriving  at  her  highest  pinnacle  of  wealth  and  power,  she  made  at  the  same  unie  an  unri- 
valled display  of  the  pomp  and  refinement  of  polished  life.  She  emulated,  without  fully 
equalling,  what  was  most  brilliant  in  the  arts  and  intellectual  attainments  of  Greece.  But 
the  most  signal  service  which  Rome  rendered  to  the  cause  of  civilization,  was  by  extending 
its  empire  over  wide  regions  in  northern  and  western  Europe,  wliich  had  [)rpviously  been  the 
seat  of  almost  complete  barbarism ;  though  they  now  form  the  most  enliglitened  and  im- 
proved portion  of  the  globe. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Modern  History. 

The  downfall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  which  marked  the  commencement  of  modern  his 
tory,  formed  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and  disastrous  eras  in  the  destiny  of  the  world. 
During  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  a  succession  of  barbarous  hordes  from  Germany, 
Scandmavia,  Russia,  and  even  the  remotest  extremities  of  northern  Asia,  poured  in  upon 
civilized  Europe,  and  exterminated  or  reduced  to  bondage  the  greater  part  of  its  people. 
All  the  arts  and  sciences,  which  had  shed  such  a  lustre  on  the  Greek  and  Roman  name, 
disappeared,  leaving  only  some  imperfect  remnants,  which  were  premtTved  in  the  depth  of 
monasteries.  The  empire  was  partitioned  into  a  number  of  disord-'rly  little  kingdoms,  gra- 
dually merged  into  a  few  great  monarchies,  which,  in  their  general  outline,  have  continued 
to  the  present  da^'.  This  era  was  also  distinguished,  in  the  Eajt,  by  the  introduc'ion  of  the 
religioH  of  Mohammed,  and  the  rise  of  the  Haracen  power,  which  undertook,  by  force  of 
arms,  to  diffuse  that  religion  over  the  world.  Its  armed  votaries  overran  a  great  part  of 
Asia,  Africa,  and  even  of  Europe,  and  continue  still  to  maintain  a  powerfiil  influence  ovci 
tlie  destinies  of  the  human  specie.s.    For  some  time,  the  states  formed  under  this  system  pre 


Dooxin. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY. 


877 


gented  a  somewhat  enligfhtened  aspect,  and  even  revived  the  expiring  lamp  ot  science ;  hut 
the  Hnul  issue  of  Monlctn  ascendcncv  has  been,  to  diffuse  through  the  world,  ignorance,  des-' 

lotism,  barbarism,  and  every  principle  hostile  to  human  improvement. 

The  feudal  system  was  established  ^rraduuUy  among  the  barbarous  states  formed  out  of 
the  dismembered  portions  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  king,  or  chief,  distributed  the  U^rri- 
tory  among  his  nobles  or  followers,  subject  only  to  the  condition  of  military  service.  These 
nobles,  possessing  almost  ur'  ''trolled  jurisdiction  within  their  own  limits,  holding  at  their 
disposal  the  services  of  nui,  > .  is  vassals,  took  ulvuntage  of  every  inten'al  of  weakness  in 
the  reign  of  the  sovereign,  anu  rendered  his  power  little  more  tbun  nominal.  They  reduced 
thn  body  of  the  people  to  a  state  of  comparative  slavery,  waged  numerous  private  wars  with 
eiich  other,  and  practised  various  robberies  and  extortions.  During  this  turbulent  era,  all 
retiried  arts  and  pursuits  languished,  while,  on  the  basis  of  ignorance,  superstition  erected  an 
ibHolute  and  tyrannical  dominion.  The  institutions  of  chivalry,  however,  which  were  then 
formed  and  gradually  improved,  introfluced  a  sense  of  honour,  and  a  dignity  and  refinement 
of  manners,  which  have  beneficially  influenced  modern  society.  This  period  was  also 
marked  by  the  piratical  inroads  of  this  Scandinavians  or  Northmen,  who  ravaged  all  the 
coasts  of  Europe,  and  obtained  at  least  a  temporary  poenessicn  of  considerable  districts  and 
even  kingdoms.  It  was  marked,  lastly,  by  those  memorable  expeditions  into  the  East, 
culled  the  crusades,  which,  though  attended  with  great  extravagance,  and  occasionuig  much 
disaster  and  bloodshed,  tended,  on  the  whole,  towards  the  improvement  of  European  policy 
and  social  life. 

The  K  Sversion  of  the  feudal  power,  accompanied  by  the  revival  of  knowledge,  arts,  and 
industry,  .  )rmed  a  most  memorable  era  in  tfip  'listory  of  mankind.  This  change,  which 
had  l)een  jr  several  ages  silently  preparing,  was  curried  into  complete  effect  during  the  fif- 
teenth and  sixteenth  centuries.  The  turbulent  rule  of  the  great  nobles  was  then  broker* 
down,  and  was  succeeded  by  several  extensive  but  mildly  aidministered  monarchies,  along 
with  some  free  and  commercial  republics,  and  in  one  instance  a  limited  constitutional  mon- 
archy. The  reformation  of  religion  eminently  distinguished  this  period ;  but  being  opposed 
by  the  violent  intolerance  of  the  Catholic  church,  it  gave  rise  to  a  series  of  dreadful  and 
sanguinary  struggles.  A  general  activity  prevailed  throughout  the  whole  sphere  of  human 
exertion.  The  revival  of  learning,  the  invention  of  printing,  the  extension  of  maritime 
enterprise,  leading  to  the  discovery  of  new  regions,  and  of  new  routes  to  those  formerly 
known,  rendered  the  age  peculiarly  eventful  and  interesting.  It  derived,  however,  a  some- 
what disastrous  character  firom  the  establishment  of  the  Turkish  empire  in  the  East,  by 
which  the  throne  of  the  Greek  emperors  at  Constantinople  was  finally  subverted,  and  very 
serious  alarms  spread  through  the  whole  body  of  the  European  nations. 

The  modem  system  of  polity  followed,  as  the  result  of  th^.  ^r^Ht  changes  which  had 
taken  place  in  the  preceding  period.  During  the sf^'-enteenth and  eighte.  'h  ;.  ^nturies,  when 
it  prevailed,  civilization  made  very  remarkable  ad-  Pi.-^es.  The  manners  of  toci  il  life  became 
more  polished  and  refined.  The  arts  and  sclent  o  were  carried  nearer  to  .)erfection,  and 
more  widely  difliised  through  the  great  body  of  inai.kind.  Amicable  relations,  before  un- 
known, were  established  between  the  different  r-iUons  of  Europe ;  fixed  laws  were  agreed 
upon  for  regulating  their  intercourse;  and  war,  when  it  did  occur,  was  carried  on  witli 
greatly  diminished  ferocity.  The  system  of  colonization  in  the  other  quarters  of  the  globe 
was  also  carried  to  a  vast  extent,  particularly  in  America ;  and  though  its  first  establishment 
was  attended  with  many  circumstances  of  injustice  and  tyranny,  it  had  the  effect  of  bringing 
11105^0  quarters  of  the  world  into  a  more  improved  and  civilized  condition. 

The  era  of  political  revolution,  which  commeti  ed  towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, being  that  which  is  still  in  progress,  cannot  be  characterised  in  so  decided  a  manner. 
The  formation  of  the  great  monarchies  had  deliveied  Europe  from  the  turbulent  sway  of  the 
feudal  chieftains ;  yet  the  almost  absolute  power  with  which  the  sovereign  was  then  invested, 
was  tbund  productive  of  many  evils.  The  hereditary  nobles,  exchanging  their  rural  seats 
for  a  residence  in  the  great  capitals,  and  indulging  in  ease  and  luxury,  lost  all  influence  over 
the  body  of  the  people.  The  di^fiision  of  inteMigen'-e  and  wealth  through  the  middling  and, 
in  wsme  degree,  even  the  lower  ranks,  was  follow*..;  by  a  demnnii,  on  their  part,  to  be  ad- 
mitted t«>  some  share  in  the  administration  of  public  aflairs.  This  spirit,  after  fermenting 
for  some  time,  and  being  diffused  by  the  exertions  of  many  distinguished  writers,  produced 
llie  French  revolution,  and  the  extraordinary  series  of  events  \>  hich  have  thence  arisen. 
That  great  crisis  did  not  merely  agitate  the  interior  of  France,  but  by  exposing  it  to  foreign 
int(>iforence,  and  then  impelling  its  own  rulers  to  schenr^s  of  conquest,  it  changed  for  some 
time,  in  an  extraordinary  manner,  the  asor^*  of  all  Europe.  Then,  however,  by  a  grand 
re-iction,  France  was  driven  back  withi  •  ginal  boundaries,  and  the  political  relations 
of  the  Continent  wore  re-established  ni  .  their  former  footing.     Considerable  agita- 

tions, however,  siiil  prf  vril  in  tiio  interiuF  .>.  di     rent  kingdoms,  and  their  political  constitu- 
tions have  suffered,  and  are  likely  to  suffer,  i;,uiPi    1  alterations. 

Voul.  84 


978 


ii-inMnH  wi  111. 


•n     PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOGRAPHY, 
Sectt.  II. — Political  Con$litution. 


/] 


PwitU 


The  political  ^unbtitution  under  which  aiiv  conununity  aubNiHts,  f()rinR  a  moat  important 
elemeni  in  its  social  comlitinn.  Bein^  UBually  (.'HtabiiHJied  within  certain  local  bouiularieH, 
and  accompanied  « .  >  '  "'milarity  in  maiuters,  ruli|fiun,  and  other  cluiractcrJHtic  cirruiii- 
■tonceii,  it  is  the  leaamg  agenl  in  constitutincr  a  country  or  state.  '  <  distributinij^,  thcsrctbre, 
the  four  quai'e'  s  of  the  globe  into  their  smaller  portions,  the  ge  ,;  ■  i .  ler  uses  ciiiefly  polltj. 
cal  divisir.is.  He  finds  states  which  have  made  any  progress  m  civilization  arranged  into 
kingdoms,  empires,  and  republics.  The  elements  of  political  power  appear  to  conHist  of 
monarchy,  aristocracy,  an<(  democracy;  while  the  public  functions,  to  be  exercised  witiiin 
any  btate,  are  the  executive,  lo^rialative,  und  judicial. 

A  kingdom  is  a  state  of  conHidorable  though  not  vast  extent,  governed  by  a  single  pcreon, 
as  France,  Spain,  Prussia.  Tlie  subjects  are  usually  united  by  a  similarity  of  langua^rc  und 
manners,  and  pervaded  by  a  national  spirit.  The  power  of  the  sovereign  is  conunoiily  ex- 
tensive, though  controlled  in  some  instances  by  national  assemblies ;  and  there  is  ali<«]iit 
always  a  body  of  nobles  possessed  of  high  privileges  and  immunities. 

An  empire  generally  consists  of  a  number  of  detached  kingdoinr^,  which  have  been  unitod 
by  conquest  under  one  head,  as  the  Turkish,  Persian,  and  Chineso.  Being  thus  formed  of 
an  aggregation  of  different  states,  empires  are  usually  of  very  great  ext  nt;  and  as  military 
force  has  been  the  instrument  of  their  combination,  the  sovereigns  exercise  almost  nlways  an 
unlimited  authority.  The  different  members  having  been  brought  into  union  by  force  only, 
rarely  feel  united  by  any  national  tie,  and  remain  very  dissimilar  in  manners,  religion,  ami 
Bocial  institutions. 

Republics  consist  of  states  which  own  the  supremacy  of  no  king  or  sovereign,  but  nre 
governed  by  a  senate,  an  assembly  of  the  people,  or  by  both  conjoined.  Though  these  govern- 
ments have  acted  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  history  of  the  world,  they  have  been  gcneriilly 
of  small  extent,  consisting,  in  many  instances,  of  not  more  than  a  single  city,  witii  u 
limited  cutsle  of  territory.  Where  this  form  of  government  has  buen  difRised  over  a  grunt 
surface  of  country,  it  has  consisted  usually  of  a  number  of  states,  joined  in  a  federal  union. 
This  is  remarkably  the  case  with  the  United  States  of  America,  where  such  a  government 
has  been  introduced  on  a  scale  of  greater  magnitude  than  in  any  other  quarter  of  the  globe. 

Monarchy,  among  the  elements  which  compost  "  e  political  system,  holds  the  most  con- 
spicuous place,  iiiii  "s  the  most  generally  prevalei.i.  In  some  cases,  the  power  of  the 
monarch  is  wh-yly  or  .  erjr  nearly  absolute.  In  a  majority  of  instances,  however,  it  is  more 
or  less  control'  'ii  by  t.ie  influence  of  certain  powerful  and  privileged  bodies.  In  some  con- 
stitutions the  DuNvr  of  the  monarch  is  combined  with  that  of  aristocratic  and  popular  bodies, 
which  share  v'ilh  the  sovereign  all  the  higher  functions  of  government.  These  are  called 
limited  monarchies,  (vnd  are  well  adapted  for  the  preservation  of  a  great  people  in  a  state  of 

E;ace  and  prosperity.  This  form  of^  government,  afler  being  for  a  long  tune  confined  to 
ritain,  is  now  spreading,  though  with  some  difficulty  and  confusion,  over  tiie  rest  of  Europe. 

Aristocracy,  or  the  power  vested  in  a  distinguished  and  privileged  class,  is  found  existing 
much  less  frequently  as  a  distinct  and  decided  form  of  government,  than  aa  an  element  com- 
bined with  monarchy  and  democracy.  Venice,  perhaps,  afforded  almost  the  only  example 
in  which  aristocracy  subsisted  for  a  series  of  ages  pure  and  unmixed.  In  monarchies,  the 
aristocracy  consists  of  a  body  of  nobility,  possessing  various  gradations  of  personal  and 
hereditary  titles  and  rights ;  while  in  a  republic  it  is  formed  iuto  a  deliberative  body,  or 
senate,  exercising  or  sliaring  the  powers  of  the  state.  In  mixed  monarchies,  botli  these 
privileges  are  usually  held  by  the  nobles. 

Democracy  is  the  name  given  to  the  government  in  which  the  sovereignty  resides  in  the 
great  body  of  the  citizens.  They  exercise  it,  either  in  a  general  assembly  of  the  whole 
nation,  or  by  means  of  persons  elected,  during  a  certain  period,  to  act  for  the  body  of  tiioir 
constituents.  The  former  was  the  mode  usual  among  the  ancient  republics ;  the  latter  is 
more  prevalent  in  modern  times,  and  is  alone  compatible  with  the  great  extent  of  territory 
occupied  by  the  leading  republics  of  the  present  day.  Popular  government  has  been  very 
generally  combined  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  with  aristocracy,  though  there  seldom  fails  to 
be  an  almost  incessant  opposition  between  the  two  parties. 

The  legislative,  among  the  different  functions  of  the  body  politic,  is  justly  considered 
supreme ;  it  estaWishes  the  laws  and  regulations,  according  to  which  all  public  affiiirs  are  to 
be  administered,  and  to  which  the  persons  exercising  the  other  fiinctions  are  bound  to  con- 
form. Countries  in  which  the  legislative  as  well  as  the  executiva  powei  is  exercised  by  one 
man,  form  absolute  monarchies,  where  every  thing  depends  upon  the  arbitrary  will  of  that 
single  individual.  A  purely  aristocratic  legislature  is  commonly  felt  to  be  severe  and  oppres- 
sive by  the  great  bofly  of  the  people.  A  government  cannot  be  considered  as  free,  unless 
the  various  classes  of  which  the  nation  is  composed  have  a  voice  in  legislative  arrangements. 
Those  poiitiuai  systems,  however,  in  which  the  laws  are  enacted  by  the  whole  body  of  the 
assembled  people,  are  fiUed  only  for  a  single  city  with  a  territory  of  limited  extent.  Of 
fiuch  a  nature  and  scale  were  the  ancient  republics  of  Greece,  and  also  that  of  Rome,  during 


the  earlier 
one  plivc*'.. 
cJHe  of  loffi 
remedied  h 
trlct  elect  i 
the  legiHlal 
been  consu 
The  judi 
individuals 
tinl  to  gew 
iifferent  m 
own  Btrcni. 
the  admini 
cem.    In 
usually  bl( 
of  procedn 
while  the . 
it  is  discov 
entirely  _Bt 
them. 
Bteges  of  ' 
the  view  < 
upon  these 
on  the  ain 
Other  i 
titles  of  ri 
and  naval 
the  nmnn< 


PA«Ttt 


't  important 

IwuiKlariei), 

'ic  cirouni. 

"leretbre, 

»«%  JX)litj. 

nH  iriu, 
consist  oi 
ined  '.vitJiin 

Sr'e  persKMi, 

iiinoiily  ex- 
is  almost 

•cpn  united 
forinod  of 

as  military 
nlvvuysan 

force  only, 

life'ion,  and 

n,  but  are 
'se  govern- 
generally 
ty.  with  u 
'er  a  great 
'nil  union. 
>vernniont 
the  globe, 
most  con- 
er  of  the 
it  is  more 
some  con- 
lur  bodies, 
ire  called 
a  etute  of 
'nfined  to 
f  Europe. 
e.\isting 
lent  com- 
exaniple 
hies,  the 
)nal  and 
body,  or 
•til  these 

«  in  the 
e  whole 
of  their 
latter  is 
erritory 
en  very 
faik  to 

sidered 
i  are  to 
to  con- 
by  one 
3f  thar 
)ppres- 
unless 

of  the 

Of 

luring 


Boot  ni. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY. 


m 


'■entivi     nd  legiHhitive  ftinctions  are 

'unai  of  judpment,  and  the  torins 

nd  plead  tin  m  cause  vivAvocfi; 

ur*'«  r  progress  of  improvement, 

be    .Illy  executed,  without  beinff 

•onts,  and  made  independent  or 

I  agents,  by  whom  the  different 

iS  cndes  of  law  are  formed,  with 


tlie  earlier  pfiriods  rif  her  history.  But  when  the  whole  of  a  great  people  are  convened  into 
one  place,  they  form  a  mere  tumultuary  crowd,  incapable  of  any  refnilar  or  etlectual  exer- 
ciHC  of  legislative  AinctionR.  This  disadvantage  has,  amon^  modem  i  tir)ns,  been  Htudiously 
remedied  by  the  representative  system,  under  which  the  inhabitants  if  each  dillerent  dis- 
trict elect  an  individiml  underst^Mid  to  possess  their  confidence!,  who  exercises  in  their  sti-ad 
the  legislative  function.  Iljwn  this  l«uiiH  have  been  founded  those  constitutions  that  have 
been  considered  as  exhibiting  the  most  perfect  forms  of  civil  polity. 

The  jiulicial  power  provides  for  the  security  of  person  n  "1  p  nierty  among  all  ranks  of 
individuals  composing  the  political  body,  and  forms  thus  one  of  '  •  arrangements  most  esHon- 
tial  to  general  prosperity  and  well-bemg.  The  institutions  I.  ,  this  purpwe  vary  greatly  in 
different  nations  and  stages  of  society.  Among  very  nnh;  tribcn,  the  indivi''  ml  has  only  his 
own  strength  and  that  of  his  kindred  to  nid  in  repelling  aggression.  As  huciety  advancos, 
the  administration  of  justice  between  man  u  1  n'  '"comen  i  leading  object  of  public  con^ 
cnm.  In  the  earlier  forms  of  polity,  howo'  .r,  t 
usually  blended ;  the  monarch,  or  his  deputy,  litb  i 
of  procedure  are  exceedingly  simple.  The  p^-tiep 
while  the  judge  decides  promptly  and  on  the 
it  is  discovered  that  this  branch  of  public  eci. 
entirely  separated  from  the  legislative  and  jud . 
them.  Hence  arise  the  different  orders,  judges,  lav 
stages  of  procedure  are  conducted ;  written  and  vo 

the  view  of  providing  for  every  particular  case.  Yet  the  expeiine  and  delay  consequent 
upon  these  complicated  arrangements  sometimes  cause  the  society  to  look  back  with  regret 
on  the  simple  and  expeditious  machinery  cmplo"ed  by  iheir  rude  ancestors. 

Other  important  particulars  are  comprehended  in  the  political  state  of  a  society : — the 
titlet  of  nobility,  ond  the  badges  of  honour  and  distinction  among  individuals ;  the  military 
and  naval  force  employed  in  the  defence  of  a  country ;  the  elementg  which  compose  it;  and 
the  manner  in  which  these  are  arranged  and  directed.  The  same  subject  embraces  also  the 
revenue,  its  amount,  the  sources  whence  it  is  derived,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  levied 
and  expended. 

Sect.  III. — Productive  Industry. 

The  industry  of  a  nation  is  employed  in  producing  the  necessaries,  the  conveniences,  the 
ornaments,  and  the  luxuries  of  life — all  that  is  comprehended  under  the  name  of  wealth.  It 
forms  thus  one  of  the  most  important  constituents  of  their  prosperity  and  well-being. 

The  sources  of  national  wealth  are  usually  divided  into  three ;  agriculture,  manufactures, 
and  commerce :  each  of  these  is  divisible  into  several  distinct  branches,  nor  can  the  cata- 
logTie  be  completed  without  including  the  two  occupations  of  mining  and  fishing. 

Agriculture,  including  the  means  of  procuring  every  part  of  the  protlnce  of  land,  or  what 
land  bears  on  its  surface,  is  unquestionably  the  grand  source  of  human  subsistence  and 
accommodation.  Hence  chiefly  are  derived  the  materials  used  in  manufacture ;  the  objects, 
in  the  exchange  of  which  commerce  consists.  The  modes  in  which  support  and  the  means 
of  enjoyment  are  obtained  from  land  may  be  divided  into  three ;  hunting,  p^'sturoge,  and 
tillage,  which  last  being  the  only  form  in  which  labour  is  employed  upon  the  ground  itself, 
is  more  specially  considered  as  agriculture.  The  collection  of  the  spontaneous  fruits  of  the 
earth,  being  confined  to  a  few  tribes  in  tlie  lowest  stage  of  improvement,  scarcely  requires 
to  be  taken  into  consideration. 

Hunting,  or  the  chase  of  wild  animals,  to  obtain  their  flesh  as  food,  and  their  skins  as 
raiment,  is  the  earliest  and  rudest  mode  of  procuring  human  support.  This  employment 
requires  art  and  contrivance  as  well  as  bold  adventure ;  but  is  usually  accompanied  with  rude 
and  turbulent  habits,  and,  combined  with  them,  constitutes  what  is  called  the  savage  state. 
As  culture  advances,  and  the  greater  proportion  of  the  soil  is  devoted  to  the  plough,  or  to 
the  support  of  tame  animals,  its  range  is  greatly  limited,  and  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation 
'locomes  little  more  than  the  amusement  of  the  opulent.  The  chase  of  the  fur-bearing  ani- 
mals, however,  still  affords  one  of  the  most  valuable  materials  of  commerce. 

Pasturage,  or  the  deriving  of  subsistence  from  herds  and  flocks,  tamed  and  trained  so  as 
to  be  subservient  to  the  use  of  man,  forms  a  more  improved  and  comfortable  occupation  than 
hunting.  Peculiar  habits  of  life  usually  distinguish  nations  subsisting  solely  by  pasturage. 
They  are  oflcn  destitute  of  any  fixed  abodes,  moving  from  place  to  place  in  large  bands  or 
encampments,  living  within  their  tents  in  patriarchal  simplicity,  but  towards  other  nations 
practising  on  a  great  scale  war  and  robbery.  These  habite  constitute  what  is  called  the  bar 
barous  state,  still  prevatlent  among  the  Arabs,  Tartars,  and  other  nations  occupying  an  exten 
sive  portion  of  the  earth's  surface. 

Tiiliige,  or  the  culture  of  the  soil  by  the  processes  of  ploughing  or  sowing,  is  employed, 
by  all  the  more  improved  nations,  as  the  most  efficacious  means  of  drawing  subsistence  from 
the  earth.  In  proportion  to  the  general  imjirovement  which  any  people  have  attained,  is 
usually  the  skill  and  diligence  witn  which  this  most  important  art  is  practised.    The  com* 


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'J60 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Part  IIL 


munity  which  derives  its  chief  subeisteuce  from  the  culture  of  the  soil,  merits  generally,  to 
a  great  extent,  the  character  of  civilized.  Some  of  the  oriental  people,  as  the  HindcK)  and 
Chinese,  practise  this  important  art  with  an  inde&tigable  industry  applied  to  every  available 
portion  of  their  soil,  which  is  scarcely  to  be  paralleled  elsewhere ;  but  in  Europe,  and  espe- 
cially in  Britain,  the  use  of  machinery,  the  skiliiil  rotation  of  crops,  and  various  impioved 
processes,  render  the  same  measure  of  industry  much  more  productive.  The  objects  of 
culture  vary  exceedingly,  and  for  the  most  part  according  to  the  varieties  of  soil  and  cli- 
mate. Grain,  the  mam  staff  of  human  subsistence,  forms  everywhere  the  most  extensive 
and  important  object  of  tillage.  Climate  chiefly  determines  the  grain  cultivated  in  any 
particular  region.  In  the  tropical  countries  it  is  rice ;  in  the  best  part  of  the  temperate 
zone,  wheat  and  barley ;  in  the  colder  tracts,  oats  and  rye.  Of  luxuries,  wine  and  oil  are 
the  most  grateful,  and  m  the  most  -general  demand ;  they  have  their  almost  exclusive 
growth  in  the  warmer  tracts  of  the  temperate  zone.  The  delicate  fruits,  from  which  they 
are  produced,  do  not  flourish  in  the  excessively  luxuriant  soil  of  the  tropics.  There,  how- 
ever, the  fragrant  aromatic  plants,  and  those  flUed  with  rich  and  saccharme  juices,  produce 
valuable  substances,  which  are  eagerly  sought  after  by  the  natives  of  less  genial  climates. 

Fishery,  by  which  subsistence  and  wealUi  are  dcriv«Kl  from  the  waters,  forms  a  peculiar 
branch  of  industry,  which  flourishes  in  every  stage  of  society.  Even  the  rudest  savages, 
wherever  their  situation  admits,  conjoin  it  with  hunting,  as  a  means  of  afbrding  an  imme- 
diate supply  to  theu*  wants.  They  practise  it  often  with  a  great  degree  of  diligence  and 
contrivance;  but  the  progress  of  industry  leads  to  various  processes  for  extending  end 
improving  this  branch.  By  the  operations  of  salting  and  drying,  fish  is  rendered  fit  to  be 
conveyed  as  merchandise  to  the  most  distant  countries.  Some  of  the  great  maritime  nations 
send  large  fleets  into  remote  seas,  where  they  And  situations  favourable  to  this  pursuit.  Tiie 
whale,  ^e  cod,  and  the  herring  fisheries  have,  in  this  manner,  been  raised  to  the  ranli  of 
great  national  concerns. 

Mining,  or  the  extraction  of  valuable  substances  from  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
can  be  extensively  practised  only  in  a  somewhat  advanced  state  of  human  industry.  Yet 
nature  has  lodged  in  these  dark  repositories  objects  the  most  essentially  conducive  to  the  use 
and  comfort  oiman,  and  others  which  afford  his  most  brilliant  ornaments.  Here  are  found 
the  bright  and  attractive  metals  of  gold  and  silver ;  there  the  solidly  useful  ores  of  iron  and 
copper ;  here  glitter  the  diamond,  the  ruby,  and  the  amethyst ;  there  extend  vast  beds  of 
coal,  lime,  and  fi-eestone.  Gold,  the  most  precious  of  the  metals,  is  often  the  most  easily 
accessible ;  but  we  can  scarcely  give  the  name  of  mining  to  the  operation  by  which  the, 
savage  merely  collects  its  grains  in  the  sands  of  the  rivers,  or  even  extracts  it  by  pounding, 
wiien  mechanically  combined  with  other  substances.  But  metals,  in  general,  when  lodged 
in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  exist  in  the  form  of  ore,  intimately  and  even  chemically  united 
with  other  materials,  from  which  they  can  be  separated  only  by  smelting,  refining,  and  otiier 
elaborate  and  even  scientific  processes.  From  the  toilsome  nature  of  these  operations,  and 
firom  the  gloomy  depths  in  which  they  are  conducted,  it  is  often  difficult  to  procure  a  supply 
of  workmen ;  hence  slaves  and  individuals  condemned  for  crimes  have  been  employed  to  a 
later  period  in  this  than  in  most  other  species  of  labour.  Whatever  skill  may  be  employed 
in  mining,  it  is  necessarily  a  local  occupation,  nature  having  irregularly  and  almost  capri- 
ciously distributed  its  objects  over  the  different  regions  of  the  glote.  Even  the  experiments 
made  io  discover  whether  metals  are  lodged  in  any  particular  spot,  are  often  attended  with 
considerable  cost,  and  even  peril. 

Manufactures  may  be  regarded  as  a  process  by  which  man  creates,  as  it  were,  a  value 
for  himself.  He  cannot,  indeed,  make  any  new  substance ;  he  can  seldom  even  alter 
essentially  the  quality  of  that  which  is  furnished  to  him ;  but  he  can  altogether  change  its 
character  and  quality,  can  convert  a  rude  and  shapeless  substance  into  one  eminently  con- 
ducive to  benefit,  convenience,  or  ornament.  The  excrescence  shorn  from  an  animal,  the 
pod  hanging  firom  a  shrub,  objects  in  themselves  neither  useful  nor  beautiful,  are  converted 
into  commodious  and  magnificent  robes,  adorned  with  the  most  brilliant  tints.  Almost 
every  natural  product  requures  to  undergo  some  change  before  it  is  fitted  for  the  use  of 
civilized  man.  Grain  must  undergo  the  process  of  grinding  and  baking;  the  juice  of  the 
vine,  that  of  fermentation ;  even  animal  food,  that  of  cooking.  But  the  name  of  manufm 
tiire  is  not  given  to  these  processes,  nor  to  any  which  do  not,  to  a  material  extent,  increase 
tlie  value  of  the  substances  on  which  they  are  employed.  The  various  articles  of  clothing 
form  the  principal  objects  of  manufacture ;  next  to  which  rank  stuflS  for  furniture,  motallic 
implements,  and  utensils.  Manufacturing  skill  and  industry,  carried  to  a  certain  extent, 
mark,  beyond  almost  any  other  circumstance,  the  advance  of  a  people  in  arts  and  civiliza- 
tion. The  savage  usually  employs  unaltered  the  substances  with  which  nature  fumisLea 
him.  He  feeds  on  the  flesh  of  the  animals  which  he  has  killed  in  the  chase ;  he  clothes 
himself  in  their  skins ;  he  consumes  in  their  cnide  state  the  roots  and  herbs  which  the  earth 
spontaneously  affords.  Even  the  nations  which  subsist  by  pasturage,  and  liave  maile,  per- 
haps, a  certain  progress  in  aprricultnre,  though  they  have  usually  acquired  a  desire  for  articles 
uf  fine  manu&cture,  prefer  to  obtain  them  from  more  industrious  neighbours,  in  exchange  fbl 


generally,  to 
'  Hindoo  and 
ery  available 
>ef  and  espe- 
us  improved 
e  objects  of 
soil  and  cii- 
»t  extensive 
ated  in  any 
e  temperate 
'  and  oil  are 
■  exclusive 
-Which  they 
There,  how- 
568,  produce 
climates, 
s  a  peculiar 
!8t  savages, 
f  an  imme- 
igence  and 
ending  end 
:ed  fit  to  be 
ime  nations 
rsuit.    The 
the  rank  of 

'  the  earth, 
istry.    Yet 
'  to  the  use 
2  are  found 
>f  iron  and 
ist  beds  of 
lost  easily 
which  tlie, 
pounding, 
len  lodnfed 
illy  united 
,  and  other 
itions,  and 
s  a  supply 
loyed  to  a 
employed 
ost  capri- 
periments 
ided  with 

'.  a  value 
'en  alter 
hange  its 
ntly  con- 
imai,  the 
onverted 

Almost 
e  use  of 
;e  of  the 
nanuffu' 
increase 
clothing 
motallic 

extent, 
civiliza- 
irnisLea 
clothes 
le  earth 
!e,  per- 
artidea 
iige&r 


BookIIL 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  AND  SOCIETY. 


3ft^ 


their  own  rude  produce.  The  eastern  empires,  for  the  consumption  of  their  conrts  and  great 
men,  produce  a  few  articles  of  exquisite  fineness  and  beauty  by  mere  manual  labour,  with- 
out any  capital  or  any  machinery  at  all  costly  or  complicated.  It  is  among  European  nations, 
tjiat  tiiG  two  principles,  the  division  of  labour  and  large  capital  employed  in  the  construction 
of  tiie  most  ingenious  machines,  have  enabled  the  manufacturer  to  produce  fabrics  which, 
for  abundance,  elegance,  and  cheap iiess,  have  surpassed  those  of  every  other  age  or  nation, 
and  iiave  found  their  way  into  all  the  markets  of  the  globe. 

Commerce,  the  third  grand  source  of  national  wealm,  does  not  even  aim  at  producing  any 
new  article,  or  altering  the  texture  or  quality  of  that  in  which  it  truffics.  It  merely  con- 
veys  it  from  a  place  in  which  it  is  superabundant,  td  another  in  which  it  is  wanted.  This 
gomutimes  confers  an  exchangeable  value  on  that  which  previously  had  none ;  in  every  case, 
where  judiciously  exercised,  it  very  considerably  enhances  the  value  attacheid  to  the  article 
which  it  conveys  trom  one  place  to  another.  ' 

The  home  and  the  foreign  trade  form  the  two  ^eat  branches  into  which  commerce  is 
divided.  The  former,  in  consetjuence  of  each  of  its  transactions  being  on  a  smaller  scale, 
and  affording  little  scope  for  brilliant  adventure  and  splendid  speculation,  attracts,  in  general, 
less  notice,  and  is  considered  of  inferior  political  importance ;  yet  it  is  proved  by  Smith  to 
be  by  much  the  most  extensive,  as  well  as  ^e  moat  conducive  to  national  prosperity.  Its 
basis  consists  in  the  exchange  between  the  country  and  the  town,  of  the  grain,  catUe,  and 
other  raw  produce  of  the  one,  for  the  varied  commodities  framed  by  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustry of  the  other,  or,  in  countries  of  great  extent,  of  the  raw  or  manufactured  productions 
of  one  section  for  those  of  another.  Home  trade  is  either  coasting  or  inland,  the  former, 
where  practicable,  being  preferred  for  bulky  commodities,  or  those  to  be  conveyed  between 
distimt  parts  of  a  kingdom ;  much  of  the  interior  commerce  also  passes  along  rivers  and 
canals.  Foreign  trade  has  no  limits  but  those  nf  the  habitable  globe ;  and,  for  reasons  simi- 
lar to  those  just  hinted  at  in  another  case,  the  more  distant  branches  are  considered  generally 
as  the  most  brilliant  and  important ;  while,  in  fact,  the  trade  with  the  countries  most  closely 
contiguous,  from  its  quicker  returns,  ranks  highest  in  real  amount  and  value.  Unfortunately, 
it  has  been  hitherto  much  fettered  by  the  jealousy  and  rivalry  between  neighbouring  nationev 
which  make  each  imagine  the  prosperity  of  anoUier  to  be  gained  at  its  expense,  and  every 
commodity  received  from  them,  to  be  so  nmch  abstracted  from  its  own  wealth.  Although 
this  illiberal  system  has  somewhat  abated,  yet  the  consequence  still  is,  that  intercourse  with 
distant  colonial  possessions  is  more  sure  and  steady  than  with  any  power  entirely  foreign. 
The  extensive  capitals  now  possessed  by  some  European  powers,  especially  Britain,  enable 
them  to  carry  on  the  most  extensive  commerce  with  countries  situated  at  the  greatest  dis- 
tance, and  even  at  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  globe.  In  the  interior,  also,  of  the  great 
continents,  there  is  a  foreign  trade  by  land,  carried  on  by  caravans,  which  are  so  numerous 
as  to,  resemble  armies,  and  proceed  to  an  immense  distance. 

The  instruments  employed  in  conducting  and  facilitating  commerce,  and  which  ore  chiefly 
shipping,  roads,  and  canals,  form  the  most  important  part  of  what  is  called  the  fixed  capital 
of  a  country.  Under  the  head  of  roads,  the  invention  of  railways,  though  yet  only  in  its 
in&ncy,  promises  to  facilitate,  in  a  remarkable  manner,  the  interior  communications  of  the 
countries  in  which  it  is  employed. 


.'•it" 


74i" 


Sect.  FV. — CivU  and  Social  Condition  of  Man. 

The  population,  or  the  number  of  individuals,  of  whom  any  community  b.  composed,  forms, 
if  not  the  most  important,  at  least  the  most  prominent  circumstance  in  its  social  condition, 
and  one  on  which  its  magnitude,  and  its  place  in  the  scale  of  nations,  intimately  depend. 
The  ancient  statesmen  c  jnsidered  the  increase  of  the  numbers  of  a  people  as  one  of  the  most 
important  of  national  objects,  with  a  view  both  to  its  prosperity  in  peace,  and  its  strength  in 
war.  Some  politicians  of  the  present  day  take  a  different  view  of  the  subject,  maintaining 
that  population  in  all  circumstances  of  tolerable  peace  and  prosperity  easily  keeps  itself  on 
a  level  with  the  means  of  subsistence,  has  even  a  tendency  to  rise  higher,  and  by  its  super- 
abundance to  produce  a  distressing  degree  of  national  poverty:  they  have  suggested  schemes 
for  checking  the  progress  of  population. 

The  actual  amount  of  the  population  in  any  particular  period  or  country,  has  been  involved 
in  considerable  uncertainty.  It  is  only  in  modern  Europe,  and  in  the  United  States  of 
North  America,  and  there  very  recently,  that  general  or  careful  enumerations  have  been 
made.  But  in  all  the  other  quarters  of  the  globe,  tlie  estimates  are  formed  upon  very  vague 
observation,  founded  on  the  density  with  which,  on  a  superficial  view,  the  districts  appear  to 
be  peopled. 

A  national  character  is  found  to  pervade  every  community.  The  particulars  have  been 
often  exaggerated,  fancifully  delineated,  and  rashly  and  indiscriminately  applied  to  indi- 
viduals ;  but  to  a  certain  extent  such  a  variation  may  be  always  traced  between  one  people 
and  anothef.  The  grand  distinction,  founded  upon  thn  progress  of  arts,  letters,  knowledge, 
and  refinement,  is  into  savage,  barbarous,  and  civilized :  the  first  being  marked  by  the  total 
absence  of  these  improvements ;  the  second,  by  the  possession  of  them  in  only  an  imperfect 

Vol  I  24*  2L 


.rm  PRINCIPLES  OP  GEOOHAPHY,      *  ^ 


Part  11 


•ad  progremve  decree ;  the  third,  by  their  having  arrived  at  a  certain  matnrity.  The  savage 
•tate  prevails  among  the  natives  of  America,  and  the  islanders  of  the  South  Sea ;  the  former, 
however,  being  now  in  a  great  measure  supfrianted  by  European  colonists.  The  barbarouB 
state  is  generu  throughout  Africa,  and  extends  over  a  great  part  of  Asia.  The  civilized  state 
is  found  in  the  great  empires  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  in  a  higher  degree,  as  well  as  under  dif- 
ferent characters,  among  the  nations  of  Europe,  and  their  widely-spread  colonies.  In  these 
last,  too,  civilization  appears  to  continue  in  a  progressive  and  advancing  state,  while  over  the 
rest  of  the  world  it  is  nearly  stationary. 

The  religion  professed  by  any  people  is  a  remarkable  and  most  important  feature  m  their 
social  conution.  Religious  opimons  do  not  come  directly  under  the  cognizance  of  the 
geographer ;  bat  he  is  railed  upon  to  mark  this,  as  a  particular  in  which  nations  strikingly 
difier  nam  each  other.  The  iidiabitants  of  the  earth  may,  m  regard  to  religion,  be  divided 
into  three  great  classes, — Christian,  Mahomedan,  and  Pagan.  The  first,  as  to  numerical 
amount,  does  not  exceed  the  second,  and  still  &lls  short  of  the  thurd ;  but  the  nations  pro> 
fessing  it,  have  acquired  such  an  ascendency  in  arts,  social  improvement,  and  political 
power,  while  their  colonies  have  filled,  and  are  multiplying  over  all  the  lately  savage  and 
unoccupied  portions  of  the  globe,  that  in  all  probability  this  faith  will,  in  a  few  generations, 
be  more  widely  difiiised  thui  any  other.  The  Mahomedan  nations,  though  in  numbers  they 
perhaps  equal  the  last  mentioneid,  and  though  they  occupy  a  large  proportion  of  the  most 
fertile  regions  of  the  globe,  are  yet  sunk  into  such  a  state  of  slaveiy  and  degradation,  and 
so  decidedly  surpassed  by  the  Christian  people,  that  their  sway  is  not  likely  to  endure  above 
two  or  three  centuries.  Of  the  Pagan  religions,  much  the  most  numerous,  and  the  only 
civilized,  professdrs,  are  those  attachml  to  the  kindred  creeds  of  Brahma  and  Boodh,  estab- 
lished, the  one  over  the  greater  part  of  Hindoetan ;  the  other  in  China,  and  other  continental 
kingdoms,  and  insular  territories  of  Eastern  Asia.  From  their  peculiar  habits,  and  the 
immutable  nature  of  their  institutions,  they  are  likely  to  adhere  to  these  systems  with 
greater  pertinacity  than  the  votaries  of  superstition  m  Afirica,  the  South  Sea,  and  other 
quarters,  v^ere  the  train  of  belief  and  observance,  however  fimtastic,  is  of  a  slighter  and 
looser  texture. 

The  progress  of  knowledge  forms  a'niost  conspicuous  chapter  in  the  history  of  the  human 
species :  it  fbllowb  generally  that  tram  of  civilization  which  we  have  already  delmeated.  In 
surveying  different  communities,  various  particulars  connected  with  this  subject  arc  highly 
deserving  of  the  attention  of  the  geographer.  Among  these  we  may  mention  the  most 
eminent  philosophers,  men  of  science,  and  authors  who  nave  flourished  in  any  nation, — the 
institutions  formed  for  the  promotion  and  advancement  of  science, — the  degree  in  which 
knowledge  is  diffused  throughout  the  community, — the  establishments  formed  tor  public  and 
private  education. 

The  fine  arts, — which  are  intimately  connected  with  the  more  elevated  ntellectual 

part  o(  man's  nature,  and  of  which  the  successful  cultivation  confers  gloi 7  people,  and 

polishes  and  improves  their  manners, — ^merit  to  be  considered  similarly,  and  uider  the  same 
general  heads,  as  their  intellectual  attainments. 

'  There  are  various  points  of  minor  importance,  which  yet  are  distinctive  and  characteristic 
of  a  people,  and  excite  thus  a  just  and  natural  curiosity.  Such  are  the  amusements  in  which 
they  chiefly  delight,  the  peculiar  costume  in  which  they  are  attired,  the  species  of  food  on 
which  they  subsist,  and  the  liquor  by  which  they  are  exhilturated,  as  well  as  the  mode  in 
which  these  articles  are  prepared  for  their  use. 

j^^'«.X  «si^itniv>i,;:  MiSySsat! \.—The  Languaget  of  the  World.       ■>  *^"'''*'  '«': '"'' '  '•'■''! 

On  the  subjects  now  enumerated,  it  has  been  judged  sufficient  to  indicate  their  nature, 
and  the  light  under  which  they  will  be  treated,  reserving  the  details  for  the  succeeding  part 
of  the  work,  when  they  come  to  be  considered  successively  in  reference  to  the  various  regions 
of  the  globe.  But  there  is  one  subject  into  which  it  will  be  expedient,  even  at  the  present 
stage,  to  enter  more  particularly. 

Language  is  one  of  the  strongest  characteristics  by  which  nations  are  distinguished  from 
each  other ;  at  the  same  time  the  dialects  spoken  by  difTerent  communities,  even  when  most 
widely  dissimilar,  display  in  many  cases  relations  and  alliances  indicative  of  a  common  origin. 
There  exist  over  the  world  classes  of  languages,  each  of  which  comprehends  the  speech  of 
numerous  people,  and  forms  a  tie  between  them,  marking  early  relations  and  connexions. 
Language  thus  acquves  a  character  especially  geographical,  illustratmg  the  origin  and  fami- 
lies of  nations,  and  the  connexions  between  different  countries.  It  will  then  be  advantageous 
to  consider,  in  a  large  and  comprehensive  view,  first,  the  languages  spoken  generally  over 
the  globe,  and  then  those  which  prevail  in  its  different  quarters. 

The  languages  by  which  the  nations  of  the  earth  are  distinguished,  and  from  which  are 
derived  the  names,  not  only  of  its  principal  features,  natural  and  artificial,  >ut  of  its  different 
regions,  and  of  the  places  contained  in  them,  constitute  an  important  department  of  geo- 
graphy. When  we  contemplate  those  names  in  maps,  a  little  reflection  suffices  to  convinc?) 
us  that  most  of  them  are  to  be  regarded,  not  as  mere  arbitrary  or  fortuitous  appellations,  but 


PahtII. 

I   TJie  savatfe 
J ;  the  fon,, 

Ifebarbarous 
I'vihzed  state 
J^  under  dif. 

I?-.,  In  these 
fnue  over  the 

lure  in  their 
fance  of  the 
1^  striklngjy 
h  be  divided 
to  numerical 
nations  pro- 
pu  political 
pavag-e  and 
pn^rations, 
Pnibers  they 
pf  the  most 
uation,  and 


Book  TA 


m  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY. 


288 


nd  the  only 
°dh,  estalr 
continental 
Sj  and  the 
items  with 
.and  other 
'ghter  and 

^e  human 

eated.   In 

"•c  highly 

the  most 

ttion,-.t]ie 

in  which 

public  and 

tellectual 
ople,  and 
the  same 

icteristic 
in  which 
f  food  on 
mode  in 


nature, 
ngpart 
regions 
present 

id  from 
n  most 
origin, 
ech  of 
(xions. 
fami- 
g'eous 
f  over 

h  are 
erent, 
geo. 
.fincft 
.hut 


as  terms  '  t  definite  meaning,  or  as  significant  memorials  of  the  people  by  whom  they  were 
imposed ;  and,  in  tracing  those  of  ancient  origin  through  the  mutations  they  have  undergone, 
we  are  compelled  to  summon  history  to  the  aid  of  geography,  for  the  purpoHes  of  cxplammg 
them  with  reference  to  the  great  events  which  have,  iVom  time  to  time,  altered  tlie  political, 
civil,  and  social  condition  of  the  nations  composing  the  great  family  of  mankind.     Thus, 
without  adverting  to  the  rise,  growth,  and  extinction  of  kingdoms  and  empires  in  Asia,  we 
may  observe,  that  the  series  of  revolutions  which  ended  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman 
empire,  and  the  foundation  of  the  existing  system  of  Europe  on  its  ruins,  is  in  nothing  more 
remarkable  than  in  the  change  which  it  contributed  to  produce  in  the  greater  part  of  the 
world,  through  the  migration  of  nations ;  a  change  so  absolute,  that  it  has  served  to  mark 
the  distinction  between  ancient  and  modem  history,  ancient  and  modem  geography,  and 
ancient  and  modem  languages.     Of  this  change  the  geographer,  equally  wi£  the  historian, 
is  at  every  step  of  his  investigations  reminded.    France,  for  instance,  commemorates  in  her 
modern  name  that  branch  of  the*  Germanic  family  of  natioiiS  who  prevailed  in  Gaul ;  yet 
she  retains,  not  less  in  her  topographical  vocabulary  than  in  her  language  generally, 
unequivocal  traces  of  Roman  dominion ;  and  we  recognise,  thongh  strangely  curtailed,  the 
imperial  appellations  Auguatodunvm  and  Aureliana,  in  Autun  and  (hlearu.    Italy  and 
Spain,  preserving  a  semblance  of  their  ancient  names,  exhibit  similar  instances  of  disfigure* 
ment  in  those  of  particular  places :  Forum  Julii  and  Caaar-Augutta  survive  in  Friuli  and 
Saragassa ;  but  the  Trasimene  suggests  a  less  classic  reminiscence  as  the  lake  of  Perugia ; 
nor  can  the  Betis  and  the  Durias  be  recognised  under  the  more  sonorous  names,  the  Gua- 
dalquivir and  the  Guadalaviar  (the  great  river  and  the  white  river),  conferred  on  them  by 
the  Arab  conquerors  of  Spain.     Apptillatives,  also  derived  from  languages  little  known, 
Whether  ancient  or  modem,  are  liable  to  mutilation  from  the  varying  orthography  of  travel- 
lers ;  and  we  can  no  longer  wonder  at  the  confusion  caused  by  voyagers  in  this  particular, 
when  we  call  to  mind  the  difference  not  only  between  foreign  and  vernacular  names,  but 
between  their  written  and  oral  expression ;  as  when  a  German  spells  his  native  country 
Deutschlahd,  and  pronounces  it  Tcytshland ;  or  a  Persian  writes  for  Persia  Iran,  and  pro- 
nounces it  Eeraun.    But  the  different  idioms  of  the  human  race  claim  our  attention  from 
far  higher  considerations  than  the  mere  naming  of  places  or  of  countries ;  for  geography, 
considered  as  an  auxiliary  to  what  has  been  emphatically  called  "  the  proper  study  of  man- 
kind," is  principally  valuable  as  combining,  with  a  description  of  the  earth,  a  view  of  the 
different  branches  of  the  great  humm  family  by  whom  such  vast  portions  of  it  have  been 
•*  replenished  and  subdued."  J 

Ethnography  is  the  term  which  has  oeen  employed  to  designate  this  branch  of  geographi- 
cal science.  It  distinguishes  nations  by  their  languages,  and  professes  to  class  them  in  king- 
doms, families,  genera,  species,  and  varieties ;  but  this  systematic  arrangement  is  as  yet  far 
from  being  completed.  Of  the  numerous  languages  that  are  or  have  been  spoken  on  the  earth, 
many  are  so  imperfectly  known  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine  to  what  family  they  belong. 
For  this  and  other  reasons  it  has  been  deemed  expedient  by  a  modem  writer,  who  appears  to 
have  collated  the  labours  of  his  predecessors  on  the  subject,"*  to  adopt  a  geographical  arrange- 
ment, and  consider  languages  in  their  relation  to  the  five  great  divisions  of  the  globe ;  the 
Asiatic,  the  European,  the  African,  the  Oceanic,  and  the  American.  It  is  obvious,  how- 
ever, that  the  ethnographicaKand  geographical  limits  of  a  nation  and  its  language  may  be 
widely  different ;  the  Spanish  and  the  British,  for  instance,  extend  ethnographically  to  the 
remotest  regions  of  both  the  Indies.  Adopting  this  arrangement,  not  only  as  most  convenient 
in  regard  to  a  branch  of  knowledge  still  in  its  infancy,  but  as  most  suitable  to  a  geographi' 
cal  treatise,  we  shall  proceed,  wimout  pausing  to  discuss  the  merits  of  any  particular  theory, 
to  offer,  in  this  and  subsequent  parts  of  the  present  work,  such  a  succinct  view  of  the  known 
languages  of  mankind  as  its  just  proportions  will  allow. 

The  distribution  of  languages  into  Shemitic,  Hamitic,  and  Japhetic,  according  to  the 
scriptural  account,  seems  however  entitled  to  some  notice,  as  being  well  warranted  in  rela- 
tion to  the  early  languages  of  the  world,  if  we  can  reconcile  our  thoughts  to  an  affinity  of 
languages  afler  their  confusion,  and  the  consequent  dispersion  of  the  human  race.  It  has 
been  placed  in  a  striking  point  of  view  by  the  able  author  of  the  "  History  of  Maritime 
and  Inland  Discovery,"  in  Dr.  Lardner's  Cabinet  Ct/clopeedia ;  and  a  brief  sketeh  of  his 
observations  may  be  useful  as  an  introduction  to  an  account  of  languages  more  strictly 
geographical. 

On  reference  to  the  sacred  records,  we  find  that  in  the  order  in  which  the  generations  of 
the  sons  of  Noah  are  given,  Japheth  takes  precedence  of  Ham  and  Shem,  and  is  called  the 
elder.  This  the  learned  writer  we  are  now  citing  has  not  noticed ;  he  has  taken  the  names 
in  the  order  which  long  and  universal  usage  has  sanctioned. 

"  The  family  of  Shem,"  he  observes,  "  comprised  the  pastoral  nations  which  were  spread 
over  the  plains  between  the  Euphrates  and  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  from  Ararat  to 
Arabia.     The  Hebrews  themselves  were  of  this  stock ;  and  the  resemblance  of  their  Ian- 


•  Balbl,  AUaa  Etiinographique  du  Globe.    Parii,  1896. 


IB4 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 


Past  a 


gnage  with  the  Anunean,  or  ancient  Syrian,  and  with  Arabic,  mifficientlv  proves  the  iden« 
tity  in  race  of  what  are  called  the  Shemitic  nations.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  assiffning  to 
each  of  the  aona  of  Shem  hia  proper  situation.  Elam  founded  the  kingdom  of  Elymeis  ■ 
AsBur,  that  of  Assyria;  and  Aram,  the  kin^om  of  Aramea  or  Syria,  a  name  still  clearly 
preserved  in  that  of  Armenia.  From  Arphaxad  were  descended  the  Hebrews  themselves, 
and  thn  various  tribes  of  Arabia ;  and  this  close  affinity  of  origin  was  always  manifest  in  tlie 
language  and  in  the  intimate  correspondence  of  the  two  nations.  Some  of  the  names  given 
by  Moses  to  the  children  of  Shem  are  still  used  in  Arabia  as  local  designations :  thus  there 
is  still  in  that  country  a  district  called  Havilah ;  and  Uzal,  the  name  given  to  Sana  by  the 
■acred  historian,  is  not  quite  extinct. 

"  The  descendants  of  Ham,"  continues  this  learned  writer,  "  constituted  the  most  civilized 
and  industrious  nations  of  the  Mosaic  age.  The  sons  of  that  patriarch  were  Cush,  Mizraim, 
Phut,  and  Canaan.  The  name  of  Ham  is  identical  with  Cham  or  Chamia,  by  which  Egypt 
has  in  all  ages  been  ca^ed  by  its  native  inhabitants ;  and  JUtzer  or  Mizraim  is  the  name  by 
which  the  same  country,  or  more  probably  the  Delta,  is  still  known  by  the  Turks  and  Ara< 
bians."  [We  may  add,  Uiat  it  is  the  name  by  which,  in  the  original  Hebrew,  Egypt  is  called 
in  the  amnonition  that  precedes  the  decalogue.]  "  The  land  of  Phut  appears  to  signi^  Libya 
in  general ;  and  the  name  Cush,  though  sometimes  used  vaguely,  is  obviously  applied  to  the 
southern  and  eastern  parts  of  Arabia.  The  names  of  Saba,  Sabtah,  Raamah,  and  Sheba, 
children  of  Cush,  have  long  survived  in  the  geography  of  Arabia.  The  posterity  of  Canaan 
rivalled  the  children  of  Mizraim  in  the  early  splendour  of  arts  and  cultivation.  Though  the 
Canaanitea,  properly  speaking,  and  the  Phoenicians,  were  separated  from  each  other  by 
Mount  Carmel,  yet,  as  the  same  spirit  of  industry  animated  both,  they  may  in  a  general 
sense  be  considered  as  one  people,  The  Phoenicians  possessed  the  knowledge  of  tlie  Egyp. 
tians,  free  from  superstitious  reactance  to  venture  upon  tiie  sea.  Their  local  position 
naturally  engaged  them  in  commercial  enterprise.  Their  chief  cities,  Tyre  and  Sidon,  had 
reached  the  highest  point  of  commercial  opulence,  when  the  first  dawn  of  social  polity  was 
only  commencing  in  Greece." 

To  Japheth,  "  the  Jap^tus  of  the  Greeks,"  this  writer  concurs  with  others  in  ascribing 
the  supriority  over  the  sons  of  Noah,  if  not  in  the  number  of  his  descendants,  in  the  extent 
of  their  possessions.  All  the  Indo-Teutonic  nations,  stretching  without  interruption  from 
the  extremity  of  Western  Europe,  through  the  peninsula  of  India,  to  the  isle  of  Ceylon,  he 
considers  as  belonging  to  this  common  ancestor.  The  Turkish  nation  also,  occupying  the 
elevated  countries  of  central  Asia,  boasts  the  same  descent.  Their  own  traditions  accord 
with  the  Mosaic  history ;  and  indeed  the  affinities  of  language,  which  are  still  evident  among 
all  the  nations  of  the  Japhethian  family,  fully  confirm  the  relation  of  the  sacred  writer ;  yet 
tht<  meaning  assigned  to  the  patriarch  s  name  in  the  Sanscrit  language,  Yapati,  "  lord  ^ 
the  earth,"  tolls  for  nothing  unless  we  can  suppose  the  name  Japhetii  to  be  thence  derived. 

To  Gomer,  the  eldest  of  Japheth's  sons,  is  ascribed,  on  the  authority  of  Josephus,  the 
distinction  of  being  ancestor  of  the  Celts.  Magog  may  have  been  the  founder  of  some 
Scythian  nation.  Madai  is  recognised  as  the  ancestor  of  the  Medes.  The  posterity  of  Ja van 
and  Tubal,  and  Meshech  and  Tiras,  may  be  traced  from  Ararat,  always  called  Masis  by  its 
inhabitants,  through  Phrygia  into  Eurupe.  Tubal  and  Meshech  left  their  names  to  the 
Tibareni  and  Moschi,  Armenian  tribes,  whose  early  emigratipns  appear  to  have  extended 
mto  Moesia.     In  like  manner  the  Thracians  may  have  owed  their  origin  to  Tiras. 

That  the  progeny  of  Japheth  peopled  Europe,  seems  apparent  on  another  ground,  which 
we  shall  explain,  after  mentioning  the  remaining  branches  of  his  posterity.  Ashkenaz,  the 
son  of  Gomer,  is  thought  to  be  that  Ascanius  whose  name  so  frequently  occurs  in  the  ancient 
topography  of  Phrygia,  and  from  whom,  probably,  the  Euxine,  at  first  the  Axine,  Sea  derived 
its  appellation.  "  In  Togarmah,"  observes  this  writer,  "  we  see  the  proper  ancestor  of  the 
Armenian  nation,  and  it  is  even  asserted  by  the  Turks." 

"  Javan  was  the  Ion  of  the  Greeks,  the  father  of  the  lonians.  In  the  names  of  his  sons 
we  find  fresh  proofs  of  the  consistency  of  the  Mosaic  history.  In  Elishah  we  see  the  origin 
of  Ellis  or  Hellas.  The  name  of  Tarshish  is  supposed,  with  little  foundation,  to  refer  to 
Tarsus  in  Cilicia.  Kittim  is  said  to  mean  Cyprus ;  and  Dodanim,  or  Rodanim,  is  understood 
to  apply  to  the  island  Rhodes."  Here  we  may  remark,  that  the  sacred  text  contains  a  most 
important  record  relative  to  the  descendants  of  Japheth :  "  By  these  were  the  isles  of  the 
Gentiles  divided  in  their  lands,  every  one  after  his  tongue  after  their  families,  in  theii 
nations."  Now,  if  the  Oriental  latitude  of  expression  be  allowed  in  this  instance,  the  isles 
of  the  Gentiles  must  include  not  only  the  islks  of  the  Mediterranean  and  other  European 
seas,  but  the  peninsulas  of  Asia  Minor,  of  Greece,  of  Italy,  and  of  Spain, 

To  the  Phamicians  must  be  partly  ascribed  the  discovery  of  those  territories  collectively 
called  "  The  isles  of  the  Gentiles,"  and  the  earliest  intercourse  with  them.  Unfortunately 
tliose  early  navigators  have  left  no  records  of  their  discoveries ;  and  the  little  we  know  of 
their  entorprises  is  derived  from  Scripture,  and  from  the  scattered  notices  of  the  Greek  !i!id 
Latin  authors.  They  were,  as  eiaewnoro  observed,  the  pilots  of  Solomon's  fleet ;  and  a.:^  often 
«^  the  fleets  of  Egypt  are  mentioned  by  ancient  historians,  we  find  them  manned  and  guided 


'^«»  the  iden. 

still  clearjy 
themselves, 
^'fest  in  tJie 
names  given 
:  thus  there 
Bona  by  the 

OBt  civilized 
J.  Mhraitn, 
'hich  Egypt 
'6  name  by 
•fs  and  Ara- 
Tt  is  called 
gnilV  Libya 
plied  to  the 
and  Sheba, 
'  of  Canaan 
[hough  the 
h  other  by 
a  genera] 
tlie  Egyp. 
al  position 
Sidon,  had 
polity  was 

>  ascribing 
the  extent 
^tion  from 
^eylon,  he 
ipying  the 
Jns  acconl 
ent  among 
Titer;  yet 
"lord  of 
derived. 
Phus,  the 
'  of  some 
'of  Javan 
iis  by  its 
38  to  the 
extended 

1.  which 
inaz,  the 
I  ancient 
I  derived 
<T  of  the 

his  sons 
8  origin 
refer  to 
erstood 

a  most 

of  the 
1  their 
le  isles 
ropean 

Hively 
nately 
low  of 
>>  ....,1 

!  often 
fuided 


BooKltl. 


IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  MAN  IN  SOCIETY. 


28B 


by  Phoenicians.  Their  commercial  enterprises  had  contributed  to  augment  the  wealth  of 
that  kingdom,  which  had  attained  a  hi^h  degree  of  social  order  and  economy  seven  hundred 
years  before  the  Greeks  became  ocquamted  with  the  uu  of  money.  The  numerous  colonies 
which  they  planted  along  the  shores  of  the  Euxine,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Atlantic, 
beyond  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  attest  the  extent  of  their  early  voyages.  Those  of  Utica, 
Carthage,  and  Gades,  or  Cadiz,  were  founded  between  twelve  and  eight  hundred  years 
before  the  Christian  era ;  but  the  seas  of  the  west  were  probably  explored  for  ages  before 
getUementa  were  formed  at  such  a  distance  from  the  parent  state.  Their  geographical 
knowledge,  even  in  the  fabulous  times  of  Greece,  probably  embraced  aa  large  a  portion  of 
the  earth  aa  that  of  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Augustus;  but,  with  the  caution  characteristic 
of  a  mercantile  people,  they  forbore  to  communicate  that  knowledge  to  the  reat  of  mankind. 
The  silence  of  these  descendants  of  Ham  leaves  us  in  uncertainty  as  to  the  progress  of  thoee 
of  Japheth  in  peopling  the  continent,  the  peninmlan,  and  the  isles  of  Europe.  In  still  deeper 
mystery  ia  involved  the  deacent  of  the  negro  tribes  of  Africa  from  the  &ther  of  Canaan. 
Having  thus  briefly  characterized  the  Sheroitic,  Hamitic,  and  Japhetic  races,  we  leave  to 
the  consideration  of  the  curious  the  theorica  that  have  been  framed  upon  them  in  respect  to 
the  different  idioms  of  mankind,  and  revert  to  the  geographical  arrangement  which  we  pro- 
pose to  adopt. 

Separating  all  the  known  languages  of  the  globe  into  five  grand  divisions,  we  name  them 
the  A«a'ic,  the  European^  the  African,  the  Oceanic,  and  the  American,  according  to  the 
part  of  the  world  in  which  they  are  spoken.  Then  tracing,  according  to  the  best  authori- 
ties, the  several  lan^ages  by  their  affinities,  we  class  those  which  appear  to  be  sister  idioms 
in  one  group,  assignmg  to  it  a  distinctive  name ;  as  the  Mongolian  family,  the  Celtic  family 
or  the  Sanscrit  family,  conformably,  in  most  cases,  to  the  name  of  the  principal  people  of 
each  of  those  families.  But  here  a  difficulty  avises  from  the  variance  between  geographic 
and  ethnographic  limits.  Several  nations  included  in  one  of  these  groups  have  dwelt  from 
time  immemorial  at  once  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe ;  others  in  regions  partly  European, 
partly  Asiatic :  to  which  part  of  the  world  then  must  the  family  be  assigned  to  which  those 
nations  belong  1  Two  reasons  influence  the  decision;  the  historical  importance  of  the  people, 
and  its  mass,  or  relative  number,  as  may  be  better  understood  from  one  or  two  examples. 

That  the  Chaldeans,  the  Assyrians,  the  Arabs,  the  Hebrews,  and  other  nations  of  the 
great  Shemitic  fiunily,  were  from  the  earliest  times  inhabitants  of  Western  Asia,  we  know 
from  the  writings  of  Moses,  with  which  the  results  of  the  most  eminent  philologers  and 
mathematicians  wonderfully  agree.  These  nations,  therefore,  belong  unquestionably  to 
Asia ;  and  the  comparison  of  the  Gheez  and  Amharic  vocabularies  havmg  demonstrated  an 
indisputable  affinity  between  them  and  the  people  of  Abyssinia,  who  speak  the  idioms  com- 
prehended in  the  branch  called  AbyssiAian,  the  languages  of  the  latter  also  are  classed  in 
the  Asiatic  branch,  though  in  all  epochs,  even  anterior  to  historical  tradition,  those  nations 
have  dwelt  in  Africa.  '' 

The  great  mass  of  the  Malay  people  occupies  almost  all  the  isles  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, those  of  Polynesia,  and  some  of  Australia.  Hence  we  regard  the  Malay  family 
as  Oceanic,  and  class  all  the  people  characterized  by  this  idiom  as  t^longing  to  that  great 
ethnographical  group.  Thus,  besides  the  Malays  of  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  whose  settle- 
ment in  the  extremity  of  Asia  is  of  no  remote  date,  this  division  includes  the  Si  Deia  or 
Formosans  of  Asia,  and  the  Madecosses  of  the  African  isle  Madagascar. 

The  Uralian  nations  belong  equally  to  Europe  and  Asia ;  because,  from  the  little  we 
know  of  them,  they  have  inhabited,  time  out  of  mind,  the  north-east  and  east  of  Europe, 
and  the  north-west  and  west  of  Asia.  Following  the  demarcation  prescribed  by  M.  Malta 
Brun,  we  find  that  the  great  mass  of  the  Uralian  or  Finnish  nations  belongs  to  Europe.  We 
therefore  regard  the  Finnish  family  as  European,  and  class  among^  them  all  the  ancient  and 
modem  nations  who,  from  striking  analogies  in  their  respective  idioms,  seem  to  belong  to 
them. 

The  Esquimaux  have  from  time  immemorial  extended  over  all  the  north  of  the  New 
World ;  while  the  sedentary  Tchutchhis,  who  speak  a  language  evidently  related  to  the 
idioms  of  those  American  tribes,  occupy  only  the  extreme  north-east  of  Asia.  The  Tchutch- 
his we  therefore  consider  as  American  colonies,  and,  following  the  precedent  of  Balbi, 
re-unite  them  as  auch  to  the  other  nations  of  America  who  form  the  fkmily  of  the  Ea* 
quimaux. 

Under  a  perfect  ethnographical  arrangement,  the  languages  of  the  Indo^ermanic  nations, 
extending  from  Ceylon  and  the  Ganges  to  the  extreme  west  of  Europe,  and  even  to  Ice- 
land, would  form,  not  a  single  ftmily,  but  rather  an  ethnographic  kingdom  divided  into  six 
families. 

In  subsequent  parts  of  this  work,  the  languages  of  the  earth  will  be  considered  as  divided 
into  five  principal  branches ;  the  European,  the  Asiatic,  the  African,  the  American,  and 
the  Oceanic. 


ne 


,T\     MAP  OP  EUROPE— w«rr  fa«t.      ,  /j 


Ab.  64 


k. 


M 


iMwitad*      5 


Wot 


■ff^^W"^^»'»"^P 


■WTW 


X'"'' I   '  I«ijlttt4e  EmJ         fo      fiWB  Ommrich    1i   ""T-- 


IW.  84 


Fte.  86k  t 


BfAP  OF  EUROPB— nAvr  pak«. 


9BV 


Uiutilude  EmI   io 


»*tf.'ir  |f  .■ 


from  Gn«BWich   ,  1  . 

ftsiS.'  1  •- 

I 


v.t,iii...-'J ;-;» 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOOllAPHY. 


pAiT  ra. 


.'1 


PART  III. 


OEOORAPHY  CONSIDERED  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  VARIOUS  REGIONS 
I  OF  THE  GLOBE. 

In  the  aecond  part  of  thia  work,  the  princidea  of  geography  have  been  treated  of  na 
founded  upon  a  general  aurvey  of  the  elobe.  The  moat  extenaive  portion  of  our  task  atill 
remains.  We  muat  delineate  the  leading  objects  of  nature,  art,  and  hunum  life,  as  they 
appear  succeasively  in  each  diiferent  region  into  which  the  earth  is  divided. 

Five  giTMt  general  divisions  of  the  earth  are  now  usually  recognized : — 1.  Europe.  2. 
Asia.  o.  Africa.  4.  America.  5.  The  extensive  and  numerous  islands  of  the  South  Sea, 
to  which  the  Fredch  give  the  name  of  Oceania,  the  English  those  of  Australaaia  and  Poly- 
neaia,  to  which  we  may  add  the  islands  of  the  Polar  Sea.  Each  of  these  will  fium  the  sub- 
ject of  a  separate  boolb 


•V 


^•N^^^; 


I  J   IT'  ^'>^.-r-  BOOK    I. 

"1  "^ :  .N  r-^-z;^^^!  f -^    EUROPE.  ■   '    " ' 

finioM  is  the  imallest  fn  extent  of  the  four  great  continents,  and  yet  we  may  pronounce 
it  the  most  important  of  all  the  divisions  of  uie  globe.  Asia,  indeed,  was  the  cradle  of 
civilization  and  knowledge ;  but  her  empires  soon  became,  and  have  ever  since  continued 
<<tatiouary;  while  Europe  has  carried  the  sciences,  arts,  and  refinement,  with  almost  unin 


Refermeu  to  the  Mop  tjf  Europe— Weit  Part 


1?! 


4.'  R«iidia 
9.  York 

A.  UanelMttw 

7.  Linooln 

e.  Qhettar 
g.  BL  Aupn 

10.  Cirdigan 
It.I^ndafr 
I'i.  WorcMtM 
VX  OloueeiOir 
14.  Paiciborauaa 
l.'i.  Norwinh 
''Unbridf* 
ianterbairr 

18.  poTer 
10.  London 
90.  Manehailtf 
21.  Brhtol 
3-i.Pool* 

93.  Eielof 

SCOTLAND. 
l.Thurao 
9.  IjiTerneM 

3.  Banfr 

4.  Aberdeon 
H.  Perth 

0.  Edinburgb 

f.  Selkirk 
aArr 

IRELAND. 

1.  Londonderrr 
9.SU(o 
3.GfilKar 

4.  Lim'.riek 

8.  Cork 

6.  Wezfonl 

7.  DuMin 

B.  urofhada 
B.Bellait 

mnwAY. 

1.  Baltdalen 
Igelnea 
3.  Kyi  Vand 

s". 

6. 

7 

8 

» 

10  L 
ll.Tnndal 

19.  Biavanter 

13.  ChriitianMUid 

14.  Tontberc 
1.5.  Knn«hA» 
Jfl.  Ooef 

17.  Chrintiania 
I&  Faaldberi 


8:?;X^^Q.u    l\^Z 


SWEDEN. 

iW 

3.  Lidm 

4.  Oaturrand 
9.  SundawaU 
(LHada 
g.Tara 

iXoMbro 

14.  CarUbad 

15.  0*Ula  . 

n.  LiDkopinf 

18.  JonkopinR 

().  Oottanburt 

ftESiln*?'^'' 
.  ChriiUaiMlad 
ICalmar 
Emin         , 


DENMARK. 

i&i 

4.  Ripen 

5.  Ileewlek 
O.Kiel 

7.  Copenbataa 

ICELAND. 

SLBeaaeMad 
3.Saiid(Ul 

,    PRUSSIA. 
1.  Colbert 
9.  SUriard 

3.  Stettin 

4.  Bailin 

5.  Fraokrort 
fl.  Poieia 

7.  Onena 

8.  Lliaa 

9.  Brealau 

10.  Glati 

11.  Sagan 

IsTMaAaDO'C 

AtTSTRIA. 
1.  Olmuta 
9.  BrsRS 
3!  Tabor 
4.  Praia* 
5.PiIaea 


iinu      > 
.  - .  ^1  ama 
8.  hwburf 
I.  Vienna 
iproa 

"% 
illaah 

rixen 
'llan 
antoa 
Padoa 
Veniw 
.  Bellano 
L  Rimint 
LLajrbach 
I.  Af  ram 
'iariitadt 


ITALY. 
I.  Genoa 
9.  Turin 
3.AieMandrla 

4.  Parma 

5.  Bologna 
aFlorenea 

7.  Lnrhom 

8.  Orbetello 
0.  Rome 

10.  NettuM 

11.  NaDlM 
19.  Poneaitro 

13.  Taranto 

14.  Bilonto 

15.  Foagia 

16.  Pewara 

17.  Anoooa 

18.  Pel 


GERMANY. 

iStraiaumf  , 
Hamburg 

3.  Bremen 

4.  Oldenburg 
a,  Oinaburg 
0.  HanoTer 

7.  Branawiek 

8.  CaaHl 
0.  Fnlda 

10.  Darmatadt 

11.  Wurmi 
19.  Heilbronn 

IS.  Aueaburg 
in.  MuniKli' 

17.  Nureiniiurg 

18.  Hof 
IS.  Leipzig 
90.Dreaden 


SWITZERLAND. 

J.  Comtane* 
.Berne 
3.  Oeoeva 

WlgST  PRUSSIA. 

nnater 


ws 


Si^blEnts 
e.  Prorm 

NETHERLANDS. 
1.  Amalerdam 
9.  Rottardam 

3.  Antwerp 

4.  Ghent 

5.  Bruneta 

6.  Liege 

7.  Luxemburg 

L<^£^ 

%  St.  aoiaan 

4.  Rouen 

5.  Evreux 
0.  Caen 

7.  St.  iM 

8.  St.  Brienx 
O.Brett 

10.  Quimper 

11.  ^  annei 
19.  .ennea 
13.  Alencun 

Charlrra 
Parli 
0.  SoiMoa* 

17.  Met! 

18.  Straibart 
18.  Epinai 

90.  Cnaumont 

91.  Chalillon 
99.  Tmrea 
93.0rleana 
94.  Toura 
«.  Angera 
98.  Nantea 

97.  La  Ruche 

98.  Poitiera 
n.Gaeret 

3^P 

39.  Lrona 

33.  Macon 

34.  Olermont 

35.  Pericaux 
3R.  Rordaaux 
37.  Dax 
38.Pnu 
3).  loaiooaa 

40.  Albr 

41.  Rodin 
49.Agen 


SAurillae 
Privaa 
Chamberry 

46.  Grenoble 

47.  Uigne 

48.  Draaulnon 

49.  Toulon 
80.  A  vignon 
SI.  Niimaa 

SPAIN. 
1.  Ferrol 
9.  Siintiago 

3.  Vigo 

4.  Orenaa 
9.  Luao 
0.  Aitorga 
7.  l4on 
6.  Chriedo 

lOi  Santaader 
II.  Biiboa 
19.  Pampelum 

13.  Vittbria 

14.  Burgoa 

15.  Patenela 

16.  Znmora 

17.  Salamanca 

18.  Ciudad  Rodrigo 
lU.  Avila 

90.  Segovia 

91.  Soria 
K.  Tudalt 

93.  Hueaea 

94.  Ago 

B5.  Bareelom 
96.  Tarragona 
S.  iMTida 
98.  Peniacola 
».  Saragoaa 

m.  Guadaxara 

33.  Huete 

34.  Toledo 
X.  Madrid 
96,  riaoenlia 
g.Truxillo 
38.  Badajo* 
30.  Moura 


\liBorik 

"Ion 

98.  Carmona 
90.  Huebia         r 

60.  Sivilla  t 

61.  Gibraltar 
09.  Cadli 

,  PORTUGAL. 

1.  Miilgaco 
9.  Braganxa 

3.  Almeida 

4,  Oporto      ^  i 
3.  Averro      'i* 

6.  Guards     ;.  f' 

7.  Coimbts  ^  4 

8.  Lena        '■'? 
0.  Gabon       .    ; 

I0.Ohidua     " 
11.  Abrantig '-.   \ 
19.  Evora        '  - 
13.  Alvito 


40.Za(Va 
41.  Cordova 
49.  Andnfor 

43.  Ciudad  Real 

44.  Tnrrenueva 


[ille  de  Canai 


45.  Alvarale 
4A.  Vjlle  de  C_ 

47.  Miirviedro 

48.  Vqleneia 
40.  Villencia 
SO.  Alfuente 
91.  Murcia 

S3.  Baza 
94.  Granada 


14.  Ouriqua 

M-Lm" 
16.  Faro. 

Hiten  and  Lalm. 
a  Dal.  R. 
b  Moiien,  L. 
o  Wrner,  L. 
d  Wetter,  L. 
e  Oder,  R. 
f  Elbe.  R. 
(  Weaer,  R. 


h  Rhine 
i  Ml 


..fcuae,  R. 

iSnine,  R. 
Loire,  R. 
1  Garonne,  R. 
mUonro,  R. 
n  Tague,  B.  „ 
o  Guadiana,  R. 
p  GuudaJquWir,  a 
q  Ebro,  R. 
r  Rhone,  R. 
a  Geneva,  L.  or 
'  Oomtance,  L.  o, 


R-. 


t  Comta 
u  Po.  R. 
V  Drave,  _. 
w  Danube,  R. 

CORSICA. 

1.  Corle 

9.  Porto  Veccblo 

SARDINIA. 
I,  Saaiarl 
3.  Oridagni 
3.  Cagliari 

SfC!LY= 
1.  Meaaina 
9.  Palermo 

3.  Sciacea 

4.  Snacoa* 


Bmi  1. 


EUROPE. 


-no 


terruptnl  proffrew,  to  the  comparatively  clevatiHl  Htate  at  which  thoy  havfi  now  ariivoil.  All 
ilitj  braacheH  of  uuluvtry  are  cunductoU  with  a  ukill  anU  to  an  extent  unattaiiied  in  anv  other 
jiirt  ol'  the  earth.  Kuro|)ean  voHselH  carry  uii  the  commerce  of  the  moat  (iiHtanl  regions. 
The  military  and  political  influence  of  Europe  ia  now  of  a  magnitude  with  which  the  mtxt 
powerful  and  populous  cmpircH  of  the  oUier  continent*  can  no  longer  be  compared.  European 
coloniHtu  have  now  peopled,  and  are  more  and  more  peopling,  all  the  fonnerly  iiavage  and 
unoccupied  quarters  of  the  earth ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  tome  itronghokla  of  ancient 
uid  imperfect  civilization,  the  whdle  world  ia,  through  their  influence,  rapidly  becoming 
ivilised  and  European. 


Shufiiitki  : !>iJ        GENERAL  SURVEY  OP  EUROPE. 


CHAPTER  I. 


.;  ,.bo:?i»'. 


EmtoPK  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  on  the  wfest  by  the  Atlantic. 
On  the  south,  the  grand  inlet  of  the  Mediterranean  divides  it  from  Aflhica ;  and  the  Grecian 
Archipelago,  with  its  subordinate  branch,  connected  only  by  a  narrow  strait,  the  Euxine 
or  Black  Sea,  divides  it  from  a  great  part  of  Asia.  Between  the  north-eaat  extremity  of  the 
Black  Sea  and  the  Northern  Ocean  is  on  interval  of  1400  or  1500  miles  of  land,  forming 
the  eastern  boundary  of  Europe,  Had  this  been  known  to  the  ancients,  they  would  perhaps 
have  identified  Europe  with  Asia ;  but  the  separation  is  now  too  deeply  marked,  and  is  de- 
fined by  too  many  characters,  moral  and  political,  ever  to  be  altered.  The  absence  of  sea, 
the  natural  and  most  obvious  boundary  of  a  continent,  has  somewhat  embarrassed  modem 
frpographers :  for  even  a  river  limit  is  here  wanting.    The  chain  of  the  Urals,  running  from 


Refennce*  to  the  Map  qf  Europe. — Eatt  Part. 


BWRDGN 
1,  Alteni;iiard 
9.  Jukaa  Jervl 
3  Qnllivare 
f  or  Knlix 
i,  Gotjan 

e.  Pilea 

9.  Lyrktele 

10.  Lofanteif 

11.  Umea 
11  Bano 


inekholm 


i:i.  Vm\ 
14,  Si    ' 


RUSSIA. 
1.  Enire 
S.  Kola 

3.  Vornneikar* 

4.  Panoi 

5.  PiiliiZA 

6.  Oumba 

7.  Ekoitrovikayo 

8.  Kandalakava 
0.  Sminnkyla 

10.  Kitlila 

11.  Kemitraik 

12.  Rovamemi 

13.  Tornei 

14.  Aju 

I.V  IJleahnrg 

16.  Krcat  Novolok 

17.  Kuunte 

18.  Vi«o 

19.  Anilozero 
90.  Sotkamo 
21.  Kajana 
22  RriikcBled 

23.  OnriHliy 

24.  Pin  Piigarvi 
a.').  PiMli. 

S)l.  Kihelira 
27.  Pur.:nala 
8H.  hiiovear 
2!).  Wain 

30.  Chriitinettad 

31.  Biurneboif 

32.  Alio 

33.  Kllkalk 

34.  Taviinehui 
•Vi.  Rnrgo 

a«.  Vybor« 

37.  St.  Petanbarc 

38.  Olonetz 

•30.  Petroziivodik 

40.  Pnvienela 

41.  VaKvakaya 

42.  Onega 

43.  Arcnaniel 

44.  Ri)u(t 

45.  Srarnlabiaohe 

47.  Labnvko 

48  Nikiiw 

49  Ouia 

Vol.  I. 


so.  OTinnlka 
HI.  Gelnva 

82.  Btchemaia 
5.1.  Burovakara 
M.  MnuilQijakaya 
55.  PiMxa 

96.  Verkouikri 
87.  Bheatdnrakoi 
8a  Chalclielikara 
99.  Kanhakovaka 
80  Makauovaka 
61.  Krainnhoak 

63.  Metverakava 
6:1.  Yiiranak 

64.  Oiiat  Biiokk 

65.  Kai 

66.  Tchrrdin 

67.  Bollkamik 

68.  Vilienakua 
HP.  Ortova 

70.  Oiiva 

71.  Gnrahkova 
79.  Mlahainiivik 

73,  Iviilovaka 

74.  AkientfirakM 

?5.  Vullkouatont 
R.  Vielak 

77.  Pudot 

78.  Vltegra 

79.  Rielnaarak 

83.  Kiriiov 
81.  Vnlo«da 
83.  Tolma 

83.  Tchuchloma 

84.  Kninghiv 
«i.  Nikofak 

86.  Beriinvitza 

87.  Kotelnilch 

88.  Slnbodakov 

80.  Viaika 
IM.  Nnlinak 
91.  Glazov 
112.  Ochanak 
03.  Perm 
94.  Oaa 

m.  Kraaharfunak 
96.  Birak 
S7.  Sampoul 
08.  Elabuun 
99.  Malmiab 
IflO.  Kaxitna 

101.  Bviaisk 

102.  Koiinodtmi- 

anak 
103  Tafattik 
104.  Vetioata 
lOV  VarnBTin 

106.  BenMhov 

107.  Inrevetx  Povol- 

akoe 
IW.  Knitrom 
109.  Jaroalav 
no.  RIbinak 
111.  Piiaechon 
119.  Oatiojaa 
113.  Tikm 


114.  Yamburi 
lis.  Narva 
llti.  Revel 


191.  OiruhkaJ 

192.  Borovitehi 

193.  Viahnei  Volo- 

tchiiki 
124.  Oudilch 
195.  Pelrorak 
126.  Kovruv 
197.  NIznpy  NoT- 

jjiirod 
198  Hciulnik 
199.  Binbink 
1:I0.  Sinxllei 
131.  Sizzan 
];<2.  Kiinader 

133.  Ardiitov 

134.  P<itchlnk) 
133.  Noruvichat 
136.  TemnikoT 
i:n.  Muriim 
i:W.  SudnKda 
130.  Kaamov 

140.  Moaoow 

141.  Pokov 

142.  Tver 

143.  Maiaiak 

144.  Ziiblior 
14.V  Bieinz 

146.  Vellkle  LukI 

147.  Cholm 

148.  Pakov 
140,  Oatror 
I.W.  Luiizin 

151.  Valk 

152.  Penau 
1.^3  Riga 
154.  Mllau 
I.U.  Libau 

156.  Memel 

157.  SnventziaDi 
Mm.  Vlleika 
150.  Driaaa 

160.  Pnlotzk 

161.  Witepak 

169.  Veliz 

163.  gmolenak 

164.  porof  obiu 
161.  Kalnuga 
166.  Kalnmna 
187.  Toola     . 
lAB.  Kiazane 
160.  Kozlov 

170.  Tambor 

171.  Tcbambtr 
179.  Penza 

173.  PotroTik 

174.  Vulak 

175.  BaraloT 

176.  Balaahn 

177.  NoTokbopack 


178.  Uainaii 

179.  Voranoz 

180.  Phalea 

181.  Livni 

189.  Krapivna 
18:1.  Boleho* 
1H4.  Orel 

185.  Barai 

186.  Kualcivl 

187.  Moghilew 

188.  Riigatohar 
180.  Sluiilzk 

190.  Boriaev 

191.  Minak 
199.  Wilna 
1B.3.  Grodno 
lU4.  Nowograd 
195.  Wnraaw 
106  K'lwn 

197.  Vidnva 

198.  Lublin 

199.  Miunjirietz 
900.  BKBt  Litoy 
20!.  Bielak 
902.  Kobrin 
90.3.  Pinak 
904.  Viantzb 
9U5.  Ovrouteh 
JHh.  Mozir 
'!07.  Cholmiteh 

908.  TchHrnigov 

909.  N.  Bioletza 

910.  Rllak 
9II.Soumi 
919.  Kourak 

913.  Oakol 

914.  Vnlouiki 
81.V  Bnbrov 

916.  Pavlorak 

917.  Zaiovakaya 

918.  Kamiabio 

919.  Ijnllnaknya 
9SU.  Tzarilxio 
99I.Tilkha 
929.  Koalin 
S93.  Shealibalotob- 

kaya 
324.Tcb<irliaril  .    * 
99,'i.  Donelak 
996.  Iziuna 

927.  CharkoT 

928.  Poltava 
999.  NovomoakoTik 
9:10,  Krement 
831.  Zololonoaba 
932.  Koceleli 
20.  Kiev 
9:14.  Padomiat 
935.  Jllomir 
936.Rovna 
937.  Kamatz 
S38.  Balta 
939.  GaUio 

941.  Novominond 
943.  Olviopol 


943.NovocTin>revak 
944.  Alekaandrovak 
345.  Ekaterinoalavl 
946.  Qrlekhov 
347.  Aloahki 
948.  (Phonon 
940.  TiraajMiI 
9S0.  Nov  Douli 
95i.Billzi 
959.  Render 
953.  AkarmaiNi 
354.  lamail 

PRUSSIA. 
1.  Bezuervn 

4.  Marienburg 
8.  DanUic 

6.  Gneana 

7.  Culm 

8.  Thorn 

0.  Ploiak 

10.  Pnaen 

11.  Siemda 
19.  Ralibur 

AUSTRIA. 

1.  Treutaon 

9.  Behehinics 

3.  Epcriea 

4.  Huaa 

5.  Oobraeien 

6.  Agria 

7.  Hani 

8.  Bud* 
0.  Bolt 

10.  Peta     ^1.  rfvA 
ll.g(.Maiia 
19.  Baeea 

13.  Belgrade 

14.  Temeattr 

15.  Arad 

16.  Bihar 

17.  Clauaenbarg 

18.  Carlaburg  . 

19.  Harmanatadt 
90.KuU 
91.  Tarnopi 
U.fhry 

93.  Serober 

94.  Lemberg 
SS.  Bandeu 
96.  Sendomioa 
87.  Cracow 

TURKEY 

SiBini^t 

3.  Adgrad 

4.  Galnts 

5.  IbraUa 
0.  Silialria 
?.  Rijkareat 

8.  ilatina 

9.  Cntova 


laTi 
11.  Jo 
19.  Ui 
13.8; 
14.  M 

m 


'ehamela^fii 

pgodina 

JailZB 

13.  Serajavo     .,, 

14.  Moatar       ;;. 
"laltaro 

ovibaai 
eopia 

90.8uphi« 

93.  NicoDoll 
93.8huinla      ..  ;  . 

94.  Buraoa 

95.  Midieh 

!6.  Conaiantinoob 

97.  Rodoato 

98.  Adrianopla 

99.  Cavalla 


■'■m-t 

il'.'l  ^ 


30.  PhilippoU 

31.  labar 
».  Petolia 
XI.  Balnnioa 
34.  Scutari 


tof'ft 


GREECE. 
Herat 

.  Bulrinto 
.  Jannlna 


4.  Aria 

5.  Lepar  _ 
TrTpoljlM  l.fHK 


panto 


■?,i! 


f.  Corinth 
8.  Aifiuna 
0.  Zaitoun 
10.  Lariaaa 

RiverM  and  Ltkn 
a  Dwlna,  R. 
b  Mezena,  R. 
e  Pitchova,  R. 
d  Kania,R. 
e  Viatka.Jt. 

'  Xe'«»4. 


25 


liar,  1 

I  Pruth,  R. 
m  Danube,  S. 
n  Vialola,  R. 
o  Niefnen.  B. 
p  Dwina,  K. 
q  Tchudakoe,  u. 
r  Ilmen,  L. 
a  Ladoga,  L. 
t  Onega,  L., 
u  Purnveai,  I* 
V  Bego,  L. 
wVigo.C: 
X  Top,  L. 
r  Ijnandrt,  L 
s  Koaie,  1* 

2M 


t» 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


pAjiT  m. 


north  to  aouth,  fbrni*  no  Important  n  feature,  that  it  ha*  been  taken  a»  the  gnnA  \m  of 
rfiviiiinn ;  and  ia  prntractml  to  the  Uliick  Soa  by  moana  of  continuoua  portiona  of  the  jfrcat 
rivera  Kama,  Volfjfa,  and  Don. 

Tho  fitrm  of  thin  continont  is  ainifularly  broken  and  varied.  While  Aaia,  AfVica,  ami  the 
two  Americaa  are  each  formed  into  a  vaat  inland  expanne,  Eurrtpe  ia  iiplit  into  many  diitinct 
portionM ;  peninaiilaa,  larf^e  ialanda,  and  kinffdomn,  with  extended  and  windinjf  coantii.  Thii 
form  arlMea  chiefly  out  of  ita  inland  aeaa,  which  penetrate  (krther,  and  are  more  deeply 
emhay«)d,  than  thoae  of  any  other  part  of  the  globe.  Numeroua  pulfi^  acarccly  necontlary 
n  iim),'nitudo  and  importance,  branch  out  from  them.  The  Mediterranean,  which  fbrmi, 
afl  it  wore,  a  little  ocean,  aoparating  Kiiropo,  Aoia,  and  AfVica,  is  connected  with  the  Atlantic 
only  by  tho  cclobratnd  Straita  of  uibraltur,  twenty  miles  in  breadth.  Its  great  enclosed 
oranchnH  of  the  Adriatic  and  tho  Black  Boa  penetrate,  and  render  maritime,  somo  of  the 
rnorit  inland  districts  of  tho  continent.  In  the  north,  tho  Baltic,  with  its  great  gulfa  of 
Bothiiin  and  Finland,  is  neither  indeed  so  extensive  nor  so  accessible ;  but  it  is  of  the  higheit 
commercial  value,  as  aflbrding  a  channel  by  which  the  rude  necessaries,  the  metals  and 
wo<xls  of  the  north,  may  bo  exchanged  for  tho  wines,  tho  silks,  and  other  luxuries  of  tho 
Mouth.  The  British  isles,  by  their  varied  configuration,  enclose  bowcen  themselves  and  the 
opposite  continent  several  important  seas  and  channels.  We  may  add,  that  the  mountains 
and  the  plains  of  Europe  do  not  display  those  immense  unbroken  groups,  or  those  level  and 
almost  endless  expanses,  which  give  so  vast  and  monotonous  a  character  to  tho  interior 
regions  of  Asia  and  Africa.  In  general  they  are  separated  into  smaller  portions,  and  are 
happily  and  conimodiously  interchanged.  Thov  have  kept  Europe  divided  mto  a  number  of 
separate  nations,  holding  easy  intercourse.  Probably,  this  relative  position  has  been  one 
great  cause  of  that  intellectual  activity,  and  those  vigorous  exertions  in  all  liberal  and  in- 
genious arts,  which  have  raised  this  part  of  the  globe  to  so  high  a  pre-eminence.  Tho 
immense  inland  plains  of  Russia  and  Poland,  presenting  an  aspect  wholly  Asiatic,  remained, 
even  afler  the  civilization  and  improvement  or  all  western  Europe,  sunk  in  the  deepest  bar- 
barism, from  which  they  are  but  slowly  and  with  difliculty  emerging.      -  •■;         ••-    •  •  ■ 

Sect.  t. — Natural  Fealuret. 

The  surface  of  Europe,  as  we  have  observed,  is  verv  diversified.  Ita  mountains  do  not 
reach  that  stupendous  height,  nor  stretch  in  such  unbroken  chains,  as  those  of  Asia  and 
America:  nevertheless,  wo  may  trace  pretty  distinctly  two  highlands,  the  northern  and 
muthern,  and  an  intermediate  lowland.  The  southern  highland  comprises  the  most  elevated 
■.nountains  of  the  continent,  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees,  connected  together  by  the  low  chain 
of  the  Cevonnes.  Inferior  branches  from  the  Pyrenees  extend  through  the  Spanish  penin- 
sula; while  from  the  Alps  branch  tbrth  the  Apennines,  which  range  through  all  Italy, 
and  spread  their  lower  slopes  over  the  greater  part  of  southern  Germany.  The  extremity 
of  the  Julian  Alps,  and  the  mountains  of  Dalmatia,  connect  tho  range  with  the  great 
Turkish  chains  of  Hcmua  and  Rhodope ;  parallel  to  which,  though  with  a  large  group 
intervening,  stretches  the  circuit  of  the  Cfarpathian  mountains.  North  of  this,  the  great 
Fiuropcan  lowland  comprises  the  largest  part  of  France,  the  south  of  England,  the 
Netherlands,  Northern  Germany,  all  Poland,  and  the  greater  part  of  Russia.  In  the 
oxtreme  north  of  Europe  the  mountainous  character  again  prevails.  The  Dofrines  reach 
through  Scandinavia;  while  the  north  of  England  and  nearly  all  Scotland  is  covered  witli 
mountiiins  of  secondary  magnitude.  Of  all  the  European  mountains  the  Alpe  are  by  much 
the  highest,  and  perhaps  may  rank  fourth  to  the  Himalaya,  the  Andes,  and  Caucasus,  among 
the  mountain  chains  of  the  globe.  Mont  Blanc  and  Monte  Rosa  exceed  15,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  numerous  other  summits  of  this  chain  exemplify  all  the  descending  grades  of 
elevation.  The  Apennines  vary  from  3000  to  6000  feet ;  but  ^tna,  at  their  utmost  extremi- 
ty, is  nearly  11,000.  The  most  elevated  of  the  Pyrenees  rises  somewhat  above  that  heiglit. 
The  Spanish  summits  are  in  general  of  the  level  of  the  Apennine,  except  the  Guadarrama, 
which  exceeds  8000  feet,  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which  equals  the  Pyrenees.  The  Thracian 
chains  have  not  yet  been  subjected  to  survey ;  but  they  doubtless  exceed  those  of  Greece, 
which  ascend  to  6000  or  7000  feet  The  DofVines,  notwithstanding  their  snowy  and  terrible 
aspect,  are  not  of  first-rate  elevation.  The"  great  Norwegian  chain  does  not  quite  reach 
90iOO  feet ;  Ben  Nevis  is  only  4300  feet ;  and  none  of  the  English  mountains  reach  that 
altitude.  / 

The  rivers  of  Europe  are  numerous,  but  none  of  them  of  the  very  first  magnitude. 
The  two  largest  flow  through  the  great  eastern  plain,  a  semi-Asiatic  region,  and  terminate 
in  distant  and  interior  seas,  where  they  contribute  little  to  commercial  intercourse.  The 
Volga,  which  alone  can  come  into  rivalry  with  the  great  rivers  of  Asia,  passes  the  Asiatic 
limit,  where  it  spreads  into  the  great  interior  expanse  of  the  Caspian.  The  Black  Sea  absorbs 
the  other  rivers  from  the  great  plain  of  Russia  and  Poland :  it  receives  also  the  noble  stream 
of  tlifi  Danube,  whieh  belongs  indeed  to  the  central  region  of  Europe :  but  directing  its 
lower  course  through  barbarous  and  uncultivated  regions,  and  terminating  in  this  distant 
rect;pt»(;le,  it  conduces  only  in  a  secondary  degree  to  the  distribution  of  wealth  and  plenty 


BboK  I. 


BUROPB.       »  «sW<' 


n*,nd  line  of 
ot  the  ^otj 

fr'ca,  Am]  the 
"•■ny  diitinpt 

:oMte.  Thi, 
{""«  deeply 
'ly  wconilary 
which  fbrmi, 

"'6  Atlantic 
reftt  enclodcrl 

■Olio  of  the 
««'  Rulft  of 
f  the  highest 

metals  and 
""•ies  of  tho 
Ives  and  the 

0  mountains 
se  levol  and 
t'lo  interior 
ons,  and  are 

1  number  of 
^  been  one 
'ral  and  iu- 
ence.  The 
c.  remnined, 
tleepest  bar. 


lins  do  not 
)f  Asia  and 
)rthem  and 
>st  elevated 
B  low  chain 
nish  penin- 
1  all  Italy, 
extremity 
the  great 
rge  group 
I  the  great 
?land,  the 
In  the 
ines  reach 
'cred  with 
by  much 
us,  among 
eet  above 
grades  of 
t  extremi- 
it  heigiit. 
tdarrama, 
Thracian 
"  Greece, 
i  terrible 
te  reach 
;ach  that 

gnitude. 
snninate 
3.    The 

Asiatic 

absorbs 
I  stream 

Hnrr    jfa 

distant 
plenty 


through  the  oontimnt  Weitern  Europe  ii  too  much  brotten  into  aepanie  portions,  and 
cro««<i  by  high  mountain  barrien,  to  allow  to  ita  rivera  a  Inngth  of  more  than  from  400  to 
000  miloa;  and  they  have  utually  their  entire  courw  through  a  iiingle  country, — the  Rhine, 
Uio  Klbc,  and  the  (5d«r,  through  Germany ;  tho  Loire,  the  Rhone,  and  the  Oaronne,  throu|fh 
France,  the  Po  through  Italy;  the  Eoro,  the  Douro,  tho  Tagui,  and  the  Ouadalauivir, 
through  Spain.  The  northern  rivers  of  Britain  and  Hcandinavta,  restricted  to  a  still  nar- 
rower field,  seldom  accomplish  so  long  a  course  as  200  miles.  Yet,  though  Europe  does 
not  preriont  the  grand  rivers  which  distinguish  the  greater  continents,  it  is  on  the  whole 
hftppily  and  commodiously  watered.  Almost  every  part  of  it  eniovs  the  benefit  of  river 
conimiinination ,  it  is  neither  overspread  by  the  drea^  swamps  of  America,  nor  the  nandy 
deserts  which  render  uninhabitable  so  great  a  part  of  Asia  and  Africa. 

The  lakes  of  Rurope  are  numerous,  chiefly  enclosed  within  its  mountain  regions ;  but  fbw 
of  them  are  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  rank  as  inland  seas.  Those  alone  entitled  to  this 
distinction  are  the  Ladoga  and  the  Onega,  which,  forming  a  sort  of  continuation  of  the  Gulf 
it  Finland,  and  being  situated  in  bleak  and  frozen  regions,  minister  very  little  to  in.dmal 
intercourao.  Finland  is  covered  with  similar  lakes.  The  Wener  and  Wetter  of  Sweden 
rank  next  in  nugnitude,  and,  surrounded  by  immense  woods  and  iron  mines,  possess  consid- 
erable beauty  ana  value.  Switzerland,  with  its  Italian  border,  is  the  chief  lake-region  of 
Europe :  its  waters,  particularly  those  of  Geneva  and  Lucerne,  enclosed  between  the  loftiest 
snowy  pinnacles  of  the  Alps,  present  scenes  of  grandeur  and  beauty  almost  unrivalled ;  but 
they  are  not  on  such  a  scale  or  so  situated  as  to  afford  any  important  inland  navigation. 
Those  of  England  and  Ireland  are  merely  small  picturesque  teatures.  Those  of  Scotland 
are  larger  and  more  numerous ;  and  a  chain  of  them,  having  been  connected  by  a  broad 
canal,  was  expected  to  form  a  great  naval  route  across  the  island. 

The  European  soil  is  distinguished  for  productions,  perhaps  surpassing  in  value  thoM 
of  any  other  quarter  of  the  globe.  It  docs  not,  indeed,  possess  that  brilliant  luxuriance  of 
vegetation  which  adorns  the  equatorial  regions  of  Asia  and  America.  But  com  and  wine, 
the  most  substantial  and  most  agrcoable  articles  of  human  diet,  are  nowhere  produced  on  so 
great  a  scale  or  in  such  high  perfection.  Grain,  of  one  description  or  another,  is  raised  over 
its  whole  surface,  excepting  in  the  extreme  north ;  wines  throughout  all  its  southern  king- 
doms. In  hemp,  flax,  and  wool,  those  staple  materials  of  clothing.  Europe  is  equally  pre- 
einment  Silk,  another  valuable  commodity,  it  produces  copiously,  though  not  so  as  to  be 
independent  of  supplies  from  India  and  China.  Cotton  is  the  onl^  great  material  which  the 
immense  manufactures  of  Europe  derive  almost  entirely  from  foreign  regions.  If  we  except 
the  horse  and  the  camel,  for  which  Asia  is  renowned,  Europe  contains  Uie  most  valuable  as 
well  as  the  most  numerous  breeds  of  domestic  animals.  Its  northern  forests  produce  the 
finest  timber  in  the  world,  with  the  exception  of  the  teak  j  and  its  iron,  the  most  useful  of 
metals,  surpasses  that  of  the  rest  of  the  world :  but  all  the  mor^  precious  substances,  gold, 
silver,  pearls,  jewels,  exist  in  an  extent  so  limited  as  scarcel)^  to  be  deacrving  of  mention. 
The  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  carried  on  with  much  greater  diligence  than  in  any  countries 
except  in  the  south-east  of  Asia ,  while  in  science,  skill,  and  the  extent  of  capital  employed 
upon  it,  European  agriculture  is  quite  unrivalled. 

In  manufacturing  industry,  this  quarter  of  the  world  has,  within  these  few  centurids,  far 
Burpanscd  all  the  others  of  the  globe.  Asia,  indeed,  has  lon^  boasted  some  fkbrics  of  extra- 
ordmary  beauty.^ilks,  muslins,  carpets,  and  porcelain, — which  are  not  yet  altogether  equal- 
led :  but  the  looms  and  workshops  of  Europe  now  yield  a  variety  of  fine  and  beautiflil  fabrics, 
in  such  proflision,  and  at  so  cheap  a  rate,  as  to  place  them  within  the  reach  of  almost 
every  class  of  society.  This  continent  thus  clothes  all  the  young  nations  which  liave 
issued  from  her  own  hmom,  and  which  fill  nearly  two  entire  quartera  of  the  habitable  earth. 

Commerce,  on  so  great  a  scale  as  to  connect  together  the  distant  quarten  of  the  world, 
can  hardly  be  said  to  exist  out  of  Europe^.  European  vessels  are  found  in  the  utmost  bounds 
of  Asia  and  America,  in  the  snowy  regions  of  either  pole,  and  crowding  the  ports  of  the 
Austral  continent.  There  is  not  now  a  place  on  earth,  however  remote,  affording  any  sco|io 
for  the  employment  of  commercial  capital,  which  is  not  immediately  filled  with  the  same 
promptitude  as  if  it  had  been  situated  in  the  heart  of  Europe.  The  ships  of  that  continent 
exceed  thosj  of  all  the  othera  in  number  and  dimensions:  thev  are  also  the  most  skilfully 
constructed,  and  navigated  by  the  only  seamen  who  are  qualified  to  guide  a  vessel  across  the 
great  oceans.  All  these  observations  are  liable  to  one  exception :  the  new  American  states 
are  beginning  to  form  a  commercial  and  maritime  system,  modelled  on  that  of  £urope-Ht 
system  which  may  one  day  surpass  the  original.  KuwiiU  wj^  ;i>»,ifi,iii.(},l  JUt  inxi.  ^  ' 

Sect,  II. — Inhabitantg. 

The  population  of  Europe,  though  more  closely  calculated  than  that  of  any  other  quartet 
of  the  globe,  is  yet  far  from  being  ascertained  on  data  that  are  very  precise.  In  regard  to 
some  districts,  and  in  particular  in  the  whole  of  the  Turkish  empire,  no  census  has  ever 
been  itisiitutcu ;  in  others,  the  computation  is  founded  only  on  the  number  of  houses :  and  in 

some,  ten,  twenty,  and  thirty  years  have  elapsed  since  any  was  attempted.* 

'  •  See  the  Table  at  tlic  close  of  tliiv  book. 


203 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  in 


Tlie  people  of  Europe  are  divuled  cliicHy  into  three  great  races,  which  differ,  to  a  very 
marked  de);r«e,  in  ianj;iiage,  political  situation,  and  habits  of  life.  These  are  tiie  Sclavoniu, 
the  Teutonic,  and  a  third  wliich  Haiwel  calU  tlie  Romish,  as  occupying  the  chief  of  those 
countries  which  once  composed  tlie  Western  Empire. 

The  Sclavonic  races  cover  the  greater  extent  of  Europe,  since  they  occupy  the  whole  of 
the  eastern  idain  bordering  on  Asia.  The  people  have  a  resemblance  to  tho^e  of  that 
continent ;  and  were  considered  almost  as  beyond  the  social  and  political  pale  of  Europe,  till 
within  the  last  half  century.  They  have  now  forcibly  thrust  themselves  into  the  European 
system,  and  rank  among  its  most  influential  members.  The  Sclavonic  people  consist  of 
about  twenty-five  millions  of  Russians,  ten  millions  of  Poles,  Lithuanians,  and  Letts,  and 
about  ten  millions  of  other  races,  known  under  the  names  of  Windes,  Tcheches,  Slawakes, 
Croats,  Morlachians,  which  have  found  their  way  into  eastern  Germany,  Hungary,  and  Illy. 
ria.  Without  wishing  to  consider  intellectual  and  moral  qualities  as  necessarily  belonging 
to  any  particular  race  exclusively,  we  may  notice  it  as  a  &ct,  that  the  Sclavonians  are,  in 
both  respects,  less  improved  than  other  Europeans.  They  have  only  some  iniant  forms  of 
art  and  literature,  which  have  sprung  up  from  the  imitation  of  those  of  the  eastern  nations. 
They  are  generally  subjected  to  absolute  monarchy,  and  the  greater  part  of  them  are  only 
beginning  to  emerge  from  the  degrading  condition  of  personal  slavery.  All  the  habits  of 
life  ^hicn  connect  them  with  polished  society  have  been  recently  and  studiously  imported 
from  the  west,  and  are  still  intermingled  with  deep  remnants  of  barbarism.  The  majority 
profess  that  superstitious  form  of  Christianity  acknowledged  by  the  Greek  church.  Yet  they 
are  a  brave,  enterprising,  and  perseveruig  race,  and  have  established  themselves  as  a  ruling 
and  conquering  people,  in  reference  to  all  the  contiguous  nations  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

The  Teutonic  race  occupies  generally  >"  ."»ntre  and  north  of  Europe ;  besides  Germany, 
their  original  seat,  ttiey  have  filled  the  greater  part  of  Scandinavia,  the  Netherlands,  and 
Great  Britain,  and  may  be  reckoned  at  upwards  of  fifty  millions.  Under  the  limitations 
above  stated,  we  may  describe  the  Teutonic  people  generally  as  brave,  hardy,  intelligent, 
and  industrious,  though  somewhat  blunt  and  unpolished.  All  the  sciences,  and  even  the 
arts,  both  usefiil  and  ornunental,  have  been  carried  among  them  to  the  highest  perfection ; 
yet  they  are  accused  of  wanting  some  of  the  graces  and  agremeru  which  embellish  the 
courts  and  ftshionable  circles  of  the  south,  by  whom  they  are  treated  as  semi-barbarians.  A 
great  majority  of  the  Teutonic  nations  are  Protestants ;  and  that  profession  is  in  a  great 
measure  confined  to  them,  and  to  the  nations  in  the  other  parts  of  the  world  who  have  sprung 
from  them. 

The  race  called  Romish,  which  comprehends  the  modem  inhabitants  of  France,  Italy,  and 
Spain,  has  only  a  very  imperfect  claim  to  that  title.  The  Teutonic  nations,  in  conquering 
these  countries,  poured  into  them  a  vast  mass  of  their  own  population :  but  Roman  manner 
and  the  Roman  language  had  taken  such  deep  root  in  countries  which  once  constituted  the 
main  body  of  the  western  empire,  that  the  latter  forms  still  the  chief  basis  of  the  dialects 
spoken  in  this  part  of  Europe.  The  Romish  were  the  most  early  civilized  of  the  modern 
nations.  They  have  carried  the  polish  of  manners  and  the  cultivation  of  the  elegant  arts 
to  a  higher  pitch  than  any  other  known  nation.  In  solid  energy  and  intelligence,  they 
Scarcely  equal  the  Teutonic  nations.  '  The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  ruling  religion  in  all  these 
countries,  and  has  among  them  her  metropolitan  seat 

Certain  interesting  and  antique  races  inhabit  the  rude  and  mountainous  extremities  of 
Europe.  The  Celts  were  the  most  numerous  people,  and  at  a  period  of  high  antiquity,  the 
possessors  of  all  western  Europe.  Subdued  and  disarmed  by  the  Romans,  they  rapidly  declined 
when  the  falling  empire  could  no  longer  protect  them,  and  became  the  helpless  victims  of 
that  mighty  torrent  of  barbarous  invasion  which  poured  in  fhim  the  remotest  extremities 
of  Europe  and  Asia.  At  this  dreadful  period  they  sought  or  found  a  refuge,  partly  in  Ire- 
land and  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  where  they  exist  under  the  name  of  Gael ;  partly  in 
Wales  and  Britany,  where  they  aiie  called  Cymri ;  and  partly  in  the  north  of  Spain,  where 
they  are  termed  msques.  Having  retained  their  condition  unaltered  during  so  many  ages, 
they  chensh  a  fond  attachment  to  antiquity,  and  trace  their  pedigree  higher  than  any  of  the 
Romish  or  Teutonic  nobles.  They  have  a  traditional  poetry  celebrating  the  exploits  of  their 
ancestors,  to  which  they  are  fondly  attached ;  but  in  general  they  have,  in  the  rapid  pro- 
gress made  by  the  more  modem  races,  been  left  somewhat  behind ;  though  individual  emi- 
grants have  raised  themselves  to  eminence  in  every  department  Hassel  calculates  the 
Gael  at  3,720,000,  which,  from  the  last  census  of  Ireland,  must  be  much  too  low ;  the 
Cymri  at  1,610,000 ;  the  Basques  ai  630,000.  The  Oreeka,  once  the  most  illustrious  of  all 
the  races,  no  longer  plant  their  colonies  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  still 
occupy  their  old  seats,  and  are  spread  through  different  parts  of  the  Turkish  empire.  De- 
pressed by  two  thousand  years  of  slavery,  they  had  ceased  to  display  those  high  attributes 
which  excited  the  admiration  of  mankind ;  but  the  prospects  of  independence  which  they 
have  now  opened  for  themselves,  afford  some  hope  that  theymay  regain  their  place  in  the 
Bcale  of  nations.  Their  number  may  be  about  2,100,000.  The  Jews,  that  singularly  inte- 
raiting  people,  ore  spread  through  all  Europe,  but  especially  the  eastern  countries,  Poland. 


Pakt in 

br,  to  a  very 
|e  Sclavonic, 
f'ef  of  tfiose 

Ije  whole  of 

>use  of  that 

Europe,  tj] 

10  European 

consist  of 

Letts,  and 

Slawakes, 

.  and  Illy. 

belonging 
lians  are,  in 
bt  forms  of 
irn  nations, 
sm  are  only 
3  habits  of 
|ly  imported 
le  majority 
.  Yet  they 
as  a  ruling 
Asia. 

Germany, 
iriands,  and 
limitations 
intelligent, 
d  even  the 
perfection ; 
ibellish  the 
barians.  A 
in  a  great 
lave  sprung 

,  Italy,  and 
conquering 
in  manner 
itituted  the 
he  dialects 
he  modern 
egant  arts 
ence,  they 
n  all  these 

amities  of 
iquity,  the 
y  declined 
i^ictims  of 
ftremities 
cly  in  Ire- 
partly  in 
in,  where 
any  ages, 
ny  of  the 
a  of  their 
upid  pro- 
lual  emi- 
lates  the 
low;  the 
us  of  all 
but  still 
re.    De- 
ttributes 
ich  they 
!e  in  the 
•ly  inte- 
Poland. 


Book  I. 


.YnTf5fi 


EUROPE. 


^'V>^if 


208 


Russia,  and  Turkey.  They  are  supposed  rather  to  exceed  2,000,000.  The  Oiptieg,  in  aii 
humbler  sphere,  are  strangely  scattered  over  all  Europe  to  the  supposed  number  of  340,000; 
a  wild,  roaming,  demi-savage  race,  of  unknown  origin,  but  prolxibly  Asiatic  rather  than 
Egyptian.  ' 

Several  Asiatic  nations  have  penetrated  by  conquest  or  migration  into  the  ea.«t  of  Europe. 
These  are  chiefly  Tartars,  whom  Hasnel  estimates  at  3,250,<KK)  heads.  The  most  prominent 
branch  is  that  of  the  Turks,  the  ruling  people  in  the  Ottoman  empire,  though  they  form  in 
a  few  districts  only  a  majority  of  the  population.  It  seems  doubtful,  however,  if  all  the 
Tartars  who  wander  over  the  southern  steppes  of  Russia  can  be  considered  as  Asiatic  in  their 
origin.  The  Magyars,  who,  to  the  number  of  3,000,000,  prevail  in  Hungary  and  Transyl- 
vania, appear  to  be  also  Asiatic,  or  at  least  to  have  sprung  from  that  most  eastern  border  of 
European  Russia,  which  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  Asia.  i 

The  religion  of  Europe  is  almost  entirely  monotheistic.  A  mere  handful  of  pagans,  the 
Samoiedes,  are  found  in  its  north-eastern  extremity,  on  the  shores  of  the  Icy  Sea.  Europe 
is  almost  entirely  Christian;  and  the  small  population  of  Mahomedans  who  have  found  tlieir 
way  into  it  consist  of  Asiatic  races,  Turks  and  Tartars.  The  Jews,  however  generally  dif- 
ftised,  have  nowhere  a  national  church,  nor  are  they  in  any  nation  fully  identified  with  the 
body  of  the  people.  The  Christians  of  Europe  are  divided  into  three  great  churches,  the 
Greek,  the  Latin  or  Roman  Catholic,  and  the  Protestant 

The  Greek  or  Eastern  church,  which  was  that  of  the  Constantinopolitan  empire,  was 
severed  from  the  Latin  by  the  great  schism  in  the  ninth  century,  caused  by  some  abstruse 
questions  respecting  the  nature  and  person  of  Christ  It  is  still  professed  by  the  modem 
Greeks,  is  the  established  religion  of  Russia,  and  has  votaries  in  Hungary  and  all  its  append- 
ant territories.  Hassel  reckons  its  numbers  at  '32,000,000;  Malte-Brun  al  50,000,000 — a 
Btrange  discrepancy.  We  should  think  the  forh.-"  much  nearer  the  truth,  though  perhaps 
somewhat  under  it  This  religion  having  been  long  prevalent  among  unenlightened  and 
degraded  nations,  has  become  encumbered  with  empty  pomp  and  childish  ceremonies ;  and 
many  of  its  clergy  are  ill-informed  and  of  irregular  lives. 

The  Roman  Catholic  religion,  which  reigned  so  long  with  supreme  sway  over  Europe, 
embraces  still  a  numerical  majority  of  its  people.  In  Italy,  Spain,  France,  and  the  dominions 
of  the  house  of  Austria,  it  is  dominant  and  almost  exclusive.  It  still  holds  attached  to  it 
1  hrge  portion  of  the  smaller  states  of  Germany,  and  of  the  Cantons  of  Switzerland.  The 
greater  part  of  Ireland  and  of  Russian  Poland  continue  attached  to  it,  without  regard  to  the 
opposite  systems  supported  by  the  state.  That  intolerance  which  gave  birth  to  so  many 
struggles  in  attempting  to  extirpate  the  Protestant  faith,  has  been  greatly  mitigated,  and, 
except  in  Italy  and  Spain,  all  professions  enjoy  an  almost  complete  toleration.  The  number 
of  Roman  Catholics  seems  to  be  fairly  estimated  at  between  90,000,000  and  100,000,000. 
The  absolute  authority  of  the  Pope  in  matters  of  faith  and  worship,  auricular  confession,  the 
prohibition  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  and  a  splendid  ritual  calculated  to  dazzle 
the  eyes  of  the  multitude,  form  the  peculiar  characters  of  the  Roman  Catholic  system.  The 
monstrous  pretensions  once  advanced  to  excommunicate  and  depose  kings,  and  to  grant  indul- 
gences to  commit  crime,  seem  now  to  be  generally  withdrawn. 

The  Protestant  or  Refonned  religion  raised  its  standard  early  in  the  fifleenth  century,  and 
made  most  rapid  progress,  especially  in  the  north  of  Europe.  It  sought  to  purge  Christianity 
from  the  superstittous  observances  which  had  enveloped  it  during  many  ages  of  darkness;  to 
introduce  a  more  spiritual  and  simple  form  of  worship ;  to  break  up  the  institutions  devoted 
to  celibacy ;  to  deny  human  authority  in  matters  of  doctrine,  and  rest  it  solely  on  the  found- 
otion  of  Scripture.  It  had  to  maintain  a  dreadful  struggle  against  the  Romish  see,  which 
aimed  in  its  cause  all  the  great  monarchs  of  Europe ;  and  in  France  and  Bohemia,  after 
taking  deep  root,  it  was  nearly  extirpated.  It  has  been  finally  established,  however,  in  Great 
Britain,  in  the  Netherlands,  the  north  of  Germany,  and  the  Scandinavian  peninsula.  Not- 
w  itiiKtanding  its  numerical  inferiority,  it  now  ranks  among  its  votaries  the  most  powerful,  the 
most  opulent,  and  the  most  intelligent  nations  of  Europe  and  the  globe.  Its  rejection  of 
human  authority,  and  direct  appeal  to  the  Scriptures,  have  caused  it  to  be  split  into  numerous 
sects  and  divisions.  The  most  prominent  is  into  Lutherans  and  Calvinists ;  the  Lutherans 
retaining  still  many  of  the  Romish  rites  and  doctrines,  to  which,  in  every  point,  the  Calvinists 
place  themselves  in  the  most  decided  opposition.  The  English  church  may  be  considered  a 
sort  of  medium  between  the  two,  inclining  nearer  to  the  Lutheran.  In  the  Protestant 
countries,  numerous  smaller  sects  have  asserted  the  right  of  private  judgment,  on  which  the 
Re  orniation  was  founded.  Among  these  are  the  Anabaptists,  chiefly  in  Germany,  the  Neth- 
erlands, and  England,  whom  Hassel  perhaps  underrates  at  240,000;  Methodists  and  Quakers 
ir.  Rritain,  estimated  at  IflO.OOO:  the  Moravian  brethren  in  Germany,  40,000.  The  Unita- 
riiuifi  have  an  established  church  in  Transylvania,  comprising  40,000  soiilo,  and  are  diffused, 
openly  or  secretly,  through  the  other  European  countries,  especially  Britain. 

In  learning,  art  science,  all  the  ptirsuits  which  devclope  the  intellectual  nature  of  man, 
which  refine  nnd  enlarge  his  ideas,  Europe  has  far  surpassed  every  other  continent  The 
enmires  of  Southern  and  Eastern  .'Vsia  alone  linve  an  ancient  traditional  literature,  of  which 

25* 


294 


DESCRIPTTVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pmni 


the  remains  are  yet  preserved.  But,  benides  being  now  in  a  very  decayed  state,  it  never 
included  any  authentic  history,  sound  philosophy,  or  accurate  knowledge  of  nature.  An 
extravagfant  though  sometimes  poetical  mytliology,  proverbial  maxims  of  wisdom,  and  a 
poetry  replete  with  bold  and  hyperbolical  images,  conijWBe  almost  its  entire  circle.  The 
■cience  of  Kurope  has  been  employed  with  equal  success  in  exploring  tlie  most  distant  regiona 
of  tlie  universe,  and  in  improving  the  condition  of  man  in  society.  Astronomy,  which  else- 
where is  a  mere  mass  of  superstition  and  wild  conjecture,  has  here  not  only  delineated  witli 
perfect  precision  the  situation  and  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  but  has  disclosed 
nimiberlesa  systems  of  worlds,  of  which  without  her  aid  the  existence  could  never  have 
been  suspected.  Chemistry,  which  was  formerly  a  mere  collection  of  empirical  receipts  and 
chimeras,  is  become  a  mightv  science,  which  pjtalyses  the  most  secret  operations  of  nature, 
and  discovers  important,  and  before  unknown,  substances.  A  similarly  sound  and  compre- 
hensive character  marks  her  attaiimients  in  physical  science,  and  in  every  branch  of  natural 
history.  In  regard  to  poetic  fancy,  although  some  natural  flights  may  lie  found  among  the 
rudest  tribes,  and  though  the  Orientals  possess  a  peculiar  vein  of  learned  and  studied  orna- 
ment, it  is  in  Europe,  during  either  ancient  or  modern  times,  that  tlie  polished  and  classic 
models  of  poetical  composition  have  been  exclusively  produced. 

The  invention  of  printing,  and  the  consequent  general  diflusion  of  infonnation  among  all 
classes,  are  features  especiEuly  European.  By  their  means,  in  its  enlightened  countries,  the 
essential  branches  of  knowledge  are  now  placed  within  the  reach  of  the  humblest  classes, 
and  even  the  highest  branches  are  not  absolutely  beyond  their  attainment  The  endowmenLi 
for  the  support  of  learning  are  very  extensive,  founded  in  a  great  measure  during  the  middle 
ages,  and  bearing  some  stamp  of  the  then  infant  state  of  literature ;  but  they  are  now  adapting 
themselves  to  modem  improvements.  The  extensive. and  extending  institutions  for  tlic 
instruction  of  the  lower  oitlers  have  produced  a  general  diflHision  of  intelligence,  to  which 
in  the  other  parts  of  the  world,  if  we  except  America,  there  is  nothing  analogous. 

The  political  state  of  Europe  is  also  peculiarly  fortunate.  Elsewhere,  with  rare  exceptions, 
a  turbulent  anarchy  prevails,  or  vast  empires  are  subjected  to  the  absolute  sway  of  a  single 
despot.  It  is  in  this  continent  only  that  the  secret  has  been  found  of  establishing  a  regular 
and  constitutional  liberty,  in  which  the  extremes  of  tyranny  and  licentiousness  are  equally 
avoided.  Even  the  absolute  monarchies  are  generally  administered  with  mildness,  according 
to  legal  forms,  and  afford  to  the  bulk  of  the  people  a  tolerable  security  of  person  and  pro- 
perty. The  European  states  have  also  established  among  themselves  a  balance  of  power, 
which  sets  bounds  to  the  encroachments  of  any  particular  state,  and  has  repeatedly  rescued 
the  whole  continent  firom  the  imminent  danger  of  universal  subjugation.  The  military  and 
naval  power  has  been  raised  to  a  height,  to  which  none  of  the  otlier  continents  can  offer  any 
effectual  resistance.  A  great  proportion  of  them  has  now  been  conquered,  occupied,  or 
colonised  by  Europe ;  and  if  the  whole  is  not  reduced  under  this  condition,  it  is  only  throngh 
distance  and  extensive  deserts  that  many  great  countries  still  preserve  their  independence. 

The  geology  of  Europe  will  be  more  advantageously  treated  of  under  its  respective 
countries.  ri  .^■^)|^;;  •>■■.:  '-'-:'.'■■■■.  'Y:.'<,~^!-' •■>i.-tf'ji:-i  ;.,    '■■. 

Sect,  HI. — Botany. 

The  botany  of  Europe  presents  some  general  characters,  which  it  may  be  important  to 
notice.  In  the  preliminary  observations,  we  have  given  a  very  general  tfid  rapid  sketch  of 
the  vegetable  geography  of  the  globe,  taken  in  its  more  enlarged  sense.  We  must  now 
survey  it  in  its  subordinate  divisions;  and  the  plan  which  we  have  prescribed  to  our- 
selves, is,  in  the  first  instance,  under  the  great  principal  divisions  of  the  earth,  to  mention 
the  more  striking  vegetable  features ;  and  then,  under  each  respective  country,  to  give  a 
more  particular  stav.inent  of  the  plants  belonging  to  it  which  deserve  notice,  either  from 
their  extreme  abundance,  their  rarity,  their  peculiar  properties  and  qualities,  or  some  circum- 
stance of  general  interest. 

The  nature  of  the  present  publication  only  allowing  us  to  consider,  in  a  very  general 
way,  the  vegetable  productions  as  connected  with  their  geographical  distribution,  we  can- 
not devote  much  space  to  what  concerns  the  primary  divisions.  The  artificial  boundaries 
of  Europe,  especially  to  the  east  and  to  the  south,  are  of  that  nature  that  many  of  what 
might  otherwise  bo  ranked  among  its  more  striking  botanical  features  are  gradually  blended 
into  those  of  Asia  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  north  of  Africa  on  the  other.  Local  circum 
stances,  as  we  have  already  seen,  affect  the  presence  or  absence  of  certain  plants,  to  an  extent 
more  than  equal  to  that  of  any  artificial  geographical  arrangement.  Temperature,  which 
has  so  powerfiil  an  effect  upon  thein,  varies  in  a  regular  progression  upon  a  lofty  mountain ; 
but  it  is  not  so  in  all  situations,  and  with  the  same  regularity,  especially  on  the  great  conti- 
nents, upon  the  plains  and  low  grounds.  "  Sometimes,"  says  the  eloquent  Mirbel,  "  a  ehain 
of  mountains  forms  a  barrier  against  the  freezing  winds  of  the  north,*  and  receives  and 


*  In  one  ipot,  in  the  extreme  south  of  Sweden,  fttcinn  the  sen,  anil  backed  by  tony  hills,  olivt*  have  siicceedcil 
in  the  open  air,  and  ripened  their  fruit ;  while,  at  the  diptnnre  of  six  Swcilish  miles  northward,  the  inhabitanli 
tlotbe  tbenuelves  witb  flirt  in  the  winter,  to  protect  tbemsalve*  fVom  the  wverity  of  the  cold. 


i-,-^r- 


BooE  lU. 


,YH'i/.;i   EUROPE.   ai,')aaii 


200 


)n  among  all 
lountrics,  the 
>le8t  classes, 
endowmeiiLi 
g  the  middle 
"pw  adapting 
ions  for  the 
ce.  to  whicli 
us. 

>  exceptions, 
r  of  a  sing-le 
ig  a  regular 

are  equally 
H»  according 
on  and  pro- 
:e  of  power, 
Jdly  rescued 
military  and 
an  offer  any 
)ocupied,  or 
nly  through 
jpendence. 

respective 


nportant  to 
i  sketch  of 
must  now 
ed  to  otir- 
to  mention 
,  to  give  a 
ither  from 
ne  circum- 

7  general 

,  we  can- 

loundaries 

7  of  what 

y  blended 

I  circum 

an  extent 

re,  which 

lountain ; 

3at  conti- 
ii  _  -  k  • 

a  cimiii 

?ives  and 


)  siicceedeil 
nhHbiUntf 


retracts  upon  the  plants  Uie  heaf  w  'ch  it  derives  from  the  solar  rays;  sometimes  a  parching 
girocco  from  the  south  raises  th '.  .  erature ;  in  some  places,  the  winters  are  tempered  by 
the  proximity  to  the  sea ;  whiisl  her  times  all  these  causes  combined,  produce  a  climate 
goinildi  that,  to  judge  of  ita  geoj.ujjhical  position  only  by  the  indication  of  the  thermometer, 
we  should  suppose  its  latitude  tc  le  much  nearer  the  tropics  than  it  actually  u.  Again, 
continued  plains  of  vast  extent,  exactly  on  a  level  with  the  sea,  are  of  rare  occurrence;  and 
if  there  be  but  an  elevation  of  1000  or  1100  feet,  it  suffices  to  produce  a  considerable  reduc- 
tion of  temperature.  This,  in  its  turn,  obtains  an  influence  over  the  vegetable  creation ;  it 
cimnges  the  line  of  the  progress  of  plants  in  their  migration ;  it  arrests  them,  and  limits  their 
boundaries.  Sometimes  the  northern  species  proceed  southward  towards  the  tropics ;  some- 
limes  those  of  the  south  migrate  northwards ;  and  sometimes  groups  belonging  to  both  of  these 

tribes  exchange  countries,  passing  one  an- 
other ;  each  about  to  establish  colonies  in  privi- 
leged stations,  in  the  midst  of  a  vegetable  popu- 
lation to  which  they  are  no  less  strangers  by 
their  physiognomy  tiian  by  their  temperament. 

We  shall  here  confine,  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, our  observations  to  a  table,  by  M.  Mir- 
bel,  of  the  pheenogamous  (or  flowering)  plants 
of  Europe ;  to  which  have  been  added,  lor 
reasons  already  alluded  to,  part  of  those  of 
Asia  and  of  Northern  Africa.  He  divides 
the  northern  hemisphere  into  imaginary  belts 
or  zones ;  the  equatorial^  the  transition  tem- 
perate, the  temperate,  the  trantition  frozen, 
and  the  frozen  zones.  The  temperate  transi- 
tion, where  European  vegetation  commences, 
is  limited,  to  the  north,  by  the  disappearance 
of  the  Olive ;  the  temperate  zone  by  the  ces- 
satioQ  of  the  Oak ;  and  the  yrozen  transition 
by  that  of  the  Fir  {Pinus  sylvestris)  in  the 
west,  and  of  the  Spruce  (P.  Abies)  in  the 
east  The  frozen  zone  is  divided  into  two 
bands ;  the  lower  or  southern,  and  the  upper 
or  northern.  Both  are  entirely  destitute  of 
trees ;  but  in  the  first  band  are  many  shrulw 
and  suflhiticose  plants  :*  whilst  in  the  second 
scarcely  any  thing  is  found  but  small  herba- 
ceous plants;  and  these  cease  where  the  line 
of  perpetual  snow  commences.'l'  Here,  too, 
another  important  fact  must  be  considered, — 
that,  in  the  frozen  or  arctic  regions,  almost 
exactly  the  same  flora  is  exhibited  in  Europe, 
Asia,  and  America. 

In  the  extent  of  country  to  which  the  following  table  is  more  peculiarly  applicable,  the 
Owarf  Palm  (Chamarops  humilis),  and  the  Date  Tree  {Phanix  dactylifura),  (Jig.  86.),  are 
the  plants  that  have  the  nearest  approximation  to  a  tropical  vegetation,  and  which  are,  of 

course,  the  most  southern.  The  plant  which  is  found  tiie 
nearest  to  the  pole,  and  which,  there  is  every  reason  to 
believe,  ascends  to  it,  is  the  Palmella  nivalis  {Hooker), 
Red  Snow  (fig.  87.)  of  arctic  navigators,  belonging  to 
the  Cryptogamic  family,  and  whicli  will  be  more  especially 
noticed  hereafler.  In  speaking  of  vegetation,  however, 
generally,  and  except  the  contrary  is  otherwise  expressed, 
the  Cryptogamic  plants  are  not  taken  into  account ;  partly 
because  we  are  at  present  but  imperfectly  acquainted 
with  their  extent  or  limits,  and  partly  because  they  are  not 
Red  Snow.  of  such  general  interest 

*  The  ihrnhby  or  iiifiViiticose  plants  of  the  ■oiithurn  hand  nf  the  flrozen  xonn,  nre  fifteen  willows :  tho  Dwarf 
Rirrh  {BelHla  nana),  the  Humble  Birch  (B,  pumila).  the  White  Birch  (A.  alba)—WH»  last  is  only-  found  on  the 
sniithern  c<iasts  of  Qrcenland  ;  tlio  Hoary  Birch  (A.  tneana),  tho  Juniper  {Junivervs  eommunh),  the  TrailinK  Azalu 
(.^.  proeHmben-t),  the  Blue  Menziesia  (M.  tarulta),  the  Ledum  palustre  and  L.  latifolium,  the  Lapland  Diapcniia, 
tliR  Dnwny  Whortleberry  (Vaecinium  pub»seen»).  the  Marsh  Whortleberry  {f.  ulieinomim),  the  Red  Cowberry  ly 
yuia  iiir.a],  the  i'rHiiberry  (''.  Gxti.rsccss),  the  Gfniirons  Kalinia,  eight  species  of  Rhododendron,  the  Alpine  Arbu- 
tus, the  Crowberry,  the  Common  Heath,  the  Shrubby  Pc  ..cntilla,  and  the  Kowan  Fir  iFfrUi  a<iCmp.tris),  on  the 
southern  shores  of  Greenland. 

t  AlmoM  the  only  shrubby  plants  of  the  northern  band  of  the  fVozen  zone,  are  the  little  Arctic  Willow  {Sola 
polari§),  the  reticulated  Willow  (5.  reticulata),  and  the  four-sided  Andromeda  {A  tetragona). 


BoraMui. 


Dale  Tree.      Dwarf  Pa^m 


3b6 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 

■^^^h'^W;^}:'^-OCmPARATIVE  TABLE 


Pa«t  IE. 


or  the  phcnogamoui  vagttation  of  ■  part  of  the  Tftmptratt  TViuitim  Zra«  (Paletllne,  Syria,  Aiia  Minor  and 
the  Caiicaiiaii  regioiia;  a  portion  of  toe  north  of  Aftlca  and  the  muth  of  Europe  being  cninpriied  in  thia  znnA 
of  the  Temperate  Zmt  (Central  Europe  aa  flir  ai  tlie  Ural  IWountaina  and  the  Caapian  Seo.  ariit  parts  of  Tartar* 
bordering  upon  that  aea);  of  the  Tmuilia*  Pmt%  Z*n<  (Northern  Europe,  Siberia,  and  KaintachatltaV  ami  »» 


tlie  Froun  Zont  (Polar  Regioni)  of  the  Old  and  New  World. 
MuMtum  d'Hut-JfaLdt  Parit. 


Extracted  IVom  M.  Mirbel'a  table,  in  the  Jtf«m.  ^ 


i 

T*nparBt« 

TM^mtt 

rmwa 

Wmm 

Traaaltlnu  Xmw. 

low. 

TrinlUoa  Ion. 

ZOH, 

ITMMi  tf  Vatanl  FuiIUm. 

1 

m 

ill 

if 

t 

1 

m 

jsil 

Iccd-MMffcTfphlBM,  Md  Aranu,  AroMwa... 

n 

O.OOl 

10 

0.001 

a 

t.m 

_    . 

.  _ 

16 

Mi 

0.063 

17 

».6n 

117 

atiiftt,  oyp^tttu 

IM 

o.aa 

371 

0.000 

w 

0.049 

M 

t.tn 

Ho 

-h 

RMtlo,  SMtl«-eM, 

»    - 

- 

-     - 

- 

I 

-       - 

.    m 

40 

49 

0.016 

97 

0.013 

11 

O.Ml 

•?f 

Waleiwplamaliu,  AlitmMCM, 

la 

o.ooa 

M 

0.607 

» 

o.aoa 

s 

o.oea 

•a 

Avparwoii,  Aii«TW«t. 

la 

II 

a.6W 

1 

0.009 

-    * 

a 

0.001 

1 

0.003 

< 

0.001 

1 

0.106 

11 

' 

UllM^UIlSMK, 

ito 

78 

0.030 

•a 

a.aia 

O.Wl 

Mr 

M 

11 

0.001 

-     » 

*    . 

Irto.  IrMvAff. 

ai 

0.006 

36 

0.006 

17 

0.138 

b     _ 

_    _ 

70 

Orrhli,  Orrbiilrw 

IM 

•« 

0.011 

49 

•.016 

6 

O.Ul 

198 

.1 

rractbtt,  NvrlrorbaridMe, { 

PondwMd    NrfiadM* 5 

u 

0.001 

a 

O.ooa 

t 

aon 

-    - 

11 

1 

-    - 

•  - 

-    - 

■    • 

.    _ 

-    - 

- 

1 

Palm*,  PalBir 

a 

9 

rian,  CoDirrric 

M 

0.004 

13 

0.001 

s 

O.OOl 

1 

0.001 

98 

Amrntacroum  Amrniweu, 

1(M 

0.011 

aa 

0.016 

48 

O.OJl 

SB 

•  041 

17H 

ElEu.  DtmM<ra«> 

a 

a 

m       - 

0 

ii 

Nettlca.  UrticDM. 

<o 

0.003 

a 

0.003 

a 

O.ooa 

_    . 

_ 

31 

■purfr*.  EiiphorblMMC, 

loa 

38 

11 

oooa 

"    * 

*     - 

119 

10 

9 

- 

0.001 

•m       «. 

- 

16 

Sandal-'wtNHl,  StDtalarcae { 

Daphne,  Thfinelrae, ' 

a 

0.001 

10 

0.003 

a 

0.001 

-    - 

-          - 

13 

r-- 

ai 

0.001 

a 

0.003 

« 

0.001 

.    _ 

> 

32 

E«ur«li  Laurineae, 

1 

— 

-  . 

-     - 

>  > 

-    - 

«          a 

1 

'. 

Bnekwhrai,  PolnoaMr, 

ai 

0.007 

48 

0.011 

36 

9 

•.ail 

to 

IM 

0.011 

116 

47 

0.031 

-    - 

116 

& 

0.007 

6 
14 

6.0I« 

3 

13 

O.OUI 

a 

0.0*7 

U 
71 

^- 

Plaataln.  PlantaglMae, 

»  . 

Thiin,  Plnmbaglocat, ., .. 

»1 

,    0.006 

31 

O.IW 

17 

o.ooa 

1 

0.009 

11 

: 

Marvtli.  Nyclaf iOBSc 

i 

-     • 

-      - 

-    . 

9 

10 

o.oei 

3 

0.001 

•    ~ 

..  a 

• 

10 

PrimrMt,  Prlmnlarcac ,,... 

« 

66 

10 

11 

0.336 

we 

Butttfrwoil,  LsntlbuUrUf. 

10 

8 

» 

3 

0.006 

14 

n(wort,rVii]phiilariaa* 

Mirht>bad«.  rtrilaiwat 

am 

0016 

100 

0.007 

aa 

31 

ao64 

961 

78 

0.010 

18 

0.000 

10 

0004 

0  u<a 

03 

41 

0000 

to 

O.Oll 

aa 

4 

o.oos 

(9 

Swallftwwnrt,  Apoe7B«a«M 

n 

0.001 

8 

0003 

a 

36 

Araathiu.  Anatbaecaf. 

4 

4 

Pf>lrraol)ii]m.  PolemoulacUff 

1 

-    - 

1 

-     - 

9 

0.001 
0.003 
0.003 
O.0M 

1 

O.0M 

a 

Blottwn^d,  Coavnlvulaceaa 

4a 

0.006 

II 

0.001 

7 

_    _ 

61 

B<iraffe,  Bomrlnvae, 

in 

0.031 

80 

0.090 

41 

_    _ 

•.0*6 

939 

Ubiate,  Lablalao  

4ai 

0.061 

116 

o.on 

T7 

1 

0.001 

419 

ViTvaIn*.  Verbeoar»a«, 

4 

-      - 

1 

- 

1 

1 

Janniii<*,Jaimilneae, 

la 

0.003 

1 

- 

0.     . 

.    _ 

_ 

19 

Hraiha.  Krtclarae ) 

■tkinr.  Khtaaceac -* 

»T 

0.004 

9a 

0.007 

n 

.0016 

n 

0.0M 

81 

t 

-     - 

-  . 

- 

.  . 

B 

_  _ 

. 

3 

*'■• 

Bi'liaoweri.  Cimpanulareatf, ) 

Oardlnal-fluwerf.  Lobeliaccaa, ( 

Oomp.»uiKl,  Synatbeieaf ' 

laa 

O.OM 

aa 

0.014 

18 

0.001 

1 

e.oof 

141 

1118 

0.143 

630 

0.111 

131 

0.104 

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Booiin. 


.Y»n/jt  EUROJ>E.   ft>fr»?irfa 


297 


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In  the  temperate  hransition  zone,  out  of  6198  species,  1262  have  6een  ascertained  to  be 
woody,  and  6898  herbaceous ;  and  of  these  latter  8861  are  known  to  have  perennial,  and 
2373  annual  or  biennial  roots. 

In  the  temperate  zone,  out  of  3982  species,  there  are  857  woudy,  and  3625  herbaceous ; 
of  which  2610  are  understood  to  have  perennial,  and  944  annual  or  biennial  roots. 

In  the  trozen  transition  zone,  out  of  2129  species,  are  19!)  woody  plants,  and  1936  herba* 
ceous;  of  which  511  are  supposed  to  have  perennial,  and  368  annual  or  biennial  roots. 

In  the  frozen  zone,  of  the  438  species,  46  are  woody,  and  1)92  herbaceous ;  of  which  371 
are  estimated  to  have  perennial  roots,  and  only  15  annual  or  biennial  roots. 

We  have  already  stated  that  in  the  frozen  or  polar  region  the  vegetation  is  very  similar 
throughout  the  north  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America ;  which  may  in  part  arise  fVom  its 
limited  extent,  and  from  the  continents  approaching  comparatively  so  near  to  each  other. 
There  must  necessarily,  too,  be  a  greater  equality  of  temperature  than  in  the  other  zones ; 
the  vegetation  everywhere  appearing  nearly  upon  a  level  with  the  sea.  In  Greenland, 
Schouw  estimates  that  there  is  hardly  one-sixth  of  the  plants  that  are  not  equally  found  in 
Lapland.  Of  the  genera  of  Greenland  only  two  are  not  found  in  Lapland  (Streptotnu  and 
Coptis),  and  both  occur  in  North  America.  We  shall,  by-and-by,  notice  how  analogous  is 
the  vegetation  discovered  during  Captain  Parry's  arctic  voyages  to  that  both  of  the  European 
und  American  continents,  in  corresponding  latitudes.  Even  in  Kamtschatka,  one  half  of 
tlie  plants  found  by  Wormskiold  are  European ;  and  of  the  genera  only  eight  or  ten  are  not 
European ;  and  they  are  North  American.  But,  as  we  proceed  from  the  Arctic  Regions  to 
the  south,  we  find  the  vegetation  gradually  becoming  more  and  more  dissimilar  between 
America  and  Europe ;  except,  inde^,  when  the  high  mountains  in  the  respective  countries 
are  examined,  and  then  the  resemblance  again  appears.  Pursh,  whose  flora  comprises,  to  a 
very  limited  extent,  the  plants  of  the  arctic  or  sub-arctic  regions,  or  of  the  lofty  mountains 
of  North  America,  but  is  principally  confined  to  Canada,  and  to  those  districts  of  the  United 
States  whose  latitude  corresponds  pretty  nearly  with  that  of  the  more  temperate  parts  of  the 
European  continent,  has  about  one-seventh  of  his  species  only  European ;  arid  if  the  doubts 
till  natives,  those  probably  introduced  from  the  Old  World,  be  taken  into  account,  only  one- 
tenth:  out  of  716  genera  of  North  American  plants,  480,  or  two-thirds,  also  occur  in 
Europe,  or  in  Northern  Afirica. 

Schouw  estimates  the  most  striking  disparities  between  the  vegetation  of  the  western 
parts  of  the  Old  World,  and  the  eastern  parts  of  the  New,  to  be  as  follows : — 

1.  The  Cruciform  (Jig.  88.  a)  and  Umbelliferous  families  (b) :  those  of  the  Pinks  (c)  and 
Labiate  flowers  (d)  c^re  much  the  most  numerous  on  the  old  continent  The'first,  in  North 
America,  may  be  estimated  at  -^,  iu  Europe  at  about  ^ ;  and  the  other  families  may  be 
classed  in  |be  following  proportions : — 


-mi',' 


Umbelliferous 
Pink  Family 
Labiate  flowers 


i'UJW><j'      ijaoiaie  nowers  .,,/»,■. yr- 
2.  Of  the  family  with  Compound  ^fiowers  {CompositmX  the  groups  of  the  Cndives 


North  AmeriOL 
1 

-    3ir 


Fnnce. 
1 

5T 


Dcnintrk.  ; 
I 
53 


!I5 


M--.t; 


{Cichoracea),  and  of  the  Arn- 
chokfts  and  Thistles  {Cynaro- 
cephala),  are  more  abundant 
in  Europe;  whilst,  on  the 
other  hand.  North  Ameri«;a 
possesses  such  a  number  of  spe- 
cies of  Michaelmas  Daisy  {As- 
ter), and  Golden  Rod  (Solida- 
go),  that  they  constitute  one- 
third  of  the  compound  flowers 
of  that  country,  forming  a 
striking  feature  in  the  vegeta- 
tion of  the  United  States,  and 
carrying  the  preponderance  in 
fiivour  of  North  America. 

3.  The  family  of  Bellflow- 
ers(/)f  Campanulacea  )abonnd 
most  in  the  Old  World ,  that 
of  the  Cardinal  Flowers  (Lo- 
beliaceit),  in  the  New. 

4.  Not  a  single  species  of  Heath  ig")  is  found  in  the  new  continent ;  wiiile,  in  the  old, 
immense  tracts  are  covered  with  them ;  but  their  places  are  taken  in  America  by  the  Whor- 
tleberries (  Vaccinia). 

5.  Both  in  North  America  and  in  Europe,  the  forests  are  constituted  by  the  families  of 
Vol.  2N 


SMO 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  III 


the  Cone>be&rinff  (^Contfera)  and  Amentaceous  (Amen/acea)  trees ;  but  in  America  they  ftr 
exceed  those  of  Europe  in  respect  to  the  number  of  species. 

6.  In  North  America  we  find  the  types  or  representatives  of  many  tropical  families; 
as,  for  example,  of  the  Cacttuei,  ScUamineotu  juantt,  the  Sago  (Cycadea),  the  Custard 
Apples  (Annonoeea),  the  Sapindoceous,  and  the  Mela$tomaceaut  plants :  these  are  wholly 
wanting  in  similar  latitudes  in  the  Old  World ;  and  in  regard  to  many  others,  which  are 
common  to  both  countries,  such  as  the  Palms,  Laurels,  Swallowworts  {Aaclepiadea), 
Sumachs,  Cassias,  and  Mimoecs,'  they  are  more  abundant,  and  generally  reach  a  higher 
northern  latitude,  in  North  America  than  in  the  Old  World.  In  Europe,  again,  there  are 
fewer  arborescent  plants ;  for,  according  to  Humboldt,  while  North  America  has  137  trees 
whose  trunks  reach  the  height  of  30  feet  and  upwards,  Europe  possesses  only  45  of  that 
character. 

Siberia,  bounded  as  it  is  on  the  side  of  Europe  by  the  Ural  Mountains,  differs  from  the 
latter  country  in  a  much  less  degree ;  and  it  is  mostly  m  North  American  genera  that  this 
difference  lies ;  as  in  the  presence  of  the  genus  Phlox,  Mitella,  Claylonia,  &c.  and  in  tlie 
predominance  of  the  tribes  of  Michaelmas  Daisy  (Aster),  Golden  Rod  {Solidago),  Meadow- 
sweet (Sptrcea),  and  especially  of  the  Milk  vetches  {Astragalus)  and  Wormwoods  (Arte- 
mi*id)y  as  well  as  (on  account  of  the  numerous  saline  lakes)  the  Ooosefoots  and  Saltworts, 

In  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  vegetation  is  very  different  from  Uiat  of  Europe  in  the 
corresponding  degrees  of  latitude.  In  Southern  Africa,  Thunberg  enumerates  118  species 
which  are  analogous  to  those  of  Europe ;  which  would  probably  be  found  considerably  to 
exceed  the  truth,  if  the  species  were  accurately  examined.  Mr.  Brown  assures  us  that  the 
Alpine  Catstail  Grass  (Pkleutn  Alpinum)  and  the  Moonwort  Fern  {Botrychium  lunaria) 
exist  in  the  Banksian  herbarium,  which  were  gathered  in  the  extreme  parts  of  South  Ame- 
rica :  and  the  same  accurate  writer  observed  45  European  phtenogamous  plants  in  Terra 
Australis,  of  which  23  are  dicotyledonous  and  21  monocotyledonous,  and  121  acotyledonous 
or  Cryptogamia;  namely,  2  of  the  Fern  family,  25  Mosses,  14  Hepatics,  38  Lichens,  10 
Fungi,  12  Algte.*  The  very  general  distribution  of  plants  of  this  dass  over  the  sur&ce  of 
the  globe,  we  have  before,  indeed,  had  occasion  to  notice.  -  ■"  i«^  ;)v:v. 

Skct.  rV. — Zoology. 

The  zoological  features  of  Europe,  although  sufficiently  important  to  render  this  continent 
a  primary  division  of  geographic  natural  history,  are  neither  so  extensive  nor  so  varied  as 
those  of  more  genial  regions.  We  have  already  shown  the  propriety  of  including  within 
this  range  the  southern  parts  of  AfJrica  bordering  the  Great  Desert ;  while  the  western 
provinces  of  Asia  appear  to  partake  both  of  the  European  and  the  Oriental  zoology.  It 
might  be  imagined  that  such  a  division,  including  countries  suffering  by  the  extretaies  of 
cold  and  heat,  would  present  animals  of  the  most  diversified  nature :  but  such  is  by  no  means 
the  case,  at  least  to  any  great  extent.  The  chief  seat  of  this  zoological  province  appears 
to  be  on  the  southern  side  of  Central  Europe,  towards  the  Alps,  or  those  countries  lying 
between  the  latitudes  of  40°  and  50°  N. ;  as  within  these  parallels  the  greatest  proportionate 
number  of  species  appear  to  be  found.  It  may,  however,  be  more  natural  to  consider  this 
zoological  region  as  presenting  three  minor  divisions :  1.  The  arctic ;  2.  The  central ;  and, 
3.  The  southern. 

The  arctic  division  will  include  Greenland,  the  islands  of  Spitzbergen  and  Iceland,  and  a 
considerable  part  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Northern  Russia.  The  central  division  may  be 
said  to  commence  towards  the  northern  limits  of  Scotland,  and  to  reach  the  shores  of  North- 
ern Italy ;  or,  more  properly,  to  about  the  45th  degree  of  north  latitude.  The  southern 
range  includes  the  whole  of  the  Mediterranean  countries.  Northern  Africa,  and  Asia  Minor. 

The  animals  more  particularly  belonging  to  the  arctic  circle  are  few  in  species.  Those 
dreary  and  inhospitable  regions  afford  but  little  sustenance  to  ruminating  quadrupeds,  or  to 
insectivorous  land  birds ;  while  the  intense  cold  is  as  inimical  to  vegetation  as  to  the  pro- 
duction of  insects.  Yet  these  undisturbed  solitudes  are  instinctively  chosen  by  multitudes 
of  marine  animals,  as  secure  retreats  from  the  interruption  of  man,  for  breeding  and  pro- 
viding for  their  young.  The  polar  seas  abound  with  innumerable  water-fowl ;  they  congre- 
gate and  build  among  the  rocks,  whose  surface  they  almost  cover  by  their  numbers. 

Of  the  Herring,  (jig.  89.)  Pennant  was  among  the  first  naturalists  who  believed  that 
89  ^^  ^®  countless  myriads  which  annually  visit  the  northern 

shores  of  Europe,  migrated  from  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
,  The  account  given  by  this  eloquent  writer  is  so  inte- 
resting, that  we  shall  repeat  it  nearly  in  his  own 
words : — "  The  great  winter  rendezvous  of  the  herring 
is  within  the  arctic  circle.     There  they  continue  for 

the  seas  within 
that  space  swarming  with  insect  food  in  a  degree  fiir  greater  than  in  our  warmer  latitudes. 
Thus  renovated,  this  mighty  army  begins  to  put  itself  in  motion  in  the  spring.    They  appear 

*  Of  tho  131  acotyledououi  pUnta  it  may  be  obierved,  that  all,  except  one,  the  Manilea  quudrirolia,  are  found 
in  Gruat  Britain. 


British  Henini. 


many  months,  in  order  tc  recrjit  thsmselves  afier  the  iatigue  ot  spawning ; 


Pait  III 
[■Jca  they  tar 

fiimilies; 

.he  UijstanJ 

are  wholly 
i  which  are 
hIepiadeaX 
T*  *  higher 

M»  there  are 
,w  137  trees 

45  of  that 

[w  from  the 
^  that  this 
and  in  the 
•»  Meadow, 
•ods  (i4«e. 
Saltworts, 
rope  in  the 
118  species 
iderably  to 
Ufl  Uiat  the 
1  lunaria) 
outh  Ame- 
» in  Terra 
tyledonous 
ichens,  10 
surface  of 


I  continent 
I  varied  aa 
ing  within 
16  western 
ology.    It 
trebles  of 
no  means 
!e  appears 
ries  lying' 
[wrtionfite 
sider  this 
ral;  and, 

nd,  and  a 
1  may  be 
3f  North- 
southern 
a  Minor. 
Those 
ds,  or  to 
the  pro- 
iltitudcs 
md  pro- 
congre- 

ed  that 

orthern 

Ocean, 

io  inte- 

is  own 

lerring 

lue  for 

within 

itudes, 

ippoar 

0  found 


Boor  I. 


vrm*i      EUROPE.  f"T"«»iii 


Planniian. 


off  the  Shetland  Isles  in  April  and  May :  these  are  only  the  forerunners  of  tlie  ^and  divi* 
fcion,  which  comes  in  June ;  and  their  appearance  is  marked  by  certain  si^ns,  and  by  the 
numbers  of  birds  which  follow  to  prey  upon  them :  but  when  the  main  body  approaches,  its 
breadth  and  its  depth  are  such  as  to  alter  the  appearance  of  the  very  ocean.  It  is  divided 
into  distinct  columns,  of  five  or  six  miles  in  length,  and  throe  or  four  in  breadth ;  and  they 
drive  the  water  before  them  with  a  kind  of  ripplingf.  Sometimes  they  sink  for  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes,  then  rise  again  to  the  sur&ce,  and,  m  bright  weather,  reflect  a  variety  cf  splendid 
colours,  like  a  field  of  the  most  precious  grems." 

Th'3  zoology  of  arctic  Europe  has  received  much  less  attention  than  that  of  Northern 
America ;  we  must,  therefore,  be  somewhat  concise  on  this  head.  Among  the  few  original 
writers  who  have  treated  on  the  fiiuna  of  arctic  Europe,  the  learned  and  acute  Otho  F%bri' 
cius,  many  years  a  resident  in  those  dreary  regions,  deservedly  ranks  foremost  He  eoumer- 
ates  thirtv-two  species  of  Mammalia  as  natives  of  Greenland,  nine  of  whicli  belong  to  the 
genera  of  Walrus  and  Seal  {Trichecua  and  Phoco),  and  fifteen  to  the  cetaceous  order;  thus 

leaving  but  eight  species  of  terrestrial  quadrupeds,  a  propor- 
tion at  once  explained  by  the  wild  and  desolate  nature  of  these 
regions.  The  number  of  birds,  comprehending  such  as  are 
occasional  visiters,  amounts  to  fifty-two.  Seven  of  these  are 
rapacious,  and  five  are  referable  to  the  families  of  Warblers 
and  Finches (%/vta({<B  and  Fringillidte);  the  remainder,  with 
the  solitary  exception  of  the  Ptarmigan  (Jig.  00.),  or  Lago- 
pua  mutua,  belong  to  the  wading  and  swimming  orders,  to. 
whose  nourishment  and  increase  the  arctic  solitudes  are  par- 
ticularly congenial.  Nevertheless,  by  far  the  greater  number 
of  these  birds  occur  abundantly  in  more  southern  latitudes ; 
and  many  extend  their  flight  to  the  warm  shores  of  the  Me- 
diterranean. Those  species,  in  fact,  which  habitually  live 
within  the  arctic  circle,  as  if  by  preference,  are  remarkably  few,  and  offer  no  good  founda- 
tion to  ground  a  belief  that  these  regions  constitute  one  of  the  primary  groups  in  animal 
geoarraphy. 

The  zoology  of  Central  Europe  may  be  said  to  commence  towards  the  60th  degree  of 
northern  latitude,  where  a  sensible  change  in  the  number  and  species  of  animals  may  be 
perceived ;  vegetation  assumes  a  marked  and  decisive  character ;  and  those  animals  which 
depend  for  their  support  both  on  the  produce  of  the  earth  and  on  the  insect  world  are  greatly 
increased,  at  once  in  number  and  in  species.  Vegetables  furnish  nutrition  to  insects,  and 
seeds  to  birds:  the  former,  again,  become  the  prey  of  the  latter;  and  thus 
the  supplies  of  nature  are  nicely  and  accurately  balanced,  with  a  Just 
regard  to  the  preservation  of  all  her  creatures.  The  dark  pine  forests  of 
Norway,  Sweden,  and  Lapland  are  the  most  northern  boundaries  of  the 
Woodpeckers ;  one  of  which  (Aptermui  tridactylua  Sw.)  is  remarkable 
for  having  but  three  toes  to  its  feet  (Jig.  91.)i  and  is  more  peculiarly  a 
native  of  these  high  latitudes.  The  insectivorous  and  omnivorous  tribes 
begin,  also,  to  be  common ;  while  the  wading  and  natatorial  birds  diminish 
in  numbers,  though  not  in  species ;  for  as  they  congregate  at  certain  seasons 
in  the  polar  seas,  so  during  winter  they  disperse  themselves  on  the  shores 
of  Great  Britain  and  the  Continent.  We  have  no  very  precise  informa- 
tion as  to  the  extreme  northern  range  of  those  birds  whose  chief  metropo- 
lis is  in  Central  Europe ;  and  we  are  still  deficient  in  a  Fauna  Scotica. 
Most  of  the  Arctic  birds  occur  on  the  northern  shores  of  Scotland,  the  islands  of  Orkney 
and  Shetland,  and  on  the  coasts  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark.  Mi^ller,  in  his  Zoologia 
Danica,  enumerates  57  species  of  Mammalia,  and  181  of  birds,  as  natives  of  that  kingdom. 
Among  the  former,  3  only  are  marine,  and  14  are  Cetacete:  while  the  land  birds  amount  to 
87,  exclusive  of  26  belonging  to  the  rapacious  genera  of  Eagles,  Falcons,  and  Owls.  On 
comparing  these  numbers  with  those  of  the  Greenland  fauna,  we  observe,  on  the  one  hand, 
a  considerable  diminution  of  marine  Mammalia,  and  a  very  large  addition  to  the  list  of 
terrestrial  birds ;  this  latter  circumstance  is  easily  accounted  for, — they  are  not  formed  to 
endure  extreme  cold ;  and  being  dependent  upon  insects  and  seeds  for  their  support,  thei^ 
dispersion  is  naturally  limited  by  the  fiicilities  afforded  by  nature  for  supporting  life.  Pro- 
ceeding to  those  countries  which  lie  towards  the  centre  of  Europe,  there  is  a  gradual  aug 
mentation  of  animal  life :  we  may  even  trace  this  change  in  the  local  distribution  of  the 
animals  peculiar  to  the  British  islands.  Many  species,  in  every  department  of  zoology,  are 
common  in  the  southern  and  western  counties  of  England,  which  are  totally  unknown  in  the 
northern  counties  and  in  Scotland.  Even  among  the  domesticated  races,  a  greater  develope- 
nnent  of  structure  under  a  more  genial  climate  is  apparent  in  the  horse,  the  sheep,  and  the  ox 
of  Britain,  when  compared  to  those  of  the  islands  and  mountains  of  Scotland ;  while  among 
birds  the  gallinaceous  genera,  which,  in  the  former  climates,  breed  and  live  at  all  seasons  in 
he  open  air,  are  reared  and  preserved  with  difficulty  in  countries  fiirther  north;  of  these  the 
peacov'k  and  Guinea  fowl  mav  be  cited  as  ey^""'"^ 


Thn*4)«d  Woodpackgr. 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  in. 


The  Miathem  part  of  central  Europe  is,  then,  the  field  best  calculated  fbr  studyini;  the 
peculiarities  of  European  zoology.  Commencing  with  the  existing  quadrupeds,  we  nmy 
remark,  that  while  two  species  alone  appear  to  inhabit  the  cold  regions  of  Denmark,  therp 
Are  thirteen  described  as  natives  of  France  and  the  adjacent  kingdoms,  seven  of  which  have 
been  enumerated  among  British  quadrupeds.  The  great  white  Bear,  which  is  perhaps  more 
jruly  an  arctic  animal  than  any  other,  disappears  on  the  southern  shores  of  the  Polar  Sea, 
And  is  replaced  in  temperate  Europe  by  the  common  brown  species.  Of  this  genus  there  are, 
Rcording  to  Cuvier,  but  two  recent  species  belonging  to  Europe,  the  brown  {Jig,  92.)  and  the 
02     ^^^^fc.-^^i.  black  bear.     Others  imagine,  with  some  show  oiP  reason,  that 

^    -^i^^fcii^Bfc-  there  are  more ;  as  the  varieties  from  the  first  are  very  remark- 

I  able.  The  second  is  the  black  bear  of  Europe,  diflering  from 
that  of  America  in  many  important  points  of  structure :  only 
one  living  example  appears  to  have  been  seen  and  dissected ; 
and  this,  having  died  in  confinement,  afibrded  no  clue  to  a 
knowledge  of  its  haunts  or  manners. 

The  Wolf  and  the  Fox,  under  different  varieties  or  species, 
appear  generally  distributed  over  Europe :  to  these  we  must  add 
the  Lynx  and  the  Wild  Cat,  as  the  only  true  rapacious  or  car- 
nivorous animals  that  have  been  appropriated  to  this  division  of 
Brown  EaropMo  Bear.  ^^  globe.     The  Lylix,  once  common  in  central  Europe,  is  now 

only  known  in  some  parts  of  Spain,  the  Apennines,  and  in  the  northern  kingdoms.  The 
wild  cat  is  still  said  to  be  a  native  of  Britain,  and  is  spread  over  other  kingdoms  on  the  Con- 
tinent A  recent  author  includes  among  the  "  extinct  animals"  of  Britain  tlio  hyena  and 
tiger  whose  bones  have  been  found  in  the  caves  of  Kirkdale,  as  forming  part  of  the  moflern 
geographic  distribution  of  animals.  This  hypothesis  lies  open  to  many  and  great  objections. 
If  Euch  formidable  and  terrific  carnivorous  animals  have  existed  in  Europe  since  the  Inst 
revolution  of  our  globe,  what  others  constituted  their  prey  1  Their  fhod  being  flesh  alone, 
what  were  the  other  races  of  quadrupeds  destined  by  nature  to  furnish  them  with  subsistence  ? 
These  questions  must  be  first  considered,  before  we  can  assent  \a  an  opinion  so  confidently 
advanced.  Whatever  might  have  been  the  character  of  European  zoology  before  the  deluee, 
certain  it  is,  that  in  its  present  state  it  exhibits  that  harmony  and  consistency  which  peculi- 
arly marks  a  wise  provision  for  all  created  things.  As  the  number  of  European  Mammalia 
is  so  disproportionably  small,  when  compared  with  those  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  so  tire 
the  species  which  are  to  keep  their  own  class  under  subjection  feeble  and  few ;  and  this  law 
is  not  only  apparent  among  quadrupeds,  but  is  equally  observable  in  every  other  division  of 
animals.  Now,  as  birds  are  much  more  numerous,  we  find  that  in  addition  to  the  natural 
enemies  in  their  own  class,  there  is  a  group  of  quadrupeds  more  particularly  destructive  to 
the  feathered  tribes.  These  are  the  Mustelte,  or  Weasels;  few  perhaps  in  species,  but  im- 
portant in  their  numbers,  and  in  their  powers  of  destruction.  No  less  than  eight  species 
mhabit  different  parts  of  Europe.  Like  the  monkeys  of  the  tropics,  many  of  them  climb 
trees  and  suck  eggs ;  and  by  thus  destroying  birds  in  every  stage  of  life,  from  the  egg  to  the 
adult,  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  prevent  an  undue  increase  of  numbers. 

On  the  granivorous  quadrupeds  it  may  be  observed,  that  although  the  woods  of  Europe  are 
deficient  in  that  variety  of  pulpy  fruits  so  abundant  in  tropical  countries,  and  upon  which  the 
numerous  monkeys,  bats,  and  other  animals  of  those  regions  principally  live,  yet  there  is  a 
•  03  great  diversity  of  nuts  and  grain.     Hence  we  find  a  propor- 

-<'"J"  .  tionate  number  of  small  quadrupeds,  whose  subsistence  en- 

tirely depends  upon  these  botmtiful  supplies  oi  nature: 
under  this  head  m^  be  enumerated  the  Hedgehog,  Squirrel, 
and  the  various  Mice,  of  which  seven  species  belong  to 
Europe.  The  Beaver  (Jig.  93.)  is  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Rhone,  the  Danube,  the  Rhine,  and  other  of  the  larger 
European  rivers.  If  naturalists  are  correct  in  considering 
this  to  be  identical  with  the  American  beaver,  it  is  one  of 
the  very  few  instances  of  the  same  species  of  animal  inhab- 
. 'i  !i-M<ft  Beaver.       -■  .ai'it  '     jji^g  jjjg  temperate ■  parts  of  the  old  and  new  continents. 

The  black  bear  of  Europe  was  long  confounded  with  that  of  America ;  and  a  similar  differ- 
ence may  possibly  exist  between  the  beavers  of  the  two  continents. 
The  different  species  of  Mice,  &c.,  now  arranged  under  man^  genera,  form  an  important 
rt  of  European  zoology ;  as  will  appear  from  the  following  list,  furnished  by  Mr.  f  rriditl) 


fKirt 

i-om  the  valuable  Mammalogie  of  M.  Desmarest 

Arvicnia  amphihiin WntiT  Rnt. 

arvalig Picltl  Moiifie,   ^  '«(*f if 

fiilviia P!!!yf!:is  rtitto. 

— arjentoratciiBig Strasbiire  ditto. 

"  ■"  Oenrychiia  IVorvepiciis The  hemming. 

. ti'rrc'gtrig Land  ditto. 

Miis  Bylvatic'iis Field  Mniise. 

—  campeitris Plain  ditto. 


Mils  miiKcnliia Hniisn  Mniinr 

mosflariui) Hnrvt-nf  liitlQ.      ■''■ 

— —  miniitiig Small  ditto.         ;,. 

aerariiiB Scttiic  ditto.        ^ 

(inririiiiiB Phrow-like  ditto.  * 

—  dichriiriis Partyrnlnurcd  Bat. 

ialandicus Iceland  ditto. 


The  HainJ 
family  »» 
ffflf »»)  e*^ 
bttc)  are  I  j 
tucrnther 
species  oi 
piete  the 
Among 
northern* 
inthemi^ 
Alps  and! 
standingT 
raped  dei 
tic  breed! 
of  Corsicl 
tained  td 
appears  il 
existed  il 
variety  il 
some  fev 
tinguishi 
althougl 
the  elk  ( 
Prom 
numben 
being  ft 
animaU 
the  rea( 
HamiltJ 
larly,  is 


Book  I.    i 


.Y  F  f^i  M-i  EUEOPE.     (  h:  )»:^a 


801 


"••y'njr  the 
"*•  we  nmy 

"""k.  theti 

which  have 
n-hang  more 
'  Polar  Sea, 
118  there  are, 
92.)  and  the' 
reason,  that 
ery  remark- 
'«"«&  from 
pture:  only 

aissected ; 

clue  to  a 

oj"  "pecieg, 
«  must  add 
loua  or  car- 
division  of 
'po.  is  now 
oms.    The 
»n  theCon- 
^yiena  and 
he  mofiern 
objections, 
ce  the  Inst 
esh  alone, 

hsistence  ? 
onfidontly 

he  deluffe, 

ich  peculj. 

^ammalia 

ica,  so  are 

iJ  this  Jaw 

'ivision  of 

•le  natural 

ructive  to 

s.  but  im- 

it  species 

em  climb 

?g  to  the 

Jrope  are 
I'hich  the 
liere  is  a 
a  propor- 
ence  en- 
nature  : 
Squirrel, 
^long'  to 
mity  of 
B  larger 
sidering 
I  one  of 
1  inhab- 
tinents. 
P  differ. 

portant 
riritfiO) 


It 


Tlie  Hamstnn,  remarkable  fbr  their  oheek  pouches,  and  belonffinff  to  the  Rame  natural 
family  as  thn  mice,  have  tlioir  chief  metropoliii  in  Siberia;  ynt  one  specien  {fJriretus  vid- 
aarii)  extends  tw  central  and  nortiiern  Europe.  The  Marmots  {Arctom^s  Marmatta,  Ho- 
bae)  are  likewise  nucivorous,  and  occur  on  the  mountaina  of  central  and  northern  Europe, 
tu^rnther  with  the  Spennophilua  citilluii,  or  Soulisk  of  the  Germam.  Of  the  Hare,  tour 
species  are  European,  the  snowy,  the  common,  the  calling,  and  the  rabbit;  and  these  com- 
plete the  list  of  European  Olire$. 

Among  ruminatinff  quadrupeds,  the  Elk  and  Reindeer  are  well-known  inhabitants  of  the 
northern  countries;  me  latter  giving  place  to  the  Fallow-deer,  the  Stag,  and  the  Roebuck, 
in  the  midland  parts  of  Europe.  In  the  lofty  mountains  and  inaccessible  precipices  of  the 
Alps  and  Pyrenees,  the  Chamois,  Yuird,  and  Ibex  still  live  in  partial  security,  notwith- 
fltanding  the  daring  intrepidity  of  their  hunters.  The  Musmon  is  another  European  quad- 
ruped deserving  particular  notice,  as  being  generally  considered  the  origin  of  Idl  our  domes- 
tic breeds  of  sheep.  It  appears  still  to  exist  in  a  state  of  nature  among  the  high  mountaina 
of  Corsica  and  Sardinia ;  and  although  now  extirpated  upon  the  continent,  is  well  ascer^ 
tained  to  have  formerly  been  common  in  the  mountains  of  Asturia  in  Spain.  Lastly,  it 
appears  incontestable  that  the  ox,  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  nature's  ^ifls  to  man,  originally 
existed  in  a  wild  state  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  but  whether  as  a  distinct  species  or  mere 
variety  is  still  uncertain.  The  white  ox  of  Scotland  is  a  peculiar  breed,  still  preserved  in 
some  few  parks  of  the  nobility,  and  will  be  noticed  hereafter.  But  a  much  larger  race,  dis- 
tini^ished  by  Hamilton  Smith  under  the  name  of  the  Fossil  Urns  {,Gr}ff.  Cuv.  iv.  414.), 
although,  probably,  in  existence  long  after  the  mvasion  of  Cesar,  is  now  only  known,  like 
^e  elk  of  Ireland,  by  its  gigantic  bones. 

From  this  brief  enumeration  of  the  European  quadrupods  it  will  be  perceived  that  their 
numbers  are  too  few,  and  their  original  dispersion  too  obscure,  to  allow  of  any  correct  notions 
being  formed  as  to  their  natural  distribution.  With  regard  to  the  origin  of  our  domestic 
animals,  and  the  several  races,  breeds,  or  varieties  that  have  apparently  sprung  from  them, 
the  reader  must  be  referred  to  the  writings  of  F.  Cuvier,  and  the  extensive  researches  of 
Hamilton  Smith,  whose  acquaintance  with  the  order  of  ruminating  animals,  more  porticu* 
larly,  is,  perhaps,  superior  to  that  of  any  other  living  zoologist. 

The  ornithological  features  of  the  zoological  province  to  which  Europe  belongs,  have 
already  claimed  our  attention.  We  shall,  therefore,  now  merely  notice  a  few  circumstances 
connected  with  the  ornithology  of  central  Europe.  On  the  highest 
summits  of  the  Alps,  and  in  the  vast  forests  which  clothe  their  sides 
in  Hungary,  Switzerland,  and  the  Tyrol,  are  found  all  the  four  spe- 
cies of  European  Vultures :  only  one  of  these,  Vullur  fulvtu  (Jifc, 
94.),  appears  to  have  a  range  in  countries  farther  north ;  yet  all  are 
distributed  over  the  southern  kingdoms,  and  two  are  again  met  with 
on  the  northern  limits  of  Africa  and  western  Asia.  The  Iceland  or 
gyr  Falcon,  lonp  supposed  to  be  peculiar  to  the  high  northern  lati* 
tudes,  is  now  considered  the  same  with  the  Falco  candicaru  of  the 
northern  parts  of  Germany.  The  wide  geographic  range  of  the 
rapacious  order  has  already  been  adverted  to ;  nor  do  we  find  any 
species  besides  the  Vultures  which  serve  to  mark  the  ornithology 
of  central  Europe.  The  forests  of  Germany,  Austria,  Switzerland, 
and  France  appear  to  contain  all  the  European  Woodpeckers,  which, 
notwithstanding  their  wide  dispersion,  are  but  thinly  and  partially 
scatt-jred  in  the  northern  and  southern  kingdoms. 

The  range  of  the  small  insectivorous  birds,  or  warblers,  requires  much  investigation ;  nor 
are  we  at  this  moment  aware  of  any  species  in  Germany  which  does  not  occur  in  France  oi 
towards  northern  Italy.  The  few  gallinaceous  birds  of  Europe  are  nearly  all  found  towards 
its  centre,  although  the  different  species  of  grouse  seem  to  affect  the  more  northern  lati- 
tudes. The  warm  covering  of  feathers  which  protects  their  feet,  is  peculiarly  adapted  as 
a  defence  from  the  intense  cold  of  the  polar  regions.  The  Bustards,  on  the  contrary,  occupy 
the  middle  regions  of  Europe,  and  extend  latitudinally  ftt)m  the  confines  of  Asia  to  the  shores 
of  the  Atlantic.  The  Bee-eater  {Meropg  apiaster\  the  Roller,  the  Hoopoe,  and  the  Golden 
Oriole,  in  their  annual  migrations  from  Africa,  visit  all  the  central  parts  of  the  Continent, 
but  become  progressively  scarce  as  we  advance  northward. 

In  the  third  portion  of  the  European  range,  we  comprehend  the  south  of  France,  the  whole 
of  Spain,  Italy,  and  Turkey,  together  with  the  coasts  and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
bordering  Asia  Minor,  and  Northern  AfHca. 

On  the  geographic  range  of  the  quadrupedi  more  peculiar  to  these  countries,  little  can  be 
said ;  as  the  materials  to  be  gathered  ftfka  the  relations  of  travellers  unacquainted  with  zoology 
are  generally  most  imperfect.  There  is  no  evidence  of  the  great  riorthem  raminating  animuls, 
such  as  the  Elk  aild  the  Reindeer,  being  found  wild  in  any  of  the  countries  which  border 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  although  a  small  species,  probably  the  fallow  deer  or  the  roebuck. 
Vol.  I.  26 


Falvoiu  Vulture. 


Sif 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pamt  lit 


ia  raprMont«d  m  ■till  to  be  in«t  with  in  the  extoniive  foretta  of  Calabria.  The  Porcupine, 
now  wild  in  those  countriea,  ia  suppoaed,  (but'with  a  slight  ahow  of  reaaon,)  to  have  b«en 
introduced  ftxHn  AfVioa ;  but  for  what  purpoae  we  are  uninfonned.  The  Bu&lo  is  domeiti- 
oated  in  Greece  and  Turkey,  and  aome  partaof  aouthem  Italy ;  where  it  ia  aometimea,  though 
rarely,  used  for  draught 

The  omitholo^  of  the  countriea  bordering  upon  the  Mediterranean  preaenta  many 
intereoting  peculiaritiea.  The  vulturea,  which  are  seldom  found  northwanl  of  the  Alps, 
occur  more  nrequently  aa  the  climate  becomea  warmer.  Thia  tribe  appeara  to  follow  U^ 
courao  of  the  Apennines  in  Italy,  and  of  tho  higher  mountain*  of  Spam  and  Greece,  from 
whence  they  extend  their  range  to  Aaia  Minor  and  northern  Aflrica.  The  Imperial  Eagle 
yFako  imperialU  Tem.)  is  chiefly  found  in  aouthem  Europe,  while  the  Golden  Eagle  ii 
much  more  numerous  in  the  colder  latitudes.  The  gigantic  Owla  of  the  polar  regions  are 
hero  unknown ;  but  two  or  three  homed  species,  of  diminutive  size,  follow  the  migratory 
troopa  of  smaller  birds  in  their  annual  journeys  across  the  Mediterranean.  Two  of  these 
small  owls  have  not  yet  been  described.  In  the  extensive  family  of  the  warblen,  many 
appear  peculiar  to  Italy,  Spain,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia ;  and  in  the  latter  island  there  has  recently 

been  discovered  a  second  species  of  European  Starling  (Stumut 
unicolor  Tem.)  (Jig.  95.)  The  grouse  of  northern  Europe  are 
rarely,  if  ever,  seen.  But  two  species  of  bustard  {Otis  Tetrao 
and  noubara)  seldom  met  with  farther  north,  are  common  in 
Spain,  Italy,  and  Turkey.  Here  also  we  first  meet  with  tho 
African  and  Asiatic  genera  Curaorius  and  Hemipodiui ;  birds 
which  delight  in  the  dry  and  arid  plains  of  those  continents, 
where  they  ran  with  amazing  swiftnesa.  The  rocky  and  un- 
cultivated wastes  of  Spain,  Turkey,  and  Asia  Minor,  furnish 
two  species  of  rock  grouse  (Pteroclet)  long  confounded  with 
atumui  UniooioT.  that  northem  genus,  of  which  it  is  the  representative  in  warm 

climates.  The  beautiful  Wall-creeper,  with  its  bright  rosy  wings,  although  rare  in  other 
parts  of  Europe,  is  not  uncommon  in  Italy ;  while  the  Golden  Oriole,  the  Bee-eater,  the 
Hoopoe,  and  the  Roller,  four  of  the  most  beautifbl  European  birds,  are  so  abundant  in  the  tv;o 
Sicilies  during  the  spring  and  autumnal  migrations,  that  they  may  occasionally  be  seen  hang- 
ing in  the  poulterers'  shops  of  Naples  and  Palermo.  The  imion  of  the  African,  European, 
and  Asiatic  ornithology  on  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  is  further  apparent  among  the 
waterrbirds.  The  Pelican,  the  Spoon-bill,  and  the  Flamingo,  are  still  to  be  met  with  in  these 
countries ;  although,  from  their  large  size  attracting  the  sportsmen,  they  are  never  seen  in 
any  considerable  numbers. 

The  European  reptiles  are  too  few  to  afford  any  material  illustration  of  animal  distribution. 
The  most  remarkable  forms  and  the  greatest  numerical  proportion  occur  in  aouthem  Europe, 
particularly  in  Italy  and  Greece,  and  the  islands  of  Sicily  and  Malta :  some  of  these,  as  the 
Gecko,  or  house  lizards  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  belong  to  genera  not  met  with  fiirther  north, 
but  common  on  the  opposite  shores  of  Africa  and  Asia  Mmor. 

The  fish  and  other  marine  animals  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  coasts  bordering  on  the 
Atlpjitic  have  not  been  well  investigated,  and  our  slight  acquaintance  with  them  is  insufficient 
to  give  us  any  correct  idea  of  their  nature;  but  on  entering  the  Mediterranean,  we  find,  at 
Gibraltar,  many  of  those  peculiar  to  much  more  southern  latitudes.  Spain  and  Portugal 
cannot  be  said,  like  England,  France,  or  Holland,  to  have  national  flshenes ;  but  no  sooner 
do  we  pass  Gibraltar,  than  these  natural  sources  of  prosperity  and  plenty  are  again  opened 
to  the  industry  and  support  of  man.  The  enormous  shoals  of  Anchovies,  (Jig.  96.)  annually 
gQ  employ,  in  their  capture  and  preparation,  a  great  number 

of  persons :  and  the  exportation  of  this  highly  flavoured 
little  fish,  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  creates  an  important 
branch  of  permanent  commerce.  The  Herring  and,  we 
believe,  the  Pilchard,  are  not  unknown  in  the  fish-mar- 
AnoboTf.  kets  of  Sicily  and  Malta;  but,  notwithstanding  their 

abundance  in  northem  Europe,  they  are  scarce  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  never  seen  in  any 
considerable  numbers.  The  tunny  fishery  is  peculiar  to  Sicily,  although  there  is  very  little 
doubt  that  the  same  fish  firequents  the  shores  and  islands  of  the  Peloponnesus ;  yet  the  tota' 
disregard  of  the  Turks  to  all  sources  of  national  wealth  blinds  them  to  this,  and  *o  every 
other  advantage  which  Nature  has  placed  within  their  grasp.  The  Ichtliyology  of  southern 
Europe  is  certainly  of  a  more  marked  and  peculiar  character  than  any  other  department  of 
European  zoology.  Of  nearly  150  species  observed  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  not  more 
than  one-third  l^longed  to  the  Ichthyology  of  Great  Britain  and  northern  Europe. 

The  Turtle  of  the  Mediterranean  is  that  described  by  authors  under  the  name  of  Testudo 
carelta :  writers  have  uniformly  copied  each  other  in  asserting  that  this  is  the  same  as  the 
Ii(^gerhead  Turtle  of  the  Wert  Indies;  and  that  its  flesh  is  coarse,  rank,  oily,  and  iio^ 


Boor  I. 

edible. 


Vir  1/  jTi     EUROPE.     M  •'^^n 


800 


The  aco  iracy  of  both  these  itatementa  may  bo  questioned.     Whatever  ma?  be  the 

qualities  of  the  West  Iniiian  Lo(ftrerhead,  we  know,  ftom 

personal  experience,  that  the  flesh  of  the  Mediterranean 

species  is  delicious.     We  were  once  becalmed  off  the  Isle 

of  Elba,  and  in  one  morninf^  captured  a  sutflcient  number  ut 

small  turtle  to  supply  tho  cabin  table  ibr  a  week.    They 

made  exquisite  soup ;  and  although  ono  of  the  company  was 

ill,  it  arose  from  repletion.  We  omitted  to  draw  ana  describe 

the  animal,  ftom  a  belief  that  it  was  the  IlawkVbill  Turtle, 

the  only  species  described  as  inhabiting  the  Mediterranean ; 

LonwhMd  Turtle.  ^^^  figure  given  by  Oottwold  {fig.  07.)  has  been  CMisidered, 

by  Dr.  Bhaw,  as  representing  the  Tettudo  eoretta. 

Of  European  insects,  a  bare  enumeration  of  the  genera  would  alone  fill  a  volume ;  and  in 

the  half-artificial,  half-natural,  arrangement  in  which  our  entomological  systems  at  this 

moment  remain,  it  is  impossible  to  form  any  precise  idea  even  on  the  natural  distribution  of 

thfj  families.     As  we  approach  the  provinces  of  southern  Italy  and  tlie  Peloponnesus,  we 

find  many  genera  which  more  properly  characterise  Western  Asia  and  Afirica ;  while,  in 

Sicily  and  Malta,  the  geodephagous  groups,  particularly  the 
Linniean  Carabii,  are  oiminished;  apparently  in  species,  but 
certainly  in  numbers.  It  is  in  these  countries  that  the  Ants, 
those  universal  scavengers  of  nature  in  tropical  countries,  begin 
to  appear  in  almost  every  situation,  and  to  perform  those  offices 
which  in  more  temperate  regions  have  been  assigned  to  the 
Oeodephaga,  Brackelytra,  and  Necrophara  among  coleopter- 
ous insects.  Most  of  the  northern  Butterflies  {Papilione$  Sw.) 
cioopain'i  Butwrflr.  are  common  even  in  Sicily,  where,  notwithstanding  a  dissimilar 

vegetation  and  a  more  heated  atmosphere,  we  find  only  three  or  four  species  unknown  to 
the  British  fauna :  among  these,  the  Qonepteryx  Cleopatra  {fig.  98.)  or  Cleopatra's  Butter* 
fly,  much  resembles  a  British  species,  but  has  the  middle  of  the  anterior  wings  of  a  rich 
orange. 
The  Radiated  animals  of  the  Mediterranean  are  particularly  numerous ;  the  many  har- 
00  hours,  coves,  and  sub-immersed  rocks,  sheltered  from  those  violent 

commotions  which  agitate  the  mighty  Atlantic,  affi)rd  them  secure 
protection,  and  contribute  to  their  rapid  increase.  Their  investiga- 
tion, hitherto  much  neglected,  oflTers  a  wide  field  for  the  discoveries 
of  naturalists  who  can  study  them  in  their  native  seas.  Numerous 
;  species  of  Sea  Anemone,  or  animal  flowers,  unfold  themselves  in 
the  crevices  of  the  rocks;  one  of  these  {fig.  99.),  ornamented  with 
rich  purple,  is  particularly  common  on  all  the  shores  of  Sicily. 

The  tubular  and  cellular  polypes,  whose  habitations  are  termed 
corals  and  corallines,  are  generally  abund-  100 

ant  in  warm  latitudes.    Among  these  a  ^     m  '^^ 

vast  number  of  species  occurs  on  the 
shores  of  Sicily,  Italy,  and  the  Greek 
Aiiiiimi  Fiownn.  islands,  which  do  not  inhabit  the  British 

coasts.  Sicily,  for  many  ages,  has  been  celebrated  for  its  fisheries 
of  the  true  red  coral  {fig.  100.) ;  and  it  still  affords  employment  at 
certain  seasons  to  many  fishermen :  but  the  produce  of  the  old 
grounds  of  late  years  has  materially  diminished,  through  wrant  of 
care  and  due  preservation.  The  Bay  of  Naples  likewise  produces 
this  beautiful  substance,  but  the  pieces  usually  found  are  small,  and 
in  no  great  abundance. 
The  Molluscous  animals.or  shell-fish  of  southern  Europe  are  in 
101  great  variety ;  and  are  much  prized  by 

all  classes,  as  general  articles  of  food. 

to  see  from  twelve  to  fift;een  different  sorts  of  shell-fish,  none  df 

a  small  size,  exposed  in  the  principal  market  at  Naples;  and  we 

have  been  assured  tliat  double  this  number  are  not  unfirequently 

served  at  the  tables  of  the  higher  ecclesiastics  and  nobility  of 

Tarentum  during  Lent,  that  city  being  highly  celebrated  for  its 

shell-fish.     The  Solen  strigilatus  {fig.  101.)  is  abundant  at 

Soicn  sirigiiaiun.  Naples,  and  considered  most  delicate  food. 

On  comparing  the  conchology  of  the  Mediterranean  with'  that  of  Britain,  there  does  not 

appear  so  much  difference  as  at  first  mig-hi  have  been  imagined ;  nor  are  we  aware  of  more 

than  three  or  four  genera  in  those  southern  latitudes  of  which  examples  have  not  been  found 

m  the  British  seas.     Yet,  on  descending  to  species,  the  difference  is  much  greater.   Perhapit 


Red  Coral. 

It  is  no  uncommon  thing 


MM 


DESrRlPTIVE  OK(XJRAPIlY. 


iW«>iiliirdii  or  thrae^lftha  .  \l  •<|it,.mini»n  wiiM*  have  bnen  (b\m\  in  tlie  Channnl.HiMl  on 

ttie  WMterii  r  ofii'"-  roa«t.-t  ot  Uni .  J'ht!  reinainitiff  portion  iiwlicnti'  u  ntnmj^  iitrunty  h  nh 
uM  conoholo^     >l  "id  tho  lied  r,m  i.ii  ime  hand,  antl  that  of  Africa,  tuwanlH  Soiu'irnl 

oil  tl       ther.     The  i  '••  apficit**  urr  twiti  iiuKieroua  in  cnntral  Europe,  where  tJio  Ii«>at 

ot'aumnier  ia  leaa  calculaiuu  lu  dry  up  U>o»»<  ninall  ptnAn  and  ahalluw  atreama,  in  which  nuMt 
of  theaa  ur>ivalve  im)llu»ca  delight  to  dwnll.     'VUv   '  viatile  bivalvea  are  few ;  but  are  of 
»r    ^ea  which  aeom  peculiar  to  the  European  ruure.     iiKk'|>'>ndentIy  of  thoae  common  alii  .• 
•  t         tain  nnd  the  Continent,  tlif re  are  othera  in  France  and  tho  aouth  of  Eurono  (Jiff,  ny^, 
Lnui  iiltoruU.i  (a)  and  the  true  I    '  'lava  (6)  are  common  in  the  Seine ;  and  wo  have  rocoivinl 
ar  flhell  from  near  Gibraltar,  whi-'h  we  wiap«;ct  to  be  a  new  apecioa,  intormodiate  be- 
i  ^^»><M^^  b  ^e^t.      I    (^en  the  latter  and  ovatu$;  we  name  it 

pioviaionaiiy  Vnio  intermediut  (c,  c). 

The  Cephalopoda,  or  cuttle-nah  of  the 
Meditorraneon,  tliough  not  of  many  epeciui, 
are  aometimea  found  in  prodif  ioua  nunibcfB, 
and  frcouently  srow  to  an  enormouti  Hizo. 
The  zoolo(fy  of  tlie  Black  and  Caspian  Hvoa 
ia  very  little  known. 

The  phoaphorescence  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean  is  at  times  so  brilliant,  that  it  excitea 
the  admiration  of  all  voyadrera;  it  therefore 
fg  1,,^  J      deaorvea  to  be  particularly  mentione<l.   Thia 

Rivw  niv?i«ii  shniii.  phenomenon,  ia  entirely  produced  by  varioin 

marine  animala.  Spix,  the  Bavarian  naturaliat  and  traveller,  in  his  poaaage  down  the  Medi- 
terranean, oauaed  aeveral  bucketa  to  be  filled  with  this  luminous  water;  and  the  followinnf 
results  attended  hia  experiments : — 

These  luminous  animalcula  adhered  to  whatever  was  wetted  with  the  water,  and  continued 
to  shine  thereon ;  tlie  buckets,  when  shaken,  appearing  full  of  luminous  particles.  The 
water,  examined  by  a  microscope,  waa  filled  with  little  todies,  some  roundisn,  some  oblon^r, 
and  ffcnorally  about  the  size  of  a  poppy-seed ;  each  of  these  had,  at  one  end,  a  small  navel- 
like opening,  encircled  by  from  six  to  nine  delicate  filaments  which  float  within  the  bladder, 
and  with  which  the  animal  seems  to  attach  itself  to  other  bodies,  and  to  seize  its  noiirlBh- 
ment.  In  the  inside  of  thene  bladders  there  were  many  other  small  darker  points,  crowded 
together  on  one  side,  or  here  and  there  some  larger  •>.<  -s,  which  might  be  either  the  remains 
of  smaller  animala  which  they  hod  swallowed,  or  i' .jir  own  spawn.  These  globular  animal- 
cula (which  Spix  considers  to  be  of  the  nature  ol  Meduss;)  have  been  named  by  Peron  and 
Ijechenault  Arethuaa pelagica,  and  by  Savigr-  NoctUuca  miliari$.  They  swim  in  greater 
or  less  numbers  at  nignt,  but  in  the  sunshine  they  appear  to  tlie  naked  eye  like  little  drops 
of  grease.  When  put  into  a  vessel  they  soon  die  and  fall  to  the  bottom ;  when  they  come 
near  together,  they  appear  involuntarily  to  attach  each  otlier,  so  that  they  form  whole  groups. 
The  same  phenomenon  is  sometimes  observed  in  the  day-time,  when  the  sky  is  dark,  which 
rarely  happens :  as  these  animals  are  seldom  found  in  water  taken  up  in  the  day-time,  it  is 
probable  they  then  sink  to  the  depths  of  the  ocean,  and  only  return  near  the  aurface  towards 
night     (iSpix,  Trav.) 

Other  luminous  bodies  resemble  balls  as  large  as  a  nut ;  and  every  wave  striking  a  ship, 
when  filled  v/ith  these  animals,  lights  up  all  surrounding  objects.  Besides  these,  Qiere  are 
sometimes  insulated  luminous  bladders,  like  fiery  balls,  a  foot  in  diameter,  which  rise  singly 
above  the  water;  and  the  striking  of  two  waves  together  produces  a  shallow  '•'ixufh  streak 
of  light,  resembling  the  reflection  of  lightning  on  tno  water.     (Spix,  Trav.  i.  -A.  •">  ^ 

The  quadrupeds  of  Europe,  according  to  the  most  r  cent  distribution  of  tk  er>t^i  ^  -if', 
Cuv.),  under  the  modern  divisions,  comprise  about  ninety  species,  arrang.  '  ini'  .i  th.  fol- 
lowing genera  and  sub-genera.  To  these  must  be  added  the  fish-quadrupeds,  or  Cetaceo;, 
chiefly  inhabiting  the  high  northern  latitudes : — 


Rinolphn 
neeotw  . 
VMpertilio 


(  fi,rp.'t  .    .    . 

;?l,v   •:: 

IS  I  K-.'f  .    . 

'  Qlu-  .  . 

Wmema,   .   .   .  t  \  a'  i^'  ■ 

•  The  genera  of  ^Suro'. 
tribution  of  animt  i':,  ae.<t 


.» 
.  1 

.2 
.  I 
,  ; 

.4 
.1 


tatn  . 

Cull  . 

VulpM  . 

Felh  . 

I.yns  . 

C%iMt  . 

Pa    r<A«i 


Mia 

Cricehn     ....  I 

OMbillia    ....  I 

AipaUv I 

Arctnmyf   ....  3 

Sclunii B 

tttnajt    ....  I 


....  I 

lipiii a 

Lafomjm   ....  a 

Cema S 

Amllopa    ....  I 
Rupricapim     ...  I 

Capn 1 

Ovb I 


Tnm  .... 

.   1 

Mtrint. 
Fhooi 

Trich«»  .    . 
ObrU    .... 
MInuiwk.    . 

1 
1 
1 

,n  .iiviis,  in  refe'-er^e  to  our  former  remarks  on  the  geographic  dis- 
7es  particular  ni.  uiUon.  Those  marked  *  arc  typical  of  families  or 
sub-families ;  those  f  inckci'Q  sub-genera,  or  subordmate  variations  of  structure  to  which  we 
shall  not  attach  a  distinct  patron}rmic  name ;  either  because  the  higher  groups  have  not  been 
sufficiently  analysed,  or  because  these  subordinate  forms  have  been  mistaken  for  genera. 
Decided  stragglers  are  excluded ;  other  genera,  of  uncertain  rank,  are  not  marked.  The 
typical  genera  of  the  wading  birds  have  not  yet  been  ascertained. 

'  ■'      .rii:"--:  i'.    '  ifi  •):'.'.  •'' 


Book  I. 

■  V»IM  .«"<'■ 

<i. .,  h|in  ■*'••• 
\:J,-:  *.'•■ 
II  ill*<»«  ■''••• 
4.|Ull»  I'll' 
ilJ«' 
jmIwI" 
>  I  tVn 

I  llul"" 

Mlicia 

I  Mm 

IMMro<<n 

CiprlmuUi" 
f  IlinMltlo 
Cyiwlm  in- 
•  <lnra|» 
lorvM 


Eurof 
imiti 

Tl 
Pierian 

taco-l 
iionJc  Ian 


I 


^*«T  III. 

hn»i|,aiidnn 
Irtiiiitymth 

e  tho  Ii(>„t 

"hich  niiwt 

^i  lire  of 

nmon  nljl,. 

|ve  recoivt-d 
Tiediote  be- 
f«  name  it 

fi»li  of  the 
|ny  epeciog, 
p  nuiiibors, 

■niouu  Hizo. 

"pian  Sont 

Mediterra. 

it  exciteg 

t  therefore 

oed.    This 

bv  various 

the  Medi- 

folIoHi'ng 

continued 
;lo8.    The 
no  oblonff, 
lall  navel- 
le  bladder, 
«  nonrisli- 
s.  crowded 
le  remains 
lar  animal- 
Ppron  and 
in  greater 
ttle  dropB 
hey  come 
'le  grmips. 
rk,  which 
time,  it  ia 
etowardg 

Of  a  ship, 
Jiere  are 
se  singly 
"-  atrpdic 

. '  •'/: 

til    to!- 

I!etacea>, 


Boot  I. 


/rt'l/  I  EUROPE. 


aoA 


rint. 


H 


hie  dis- 
lilies  or 
lich  wo 
ot  been 
renera. 
The 


•  VnlM  Jln^, 

j',„.l »ii'. 

II  uuilut  .XM. 

4.|mU  Aiy. 

Arciulltr 

•  Miffl 
I  Dulrn 
I  (Ircia 
twill 

runmtim. 

rtHlmuliiu 

•  fiirii»lii 
Cwlu  lU. 

•  (l«iro|it 
ioruUi 

•  AlMh 


•  MyMiM 

•  Uiilw 

CImIih 

•  Unolia 

•  iailciilt 
Eryik*<«  Am 
Ptiimicun  Aw, 

•  PhUnawU  JtWL 

r  CurruM  i(«eA. 

•  t  tjrlTl*  /.in. 

Accnlnr  f  «•*. 
HwIvIm  f'u*. 

t  A«ikia  •«*. 

•  Biimli)r(lllt  •■«. 

•  t  Alau4l« 

•  tEBibOTjra 
tCwdadlt. 


PmlUCM. 

•  )Trln(IIU  «w 

•  PyrrhuU  (.'y*. 

•  HtiirnM 

•  I  !•«»<»  l>m. 
Niu'irnft  flri4, 

•  t  CorviM 

•  liirrulitf 
rn^Hui  I'm). 

•  C  iirriihrUMlM  tHi. 
C<»7<hiii  Ciw. 

L'Kmlm. 

•  CunliH 
DryntomtM  ffitf, 
iHinlnMiiput  AiA 
Aplamia  Jul. 
Ctirnopllliu  Ai*. 

•  Bilk  /.In. 

•  TdrtliU  tM. 
TiclMHlruuu 
Tru(lail|lUt 


TMran  /■>■. 


I 

•  c:..l 

•  D.I 


•iImI,*«, 

r-n. 

M  r.in. 

KWcn. 
»rt». 


Il.l 

ItunloiptOTW  tm 
rimtln  /.m, 
TanlnJill  /.Ml, 
lln  .Int. 
Nuira*ltH  Irit. 


t  TnUnua  I 

RariirvirtiWrla 

t  Liuiina 

!ki4<>|iill 

t  MuhMwOlM. 

nw<ip«i  c'Mk 

fil.rr.,U 

CMi  Kan. 
OtllimiW  s-rtf. 

Hi 


Mww 

TuhydramiW  /" 
Slnuutw  ;u. 
t  TiW,  L. 
VnMlhu  llrit. 
t  Chinttrliia  1.1m, 
iXAtcmmm  I'uo. 


tlliwiiMpvt  trt). 

•t  Aiwf 

•  'Amu 

•  I  M«r|w 

t  "(jrniMM 
t  I  lU 
Mornwin  /U. 

I  AIM 

IMIi-uif//. 
DyaptiriM  tU. 

•  riitucAIMM  /.M, 

•HIM* I  L. 

•  /^ru»  t. 

>m<;  I  I 
l'r«H,ll»tt»  /■■ 


Sect.  V. — Languaget. 

Europr ,  ^  i^iAwrA  in  regard  to  its  languagoa,  coinprehonda  the  whole  globe,  through  thotaa 
imm.  9  v;o.'<>a.t:  v/hich  have  been  foundetl  by  tlie  nation*  of  this  continont  in  ovory  other 
.iuoru  '  0(  thn  worltl. 

Tl..  E'li'i'tean  languages,  ancient  and  modern,  fonn  six  fhmilies: — 1.  The  family  of  the 
^erian  in  ,',uageH;  2.  That  of  the  Cvltic  languages;  3.  That  of  tho   Thraco-Palnngic  or 

raco-Lalin  languages ;  4.  Tho  fhmily  of  tho  (itrmanic.  languages ;  Q.  That  of  tho  Hclu- 
iinnic  lang'iages ;  6.  The  family  of  the  Uralian  languages,  commonly  called  Jie  Finnith  or 
Vhudic. 

■■■'    '    ■  '•.       ■  ■•'•  'V  /•!  !■  SuBSEOT.  1.        >i>  ..■....'    ,:■.■•- '.-t/  ;^      -    .      .■    .   ■ 

The  Iberian  or  Basque  fkmily  has  been  divided  into  tho  two  following  brftnchf>«: — 1, 
Ancient  languages  long  extinct,  under  which  are  classed  the  idioms  spoken  by  the  I'x^rians 
in  tiie  greater  part  or  the  Spanish  peninsula,  in  southern  Gaul,  and  m  some  parts  o  Italy 
and  its  three  great  islands.  2.  Ancient  languages  still  living ;  of  which  the  only  one  r<  main* 
in^  is  the  Escuara  or  Datque,  formerly  spoken  in  a  large  portion  of  Spain  and  of  sou' hem 
Gaul,  and  now  spoken  only  by  the  Vascongadoa  or  Batquea  in  tho  Spanish  provinci  n  of 
Biscay  and  Navarro,  and  in  some  parts  of  tho  south  of  France.  The  Bampies  art'  tht 
descendants  of  tho  ancient  Vascones.  Their  language,  which  resembles  no  other  Euroi  -an 
idiom,  though  it  has  adopted  several  Latin  and  some  uerman  wonis,  appears  to  have  a  cer  un 
affinity  to  the  Shemitic  languages,  and,  in  its  conjugations,  some  analogy  to  tho  langugCH  .)f 
America. 

SUBSECT.  2. 

The  Celtic  family  exhibits,  like  the  Basque,  two  branches: — 1.  Ancient  lanf^a^es  loni; 
extinct,  among  which  are  classed  the  idioms  spoken  by  the  numerous  Celtic  nations  m  OauU 
in  Belgium,  in  the  British  Isles,  in  parts  of  Germany,  Italy,  and  also  Cralatia  in  Asia  Minor 
2.  Ancient  languages  still  living,  of  which  there  arc  two:  1.  The  Oallic,  Oaelic  or  Cehic 
Proper,  spoken  in  different  dialects  by  the  descendants  of  the  true  Celts,  in  a  large  portion 
of  Ireland,  in  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  in  the  Hebrides,  and  in  the  Isle  of  Man.  2.  The 
Cambrian  or  Celto-Belgic,  formerly  spoken  by  the  Cymri  or  Belgs)  in  Belgium  and  Brttaii., 
and  now  confined  to  a  part  of  England  and  France.  In  this  language  are  distinguished 
tiirce  principal  dialects:  tbe  Welsh,  spoken  and  written  by  the  people  of  that  name  descend- 
ed from  the  ancient  Britoii.H ;  the  Cornith,  formerly  spoken  throughout  Cornwall,  but  extinct 
since  uliout  the  middle  of  the  last  century ;  and  the  Bas-Breton,  called  also  by  French  writers 
the  Cnio-Breton,  spoken  in  the  part  of  Franco  formerly  called  Lower  Bretagne,  by  the 
descendants  of  those  British  fugitives  who,  in  the  fiflh  century,  sought  refuge  and  settled  in 
Annorica.    The  Baa-Breton  has  many  sub-dialccta  and  varieties, 

"■  ''    ■  '  '•         ■  „  _  ...    ^.,  •      .    ,.1,,'.,; 

SuBSEOT.  3. 

The  numerous  family  of  the  Greco-Latin  languages  may  bo  divided  into  four  branches: 
I.  The  Blyrian ;  II.  The  Etnucan ;  III.  The  Hellenic ;  IV.  The  Italic,  including  the  I^atin, 
the  Romaic  or  Romano-Rustic,  tho  modem  Italian,  the  French,  the  Spanish  or  Castilian,  the 
Portuguese,  and  the  Valaque  or  Wallachian. 

I.  Tiie  Thraco-Illvriar  branch  includes  all  those  Thracian  and  Illyrian  nations  once  seated 
in  Asia  Minor  wr  of  the  river  Halys,  and  in  Europe  all  over  its  eastern  portion,  firom  Nori' 
cum,  occupied  by  (.'eltic  tribei*,  to  the  mouths  of  the  Danube  and  the  Dnieper,  and  even 
beyond.  Of  those  nations,  long  extinct,  or  confbu  ded  with  others,  the  principal  were  the 
Phrygians,  the  Trojans,  the  Bithynians,  the  Lydians,  the  Carians,  the  Lycians,  the  Cimmerii, 
the  Tauri,  the  Thracians  properly  so  cnlled,  the  Mtesi,  the  Getee,  the  Macedonians,  the 
ancient  IHyrians,  among  whom  wsre  the  Dalmati  and  the  Istri,  the^Pannonians  or  Peonea, 
the  Veneti,  and  the  SiculL  In  this  branch,  according  to  M.  ]VIalte-Brun,  may  be  not  impro- 
perly placed — 

The  Albanian,  spoken  in  Albania  and  other  countries  by  the  Skipatar,  named  Aroauta  by 

Vol.  I.  26*  '  *-  g^      ' 


«  Vi*^''i  '■^^,''^'''  ^ 


306 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  a]. 


the  Turks,  and  generally  known  under  the  name  of  Albanians.  They  form  the  principal 
population  of  Albania,  and  are  scattered  throughout  European  Turkey,  especially  in  Rou- 
mciia,  Bulgaria,  and  Macedonia;  others  on  the  Slavonic  military  confines  of  the  Austrian 
empire,  and  others  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  This  Scyp,  or 
Albanian  language,  according  to  M.  Malte-Brun,  appears  to  be  formed  of  one-third  of  ancient 
Greek,  especially  the  iEolic  dialect,  one-third  Latin,  and  one-third  of  an  idiom  not  yet  escer- 
tained,  probably  tlie  Illyrian.  The  Albanians  have  three  different  alphabets :  one  sacred  or 
hieratic,  now  fallen  into  disuse;  another,  the  Greek  alphabet ;  a  third,  the  modem  Italian  ot 
Ijatin. 

II.  The  Etruscan,  (we  are  here  reminded  of  the  Osci  and  Heterotci,  quasi  Elrusci  ?) 
spoken  by  the  Etrurians,  called  also  Tyrrhenians  by  the  Greeks.  This  nation,  according  to 
some,  appears  to  have  been  a  mixture  of  Rhietian  Celts  with  the  Aborigines  of  Italy.  The 
Etruscan  alphabet  was  the  same  with  the  primitive  alphabet  of  the  Greeks ;  it  had  sixteen 
letters,  and  was  written  from  right  to  left. 

III.  The  PelasgoHellenic,  including  the  idioms  in  ancient  times  spoken  by  the  famous 
Pelasgi  and  Hellenes,  long  since  incorporated  with  other  nations.  The  people  of  early 
origin  who  may  with  probability  be  classed  under  this  branch  are,  the  Pelasgi,  the  Leleges, 
and  other  tribes  enumerated  by  ancient  geographers  among  the  population  of  Greece  and  its 
isles,  especially  the  Graeci,  originally  a  small  community  of  Thessaly,  but  remarkable  for 
having  given  name  to  the  whole  of  that  celebrated  nation,  whose  language  was — 

The  Hellenic,  or  ancient  Greek,  formerly  spoken  in  Greece  and  its  dependencies,  and 
at  a  lat  ir  period  in  a  great  part  of  Sicily,  Lower  Italy,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  and  its  dependen- 
cies, in  part  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  and  in  other  districts  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean. 

During  the  Macedonian  empire  the  Hellenic  was  spoken  at  all  the  courts  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Alexander,  and  by  persons  of  distinction  in  all  the  countries  subject  to  the  Macedo- 
nians. In  a  subsequent  age,  it  was  studied  by  all  the  most  distinguished  subjects  of  the 
Roman  empire,  and  was  the  prevailing  idiom  in  the  East  until  the  fall  of  Constantinople,  at 
which  period  it  was  studied  with  renewed  ardour  in  the  West.  In  this  language,  270  years 
before  Christ,  was  written  the  famous  version  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  called  the  Septua- 
gint ;  in  this  language  also  was  the  Grospel  promulgated  by  the  Apostles ;  and  it  thus  became 
for  ever  sacred.  It  appears  not  the  least  wonderful  among  the  dispensations  of  Providence, 
that  the  light  of  Christianity  should  have  been  originally  diffused  under  the  most  powerful 
empire  and  in  the  most  cultivated  language  of  the  ancient  world,  and  that  it  should  prevail 
notwithstanding  the  power  of  the  one,  and  the  learning  and  philosophy  for  which  the  other 
v/;is  so  proudly  distinguished.  The  literature  of  the  Greeks,  comprehending  some  of  the 
finest  productions  of  the  human  mind,  is,  perhaps,  the  richest  in  the  world,  and  presents  un 
unparalleled  series  of  eminent  writers,  extendmg  from  the  age  of  Homer  to  the  middle  of 
iJie  fitleenth  century.  The  language  is  one  of  the  most  flexible,  harmonious,  and  copious 
tliat  have  ever  existed ;  its  grammatical  forms  are  almost  identical  with  those  of  the  Latin, 
to  the  formation  of  which  it  has  greatly  contributed,  but  in  many  essential  points  it  ia 
superior,  and  especially  m  the  unlimited  faculty  of  making  as  many  compounds  as  can  bo 
required.  M.  Malte-Brun  distinguishes  in  the  ancient  Greek  two  different  idioms : — 1.  The 
priviitive  Hellenic,  which  he  subdivides  into  three  principal  dialects — the  Arcadian,  the 
Thessalian,  with  the  ancient  Macedonian,  and  the  OEnotrian,  transported  into  Italy  and  min- 
gled (vith  the  Latin ;  2.  The  Hellenic  of  the  historical  times,  divided  into  four  principal 
dialects  and  several  varieties. 

The  Romaic,  or  the  modem  Greek,  spoken  by  the  Greeks  of  our  own  times,  especially 
in  the  Moren,  in  Livadia,  Thessaly,  the  isle  of  Candia,  the  Archipelago,  part  of  Albania, 
JMacedonia,  Roumelia,  Thrace,  Asia  Minor,  Cyprus,  and  by  the  Greeks  established  in  Wal- 
l.'ichia,  Moldavia,  Sjrria,  and  Egypt.  The  Romaic  is  also  spoken  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Ionian  Isles,  by  considerable  numbers  of  Greeks  in  the  Austrian  and  Russian  empires,  and 
some  lumdred  of  Mainotes  in  Corsica,  near  Ajaccio,  It  is  divided  into  two  principal  dialects, 
the  Romanic  and  the  ^Eolo-Dorian,  each  including  various  sub-dialects. 

IV.  The  Italic  branch,  so  called,  as  including  the  languages  of  the  aborigines  of  Italy, 
which  form  the  stem  of  the  modern  idioms  comprised  in  this  branch.  Those  aborigines 
were,  the  Euganei,  the  Ausones,  the  Lucani,  the  Brutti,  the  Piceni,  the  Marsi,  the  Latini 
the  Sabines,  and  the  Samnites.  From  a  mixture  of  the  three  last  idioms,  primarily  with 
the  original  Hellenic,  afterwards  with  the  old  iGolian  and  ancient  Doric,  was  formed,  as  M. 
Malte-Brim  inclines  to  think,  the  language  spoken  by  the  Romans,  and  called  the  Latin 
languajre.     The  languages  included  in  that  branch  are, — 

Tiie  Latin,  which  was  the  written  and  current  language  of  the  higher  classes  in  Italy 
and  throughout  the  Roman  empire.  It  was  very  different  from  the  lingua  plebeia  or  rustica, 
spoken  in  the  rural  districts  of  tiie  peninsula,  and  by  the  lower  classes  in  Spain,  Gaul,  and 
the  other  provinces.  Its  grammatical  forms  are  similar  to  the  Greek,  though  less  perfect. 
liBtin  literature,  iormod  on  that;  of  Greece,  is  very  rich  in  nil  branches  of  knowledge,  and, 
loTcther  with  the  Greek,  is  the  source  from  which  flows  the  litenittire  of  the  mo«leru  notions 
if  Europe.     Its  most  brilliant  epoch  was  tliC  Augustan  ;ige.     In  this  language  St.  Jerome 


■■rr-7ij»r."^V  '■ 


Part  ^j. 

I  the  principal 
I 'ally  in  Rou. 
|tne  Austrian 

|ird  of  ancient 
Tot  yet  escer- 
Pe  sacred  or 
pm  Italian  or 

si  Elrtuci  ?) 

[.wcordingr  tc 

.Itajy.    The 

"ad  sixteen 

the  famous 
Iple  of  earjy 
I  the  Leleges, 
Jreece  and  its 
ImarlfabJe  for 

tlencies,  and 
ts  dependen- 
terranean. 
the  descend, 
the  Macedo- 
yecfB  of  the 
antinople,  at 
e,  270  years 
the  Septua- 

thus  became 
Providence, 

ost  powerful 

ould  prevail 

ch  the  other 

some  of  the 

presents  i^n 

e  middle  of 

and  copious 

'  the  Latin, 

points  it  is 
as  can  bo 

s:— 1.  The 

adian,  the 

y  and  min- 

f  principal 

especially 
f  Albania, 
d  in  Wai- 
Its  of  the 
'ires,  and 
1  dialects, 

of  Italy, 
'oriffincs 
e  Latini 
rily  with 

d,  as  M. 
"le  Latin 

in  Italy 
rustica, 
lul,  and 
perfect. 

e,  and, 
notions 
Jerome 


Book  L 


EUROPE. 


807 


wrote  the  Vulgate,  or  Latin  translation  of  the  Bible  which  is  used  in  the  Romish  chitrch. 
The  overthrow  of  the  Roman  empire  in  the  fifth  century  gave  birth  to  a  corrupt  Latin, 
mingled  with  a  great  number  of  barbarous  words,  and  named  low  Latin,  which,  until  the 
fourteenth,  was,  almost  exclusively,  the  written  language  throughout  the  West.  In  the  two 
succeeding  centuries,  Latin  literature  again  flourished,  e8i)eciall^  in  Italy ;  but  it  was  only 
to  contribute  to  the  improvement  of  modem  languages,  which  being  diligently  and  success- 
(iilly  cultivated,  the  latin  wns  restricted  to  works  of  erudition  alone.  Its  phraseology  has 
had  a  marked  influence  on  that  of  the  most  polite  nations  of  Europe.  It  is  now  a  det^  lan- 
guage, except  in  Poland  ahd  Hungary,  where  some  educated  persons  speak  it  in  ordinary 
ife  with  considerable  puritv,  and  with  the  continental  pronunciation,  of  course  almost  unin- 
.elligible  to  English  travellers,  who  cannot  or  will  not  relinquish  the  Saxon  diphthongal 
sounds  of  the  vowels  A,  I,  and  U,  the  chief  causes  of  their  embarrassment.  Latin  is  no 
onger  employed  except  in  the  Catholic  liturgy,  in  medicine,  in  the  diplomacy  of  the  court 
of  Rome,  and  partially  in  the  literature  of  all  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe.  The  alpha- 
DBt,  of  twenty-three  letters,  having  been  improved  in  its  characters  by  the  Italians  and 
French,  is  used  by  all  the  people  of  Europe,  except  the  Greeks,  the  Russians,  and  some 
other  nations  who  have  particular  alphabets.  This  same  Latin  alphabet,  with  the  Grothic 
forms  it  assumed  under  the  pen  of  the  writers  of  the  middle  ages,  is  used  by  the  Germans 
and  Danes,  and  by  the  Bohemians,  and  other  Slavonic  nations ;  and,  according  to  some 
authors,  its  capital  letters,  truncated  and  squared  to  facilitate  the  inscription  of  them  in  wood 
or  stono,  constitute  the  Runic  alphabet,  formerly  used  in  the  north  of  Europe. 

The  Romana,  or  Romana  Rustics,  spoken  in  the  brightest  ages  of  Rome  by  the  lower 
classes  in  the  south  of  the  empire,  excepting  Greece,  and  some  other  counties.  Afl^r  various 
modifications  more  or  less  considerable,  it  appears  still  to  subsist  among  the  vulgar  dialects 
Bpken  throughout  a  great  part  of  Spain,  France,  Switzerland,  and  some  districts  of  Italy. 
The  chief  of  those  dialects,  according  to  M.  Champollion  Figeac,  are  the  following,  classed 
with  reference  to  those  four  regions : — In  Spain,  Sardinia,  and  the  Balearic  Isles,  the  Catalan, 
the  Valencian,  the  Majorcan.  In  France,  the  Languedocian,  the  Provencal,  the  Dauphinois, 
the  Lyonnais,  the  Auvergnat,  the  Limousin,  and  the  Gascon.  In  Switzerland,  the  Romanic, 
or  Celto-Romanic,  (frequently  called  Romance,  Khurwelsh,  and  Rhcetish,)  the  Valaisan  in 
the  Valais.  In  the  states  of  the  king  of  Sardinia  are  spoken  the  Savoisian ;  and  the  Vaudoia 
in  the  vales  of  Lucerne,  Perosa,  and  part  of  Piedmont.  To  these  might  be  added  the 
jargon  called  lingua  Franca,  in  which  Catalan,  Limousin,  Sicilian,  and  Arabic  are  the  princi- 
!xil  ingredients.  The  Romance  literature  is  also  called  tnat  of  the  Troubadours.  From  the 
nixture  of  this  language  with  the  diflerent  Germanic,  Slavonic,  and  other  idioms,  were 
fonned,  in  the  tenth  century,  the  following  languages : — 

The  Italian,  spoken  by  the  Italians  in  almost  all  Italy,  in  the  isles  geographically  connected 
with  that  peninsula,  and  in  various  Alpine  territories ;  also  frequent  in  Dalmatia  and  the  isle 
of  Tino ;  very  common  at  Constantinople,  and  in  several  mercantile  towns  of  the  Ottoman 
empire.  The  toritten  language,  whjch  is  nowhere  eenerally  spoken,  is  common  with  all 
well-educated  Italians,  and  differs  considerably  firom  the  vulgar  tongue,  which  is  subdivided 
into  a  great  number  of  dialects.  The  principal  of  these  are,  the  Piedmontese  and  Genoese ; 
the  Milanese,  or  Lombard  proper ;  the  Low  Lombard ;  the  Bolognese,  the  Bergamasc ;  the 
Venetian,  the  Friulian,  the  Tyrolean,  the  vulgar  Tuscan;  the  Roman;  the  Sabine  and 
Abruzzan ;  the  Calabrian  and  Apulian ;  the  Tarentine ;  the  Neapolitan ;  the  Sicilian,  and 
the  Sardinian. 

The  French  language,  spoken  by  the  French  almost  throughout  the  north  of  France;  by 
the  Walloons  and  Flemings  in  various  Netherlandish  provinces ;  by  the  Swiss,  in  several  of 
their  cantons ;  by  the  people  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey ;  also  in  some  parts  of  the  Austrian 
and  Russian  empires,  and  of  the  Prussian  monarchy ;  by  the  French  colonists  in  Asia,  Africa, 
and  America.  The  following  are  the  principal  dialects : — the  Picard,  the  Flemish,  the  Nor- 
man, the  Walloon  or  Rounchi,  the  vulgar  FVench,  the  Breton  French,  the  Champenois,  the 
Iiorrainc,  the  Burgundian,  the  Franche-Comte,  the  Neufch&telain,  the  Orleannois,  the 
Angevin,  and  the  Manceau.  To  these  might,  perhaps,  be  added  the  jargon  spoken  by  the 
negroes  and  Creoles  m  the  French  West  Indies. 

Tiie  Spanish  or  Castilian  language,  spoken  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  greater  part  of  Spain, 
and,  with  some  variation  and  admixture,  by  their  descendants  in  Oceania,  Africa,  and  America ; 
also  by  the  numerous  Spanish  Jews  established  in  the  Ottoman  empire,  and  in  other  states 
of  Europe,  and  of  North  Africa ;  in  the  isle  of  Trinidad  belonging  to  the  crown  of  Great 
Britain ;  in  some  parts  of  Florida  and  Louisiana ;  and  in  the  eastern  part  of  Hispaniola  oi 
St.  Domingo.  This  language  is  also  common  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns  of  Spain 
where  the  Basque  and  Romance  languages  are  spoken.  The  written  and  polished  language 
is  almost  identical  in  its  grammatical  forms  with  the  Romance  and  the  Portuguese ;  and 
differs  little  from  the  Italian ;  it  is  very  rich  and  harmonious,  notwithstanding  some  guttural 
and  aspirate  sounds  taken  from  the  Arabic,  from  which  it  has  borrowed  many  words.  It  ia 
singular  to  remark,  that  the  German  is  characterised  by  similar  gutturals  or  aspirates.  The 
feigns  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  and  of  his  son  Philip  II.  were  the  golden  age  of  Spanish 


809 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PaetIH 


literature ;  after  which  it  fell  into  decay,  but  partinlly  revived  under  the  Bourbon  kings 
Piiilip  V.  and  Charles  III.  Of  tlie  dialects,  wliicli  difler  little  fi-om  each  other,  the  following 
are  the  principal:  —  the  dialect  of  Toledo;  that  of  Leon  and  the  Asturias;  the  Andalusian; 
the  Murcian;  the  Galician,  or  Gallego;  and  the  Transatlantic,  spoken  in  America;  where, 
next  to  the  English,  the  Spanish  language  is  spoken  by  the  greatest  number  of  inhabitiints. 

The  Portuguese  language,  spoken  by  the  Portuguese  in  Portugal  and  the  Azores,  and, 
witli  some  dinerences,  by  the  Portuguese  Jews  settled  in  Hamburg,  Amsterdam,  the  Tyrol, 
and  other  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  A&ica ;  also  by  the  descendants  of  the  Portuguese  in 
their  Asiatic,  African,  Oceanic,  and  American  colonies.  The  Portuguese  is  as  rich  and 
concise  as  its  sister  languages;  it  has  borrowed  some  words  from  the  Aiabic  and  the  French; 
to  the  French  it  seems  indebted  for  the  soft  sound  of  g,  and  for  the  nasal  syllables ;  it  is 
sonorous,  soft,  and  unimpeded  by  the  aspirates  and  gutturals  of  the  Spanish ;  but  the  fre- 
quency of  hiatus,  and  of  the  modem  nasal  ao,  equisonant  with  the  French  am  or  an,  injure 
the  harmony  of  the  language.  Its  origin,  like  that  of  the  Spanish,  is  dated  in  the  eleventh 
century;  and  it  had  attained  its  matuiityin  the  sixteenth.  The  Portuguese  literature, 
which  Camoens  illustrated  with  one  of  the  finest  epics  in  existence,  is  as  varied  and  rich  as 
the  Spanish,  though  less  known.  It  revived  in  the  memorable  reign  of  Joseph.  The 
language  may  be  said  to  exhibit  no  differences  of  dialect ;  there  are  only  varieties :  those 
which  differ  most  from  the  written  language  are,  the  Minho,  Algarve,  and  Azores  varieties 
in  Europe ;  the  Brazilian  in  America ;  those  of  Congo  and  Mozambique  in  Africa ;  and  of 
Goa  and  Macao  in  Asia.  Some,  however,  regard  as  a  dialect  of  the  Portuguese,  the  jargon 
called  lingua  geral,  spoken  along  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  Africa,  also  along  the  coasts  of 
Ceylon  and  the  Indian  peninsula.  In  Africa,  as  well  as  in  Asia,  it  presents  the  phenomenon 
offered  by  the  lingua  Franca  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  attests  the  power  formerly  held 
by  the  Portuguese  in  those  regions. 

The  Valac  or  Wallachian,  spoken  by  the  Rumanje  or  Roumouni,  better  known  as  Valacs, 
a  people  apparently  descended  from  the  ancient  Roman  colonists  settled  in  Dacia  and  Thrace, 
and  the  Slavonic  and  other  nations  dwelling  there.  Its  literature  is  very  meagre.  Among 
its  numerous  dialects  the  more  remarkable  are  the  Roumounic  or  Valac  proper,  spoken  in 
Wallachia,  Moldavia,  and  Bessarabia ;  the  Hungarian  Valac,  the  Macedo-Valac,  and  the 
Kutzo-Valac,  spoken  in  various  sub-dialects,  in  several  parts  of  European  Turkey,  south  of 
the  Danube.   .  .,  ^ 

SVBSSCT.  4. 

The  &mily  of  the  Germanic  languages  next  claims  our  notice.  Without  entering  into 
the  history  of  the  Germanic  nations,  which  rivals  in  importance  that  of  the  Grseco-Latin,  we 
may  class  these  different  idioms,  according  to  M.  Malte-Brun's  theory,  in  four  branches ; 
the  Teutonic,  the  Saxon  or  Cimbric,  the  Scandinavian  or  Normanno^othic,  and  tl\e  Anglo- 
Britannic. 

The  Teutonic  branch,  which  comprises  the  idioms  of  the  various  ancient  nations  and 
tribes  recognised  as  German  by  the  Roman  historians  and  writers ;  as  the  Bastarnee,  the 
Suevi,  the  Marcomanni,  the  Hermonduri,  and  the  Franci,  presents  the  following  idioms : — 

The  ancient  high  German  (alt  hoch  Deutsch),  formerly  spoken  in  different  dialects 
throughout  South  Germany,  Switzerland,  Alsace,  Hesse,  Thurmgia,  Wetteravia,  and  a 
great  part  of  the  countries  once  subjected  to  the  Franks.  It  has  been  extinct  for  several 
centuries :  its  three  principal  dialects  were,  the  Francic,  and  the  Alemannic,  which  are  of 
contemporary  origin,  and  contain  the  most  ancient  productions  of  that  language,  and  the 
Middle  High  German,  which  succeeded  them.  The  Francic  or  Tudesc  was  the  language 
of  the  Franks :  it  was  spoken  at  the  court  of  the  Merovingian  and  Carlovingian  sovereigns, 
until  Charles  the  Bold ;  after  whose  reign  it  gave  way  to  the  old  French  in  France,  but 
continued  to  be  the  court  language  in  Germany  until  the  times  of  the  Hohenstaufen.  The 
Middle  High  German  is  the  language  in  which  were  composed  the  numerous  works  of  the 
Suabian,  Bavarian,  Austrian,  and  Swiss  writers,  and  several  other  authors  in  Middle  and  Lower 
Germany,  from  the  eleventh  to  the  fifteenth  centuries.  Its  finest  productions  are  dated  in 
the  period  of  the  Hohenstaufen,  firom  1136  to  1254,  called  also  the  Minnesanger,  the 
trouveurs  and  troubadours  of  Germany.  The  Nibelungen-lied,  the  finest  epic  in  this  lan- 
guage, is  supposed  by  Winter  to  have  been  composed  in  1290,  by  Conrad  of  Wiirtzburg. 

The  German,  called  also  neu  hoch  Deutsch,  in  which  distinction  must  be  made  between 
the  written  and  the  spoken  language.  The  latter  is  divided  into  a  great  number  of  very 
diffferent  dialects,  subdivided  into  several  sub-dialects  and  varieties.  The  \vritten  languago 
is  nowhere  spoken  by  the  people ;  it  was  formed  at  the  period  when  Luther,  rejecting  the 
Middle  High  and  the  Middle  Low  German,  adopted  in  preference  the  dialect  of  Misnia  or 
Meissen,  '.vhich  had  begun  to  be  written  much  later.  This  Misnian  dialect,  ubly  employed 
by  that  great  man  and  his  numerous  followers,  soon  became,  as  the  language  of  books  and 
of  good  socie^,  common  to  all  well-educated  Germans,  and  also  ranked  as  the  learned  lan- 
guage of  the  north  and  great  part  of  the  east  of  Europe.  The  literature  of  Germany,  in 
regard  to  the  quality  of  its  productions,  rivals  those  of  France  and  England,  and  suroasses 


■m-" 


Book  I. 


EUROPE. 


800 


them  in  abundance.  The  Gennan  is  the  richest  in  words  of  any  language  in  Europe ;  and 
this  distinction  it  owes  to  the  great  number  of  its  monosyllabic  roots,  with  which  it  creates 
new  terms  ad  it\finitum,  by  derivation  and  composition.  Its  principal  dialects  are,  the  Swiss; 
the  Rhenish ;  the  Danubian,  with  its  four  sub-dialects,  the  Bavarian,  the  Tyrolean,  Austrian, 
and  Bohemo-Hungaro-Silesian ;  and  the  Franconion,  or  Mittel-Deutsch.  To  these,  on  the 
authority  of  Adelung,  we  may  add  two  others,  remarkable  for  the  strange  admixture  of  words 
totally  foreign ;  these  are,  the  German  Jewish ;  and  the  Rothwelsh,  spoken  by  the  Jenish 
or  Jauner,  who  are  g[enerally  reprted  to  be  thieves  and  vagabonds.  It  contains  a  multitude 
of  terms  and  expressions  quite  diflerent  from  Gennan. 

The  Saxon,  or  Gimbric,  which  comprises  the  idioms  anciently  spoken  by  the  Cimbri ;  also 
by  the  Angli,  who,  with  tiie  Jutes  and  Saxons,  afterwards  made  so  great  a  figure  in  northern 
history ;  the  Bructeri  axiA  Chauci,  the  Menapi,  the  Tungri,  the  &tavi,  the  Frisones,  and 
other  nations  of  less  note,  tlie  ancient  Saxons,  and  probably  the  Longolxirdi.  This  branch 
includes  tlie  four  following  idioms : — 

The  ancient  low  German  {alt  niedcr  Deutsch),  called  also  the  ancient  Saxon,  after  the 
people  who  spoke  it.  This  language,  now  extinct,  was  current  throughout  Lower  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands,  except  in  the  countries  occupied  by  the  Frisones  and  the  Angli.  About 
the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  century  it  wholly  ceased  to  be  written.  Its  principal 
dialects  are,  the  Saxon  proper,  or  idiom  of  Lower  Saxony ;  the  Eastern  Saxon,  spoken  in 
various  sub-dialects  in  Prussia,  and  tlie  Westphalian,  or  Western  Saxon. 

The  Frisic,  formerly  spoken  along  the  coast,  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Elbe,  by  the  Frisones, 
and  their  allies  the  Chauci,  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Frisians,  who  are  now  far  from 
numerous,  and  speak  a  language  very  different  from  the  ancient  Frisic,  being  mixed  with 
other  idioms.  Its  three  principal  dialects  are,  the  Batavian  Frisic,  the  Westphalian  Frisic, 
and  the  North  Frisic,  or  Cimbric. 

Tlie  Netherlandish,  or  modem  Batavian,  has  two  principal  dialects,  the  Flemish,  and  the 
Hollandish,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called  in  this  country,  the  Dutch.  The  Flemish  is  spoken 
in  the  southern  provinces  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  excepting  those  where  Ger- 
man and  Frencli  are  spoken.  It  was  the  written  and  oral  language  of  the  seventeen  pro- 
vinces once  subject  to  the  Counts  of  Burgundy.  After  their  extinction,  and  under  the 
Spanish  rule,  the  Flemish  idiom  gradually  gave  way  in  the  north  to  the  Dutch,  in  the  south 
to  the  French  language.  The  Dutch  is  spoken  in  different  varieties  in  the  seven  provinces 
of  the  North,  and  in  some  bordering  districts  of  the  South :  with  certain  changes  and 
admixtures  it  is  also  spoken,  or  at  least  understood,  in  the  various  settlements  founded  by 
tlie  Dutch  in  Africa,  Oceania,  and  America,  and  in  several  places  in  Ceylon,  India,  and  the 
peninsula  of  Malacca ;  in  South  Africa ;  at  the  Cape  of  Hope ;  and  on  the  American  con- 
tinent in  Guiana.  Some  descendants  of  Dutch  settlers  also  in  the  United  States  retain  their 
native  language.  It  was  only  in  the  sixteenth  century  that  this  vulgar  idiom  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Holland,  in  some  degree  polished  and  improved,  became  the  national  language  of 
the  Dutch.     It  is  a  mixture  of  ancient  Francic,  Frisic,  and  low  German. 

The  Scandinavian,  or  Normanno-Gothic,  comprises  the  idioms  formerly  spoken  by  the 
Jutes,  the  Goths  or  Gutse,  and  other  less  considerable  nations  of  pure  Gotliic  race.  There 
are  tive  different  idioms  in  this  branch : — 

The  Moeso-Gothic,  formerly  spoken  by  the  Goths  established  in  Moeaia.  According  to 
Grimm,  this  is  the  richest  of  the  Germanic  languages  in  grammatical  forms :  it  has  not  less 
tliiin  fifteen  declensions,  with  120  cases,  and  sixteen  conjugations.  The  Moeso-Gothic  has 
been  dead  many  centuries.  Its  most  anriciit  productions  are,  the  famous  Codex  Argenteua 
of  Upsal ;  and  other  fragments  of  the  translation  of  the  Bible,  made  between  the  years  360 
and  ;38(),  by  Bishop  Ulphilas.  The  Moeso-Goths  appear  to  have  been  the  first  to  embrace 
Christianity  of  all  those  nations  who  overthrew  the  Roman  empire. 

Tlie  Normannic,  called  by  Grimm  the  Alt-Nordisch.  It  is  the  language  of  the  Edda,  of 
the  Voluspa,  and  other  poems  of  uncertain  date,  and  was  generally  spoken  throughout  Scan- 
dinavia in  the  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  centuries. 

The  Norwegian,  ancient  Norwegian,  Norrcena  tunga,  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
modRrn  Norwegian  or  Norsk,  which  is  only  a  dialect  of  the  Danish.  Its  principal  dialects 
are,  the  Icelandic,  the  Norwegian  proper,  the  Dalska,  or  Western  Dalecarlian,  the  Jamt- 
landish,  and  the  Norse,  spoken  m  the  Shetland  Isles. 

The  Swedish  (Svenski),  spoken  by  the  Swedes  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  Swed- 
ish monarchy ;  also  in  the  principal  towns  of  Finland  and  the  isle  of  Runoe,  in  the  Russian 
einpire.  It  has  two  principal  dialects,  the  Swedish,  and  the  modern  Gothic,  subdivided  into 
sev^'ral  sub-dialects  and  varieties. 

J'iie  Danish,  spoken  by  the  Danes  in  Denmark,  and  in  their  Asiatic,  African,  and  Ame- 
rican settlemenLs;  also  by  the  higher  classes  in  the  Feroe  Isles,  and  in  Iceland,  it  iias  two 
principal  dialects,  each  having  several  sub-dialects  and  vnrietios:  tiie  Danish  proper,  which 
'nrhidcs  the  insular  Danish,  the  ancient  Rul)-dinlect  of  Bornliolm,  the  modern  Norwegian, 
am'  the  idiom  of  Scauia.  The  Jvtlundish,  or  modern  Jutic,  including  the  Normanno-JutiCi 
Hie  Dano-Jutic,  and  the  Anglo-Jutic 


W' 


810 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II 


The  Anfflo^Britannic  (not  to  be  confounded  with  the  British,  which  is  Welth),  comprise 
only  two  idioraa. 

The  Anglo-Saxon,  formed  by  a  mixture  of  the  idioms  spoken  by  the  Angli,  the  Saxons 
tnd  the  Jutes,  who,  invited  by  the  Britons  against  the  Picts,  finally  took  possession  of  th« 
country,  where  their  language  was  successively  preserved  in  three  dialects,  until  the  oiglith 
lentury.  During  the  invasions  and  temporary  ascendency  of  the  Danes,  it  was  so  modified 
as  to  become  Dano-Saxon,  or  rather  this  may  be  called  a  dialect  of  the  Anglo-Saxon.  For 
several  centuries  this  language  has  been  totally  dead.  '       >' 

The  English,  spoken  in  England,  in  the  east  and  south-east  of  Scotland,  in  part  of  Ireland 
and  of  Wales ;  in  the  Shetland  Isles,  in  the  isles  of  Jersey  and  Ghiernsey,  m  the  Britisli 
colonies  of  Asia,  Oceania,  Africa,  and  America.  It  is  the  nati(Hial  language  of  the  Unitod 
States  of  America.  It  is  also  cultivated  and  spoken  by  a  great  pumber  of  persons  of  dilVer- 
ent  nations  in  all  parti  of  the  world  on  account  of  its  literary,  political,  and  commercial 
importance :  the  two  latter  considerations  render  it  very  current  in  the  kingdom  of  Hanover, 
in  the  Ionian  Isles  and  Malta,  in  Portugal  and  Brazil,  and  in  the  republic  of  Hayti.  The 
English  language  is  a  mixture  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  the  Neustrian  French  or  Franco- 
Norman,  with  some  Celtic  words,  and  a  few  of  ancient  British  origin.  It  has  imported 
largely  from  the  Greek  and  Latin,  as  knowledge  and  culture  advanced  in  the  nation.  If  the 
number  of  words  m  the  language  be  taken  at  thirty-eight  thousand,  those  of  Saxon  or  north- 
ern origin  will  be  found  limited  to  about  ei^ht  thousand,  the  rest  being  principally  Greek 
and  Latin  derivatives.  Copious  and  energetic,  the  English  language  is  the  simplest  and 
most  monosyllabic  of  all  European  idioms ;  and  it  is  that  also  of  which  the  pronunciution 
differs  most  from  the  orthography.  It  did  not  become  the  language  of  the  state  until  tlie 
reign  of  Edward  III.,  since  which  time  it  has  rapidly  improved.  Towards  the  commence- 
ment of  the  seventeenth  century  may  be  dated  its  regular  developement,  and  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eighteenth  it  took  its  fixed  and  invariable  form.  The  English  language  occupios 
one  of  the  most  eminent  places  in  European  literature ;  it  is  comparable  with  any  of  them 
in  elegance,  and  perhaps,  surpasses  them  all  in  energy.  It  is  no  less  graceful  than  concise ; 
its  poetry  is  at  once  manly  and  harmoriious ;  and,  like  that  of  the  cognate  languages  of  the 
north,  is  admirably  adapted  to  depict  the  sublimities  of  nature  and  pourtray  the  stronger  pi». 
sions :  as  the  language  of  political  and  parliamentary  eloquence,  it  is  without  a  rival.  Of 
the  number  of  its  dialects  it  might  be  difficult  to  speak  with  precision :  foreign  philolorjers 
distinguish  four  as  the  principal: — the  English  mo^er ;  the  Northumbrian  English,  called 
also  Dano-English  from  the  great  number  of  Danish  words  retained  in  it,  and  spoken  in 
various  sub-dialects  in  Yorkshire,  Lancashire,  Cumberland,  and  Westmoreland :  the  Scottish 
or  Anglo-Scandinavian,  including  the  Lowland  Scottish,  with  the  Border  language ;  iind 
lastly  the  Ultra-European  English,  prevalent  in  the  English  colonies  and  in  tlm  United 
States.  It  has  been  observed  that  tlie  English  language  is  spoken  by  the  greatest  number 
it  the  inhabitants  of  the  New  World. 

SCBSEOT.   5. 

rfie  family  of  the  Slavonic  languages  is  widely  diflused.  Prom  the  neighbourhood  of 
Udina  in  Italy,  firom  Sillian  in  the  Tyrol,  and  from  the  centre  of  Germany  to  the  remotest 
extremities  of  Europe  and  of  Asia,  and  even  to  the  north-west  coast  of  America,  are  nations 
of  Slavonic  origin  to  be  found ;  the  tract  of  country  over  which  they  hold  sway  amounting 
to  about  a  sixth  part  of  the  habitable  surface  of  the  globe.  These  nations  exhibit  almost  ail 
the  varieties. of  the  human  race,  both  physical  and  moral,  if  not  from  the  most  exalted,  at 
least  to  the  most  degraded. 

The  Slavonic  languages,  so  far  as  is  at  present  known,  may  be  regarded  as  forming 
three  branches : — 1.  The  Russo-Illyrian.  2.  The  Bohemo-Polish.  3.  The  Wendo-Lithu- 
anian. 

(1.)  The  Russo-Illyrian  is  so  called  from  its  chief  people,  the  Russians,  and  from  the 
general  appellation  Illyrian  given  to  most  of  the  nations  who  speak  Servian  or  Create.  The 
languages  comprised  in  this  branch  are  : — 

The  Slavonic,  Servian,  Serbe,  or  Illyrian,  called  also  by  some  authors  Rutena,  spoken  in 
diflTerent  dialects  by  the  more  southern  Slavi,  generally  denominated  Illyrians.  They  dwell 
in  the  Austrian  and  Ottoman  empires,  excepting  a  small  number,  settled  as  colonists  in  south 
Russia.  The  dialects  differing  most  from  each  other,  and  from  the  ancient  Slavonic,  are 
the  Servian  or  Serblin,  with  various  sub-dialects ;  the  Italiano- Slavonic,  spoken  on  the 
coast  of  Dalmatia ;  the  Uskoke,  spoken  by  the  wandering  tribes  in  Servia,  Bosnia,  Dalmatia, 
Croatia,  Maritime  Hungary,  and  Camiola.  It  is  mixed  with  many  Turkish  words.  Lastly, 
the  Bulgarian,  spoken  in  Bulgaria,  in  the  Ottoman  empire. 

The  Russian,  Ruski,  or  modern  Russian,  spoken  throughout  the  Russian  empire  by  liie 
Russians,  who  are  the  rr'  .ig  nation;  also  spoken  in  a  great  partof  Gallicia  and  part  of  Hun- 
gary in  the  Austrian  empire.  Since  the  reign  of  the  Czar  Peter,  when  the  Slavvenski  was 
abandoned  for  the  Ruski,  it  became  the  language  of  literature  and  of  business  throughout 
Russia.    It  has  the  following  dialects,  which  differ  little  from  each  other,  the  Valiki-Ruski 


'<^i::^pr-: 


Part  n 
l)t  comprise 

|the  Saxons 
paion  of  th« 
I'  the  eighth 
1  so  modified 
''axon.    For 

|rt  of  Ireland 
the  British 
the  Unitod 
»ns  of  diJler- 
commercinl 
of  Hanover, 
%ti.    The 
or  Frnnco- 
jos  imported 
[tion.   If  the 
:on  or  nortli- 
pally  Greek 
limplcst  and 
■onunciution 
e  until  the 
commence- 
1  the  hegin- 
■ge  occupies 
■ny  of  them 
an  concise; 
lages  of  the 
tronger  pj* 
rival.    Of 
philologcrs 
'lish,  called 
1  spoken  in 
;he  Scottish 
?uage;  and 
the  United 
^st  number 


jurhood  of 
3  remotest 
ire  nations 
amounting 
almost  all 
exalted,  at 

s  forming 
ido-Lithu- 

ftom  the 
)ate.  The 

spoken  in 
ley  dwell 
3  in  south 
onic,  are 
1  on  the 
)ahiiatia, 
Lastly, 

e  by  the 
of  Hun- 
iski  waa 
ousrhou* 
'rRuski 


A)ok1.  /ii ••■[.;..,      EUROPE.  ;{ji  ;v.Aii  H^ 

or  Russian  of  Great  Russia;  the  Malo-Ruaki,  or  Russian  of  Little  Russia;  the  Suzdalian , 
the  Olonetzian,  and  the  Rusniac. 

The  Croate,  spoken  by  the  Croates  or  Khorbates,  who  delight  to  call  it  the  lllyrian. 

The  Wende  or  Winde,  spoken  by  several  Slavonic  nations  subject  to  the  Austrian 
empire,  and  known  by  different  names  in  the  countries  they  inhabit.  In  the  Wende 
appear  to  be  distinguished  three  principal  dialects,  the  Carniolan,  the  Carinthian,  and  the 
Styrian. 

(2.)  The  BoHEHO-POLisH,  named  from  its  two  principal  nations,  tho  Bohemians  and  the 
Poles.  The  languliges  belonging  to  this  branch  are  the  Bohemian  or  Cheklie,  including  the 
Boiicmian  proper,  and  certain  idioms,  bearing  the  character  of  principal  dialects,  and  spoken 
in  the  Austrian  empire. 

The  Bohemian  proper,  or  Chekhe,  is  spoken  in  several  very  different  sub-dialects  by  the^ 
Chskhes  or  Czecks,  better  known  by  the  appellation  of  Bohemians.  The  dialect  of  Prague* 
is  the  most  elegant  and  pure.  The  others  are  the  Slowac,  the  Hannac,  the  Straniac,  the 
Passekarsk,  the  Sallashac,  and  the  Szotac. 

The  Polish  is  spoken  by  the  Poles,  called  in  the  middle  ages,  Lechen  or  Liachy.  They 
form  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  population  of  the  present  Russian  kingdom  of  Poland, 
almost  the  whole  population  of  the  province  of  Cracow,  and  of  the  western  part  of  Gallicia, 
in  the  empire  of  Austria.  They  also  form  three-fourths  of  the  population  of  the  grand 
duchy  of  Posen,  two-thirds  of  that  of  West-Prussia,  and  part  of  that  of  Silesia.  The  Polish 
is  also  the  national  language  of  the  nobility  and  part  of  the  commonalty  in  all  the  countries 
formerly  belonging  to  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  and  is  spoken  by  thousands  of  colonists  in 
Russia.  Its  principal  dialects  are  those  of  Great  Poland,  of  Little  Poland,  of  West  Prussia, 
of  Mazovia,  of  Polish  Silesia,  of  the  Geralys  or  highlanders,  belonging  to  part  of  the  Carpa- 
thians in  Gallicia.  The  preference  given  in  Poland  to  the  Latin,  long  retarded  the  progress 
of  this  national  language. 

The  Serbe  or  Sorabe,  spoken  until  the  fourteenth  century  by  the  Serbes,  or  Sserske.  It 
has  two  dialects ;  the  Upper  Lusatian,  and  the  Lower  Lusatian. 

(3.)  The  Wendo-Lithuanian,  called  also  the  Germano-Slavonic.  This  branch  comprises 
the  following  idioms : — 

The  Wend,  spoken  until  the  fourteenth  century  in  different  dialects  throughout  t'ae 
nortli  of  Germany,  from  Holstein  to  Pomerania,  by  various  nations,  as  the  Wagriajis,  the 
Polabes,  the  Wihians,  the  Obotrites,  the  Ruffians,  and  the  Pomeranians.  Since  the 
fourteenth  century  it  has  been  extinct,  with  the  exception  of  the  Linonish,  improperly 
called  the  Polabisk  dialect,  which  subsisted  in  some  districts,  until  the  latter  half  of  the 
eighteenth. 

The  Prucze  or  ancient  Prussian,  formerly  spoken  in  eleven  very  different  dialects,  by  tho 
tribes  forming  the  powerful  nation  of  the  Pruczi,  dwelling  between  the  Vistula  and  the  Pre* 
gel.    It  is  almost  entirely  extinct. 

The  Lithuanian  or  Littauish,  formerly  spoken  by  those  powerful  nations  the  Lithuanians 
and  Kriwitschi,  and  now  current  only  among  the  common  people ;  as  the  higher  classes 
speak  Polish,  with  Russian  or  German,  according  to  their  different  countries.  Its  pri«cipal 
dialects  have  been  thus  classed : — The  Lithuanian  proper,  the  Samogitian,  the  Kritoitsh, 
and  the  Prusso-IAthuanian. 

The  Lette,  Lettwa,  Lettonian,  or  Lettish,  spoken  by  the  Letts  or  Lettons.  forming  the 
bulk  of  the  population  in  the  government  of  Mitta,  a  large  part  of  that  of  Riga,  a  small  por- 
tion of  that  of  Witepsk  in  Russia,  and  of  the  province  of  East  Prussia.  It  has  five  principal 
dialects,  subdivided  into  a  multitude  of  very  different  sub-dialects.  The  former,  according 
to  Mr.  Watson,  are,  the  Lette  proper ;  the  Semffallian  or  Senffallish ;  the  Letto-hivonian 
or  Liejlandish ;  the  Seelian,  spoken  by  the  Seeles  in  Courland :  the  Wende  by  the  Wendes, 
in  the  north-east  of  that  duchy,  particularly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Windau.  This  language 
abounds  with  German  phrases  and  expressions. 

The  Slavonic  nations  employ  five  different  alphabets: — 1.  The  Cyrilian,  invented  by  St. 
Cyril  in  865,  called  also  the  Servian  or  Ruthenian.  2.  The  Glagolitic,  Slavonic,  Kniko- 
witza,  or  Divinica,  called  also  that  of  St.  Jerome.  3.  The  Russian  alphabet  of  the  Czar 
Peter,  which  i^  the  Cyrilian  modified  by  that  emperor :  it  has  thirty-five  letters,  and  is  in 
use  throughout  the  Russian  empire.  4.  The  Sorabes,  Bohemians,  and  Slavo-Silesians  use 
tlie  German  alphabet  or  character.  5.  The  other  Slavonic  nations,  as  the  Polos,  Lithua- 
nians, Lettes  and  Wendes,  use  the  Latin  or  Roman  letters.  To  these  five  alphabets  may 
bo  added  the  Runic  Wend,  the  Greek  alphabet,  adopted,  according  to  Karamsin,  by  those 
Slavi  who,  in  the  eighth  century,  settled  in  Peloponnesus;  and  lastly,  the  Bulgarian,  iini 
tated  from  the  Glagolitic,  and  used  by  the  Bulgarians. 

The  family  of  the  Uralian  languages,  also  called  the  Finnish  or  Chudic,  completes  the 
etlinographic  division  of  Europe. 
From  the  north-west  coast  of  Norway  to  the  long  chain  of  the  Urals,  and  beyond  tlioee 


8U 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtHL 


mountains  to  near  the  Yonisel  in  the  centre  of  Siberia,  in  another  direction  ftom  the  Leitha 
1,0  tiie  Seret,  and  from  tlie  Carpathians  to  the  Danube,  nations  of  Urnlian  race  live  atnonff 
other  nations,  and  retain  the  manners,  habits,  »nd  language  of  their  forefathers.  In  marking 
tlie  gradations  among  the  people  composing  this  family,  we  may  consider  the  Hungarians 
and  the  Ostiaks  as  exhibiting  the  two  extremes  in  a  moral  as  well  as  physical  respect,  not- 
withstanding the  great  affinity  of  their  respective  languages. 

The  Uralian  family  includes  four  branches,  according  to  Klaproth ;  but  some  languages 
not  included  in  them  may  be  separately  considered  as  a  fifth. 

The  Finnish,  or  Germanised  Finnish  branch,  includes  the  four  followillg  languages  :— 

(1.)  The  Finnish  proper,  or  Sumenkicli,  spoken  by  the  Suomi,  better  known  as  the  Fins 
or  Finlanders.  Its  principal  dialects  are,  tiie  Finlandish,  the  Tawastian,  the  Careiian  or 
Kyriola,  Uie  Olonetzian,  and  the  Watailaiset 

*  The  Esthonian  spoken  by  the  Esthonians  or  Esthen,  whose  ancestors  were  formidable 
pirates,  and  wlio  now  form  the  most  numerous  part  of  the  population  of  the  government  of 
Reval,  and  of  the  circles  of  Pernau  and  Dorpat  in  that  of  Riga.  Its  two  principal  dialects 
are  that  of  Reval  and  that  of  Dorpp.t. 

The  Lapponian,  spoken  by  the  Sames,  better  known  as  the  Lappons  or  Laplanders,  inha- 
biting  the  northern  extremity  of  Europe,  partly  under  the  monarchy  of  the  Swedes,  and 
partly  under  the  Russian  empire.  This  language,  which  is  said  to  have  more  affinity  with 
Uie  Hungarian  than  with  the  Finnish,  has  a  great  number  of  very  different  dialects,  wliich 
nave  been  classed  under  the  Lappn-Norweffian,  the  Lappo-Swedish  (western  and  eastern), 
the  Lappo-Russ,  spoken  in  the  circle  of  Kola,  in  the  government  of  Archangel.  Through 
the  beneficent  care  of  the  Swedish  government,  at  the  close  of  the  last  and  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century,  the  Laplanders  have  been  reclaimed  firom  idolatry,  and  have  begun 
to  enjoy  the  blessuigs  of  Christianity  and  civilization. 

The  Livonian,  spoken  formerly  by  the  Lives  or  Liven,  who  gradually  abandoned  this 
idiom  for  the  Lettish,  in  consequence  of  which  it  is  become  nearly  extinct 

(2.)  The  Wolgaic  branch  includes  the  languages  spoken  along  tlie  Wolga  and  its  tributa- 
ries. They  have  a  strong  admixture  of  Turkish,  and  may  rank  under  two  classes,  the  Che- 
rcmisse  and  the  Morduine,  including  as  dialects  the  Mokshau  and  the  Ersan. 

(3.)  The  Permian  branch  includes  two  languages,  the  Permian  proper,  spoken  by  the 
Komi  or  Permians,  and  the  Syrcnes  or  Syranes;  and  the  Wotieque,  spoken  by  the  Udi  or 
Wotiaks  scattered  among  the  governments  of  Wiatka,  Oremburg,  and  Kasan.  They  are  all 
Christians,  and  the  most  industrious  people  of  Uralian  race  in  the  Russian  empire,  except 
the  Fins  and  perhaj)s  the  Esthonians. 

(4.)  The  Hungarian  branch  includes  the  following  languages: — 

The  Hungarian  or  Magyar,  spoken  by  the  Magyars  or  Hungarians.  They  form  about  a 
third  of  the  population  of  Hungary,  and  almost  a  fourtli  of  that  of  Transylvania;  several 
thousands  also  of  this  people  are  settled  in  the  Bukowine  in  Gallicia,  and  about  forty  thou- 
sand in  Moldavia,  under  the  Turkish  sway.  The  Hungarian,  according  to  Czaplovicz,  has 
four  principal  dialects : — 1.  The  Paloczpn,  2.  The  dialect  of  the  Magyars  beyond  the 
Danube,  3.  That  of  the  Magyars  of  the  Theiss ;  and  4.  That  of  the  Szekler,  living  in 
Tranaylvnnii,  it:  tlie  Bukowine,  and  in  Moldavia.  The  Hungarian  language  is  very  harmo- 
nious ;  and  is  mixed  with  many  foreign  words,  especially  Slavonic,  German,  and  Latin. 

The  Wogoule,  spoken  by  the  Mansi  or  Manskum,  more  known  as  the  Woguls,  and  called 
Wogoulitshe  by  the  Russians.  They  are  almost  all  Christians,  and  live  principally  as 
hunters  and  fishermen,  scattered  over  the  government  of  Saratow,  in  the  high  valleys  of  the 
Ural,  in  that  of  Perm,  and  in  that  of  Tobolsk,  between  Kourjan  and  Beresow.  Klaproth 
distinguishes  in  it  four  dialects,  that  of  Chiasow,  those  of  Werchoturia,  and  Cherdin,  and 
that  of  Beresow  in  the  government  of  Tobolsk. 

The  Ostiak,  or  Obi-Ostiak,  which  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Yenisei  family.  Tiie 
As-jachs  or  Ostiaks  of  the  Obi,  who  speak  this  language,  are  mostly  Christians ;  some  are 
still  idolaters.  The  principal  dialects  are  those  of  Beresow,  Lumpokol,  Wass-i-gtm,  and 
Narym.  Under  the  branch  still  uncertain  are  ranked  the  Hunniac,  the  Awar,  the  BulgU' 
Han,  and  the  Chazar. 


CHAPTER  IL 

ENGLAND. 

The  British  islands,  placed  nearly  in  the  north-western  angle  of  Europe,  command  pecu- 
liar advantages,  no  less  for  natural  strength  in  war,  than  as  an  emporium  of  commerce  in 
peace :  on  the  southern  side,  they  are  almost  in  contact  with  France,  Holland,  and  Germany, 
for  ages  the  most  enlightened  and  flourishing  countries  of  the  civilizf>d  world ;  on  the  east, 
a  wide  expanse  of  sea  separates  them  from  the  bleak  region  of  Scandinavia ;  on  the  west, 
they  overlook  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  whose  limit  in  another  hemisphere  is  the  coast  of  Amori- 
ca:  while,  in  the  extreme  north  t!iey  may  be  almost  said  to  face  tiie  unexplored  expanse  of 
the  Polar  Sea.     Exclusive  of  the  northern  insular  appendages,  they  may  be  considered  ait 


-iV-ffy^l^' 


langu 


ages 


,   the  Ping 
■-arolian  or 

I  formidable 
ornment  ot 
»1  dialects 


Fio.  103. 


»    /-.    ■  •■    !• 


MAP  OP  THE  BRITISH  ISLES. 


ti  ',.    iv''--'>,:  ..••■-'  :tr  '■ 


r  ' 


818 


10 

Vol.  I. 


8      Longituds  West    I    from  Oreenwlcb     !i 

27 


2P 


814 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


iituated  between  the  fiftieth  and  fifty-ninth  degfreea  of  north  latitude,  and  between  the 
second  degree  of  cast  and  the  tenth  of  west  longitude.  They  are  ^eogra|)hicully  divided 
into  two  islands  of  unequal  magnitude,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland :  Britain,  again,  is  divided 
into  two  unequal  parts:  England,  which,  including  Wales,  contains  67,9(H)  M|uure  milea; 
and  Scotland,  which  contains  80,500.  The  three,  though  united  into  one  kingdom,  respec- 
tively exhibit  peculiarities  which  characterise  them  as  distinct  countries.  It  will,  therefore, 
be  requisite  to  describe  each  separately,  commencing  with  England,  the  seat  of  empire  and 
legislation.  The  chapter  which  treats  of  England  will  afford  the  proper  place  for  many 
details,  particularly  of  a  political  nature,  which  aro  alike  applicable  to  the  two  sister 
eountriea 


Rtferenott  U>  the  Map  of  the  Britieh  ItUutde. 


ENGLAND 
1.  AInwiok 
S.  Rolhburr 

3.  Morpeth 

4.  Rlrthe 

5.  Newcaitia 

6.  Hexham 

7.  Billintham 

8.  Carlu'e 

0.  Cuckermouth 
10.  Rgremont 
U.  RavenilaH 
IS.  Ulvenion 

13.  Kendal 

14.  Koawick 

15.  Penrith 

16.  Applebr 

17.  Aldilona 

18.  DarlinitoD 

19.  Durham 

30.  Sunderland 

31.  Stockton 
S3.  Biukeilpy 

33.  Guiaboroucb 

34.  Whitby 
25.  Pickering 

36.  Thirak 

37.  North  Allarton 

38.  Hawei 
8!».  Ripon 

30.  Kendal 

31.  Luncoiter 

39.  Garalang 

33.  Puulton 

34.  Brndford 

35.  Skipton 

3A.  Knaroiboroutb 

37.  Iicods 

M.  York 

30.  New  Malton 

40.  Billingtun 

41.  Scarboroui.'h 

43.  (inrnt  Dritlield 
4:<.  Hornna 

44.  Iltidon 

45.  Kingston  on  Hull 

46.  Barton 

47.  nrinubr 

48.  Ruvendala 
40.  Soltfleet 

50.  Thedlethorpe 

51.  Boston 
53.  .\lford 

53.  Tlnrncottle 

54.  Lincoln 

55.  Gainsborough 

56.  Ashbr 

57.  Diincnater 

58.  ShetBeld 
50.  Pnntefraot 

60.  MancheBtor 

61.  Preston 
63.  Liverpool 

63.  Cheater 

64.  Newcastle 

65.  Newport 

66.  Stafford 

67.  Burton 

68.  Derby 
60.  Ashbourn 

70.  Chesterfield 

71.  Mansfield 

73.  Alfroton 
7.'i.  Ntittinnham 

74.  Multon  Mowbray 

75.  Grantham 

76.  Newark 

77.  Sleaford 

78.  Spalding 
70.  Ijynn  Regit 

80.  Wells 

81.  Cromer 
S3.  Yarmouth 

83.  Becclea 

84.  Harleiton 

K.   Vgrwich 

esi  Keepham 


97.  Eaat  Dereham 

88.Disi 

8B.  ThetTord 

DO.  Ely 

01.  March 

93.  Peterborough 

9:1.  bundle 

04.  Stamford 

95.  Harborough 

96.  Leicester 

97.  Coventry 

08.  Tamworth 

09.  Lichfield 

100.  Birmingbam 

101.  Bridgonorth 
Vm.  Shrewsbury 

103.  Plynlimmon 

104.  Ludlow 
laV  Tenbury 
]06.<Leominster 
107.Bromrord 

108.  Tewkesbury 

109.  Woroeater 

110.  Alcester 
HI.  Warwick 
113.  Evesham 

113.  Towcester 

114.  Northampton 
llS.Wollingborough 
]16.Thrapaton 

117.  Huntmgdon 

118.  Bedrord 

119.  Cambridge 

130.  Mildenhall 

131.  Bury  St.  Ed 

mund'a 
133.  Framlingham 

133.  Aldborough 

134.  Ipswich 

135.  Sudbury 
196.  Hnrwieh 

137.  Colchetter 

138.  Coggeshall 

139.  Royston 

I'JO.  Bishop's  Stort- 

ford 
131.  Hertford 
i:iS.  St.  Albana 

133.  Aylesbury 

134.  Winslow 
13.5.  Buckingham 

136.  Woodstock 
i;*?.  Burford 

138.  Gloucester 

139.  Hereford 

140.  Ross 

141.  Cotford 
143.  Bristol 

143.  Mclksham 

144.  Malmesbury 
14.5.  Cirencester 

146.  Swindon 

147.  Hungerford 

148.  Kcnnet 

149.  Abingdon 

150.  Oxfurd 

151.  Wallingford 

153.  Thame 
1.53.  Windsor 

154.  Uxbridge 

155.  KinxstoD 
ISO.  Croydon 

157.  Greenwich 

158.  London 

159.  Chelmsford 

160.  Maldon 

161.  Maidstone 
163.  Canterbury 

163.  Margate 

164.  Ramagate 

165.  Dover 

166.  Rye 

167.  Haitinga 

168.  Seaford 
160.  Battle 

178.  Eiiai  Qrinaiead 
171.  Beigale 


179.  Horsham 

173.  Brighton 

174.  Arunder 

177.  Godalming 
78.  Petworth 

179.  Ohichetter 

180.  Portsmouth 

181.  Southampton 
183.  Whitohurch 

183.  Andover 

184.  Salisbury 

185.  Lyminglon 

186.  Poole 

187.  Shadeabury 

188.  Bath 
180.  Uxbridge 

190.  WelU  . 

191.  Olaslonbury 

103.  Ilcheatar 
193.  Taunton 

104.  Porlook 

105.  South  Bom- 

staple 

106.  Bideford 

197.  Tonlngton 

198.  Launceslon 

199.  Bodmin 
900.  St.  Ague* 
SOI.  Penzance 
303.  FalnioKth 
303.  Tregony 
90t.  l>ws«ick 
aU5.  Plymeuth 
9116.  Modbury 

307.  Dartmouth 

308.  Ashburton 
909.  Chumleigh 

310.  Tiverton 

311.  Exeter 
313.  Sidmouth 

313.  Honiton 

314.  Lyme  Eegli 
915.  Dorchester 
316.  Weymouth 

_  Rivtri. 
aTyne 
b  Tees 
c  Derwent 
d  Swale 
e  Wharfa 
f  Aire 

RDon 
Trent 
i  Quae 
J  Thamei 
k  Avon 
I  Severn 
mDee 

WALES. 
1.  Flint 
9.  St.  Asaph 

3.  Denbigh 

4.  Abetconway 

5.  Bangor 

6.  Beaumari* 

7.  Holyhead 

8.  Caernarvon 

9.  Llan  Haiarn 

10.  St.  Mary'a 

11.  Harlech 
19.  Bala 

13.  Corwen 

14.  Montgomery 

15.  Dinasmowd 

16.  Towyn 

17.  Aberystwith 

18.  Rhainder 
10.  Bault 

90.  Tregarron 
31.  Iilanbear 
33.  Cardiian 
33.  Newport 
84.  Fiscard 


85.St.David't 

68.  North  Berwick 

Mite?""' 

96.  Pembroko 

!  7.  Caermarthen 

SSf^ 

S3.  Longford 

8.  Cwyrgryg 

54.  Moyiinliy 

55.  Cnrrickmacrois 
58.  Uunlwir 

57,  Droghi'da 

9.  Brecon 
0.  Monmouth 
:  1.  Uske 

74.  Aihkirk 

33.  Chepatow 

33.  Newport 

34.  Cardiff, 

35.  Landaff 

36.  Llantriseeot 

75.  Biggar 

76.  Moffat 

58.  lialbriggun 
SO.  Dublin 

77.  Sanquhar 

60.  Screen 

78.  Lanark 

01.  Trim 
OK.  Maynooth 

'  9.  Kilmarnock 

37.  Swansea 

{  0.  Ayr 
1.  Oirvan 
3.  Ballintrae 

63.  Naas 

Rivtre, 

64.  Tullamore 
05.  Mullingat 

6& 

i  3,  Stranraer 

4.  Port  Patrick 

5.  Wiglon 

66.  Athlono 

07.  Eyrfipourt 

oDee 

68.  Ballyfuran 

6.  Kircudbright 

69.  Newton  Bellew 

SCOTLAND 
1.  Dumeii 

7.  New  Galloway 

8.  Monihive 

70.  Loughrea 

71.  Omniore 

S.  Tongue 

)9.  DumlViea 

73,  Ougniera 
73.  Galway 

10.  Langholm 

'  11.  Annan 

74.  Gort 

l& 

75.  Innistymon 

a  Spey 

76.  Kilruah 

77.  Clare 

b  Don 

78.  Eiinii .  , 

79.  Limonck 

80.  Portumn 

Oixain 
10.  Portinleik 

d?w 

11.  yilapoo 

2  Clyde 

8  .  Nonagh 

13.  Poolew 

r  Ken 

89.  Killnloe 

13.  Torridon 

■  Nith 

t<3.  Thurles 

14.  Looh  CarroD 

84.  RoBcroa 

IS.  Dingwall 

85.  Durrow 

16.  Beauly 

86.  Ath 

17.  Invernasa 

IRELAXn). 

87.  Kildare 

18.  Grantown 

1.  Belfast 

88.  Carlow 

10.  Nairn 

3.  Antrim 

89.  Tullow 

Sa  Elgin 

3.  Lame 

SO.  Baltindaat 

31.  Invoraven 

4.  Glenarm . 

01.  Bleaaington 

33.  Cullen 

5.  Ballycoatle 

99.  Togher 

S3.  Banff 

6.  Ballymoney 

93.  Wicklew 

34.  Huntley 

35.  Turreff 

7.  Cnleralne 

94.  Gorey 

8.  Tubbermore 

95.  Ballycanoe 

96.  Frasersbnrgh 

0.  Sirabane 

96.  Enniacorthy 

97.  Wexfoid 

97.  Peterhead 

IS?"^" 

98.  Newburgh 

Se.  Fnthard 

39.  Aberdeen 

13!  Li^oiS' 

99.  Waterford 

30.  Stonehaven 

100.  Thomas  Town 

31.  Bervie 

14.  Letterkenny 

101.  Kilkenny 

33.  Tulloch 

15.  Killyben 

i?:g«"[|yU 

109.CarrickoaSuim 

33.  Bracmar 

103.  Clonmel 

34.  Fort  Auguatui 

•104.  Ballypcireen 

35.  Gleneig 

18.  Omagh 

105. 1'ipperary 
106.  Killmalluck 

%.  Arasaig 

19.  Pomeroy 

37.  Appin 

90.  Clogher 

107.  Askeytnn 

38.FortWmiam 

91.  Dungennon 

108.  BallyloDgfurd 

39.  Perth 

93.  Armagh 

109.  Tralee 

40.  Dunkeld 

Zi.  liurgan 

110.  Castio  Ford 

41.  Blair  Athol 

34.  Donaghadee 
95.  Portaferry 

lll.Killarney 

43.  Brechin 

113.  Kemnnre 

43.  Montroio 

S6.  Downpalrick 

113.  Onatletown 

44.  Forfar 

37.  SIrevoy 

114.  Bnntry 

45.  Arbroath 

28.  Newry 

lis.  l^nstletown 

46.  Dundee 

99.  Dundalk 

116.  Kinaiild 

47.  St.  Andrewa 

30.  Monaghan 

117.  Ciir>: 

48.  Anatruther 

31.  Cavan 

lia  Killftdy 

49.  Kinross 

33.  Callahill 

111).  Tiichgeela 

SO.  Inverkoithing 

33.  Rnniskillen 

120.  Mallow 

SI.  Clackmannan 

:H.  Churchill 

131.  Riilhrormucg 

59.  Muthill 

25g!'«°  . 

i^i.  Kildiirory 

53.  Stirling 

36.  Drumeirn 

133.  liismoro 

.54.  Inverary 

37.  Ballymore 

124.  YdUglmll 

55.  Oban 

38.  Ciilooney 

12.5.  Dinigiirvon 

56.  Dumbarton 

39.  Bnllina 

136.  Truinoro 

57.  Greenock 

40.  Killala 

58.  Paisley 

41.  R»llyglaaa 

Rivers. 

59.  Irvine 

43.  Cluggan 

a  Ran 

60.  Hamilton 

43.  Nnwport 

b  Curlingford 

61.  Glasgow 

44.  Westport 

c  Boynn 

09.  Falkirk 

45.  Kumor 

d  Barrow 

63.  Linlithgow 

46.  Ballinrobe 

e  Nore 

64.  WhitbSro 

47.  Castle  Barr 

f  Snire 

(a.  Pecble- 

48.  KiicoiiuoQ 

g  liinckwatai 
li  Shannon 

66.  Edinburgh 

49.  Tuam 

07.  Haddington 

SO.  Elpbia 

i  Euck. 

BooftL 


ENGLAND. 


'rT' 


SioT.  I. — Oeneral  Outline  and  Atpect. 

England  is  bounded  on  the  eouth  by  the  English  Channel,  intcrpooed  between  its  cno< 
and  that  of  Franco ;  on  the  east  by  the  German  Sea,  on  the  north  by  Scotland,  from  v       a 
it  is  separated  by  the  Tweed,  the  Cheviot  hills,  and  the  Frith  of  Sol  way ;  on  the  west  bj 
Irish  Sea  and  St.  George's  Channel :  the  promontory  of  the  LandVEnd,  forming  its  south- 
western extremity,  faces  the  vast  expanse  of  the  Atlantic. 

The  greatest  aimension  of  England  is  from  south  to  north,  between  the  Lizard  Point, 
49°  58' N.,  and  Berwick  on  Tweed,  55°  45'  N. ;  four  hundred  miles  in  length.  The  points 
of  extreme  breadth  am  the  Land's-End  (Jig.  104.),  in  5°  41'  W.,and  Lowestoffe,  in  1°44'  E., 

fonning  a  space  of  about  2B0  miles.    There 

104     ,^^'*~\/^  A    \y  '"  "°  point,  however,  where  a  line  of  tliis 

— ^'^— '        ■*      -^  extent  can  be  carried  across  the  island,  and 

the  northern  part  does  not  on  an  average 
exceed  one  hundred  miles  in  breadth. 

The  surface  of  England  is  of  a  diversifi- 
ed  character ;  the  eastern  districts  arc  in 
g:eneral  level,  and  there  are  several  direc- 
tions in  which  hundreds  of  miles  may  be 
travelled  without  seeing  a  hill.  Along  the 
western  side  of  the  island  are  large  tracts, 
not  only  hilly,  but  sometimes  rising  even  to 
mountain  grandeur.  Such  are  Uie  counties 
of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland,  the  bleak  ridge  of  Ingleborough,  extending  like  a  spine 
through  the  north  of  England:  of  the  same  character  are  Derbyshire,  the  whole  principality 
of  Wales,  and  a  great  part  of  Devon  and  Cornwall.  These  tracts  exhibit  all  the  varieties  of 
mountain  scenery :  in  Cumberland,  encircling  little  plains  filled  with  beautifnl  lakes ;  in 
Wales,  enclosing  narrow  valleys  through  which  the  rapid  mountain  stream  dashes ;  in  Der- 


Ijand'i-End. 


References  to  ike  Map  of  England. — North  Part. 


NORTH  SERIES. 

1.  Ilnrwick 

2.  Mcldrum 

3.  Deinird 

4.  N.  OharhoD 

5.  Aliiwiok 

6.  Whittingham 
7. 1'luvajrtoid 

8,  Klidun 

!l.  Itdlhbury 
10.  WHrkworib 
IJ.  Murpelh 
!■!.  Illytho 
m  Clifion 
14.  StHmrnrdham 
ir>.  Kirk  Harle 
If).  Ilarlinilon 

17.  Bellingham 

18.  RuitdreliauKh 
1<I.  Shillburn 

'lU.  Kennel 
SI.  Bowcastle 

33.  Ijongtown 
S.'l.  Brampton 

34.  (laltwhiatie 
S5.  Bimonburn 
30.  Hexham 
27.  Ilickley 
38.  Newcastle 
211.  Nurth  Bhicldi 
3().  'rynemoutli 
.11.  Uuuih  Shield! 

32.  Sunderland 

33.  Shotton 

34.  Durham 

35.  Chc«tcr-lB-Strcet 
3(i.  LnncheHtor 

37.  WulBinRham 

38.  Siaiihupa 

39.  Aclon 

40.  Aldslimo 

41.  Orosst'ill 

42.  Kirk  Oswald 

43.  Laionby 

44.  Hnntin 

45.  Cailiile 
4fl.  Orion 

47.  VViKtnn 

48.  Mibiyholma 
40.  Marypnrt 
5().  VViirkinKton 

51.  Cockermouth 

52.  Iroby 
K).  Keswick 

54.  Matterdale 

55.  Penrilh 
6fl.  Clifton 

57.  Appleby 

58.  Alilburn 
5».  IlrouKh 
00.  Slackholm 


67. 

ea 

09. 
70. 
71. 
72. 
73. 
74. 
75. 
76. 
77. 

-%. 
80. 
81. 
82. 
83. 
84. 
85. 
86. 
87. 
88. 
89. 
00. 
91. 
92. 
9:1. 
94. 
95. 
96. 
97. 
98. 
99. 
100. 
101. 
102. 
103. 
104. 

vy\ 

106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 
IIO. 
111. 
1  .. 
Ii3. 
114. 

lis. 
n«. 

117. 
118. 
119. 
130. 


MiddletoD 
EgKloston 
Barnard  Cattle 
Staiiidrop 
West  Auckland 
Bishop  Auck- 
land 
SedgefleM 
Hartlepoo! 
Seaton  Carow 
Ouisbrough 
Whitby 

tloketlRy 
aunton 
Yarm 
Darlington 
Croft 

gokeby 
owes 
Seeth 

Kirkby  Stephen 
Orion 
Mardale 
Ambleside 
Bcathwailo 
Whitehaven 
Egrcmont 
Ravenglasi 
Whitbeck 
Ulverslon 
Hnwksbead 
Kendal 
Fawcoll 
Milllborpe 
Sedbergn 
Hawes 
AskriKK 
Middleham 
Richmond 
Cutterick 
Bedalu 
Bnrneston 
Thirtk 

North  Allerton 
Helmsley 
Kirby  Moortide 
Snalnton 
Cloughton 
Scarborough 
Filey 

Hunmanby 
Bridlington 
Kilham 
Driffield 
Sledmero 
Wintringham 
New  Malton 
Garraby 
Stillenham 
Ciixwold 
Easing  wold 


131.  Aldborough 

132.  Knaresborougb 

133.  Ripon 

124.  Masham 

125.  Whernside 
136.  Giasfinaton 

127.  ArncliiTe 

128.  Settle 

129.  Ingletun 

130.  Kirkby  Lont- 

dale 

131.  Hornby 
VXi.  Lancaster 
133.  Oarsiang 
\M.  Slaidburn 

135.  Clitheroe 

136.  Coino 

137.  Paythorna 
1:18.  Skipton 

139.  ThurcroM 

140.  Olloy 

141.  Harewood 

142.  Ripley 

143.  Wetberby 

144.  TadcBster 
14.5.  Cawood 

146.  York 

147.  Pockllngton 

148.  Middleton 

149.  Market  Woigh- 

ton 
1.50.  Beverley 

151.  Brandsburton 

152.  Hornsea 
1.53.  Aldborough 

154.  Hedon 

155.  Paltrington 

SOUTH   SERIES. 

1.  Poulton 

2.  Blackpool 

3.  Kirkham 

4.  Preaton 

5.  Chorley 

6.  Blackburn 

7.  Burnley 

8.  Halifax 

9.  KeiEhley 

10.  Bradford 

11.  Dewebury 
13.  Wakefleld 

13.  Leeds 

14.  Pontefraet 

15.  Snaith 

16.  Beiby 

17.  Howden 

18.  Burton 

19.  South  Cove 
SO.  Hull 

31.  Barton 


32.  Grimsby 

23.  Ravondale 

24.  Caislor 

25.  Glanfurd  Bridge 
28.  Kliton 

37.  Hrumby 

38.  Crowie 

39.  Thome 

30.  Doncaster 

31.  Budsworth 

32.  Rarnesley 

33.  Penistone 

34.  Huddersfield 

35.  Mellham 

36.  Ashion-under- 

«.  ,M^? 

37.  Manchester 

38.  Rochdale 

39.  Bury 

40.  Bolton 

41.  I^igh 

42.  Wiean 

43.  Ormskirk 

44.  Forinby 

45.  Liverpool 

46.  Prescot 

47.  Nowton 

48.  Warrington 
40.  Knulsford 
.50.  Altringham 
51.  Slockpou 
53.  Dialey 

53.  Chnpel  in  the 

Frilh 

54.  Tideswell 

55.  Castleton 

56.  Sheffield 
.57.  Ornnlicld 
.58.  Riiiherham 

59.  Worksop 

60.  Itlyth 

61.  Retford 

03.  (lainsborough 

63.  Willoutthton 

64.  Wrngby 

6.5.  Market  Rasen 

66.  Limth 

67.  Sallfleet 

68.  .Hutlon 

69.  Alfurd 

70.  Burgh 

71.  Wumfleot 

72.  Spilsby 
7:).  Horncastle 

74.  Tsttersha!! 

75.  Dunslon 

76.  Navenby 

77.  Lincoln 

78.  Thornoy 

79.  Tuxfoid 


80. 
81. 
82. 
83. 
84. 
8.5. 
86. 
87. 


90. 

91. 

93. 

93. 

94. 

95. 

96. 

97. 

98. 

99. 
100. 
101. 
102. 
103. 
104. 

ia5. 

106. 
107. 
108. 
1011. 

no 
111. 

112. 
113. 
114. 
11.5. 
116 
117. 
118. 
119. 
130. 
121. 
123. 
133. 

124. 
12.5. 
126. 
127. 
128. 
129. 
130. 
131. 
132. 
133. 
134. 

13.5. 
i;J6. 
137. 


Newark 

Mansfield 

llolsover 

Chesterfield 

Alfreton 

Matlock 

Wlrksworth 

Winstar 

Buxton 

Lognor 

Loeku 

Horton 

Macclesfield 

Congloton 

Talk 

Nantwich 

Middlewich 

Northwich 

Tarporley 

Chester 

Hc.lt 

Wrexham 

Mold 

Flint 

Ruthin 

DenbiKh 

St.  Asaph 

Abcraoley 

Aberconwny 

Llanrwst 

Penire  Voelas 

Tremadoo 

Bangor 

Beaumaris 

Amlwch 

Llanerchymedd 

Holyhead 

Caernarvon 

Bwich  Mawr 

Pwllheli 

Crickieth 

Harlech 

Arrennig 

Llanuwcb- 

Uwyn 
Bala 
Corven 
Llangollen 
Ellcsmore 
Wem 

Whitchurch 
Malpas 
Drayion 
Kccleshall 
Stone 
NewcaHiie-un- 

der-Line 
Buralem 
Cheadle 
Uuozeter 


138.  Ashboma 

139.  Derby 

140.  Belpir 

141.  Nottingham 
143.  BoiK'slord 

143.  Graiithiiin 

144.  Sluiilord 

145.  Folkinghnm 

146.  Donningtou 

147.  Boston 

148.  Biirnhum 

Market 

149.  (;iistl><  Rising 

150.  Fakinhnin 

151.  New  Wulsing- 

ham 

152.  Holt 
15.3.  Cromer 
154.  N.  Walsham 

ISLE  OF  MAN 

1.  Ramsey 

2.  Peel 

3.  Douglas 

4.  Caslletown 

_  Riveri. 
a  Till 
b  AIn 
c  Coquet 
d  Wensbeck 
e  BIyth 
f  Tym 
>  Wear 
h  Tees 
i   E8k 
J   Rye 
K  Dcrwent 
1  Ouse 
mSwalo 
n  Uro     _ 

0  Wharf 
p  Air 

q  Calder 
r  Don 

1  Rother 

t  Derwent 
u  Dove 
V  Trent 
w  Ankliolm 
X  Wilham 
y  Conway 
t  Clwyd 
a*  Dee 
b*  Weaver 

«*  MMrapv 

d*  Ribble' 
e*  Luno 
f  *  Derwent 
g*Eden 


T».  loeJ 


816 


v.p---' 


MAP  OP  ENGLAND— NORTH. 


Fio.  ion 


l1  .....^..jI.L-, 


•OM' 


n«.  106. 


MAP  OF  ENGLAND— MVTH. 


.»;',.>,*  .It  rt.'i.V  ,  .♦•(«i\iii'Wi,W.tli^i«l 


27* 


"i.l^B"  I 


iw»ffdftmm 


818 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOORAPIIY. 


PAiTin 


bvihire,  proiiontinfif  rocky  aconory  in  ovory  pictiireMue  and  fantaitio  ahapo ;  whilo  in  Devon* 
•fiiro  low  l)rua(l  Htui^pit  ovor^haduw  wido  anu  bcautiml  valoH. 

VVitli  Olio  cxc(!ption,  the  ntoHt  important  rivcra  of  Kniflund  traveno  tho  breadth  of  tho 
kiii(rdoin :  riaing  ainoii^  liic  western  hills,  and  flowinff  toward  tho  German  Ocean,  they  do 
not  atttiii.  titnt  ^nfftli  of  course  which  tho  extent  of  its  territory  in  another  direction  would 
Imvo  ndiiiitied.  TriouKh  dotlciont,  however,  in  magnitude,  they  are  numerous,  commodioiii, 
ami  valiiiiblo;  flowm;]^  throuffh  broad  vales  and  wide-sprcodinff  plains. 

The  Thames,  tliou(;h  iii>^  the  lonffost,  deserves  to  be  ranked  as  tho  first  of  British  rivers. 
It  urigfinates  tVom  a  number  uf  rivulets  on  Uio  borders  of  Wilts  and  Qloucestershire,  which, 


:7t? 


NORTH  SK.R1E8. 

1.  ■riiiiyixiiii 

8.  \Mn<\\r 

3.  Dicinaiii  It* Jar 

t.  Ilonilrii 
.  I.lanrrllin 
A.  I'liol 

7.  I.lniil'iiir 

8.  Hhrnwjbiirr 
I).  Onwodlrr 

10.  NVnIlinulcio 

11.  Nowjiiirt 
U.  Htillora 

14.  hlchrtolJ 

l.t.  Ablml'a  Hroml«7 

Itl.  Murlim 

17.  .\»hl>|t  il»  la 

/lllM'll 

IH.  KtHlKWi.rih 

in.  liOUXlilHiriiiiih 
II.  MdUiil  H'lrrel 
31.  MkIiuii  Miiwbray 
a.  Oiiklinm 
S.'l.  Ciiihy 
31.  riourn 
Vi.  SiKmt'iiril 
3(1.  .Marki  I  Diteplnc 
37.  Oowliind 
S.''.  Spnl,lin« 

3'.!.  llnlblMllTl 

'Ml  Wiihi'iich 
31.  lajinittiiii 
;«.  I.jrnii  IIphw 
XI  Narborough 
^4.  Iiitchiiin 
M.  Hwnfflmm 
;iK.  Rnil  ni'vrhlim 
37.  Koiililinm 
3H.  AyMhiiiii 
3!l.  N'orwi'-li 

40.  Wnixhim 

41.  Yarmuiilh 

4-i.    l.ilH'I'Htofk 

43.  llecclM 

44.  Iiixldon 
4.'>.  Ilunmiy 
4lt.  Ilnrlemon 

47.  Ni'W  liuckinf- 

hitin 
4P.  VVymnndlmm 
4!l.  Ilinirhiim 
»».  Walton 
.M.  rani  lliirlinx 

52.  Tlielliiril 

53.  Bnimlon 

54.  Methwold 
Sy  nuwiiham 

56.  Kly 

57.  March 
.W.  Ramaey 

59.  Thoriioy 

60. 1'r'icrbdroiiuh 
fil.  Niirtnaii  CroM 
m.  Oiindle 
6.1.  Rockinchnm 

64.  Uppintnam 

65.  Leienter 

66.  Mnrkot  Harbo- 

riiugh 

67.  l.ultorworth 
6H.  Hinckley 

60.  Niini'nion 

70.  Aihcrsiiiiio 

71.  Tamwdith 

72.  (TolMhill 

73.  HnlKin  Cohlflald 

74.  Waidull 

75.  Kirminiihnin 

76.  Wdlverhnmplon 

77.  ItridircMiorth 
7R.  Broanli'V 

79.  Much  Wpniock 
l?0.  llialiop'a  (Justio 

81.  Miinigomcry 

82.  N«'wt(»wn 
8;i  I.lanfnir 
8t.  MnrhvnllBlh 

85.  Tuwyn 


Refertnctt  to  Iht  Map  of  England. — South  Part, 


■< 


M.  Ab«7i(wlth 
87.  Almrlliiwyn 
K4.  f^uully  Yatwith 
HI.  I.knidlix'i 
UU.  Hhiiynili'fgwy 
1)1.  I.lnndi>(luy 
Vi.  New  Radnor 
113.  Kiilghl.in 
IH.  c;iiiiiii 
IKV  l.iidluw 
Ml.  Cii-idiury  Mor- 

tinwr 
07.  nnwdloy 
OH.  KlddenniniUli 
tM.  HlDurliridgH 
too.  Ilnrloaownn 
lot.  ttiiMiHgrove 
102.  Dtuilwmh 
KKI.  Ilpidpy  in  Ard«n 

104.  Warwick 

105.  (,'ovcnlry 

106.  Leamington 

107.  ilavuntry 
lUH.  Ruirliy 
Kill.  Rolhwell 

110.  Noithampton 

111.  Kottorini 

1 12.  Thrapaton 

113.  KImbullon 

114.  St.  Ncol'a 

115.  Huntingdon 

116.  Si.  Ivet 

117.  Willingham 
ItH.  Newmarket 
110.  l/mlenarliin 

130.  Hury  St.  Ud- 

moiid'i 

131.  Stow  Market 

132.  Ixwoith 

123.  Piii 

124.  Kyo 

125.  Pehcniiam 

126.  WingKeld 

127.  Frnmlingham 
13H.  Snutbwiild 
120.  Dunwich 
\:n.  Baxmundham 
131.  Aldbnrouth 
l:«.  Wondbridge 

133.  Ipiwich 

134.  Hadlfliih 
i:U.  Whatflnld 
136.  nildmtiin 
VJn.  Nredham 
138.  Lavenham 
130.  BudburT 
140.  HavarhUI 
141. 1.lnton 

142.  Cambridge 

143.  Ca\t(m 

144.  Ronton 

145.  Potton 

146.  Dttdford 

147.  OIney 

14a  Newport  Pag- 

nel 
140.  Fenny  Siratrord 

150.  Tiiwcetler 

151.  Buckinrtham 

152.  Brackley 

153.  Randbury 

154.  KInetnn 

155.  Shipston  npon 

Slciur 
ISO.  Canipdan       ^ 

157.  Siratrntd  OD  * 

Avon 

158.  Alcester  - 
150.  Evesham 
IfiO.  Worcester 
161.  Penhoru 
Va.  Upton 
163.  Trfdhury 
11)4.  Drotni^ard 
Ifi.%.  Lnominster 
166.  Weobly 
107.  Hornford 
!«».  TI-.ra.ttoB 
160.  Hay 


IS. 

1HI. 
18". 
183 
184. 
185. 
186. 

%: 

180. 
100. 
101. 
102. 
103. 
11M. 
10.V 
lOfi. 
107. 
10H. 

in». 
3(io. 

901. 
3(W. 
2U3. 

304. 

905. 

SJ?: 

308. 
900. 
310. 
311. 
313. 
313. 

914. 
915. 
216. 
317. 
918. 
910. 

920. 
221. 
922. 
333. 
324. 
225. 
926. 
927. 
228. 
229. 
330. 
331. 
3.12. 
23;j. 
2:t4. 
935. 
3:16. 
23?. 
2.'1H. 
9:19. 
940. 
341. 
212. 
243. 
244. 
245. 
24fi. 
247. 
2I«. 
240. 
8.50. 
2.M. 


'algarlli 

jlyawen 

luilllh 

landulaa 

'regarun 
lilamimlor 
New  Cnille 

Emiyn 
('iirilitiin 
Newport 
St.  David'i  , 
llnviirl'nrdVVeit 
Milliird 
Pi'mbroka 
THnby 
Nnrberlh 
St.  Clear'a 
Lnnvernuch 
Cac^rmnrlhen 
l.iindt-bio 
liiiniiailue 
i.andoMiry 
IrccBstlu 
Brecon 
C'rirkhownll 
Aliergavunny 
Si.  Wuonaid'i 
Row 

Mitchtldean 
Newcnt 
Oliiucnaler 
TBwkeihury 
tMii-llenbiim 
Norlhlcnch 
Slow  ill  Ihe 

Wold 
Moreton  in  the 

Marah 
Char  bury 
Woodttoek 
Itedington 
Birt;sier 
Wintlow 
Ayluabury 
Wendover 
Ivinghoo 
I.rf>ightun  Bui- 

znrd 
liuton 
Stevenage 
Haldock 
llntfleld  Blihop 
Hertford 
Biihop'a  Blort- 

Ibrd 

Dunmow 
Thai  ted 
Itraintree 


993.  Minchinhamp- 

tnn 
9.VI.  Htroiid 
3.'!.').  Biirkrley 
'<M\.  Blat'knuy 
3.'i7.  Moninuuth 
V'.V.  Ilik 
2.V.I.  Chi'ptlow 
21X1.  Newport 
361  Mflrthyr  Tydvil 
362.  M  intrinanl 
9iM.  l.liindaf^ 
264.  Cuwbiidge 
irt.  P»i» 
^16.  Neath 
967.  AlHimanl 
368.  Pnntaidrlall 
360.  Kidwiilly 
370.  Penrice 

SOUTH  SKniF,9. 

iThornbur* 
Chipping  Bod- 
bury 

3.  Briiitol 

4.  Wriiigton 
9.  Peniford 

6.  Mnmhlteld 

7.  Brad  ford 

0.  Chippenham 
0.  Cnlno 

10.  Wottnn  Bauol 

11.  Marlborough 
13.  Hungerroru 

13.  Iinmbourna 

14.  K.  llalHy 

15.  KeHriing 

16.  Wokingham 

17.  Maidenhead 

18.  Windfor 
10.  Uxbridge 


67.  Welli 

68.  Axbrldga 
(10.  Illncklord 

70.  Rrldgewatar 

71.  yVhatchel 
r9.  Minehead 
p.  Porllock 

74.  ('iiinlHi  Martin 
79.  (irracombe 
j6.  ilarnaiapla 


\ppwduta 

Aiileford 

lariland 


C^oggeahtll 
Halilead 
Colcheiter 
Harwich 
St.  0«ylh 
Brndwoll 
Rnrhford 
Maldon 
Chelmiford 
Ingateatuna 
Horndon 
Romford 
Chipping  Ongar 
Epoinif 
KnRRld 
St.  Albnn'a 
Wntlord 
Rerkhampatead 
Ainersham 
Marlow 
WBlIlngford 
Oxford 
Abingdon 
Wnnlago 
Whiini'y 
Burford 
Ijenhlado 
Cirencester 
Mnlmnsburjr 
Wutinn  under 
Edge 


96.  Kingito 
91.  Ewell 
99.  Ctnydon 
2!i.  liondnn 

94.  Woolwich 

95.  Graveaend 

36.  Rochester 

37.  Chatham 
98.  Sheorneai 
90.  Faveraham 

30.  Canterbury 

31.  Margate 
33.  Sandwich 

33.  Deal 

34.  Dover 
av  Hvihe 

36.  Wye 

37.  Aihford 

38.  Bmarden 
30.  Lenham 

40.  Maidatuna 

41.  Wrothnm 

42.  Tunbridge 

43.  Sevennaks 

44.  Wi'aterham 

45.  K.  Grinslead 
4fi.  UiMifnte 

47.  Dorking 

48.  Kipl.-y 
40.  (Jnildford 

50.  God  aiming 

51.  Alton 
53.  Oil  i  ham 

5:1.  Baaingitoke 
M.  Newbury 

55.  Whitchurch 

56.  Andover 

57.  Ludgershall 

58.  Amesbury 
50.  Stonehenge 

60.  Devizes 

61.  Trowbridge 

63.  Weatbury 
6:1.  Bath 

64.  Bruinn 

65.  Shuplon  Mallet 
tjti.  Glastonbury 


.  rorrington 
M.  South  Multon 

83,  IMilverion 

K).  WivBliscoinba 

84.  Wellington 
M.  Taunton 
86.  Longporl 
tfl.  Somerton 
88.  Ilcheaier 

80.  Milburn  Port 

00.  Cnalle  Cary 

01.  Wincuunton 

02.  Shanoabury 
0:*.  Mere 

04.  Warminaler 

05.  Ilindon 
on.  Wilton 
07.  Salisbury 
U8.  pownton 
00.  Rniiisuy 

100.  Stockbiidge 
1(>I.  Winchester 

103.  Brtiniilenn 
I0;i.  PelersHeld 

104.  Miilhurst 
lUt.  PatMoilh 

106.  Hasleinere 

107.  Horsham 
1U8.  Curkfli'kl 
100.  Uokfleld 

110.  Tunbridge 

Wells 

111.  Wadhurit 
113.  Goudhurat 

113.  Cranbrooke 

114.  Appledore 

115.  New  Romney 
lit).  1.yild 

117.  Rye 

118.  Wincheteea 
110.  Hastingi 
190.  Battle 

131.  Hailsham 

132.  E.  Bouina 

133.  Beal'urd 

134.  Lewea 
125.  Brighton 

136.  N.  Shureham 

137.  Steyning 

138.  Worthing 
130.  Arundel 

130.  Chichoiter 

131.  Havant 
1.12.  Fnrehum 

133.  Southampton 

134.  Newtown 

135.  Newport 
i:i6.  Yarmouth 

137.  Lyminu'ton 

138.  Chrislchurch 

139.  Kingweod 

140.  Poole 

141.  Wimbom  Min- 

ster 
149,  RIandfnrd 

143.  Beer  Regii 

144.  Wareham 

145.  Corib  Castle 

146.  Melcoinbo  Re- 

gis 

147.  Weymouth 

148.  Dorchester 
l40,  Cerne  Abboi 
l.Vl,  Bridport 
151.  Lyme  Beiia 


{54.  Honilun 
,^1.  t^olyion 
136.  Sidniouth    , 
|j>7.  Exmouih 
1.18.  Silvorion 
l.Ml.  t'olluiiiiiion 
IIMI,  Croiliion 
161.  Chumleigh 

164.  rialhatlelgh 
IflJ,  Bhcjepwash 

166.  Hobworlhy 

167,  Btralion 
IflH.  Jacobslow 
160.  Cameirurd 
170.  Launceslon 
ni.Calllngtnn 
173.  Tavistock 

173.  Slaiifurd 

Spiiioy 

174.  Moreton  Homi^' 

den 

175.  Exeter 

176.  Chudlaigh 

177.  Newton  Bushel 

178.  Ashburton 
170.  Totnesa 

180.  Dartmouth 

181,  Kingsbiidgo 
189,  Modbury 

1K».  Plymplon  Eati 
184.  Plymouth 
18.5.  Siilliish 

186.  Si,  German! 

187.  Liskeuril 

188.  Looe 

189.  Fowey 

190.  Lostwithiel 

191.  liodmin 
103.  St,  Minvet 
193.  Padsiow 
1U4,  Si.  Michael 
105,  Grampouad 
196.  Tregony 
107.  Truro 

IW,  Redruth 
100,  Penryn 
300,  Helslon 
301   Marazlon 
303,  Bl.  Ivea 
SOJ.  Penzanoo 

Rheri, 
Wetland 
Neil 

Old  Bedford 
Old  Ooa* 
Ouae 
Wenaoi 

fColn 
Lea 
Thamea 
iCharwell 
Kennet 
I    Wey 
ni  Mole 
n  Medwa 

0  Siour 
p  Rother 
q  Arun 

r  Avon 

1  Rxe 

t  Tamer 
u  Taw 
V  Perrot 
w  Axe 
X  .Avon 
y  Severu 
z  Teine 
a*  Wye 
b«  Taaf 
c*  Tower 
d*  Teifl 
s*  Yitwltfa 
f  •  Dovoy 


Bool  I. 


.«-*'/     ENGLAND. 


unitiii^f  at  Crickiode,  form  &  8tr>'(im  which  is  about  nine  foot  browl  in  nimmer,  iind  u  called 
tlii>  'riiuiiin.  Noar  Oxtonl  it  r<  tMvnii  tlio  (Muirwoll  and  tlio  IhIn,  uiwuinin^  (jn  itn  iiiiiction 
witli  tliu  latter  river  the  comp'Muid  name  of  TameiiiH,  which  haa  been  abbreviated  into  'rhamoM. 
Atlur  a  courite  aliinwt  noiithwnrd  to  Rea<lin(f,  it  wiiidii  northward  throujifh  the  woodoil  vale  of 
ilciiloy  and  Maidonheiul,  ami  thence  by  the  cantollatcd  heic^hUi  of  Windaor.  ItM  coiirM  to 
Itutidoa  in  by  ChertMoy,  I  iatiipton,  Twickenham,  and  Richmond,  among  the  magniticent 
w(xxlti  and  palacea  of  thm  panuliae  of  tlncfland.  Noar  Teildinvtun  ita  current  in  alightly 
nctftd  upon  by  the  extreino  r>hb  and  flow  of  the  tide,  which  rimmliigher  in  thia  than  in  any 
otiior  river  of  Europe.  I'  ividea  the  capital  into  two  unequal  parts,  having  on  its  northern 
b  .Ilk  the  citieti  of  London  and  Wcstininitter,  and  on  its  Houtiiorn  the  borough  of  Hoiithwark. 
B<'low  Ijondon  Bridge  it  in  navi^blo  for  vchhoIh  of  largo  burthen  ;  ita  ample  channel,  and  tho 
BpociuiiH  docka  connected  with  it,  are  there  constantly  Ailed  with  foresta  of  moata,  and  aflom 
tu  contain,  aa  it  were,  tlte  wealth  of  the  world.  It  winds  ita  way  to  tho  ocean  through  a 
country  presenting  few  objects  of  interest,  except  the  vast  naval  establiahmenta  aituatod  on 
thu  south  bank  of  tho  river.  Woolwich  claims  particular  attention,  not  only  on  account  of 
tlic  royal  ilockyord,  and  tho  national  depdt  of  artillery,  bui  for  ita  military  academy,  which 
ranks  as  tiio  tirst  in  the  empire.  The  estuary  of  tho  Modway,  opening  into  the  river  fVom 
Kont,  affords  commodious  sites  for  tho  naval  atationa  of  Chatham  and  SheemeM.  Tho  entire 
courHO  of  tho  Thames  is  about  220  miles. 

Tho  Trent,  with  its  tributary,  the  northern  Ouse,  traverses  tho  whole  midland  territory  of 
GnjGfland,  and  several  of  its  principal  manulhcturing  districts,  to  which  it  aflbrds  a  communis 
cation  with  the  eastern,  ana  by  canals  with  the  western,  ocean.  It  riaea  among  the  low 
Staffordshire  hills,  and  at  Burton,  it  becomes  navigable  for  vessels  of  moderate  aise,  Re« 
ceiving  tho  Dove  and  Derwent,  which,  after  dashing  through  the  rocky  recesses  of  Derby* 
sliirc,  have  already  subsided  into  peaceful  streams,  it  passes  Nottingham,  and  at  (Gainsborough 
becomes  navigable  for  steam-boats,  and  other  vessels  of  larger  burthen.  After  a  farther 
coiirso  of  a'uoiit  thirty  miles,  it  flows  into  the  Humbcr,  already  rendered  a  broad  estuary  by 
the  Ousc,  which  has  collected  the  principal  strean^s  of  Yorkshire.  The  Ouse,  formed  by 
tho  confliionce  of  the  Aire  and  the  Swale  flrom  the  uplands  of  the  North  Riding,  is  aubse* 
([ucntly  augmented  by  the  Wharfe.  The  Aire,  with  its  tributaries  the  Calder  and  Don,  ena< 
bio  it  tcvcommunicate  with  all  the  great  manufacturing  towns  of  the  West  Riding,  and  the 
confluence  of  the  Derwent  from  tlie  East  Riding  renders  it  equal  in  magnitude  to  tho  Thamoe. 
Ttm  OuHo,  with  its  branches,  forma  one  of  tho  most  useful  and  least  beauaful  of  English 
rivora.  It  winds  a  sluggish  course  through  maiu'fiicturing  districts  and  rich  arable  fields 
without  any  diversity  of  scenery.  The  tlumber,  termed  by  the  junction  of  the  Trent  and 
OiiHo,  roscinbles  an  arm  of  the  sea ;  and  ita  tnide  contributes  mainly  to  the  commercial 
prosperity  of  Hull. 

The  Severn  is  the  only  great  stream  which  runs  from  north  to  south  for  a  conaidorable  part 
of  its  courise.  Rising  in  Wales,  noar  tho  foot  of  Plinlimmon,  it  flows  through  the  vales  of 
Muntgomory ;  and,  after  winding  round  Shrewsbury,  directs  its  course  to  the  southward, 
through  some  of  the  richest  and  most  beautiflil  plains  of  England,  paaaing  by  the  cities  of 
WorcoHtor,  Tewkesbury,  and  Gloucester.  In  commercial  importance  it  also  ranks  high, 
sinco  it  flows  through  Colebrook  Dale,  and  other  principal  seatu  of  the  iron  trade ;  while  tho 
tracts  on  ita  lower  course  have  for  ages  been  distinguished  for  the  manufacture  of  fine  wool- 
lens. Its  navigation  is  not  free  from  obstructions,  but  much  has  been  done  to  obviate  these 
disadvantages,  and  to  connect  tlie  Severn  by  canals  with  the  other  great  rivers.  In  approach- 
ing Bristol,  it  receives  the  Wye,  which,  rising  in  Wales,  flows  through  scenery  that  renders 
it  the  most  picturesque  of  English  rivers.  The  Severn  then  expands  into  the  esiuary  of  the 
Bristol  Channel,  the  seat  of  a  commerce  once  second  only  to  that  of  the  metropolis,  but  now 
surpassed  by  that  of  Liverpool. 

The  other  rivers  of  England  are  small;  the  Eden,  the  beautiful  river  of  Cumberland, 
forms  the  Solway ;  the  Mersey  of  Lancashire,  with  its  tributary  the  Irwcll,  is  important,  for 
the  mass  of  commodities  which  it  conveys  from  the  great  manufacturing  districts  to  Liver- 
pool ;  the  southern  Ouse,  combines  with  tiie  Witham  of  Lincolnshire  in  forming  that  broad, 
shallow,  marshy  estuary  called  the  Wash,  through  which  is  exported  a  considerable  qu^intity 
of  grain  from  the  agricultural  districts ;  the  Tyne  and  the  Tees  in  the  north  of  England  are 
the  channels  of  extensive  trade ;  the  Tyne,  m  particular,  which  carries  down  the  product 
of  the  vast  coal  mines  of  Newcastle. 

The  lakes  of  England  occur  principally  in  the  counties  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland, 
which  are  denominated  the  country  of  the  lakes.  These,  of  which  Windermere,  the  largest, 
is  only  twelve  miles  long  and  one  broad,  have  been  raiscil  to  distinction  by  the  taste  of  tho 
age  for  picturesque  beauty,  rather  than  as  geographical  features  of  the  country.  Their 
number,  which  is  considerable,  entitles  them  to  notice ;  and  a  description  of  them  will  accom- 
pany that  of  the  districts  to  which  they  belong. 

Sbot.  n. — Natural  Oeopraphy. 
'Ciiis  subject  will  be  treated  under  the  heads  of  Geology,  Botany,  and  Zoology. 


"I  i<iiii>iin«w<«^Mj|iqnpMMiP 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


^ScMBOT.  1. — Geology  of  EnglatiH, 


Part  IIL 


While  in  Scotland  the  prevailing  formations  belong  to  the  primitive  and  transition  claHi^es, 
in  England  the  deposits  that  most  abound  are  the  teconilary,  tertiarvt  and  alluvial.  Hence 
it  is  mat  Scotland  appears  lolly  and  rugged,  when  contrasted  with  the  hilly,  flat,  and  low 
land  of  England.    To  enable  our  readers  to  form  a  general  conception  of  the  geognostical 

structure  of  Ei^land,  we  shall  consider  the  mineral  formations  in  the  following  order: I. 

Primitive  an^  Tranntion.   II.  Secondary.    III>  Tertiary.    IV.  Alluvial. 

I.  Primitive  and  Transition.  These  rocks  are  principally  confined  to  the  more  moun 
tainous  parts  of  England,  and  appear  most  abundantly,  in  Cumberland  and  some  neighbouring 
counties ;  in  Wales ;  and  in  Cornwall  and  Devon. 

(1.^  Cumberland  district.  This  district  is  bounded  to  the  west  and  the  south  by  the  Irish 
Sea  and  Morec<«nbe  Bay ;  towards  the  north  it  descends  into  the  plain  of  the  new  red  sand- 
stone, within  the  basin  of  the  f}den ;  and  on  the  east  it  is  bounded  by  the  central  carbonifer- 
ous chain  of  the  north.  Within  these  limits  there  are  two  sets  of  rocks,  viz.  Plutonian  and 
Neptunian ;  the  more  central  parts  being  Plutonian,  and  the  others  Neptunian.  The  order 
in  which  they  occur,  is  as  follows: — 

1.  Granite  and  Syenite.  They  form  the  geognostical  axis  of  all  this  region,  and  extend 
from  the  centre  of  the  Skiddaw  range  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Egremont.  There  is  a  fine 
display  of  the  granite  in  the  bed  of  the  Calden,  where  it  is  intersected  by  veins  of  quartz, 
and  contains,  baaidea  other  minerals,  molybdena,  tungsten,  wolfram,  and  phosphate  of  lime. 

2.  A  series  of  crystalline  slaty  deposits,  forming  the  centre  of  the  Skiddaw  region,  extend- 
ing across  Crcmiac  'lake,  and  by  the  foot  of  Ennerdale,  as  fiir  as  Denthill,  is  composed  of 
gneiss,  mica  slate,  hornblende  slate,  and  chiastolite  slate.  In  some  parts  of  Skiddaw  and 
Saddleback  the  curius  mineral  named  chiastolite  occurs :  veins  of  quartz  and  galena  occur 
in  Thomthwaite,  Newlands,  Loweswater,  and  other  places;  a  copper-mine  was  formerly 
worked  in  Newlands.    The  salt  springs  of  Borrowdale  issue  from  these  nx  '3. 

3.  Deposit  of  clay  slate. 

4.  An  enormous  formation  of  a  green  fdlspathose  slate,  intimately  associated  with  porphyry, 
like  that  of  Snowdonia  in  Wales,  and  the  Needle's  Eye  in  Scotland.  The  famous  graphite 
or  black-lead  mine  of  Borrowdale  is  situated  in  tlie  upper  end  of  the  valley  of  that  name, 
where  the  graphite  occurs  in  irregular  veins  associated  with  calc  spar,  brown  spar,  and 
quartz.  The  graphite  is  in  ne^ts  in  these  veins,  and  the  veins  are  contained  in  a  Plutonian 
rock,  viz.  felsp^^r  porphyry,  which  is  in  some  places  amygdaloidal.  Some  nests  of  graphite 
have  aflbrded  30001.  worth  of  that  mineral. 

5.  Gre^wacke,  with  subordinate  beds  of  limestone  enclosing  organic  remains.  A  gryphsea 
and  turritella  occur  near  to  Kirby-Lonsdale ;  a  pecten,  plagiostoma,  trigonia,  and  patella 
near  to  Keswick.  On  the  north  side  of  the  geognostical  axis  the  Neptunian  formations  are 
repeated,  with  the  exception  of  the  greywacke  series,  which  is  probably  buried  under  the 
old  red  sandstone  and  mountain  limestone;  and  on  this  northern  side,  notwithstanding  its 
less  extensive  developement,  there  is  a  group  of  mountains,  almost  entirely  composed  of 
diallage  rock,  and  other  minerals ;  of  which,  it  is  said,  no  trace  occurs  in  the  south.  These 
occupy  the  place  of  the  green  felspar  slate  and  porphyry  series  of  No.  3.  of  Wales,  after- 
wardB  to  be  noticed ;  and  seem  to  be  in  the  precise  place  of  the  serpentine  of  the  Lizard  in 
Cornwall.  Further,  there  is  on  the  west  side  of  Cumberland  another  formation  of  granite 
and  syenite,  which  underlies,  traverses,  a;.'  overlies  the  clay  slate.  No.  3.,  and  is  considered 
the  great  centre  of  elevation  of  th;:  nogicp...  It  never  overlies,  it  is  said,  the  mica  slate, 
chiastolite  slate,  &c. ;  but  is  probably  c  maected  with  veins  of  syenite,  and  other  detached 
masses  of  crystalline  rock,  which  do  not  belong  to  the  ordinary  rocks  of  superposition.  A 
range  of  transition  limestone  extending  from  Mellam  in  Cumberland  to  the  neighbourhood 
of  Wasdale  Head  in  Westmoreland,  nearly  across  the  whole  region  we  are  now  describing, 
is  finally  cut  oS  by  a  protruding  mass  of  granite,  newer  than  the  limestone. 

(2.)  Wales,  including  the  Me  of  Anglesea.  The  Neptunian  and  Plutonian  rocks  in  this 
extensive  district  are  arranged  as  follows : — 1st,  Oranite  rising  among  the  clay  slate  strata  in 
the  Isle  of  Anfi^esea.  2dly,  A  group  of  slaty  rocks  consisting  oi  mica  slate,  chlorite  plate,  and 
quartz  rock.  These  appear  upheaved  by  the  subjacent  granite.  They  occur  in  the  Isle  of 
Anglesea.  In  this  island  are  the  great  Mona  marble  and  Paris  copper  mines,  in  which  the 
ore  is  common  copper  pyrites.  The  Mona  marble,  a  beautiful  compound  of  marble  and  ser- 
pentine, occurs  among  these  rocks.  8dly,  A  great  group  containing  a  veiy  large  proportion 
of  felspathose  rocks  and  poi-phyries.  Of  these  the  district  of  Snowdonia  is  probably  Ihe 
lowest  portion.  Some  of  the  slates  of  the  Snowdon  range  contain  organic  remains,  princi- 
pally  of  shells,  some  of  which  appear  referable  to  the  genus  Producta.  4tihly,  A  vast 
deposit  of  clay  slate,  oihly,  u-rey waoke,  which  loniis  the  uppermcwt  or  newest  menibeF  of 
the  great  series  of  deposits.  Connected  with  these  series  are  great  beds  of  limestone. 
FosBU  organic  remains  are  met  with  in  this  series,  and  much  more  abundantly  than  in  the 
deeper-seated  slates.  Corals  of  various  kinds,  crinoid  animal  shells,  and  Crustacea  occur 
among  these  rocks,  in  a  fossil  state.    OTJith,  the  remains  of  bones,  teeth,  and  the  defensive 


Part  in. 


rion  cinsMes, 
m.  Hence 
(at,  and  low 
feognostical 
order :— I. 

nore  moim 
bighbouring 

by  the  Irish 
red  sand- 

carbonifor- 
iitonian  and 

The  order 

|and  extend 
ire  is  a  fine 
of  quartz, 
of  lime, 
on,  extend, 
omposed  of 
kiddaw  and 
ilena  occur 
as  formerly 

■h  porphyry, 
us  graphite 
that  name, 
n  spar,  and 
a  Plutonian 
of  graphite 

A  gryphtea 
and  patella 
nations  are 
i  under  the 
standing  its 
omposed  of 
th.    These 
'ales,  after- 
i  Lizard  in 
of  granite 
considered 
mica  slate, 
r  detached 
aition.    A 
fhbourhood 
lescribing, 

cks  in  this 
;e  strata  in 
plate,  and 
tlie  Isle  of 
which  the 
i  and  ser- 
proportion 
bably  Ihe 
M,  princi- 
7,  A  vast 

icuiuoF  of 

imestone. 
lan  in  the 
cea  occur 
defensive 


Boo* 


iM 


ENGLAND. 


831 


fin-bones  named  ichthyodoniUtes,  are  met  with.  In  the  lists  of  organic  remains  of  these  slaieu 
we  find  extinct  genera,  and  genera  that  still  exist:  and,  judrjing  from  the  nature  of  the 
reinains,  we  infer  that  some  of  the  animals  were  inhabitants  of  deep,  others  of  shallow,  seus. 
The  organic  remains  in  greywacke  rocks  are  rare,  and  form  a  very  small  proportion  to  the 
extent  of  the  rock. 

(3.)  Cornwall  and  Devon.  In  this  district  of  England  the  rocks  of  the  primitive  class 
are  arranged  in  the  following  order : — Ist,  Chranite.  There  are  four  great  projecting  masses 
of  granite  rising  through  the  bounding  slaty  strata :  they  send  arms  or  veins  among  the 
Neptunian  strata,  and  have  upraised  and  variously  modified  them.  The  granite  is  traversed 
by  contemporaneous  veins  of  granite,  and  also  encloses  contemporaneous  masses  and  veins 
of  a  compound  of  quartz  and  schorl,  named  schorl-rock.  It  is  also  traversed  by  veins  ot 
porphyry,  called  elvan.  2dly,  Resting  upon,  or  adjacent  to,  the  granite  there  is  a  vast  deposit 
of  clay  slate,  named,  in  the  county,  kUlag.  It  abounds  in  ores,  hence  is  sometimes  named 
metalliferous  slate.  Where  in  the  vicinity  of  granite,  there  is  interposed  gneiss  or  mica 
elate,  or  both ;  and  in  many  parts  it  Contains  subordinate  beds  of  greenstone,  felspathoee 
elate,  &c.  3dly,  Apparently  above  the  preceding  slates  there  occurs,  in  two  places,  a  form- 
ation of  serpentine,  which,  in  the  Lizard,  contains  diallage  rock,  talc  slate,  hornblende 
date,  and  mica  slate,  and  appears  to  occur  below  the  greywacke.  4thly,  Cfreywacke.  This, 
which  appears  to  form  a  great  mass,  is  the  uppermost  and  newest  member  of  the  stratified 
series.    It  contains  considerable  beds  of  limestone,  including  various  organic  remains. 

Mines  in  Cornwall  and  Devon.  Cornwall  and  Devonshire  present  three  princimil  mining 
districts.  The  part  of  Cornwall  situated  in  the  vicinity  and  to  the  southward  of  Truro,  the 
neighbourhood  of  St.  Austle,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  Tavistock.  The  first  of  these  dis- 
tricts is  the  most  important  of  the  three,  from  the  number  and  richness  of  its  mines,  in  which 
copper,  tin,  and  lead  are  obtained.  The  ores  of  copper,  which  are  principally  copper  pyrites 
and  gray  copper,  form  regular  veins,  having  a  direction  nearly  from  E.  to  W.  in  the  rock 
namgd  kUias ;  and  sometimes  in  the  granite  which  projects  amongst  the  slaty  strata.  The 
tin  occurs  prir..:ipally  in  veins,  which,  like  the  preceding,  traverse  the  killas  and  ^nite. 
They  have  also,  very  often,  a  direction  nearly  from  E.  to  W. ;  they  have  a  different  mclina- 
tion  from  that  of  the  copper  veins,  which  intersect  and  interrupt  them,  and  which  are, 
consequently,  newer.  The  tin  also  occurs  in  contemporaneous  masses  and  veins,  and  dis- 
seminated through  the  granite.  Some  veins  afford,  at  the  same  time,  copper  and  tin ;  but 
most  of  them  produce  only  one  of  these  metals  in  any  quantity.  There  are  also  in  Cornwall 
cross  veins,  that  intersect  the  veins  both  of  copper  and  tin ;  these  contain  argentiferous  galena, 
native  silver,  and  ores  of  silver.  Near  to  Tavistock  there  are  veins  of  copper,  tin,  and  lead. 
Mines  of  antimony  occur  at  Huel  Boys  in  Devonshire,  and  at  Saltash  in  Cornwall.  The  tin 
and  copper  ores  of'^Comwall  are  accompanied  with  arsenical  pyrites,  which  is  turned  to  profit 
by  manufacturing  oxide  of  arsenic  from  it. . 

II.  Secondary  Rocks.  The  rocks  of  this  class  form  the  largest  portion  of  the  surface  of 
England,  and  the  districts  composed  of  them  are  generally  flat  or  hilly ;  never  assuming 
the  mountainous  character,  unless  where  the  old  red  sandstone  or  mountain  limestone  appears. 
We  shall  now  describe  the  different  formations  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur,  beginning 
with  the  deeper-seated  or  oldest  (the  old  red  sandstone),  and  finishing  our  view  with  an 
account  of  the  newest,  or  chalk. 

(1.)  Old  red  sandstone.  This  sandstone,  which  is  distinguished  fi"om  those  newer  in  the 
scries  by  its  greater  hardness  and  red  colour,  occurs  in  greatest  abundance  in  Herefordshire 
and  Brecknockshire.  Smaller  portions  occur  in  the  Cum))erland  district,  the  Isle  of  Man 
and  the  Isle  of  Anglesea. 

(2.)  Mountain  limestone,  metalliferous  limestone,  or  carboniferous  limestone.  This  rock 
is  generally  grey  coloured ;  sometimes,  however,  it  exhibits  various  tints  when  it  is  worked 
as  an  inferior  kind  of  marble.  Its  fVacture  is  compact,  lustre  glimmering,  and  opaque  or 
translucent  on  the  edges.  Its  structure  is  sometimes  oolitic,  as  is  the  case  in  the  vicinity  of 
Bristol.  Veins  of  calcareous  spar  frequently  traverse  it,  and  occasionally  contribute  to  the 
beauty  of  the  varieties  used  as  marble.  Sometimes  remains  of  the  encrinus  are  so  abundant 
in  it,  that  it  is  named  encrinal  limestone.  Its  name  carboniferous  is  from  its  sometimes 
occurring  along  with  coal,  as  that  of  metalliferous  from  its,  in  some  districts,  abounding  in 
It  abounds  in  organic  remains  of  various  genera  of  corals,  radiaria,  and  shells ;  also 


ores, 


some  genera  of  Crustacea  andjishes.  These  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  fossils  of  the 
transition  limestone  in  the  greywacke  districts.  Derbyshire,  Northumberland,  and  Cumber- 
land afford  fine  displays  of  this  formation. 

Mines  in  mountain  limestone.  The  mountain  limestone  forms  several  mountainous  dis- 
tricts in  England  and  Wales ;  in  which  there  are  three  districts  rich  in  lead  mines.  The 
first  of  these  comprehends  the  upper  parts  of  ilie  valleys  of  the  Tyne-  the  Wear,  and  the 
Tees,  in  the  counties  of  Cumberland,  Durham,  and  York.  Its  principal  mines  are  situated 
near  Aldston  Moor  in  Cumberland.  The  veins  of  sulphuret  of  lead  or  galena,  which  form 
the  principal  object  of  the  works,  traverse  alternately  beds  of  limestone  and  sandstone.  They 
are  remarkable,  from  the  circumstance  that  they  suddenly  become  thiimer  and  poorer  on 

Vol..  I  2Q 


r^ 


^sa 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PaotIII. 


oassing  two  the  limestone  into  the  sandstone ;  an  arrangement  probably  connected  with 
some  electro-magnetic  action.    There  is  also  a  copper  mine  S.  W.  of  Aldston  Moor.    Tho 
ore  is  common  yellow  copper  pyrites,  which  is  associated  with  galena  in  a  vein  of  great 
extent,  and  which  does  not  seem  to  belong  to  the  same  formation  as  the  other  veins  in  this 
county.     The  iron  mines  of  Ulverston  are  in  this  district.     The  ore  is  red  hematite,  which 
*,raverses  the  limestone  in  the  form  of  veins ;  some  of  which  are  said  to  be  30  yards  wide. 
Near  Whitehaven  great  masses  of  reniform  hematite  alternate  with  red  beds  of  mountain 
limestone.     The  second  metalliferoiu  district  is  situated  in  the  northern  part  of  Dertwshire, 
and  the  contiguous  parts  of  the  neighbouring  counties.   The  districts  called  Peak  and  Kings- 
le'd  are  the  richest  in  ore.    The  Uende,  associated  with  the  lead,  is  worked  as  an  ore,  and 
zinc  is  obtained  firom  it    A  vein  of  copper  pyrites  occurs  at  Ecton  in  Staffordshire,  on  the 
borders  of  Derbyshire.    The  Derbyshire  vems  have  been  long  famous  on  account  of  the 
jeautiful  minerals  they  produce,  especially  ^/luor  spars,  and  also  fro.  .1  the  interruption  which 
iie  metalliferous  veins  experience  on  meeting  with  trap  rocks,  callei  toadslone,  which  occura 
alternately  with  the  limestone.    The  third  metalltferous  district  is  situated  in  Flintshire 
and  Denbighshire,  which  form  the  N.  E.  part  of  Wales.    It  is  the  most  productive  next  to 
Aldston  Moor.    Besides  lead,  it  furnishes  also  calamine  or  true  ore  of  zinc.    The  mines  are 
situated  partly  in  the  mountain  limestone,  partly  in  various  rocks  of  older  formation.    To 
the  S.  W.  of  this  district  there  are  also  lead  mines  in  Shropshire :  like  the  preceding,  they 
occur  partly  in  mountain  limestone  and  partly  in  older  rocks.    They  yield  a  great  annual 
return  of  lead.    Some  mines  of  galena  and  of  calamine  are  mentioned  as  occurring  in  the 
Mendip  hOls  to  the  south  of  Bristol ;  but  they  appear  to  be  now  abandoned.    Many  beautiful 
and  interesting  minerals  are  met  with  in  these  mines.    Of  the  vein  stones,  quartz,  in  Corn- 
wall, is  the  most  abundant ;  while  it  is  fluor  spar  and  calcareous  spar  in  Derbyshire ;  in 
Yorkshire  heavy  spar  or  sulphate  of  Irarytes ;  and  in  Cumberland,  heavy  spar  and  fluor  spar. 
(3.)  Coal  formation.    This,  which  is  the  most  important  of  the  secondary  deposits,  follows 
in  the  regular  succession  the  mountain  limestone,  on  which  it  therefore  rests.    The  lower 
beds  of  tiiis  deposit  sometimes  alternate  with  the  upper  strata  of  the  mountain  limestone. 
The  rocks  of  which  it  is  composed  are  shale,  sandstone,  clay  ironstone,  indurated  clay,  and 
coal,  alternating  in  various  ways  with  each  other.    The  shale,  sandstones,  ironstones,  and 
clays  contain  numerous  fossil  remains  of  extinct  species  of  plants,  rarely  of  animals,  the 
animal  remains  occurring  prmcipally  in  the  limestone.    No  countrv  of  the  same  size  in  the 
world  aflbrds  so  much  coal  as  England,  end  nowhere  has  its  natural  and  economical  history 
been  so  well  examined  as  in  this  island.    Messrs.  Conybeare  and  Phillips  arrange  the  different 
coal  districts  in  the  following  manner : — 

1.  Coal  district  north  of  the  Trent,  or  grand  Penine  chain. — 1.  Northumberland  and 
Durham.  2.  North  of  Yorkshire.  3.  South  York,  Nottmgham,  and  Derby.  4.  South  of 
Derby.  5.  North  Staffi)rd.  6.  South  Lancashire.  7.  North  Lancashire.  8.  Cumberland 
and  Whitehaven.     9.  Foot  of  CrossfelL 

2.  Central  coal  district. — 1.  Ash^  de  la  Zouch.  3.  Warwickshire.  3.  South  Stafford 
or  Dudley.    4.  Indications  near  the  Lickey  hill,  &c. 

3.  Western  coal  district,  divided  into,  1.  North  Western  or  North  Welsh. — 1.  Isle  of 
Anglesea.    2.  Flmtshire. 

4.  Middle  toestem  or  Shropshire. — 1.  Plain  of  Shrewsbury.  2.  Colebrook-dale.  3.  The 
Clee  hills  and  South  Shropshire.    4.  Near  the  Abberley  hill. 

5.  South  Western. — 1.  South  Wales.  2.  Forest  of  Dean.  3.  South  Gloucester  and 
Somerset. 

These  different  districts  are  accurately  described  in  Conybeare  and  P!i./lips'B  Geology  of 
England  end  Wales. 

Changes  of  the  coalfields  from  the  British  Channel  to  the  Tweed.  The  great  coal  fields 
in  England  experience  a  great  change  of  structure  in  their  range  from  the  Bristol  Channel 
to  the  valley  of  the  Twe^ :  these  changes  we  shall  now  enumerate,  using  the  view  given 
by  Sedgwick.  In  the  v&rious  coal  basins  on  the  Bristol  Channel,  the  limestone  strata  are 
"develop  only  in  the  lower,  and  the  coal  beds  in  the  upper,  part  of  the  series ;  and  the 
two  members  are  separated  by  nearly  unproductive  deposits  of  millstone-grit  and  shale 
The  arrangement  in  Derbyshire  is  nearly  the  same ;  there,  however,  the  millstone-grit  is 
more  vari^,  and  is  of  very  great  thickness,  and  subordinate  to  the  great  deposit  of  shale, 
and,  here  and  there,  very  thick  masses  of  a  peculiar  argillaceous  sandstone,  disposed  in  a 
tabular  manner.  On  the  re-appearance  of  the  carboniferous  limestone,  at  the  base  of  the 
Yorkshire  chain,  we  still  find  the  same  general  analogies  of  structure ;  enormous  deposits 
of  limestone  form  the  lowest  part,  and  the  coal  fields  the  highest  part  of  the  whole  series; 
Imd,  as  in  the  former  instance-,  we  also  find  the  millstone-grit  occupying  an  intermediato 
position.  The  millstoue-grit,  however,  becomes  a  very  complex  deposit,  with  several 
nibordinate  beds  of  coal ;  and  is  separated  from  the  great  inferior  calcareous  group  (the  scar 
limestone),  not  merely  by  the  great  shale  and  shale-limestone,  as  in  Derbyshire,  but  by  « 
■till  more  complex  deposit,  in  some  places  not  less  than  1000  feet  thick;  in  which  fivn 
groups'  of  limestone  strata  alternate  with  great  masses  of  sandstone  and  shale,  abound  in 


mnected  with 

vein  of  great 
I  ''eins  in  this 
Natite,  whicli 
f^  yards  wide. 
^  of  mountain 
P\  iJerbysliire, 
K  and  kings. 

[?  ?■  **'■«•  an<i 
dshire,  on  the 

ccount  of  the 

fruption  which 

which  occurs 

1  '"  f  iintshire 

Ictive  next  to 

|ne  mines  are 
>nnation.    To 
Needing,  they 
J  firreat  annual 
lurring  in  the 
pany  beautiful 
Jartz,  in  Corn- 
erbyshire;  in 
ind  fluor  spar 
posits,  follows 
I     The  lower 
\in  limestone, 
ited  clay,  and 
Jnstones,  and 
animals,  the 
»e  size  in  the 
Mi'cal  history 
e  the  different 

oberiand  and 
4.  South  of 
Cumberland 

uth  Stafford 

■—I.  Isle  of 

Je.    a  The 

icester  and 

Geology  of 

coal  fields 
>1  Channel 
riew  given 
strata  are 
»  and  the 
md  shale 
"le-grit  is 
t  of  shale, 
osed  in  a 
se  of  the 
'  deposits 
le  series ; 
nnediatfi 

several 
'the  scar 
but  by  n 
lich  fivn 
lound  in 


Book  L 


VHf       ENGLAND. 


tS'^C'J.T 


ImpressionB  of  coal  plants,  and  three  or  four  thin  beds  of  good  coal  extensively  worked  fyr 
domestic  use. 

In  the  range  of  the  carboniferous  chain  from  Stainmoor,  through  the  ridge  of  Crossfell  to 
the  confines  of  Northumberland,  we  have  a  repetition  of  the  some  general  phenomena.  On 
its  eastern  flanks,  and  superior  to  all  its  component  groups,  is  the  coal  field  of  Durham. 
Under  the  coal  field,  we  Imve,  in  a  regular  descending  order,  the  millstone-erit,  the  altemap 
tions  of  limestone  and  coal  measures  nearly  identical  with  those  of  the  Yorkshire  chain, 
and  at  the  base  of  all  is  the  great  acar  limestone.  The  scar  limestone  begins,  however,  to 
be  subdivided  by  thick  masses  of  sandstone  and  carbonaceous  shale,  of  which  we  had  hardly 
a  trace  in  Yorkshire ;  and  gradually  passes  into  a  complex  deposit,  not  distinguishable  from 
the  next  superior  division  of  the  series.  Along  with  this  gradual  change  is  a  great  devel- 
opement  of  the  inferior  coal  beds  alternating  with  the  limestone;  some  of  which  on  the 
north-eastern  skirts  of  Cumberland,  are  three  or  four  feet  in  thickness,  iai  are  now  worked 
for  domestic  use. 

The  alternating  beds  of  sandstone  and  shale  expand  more  and  more  as  we  advanee 
towards  the  north,  at  the  expense  of  all  the  calcareous  groups,  which  gradually  thin  off  and 
cease  to  produce  any  impress  on  the  featuren  of  the  country.  And  thus  it  is,  that  the  lowest 
portion  of  the  whole  carboniferous  system,  from  Bewcastle  Forest,  along  the  skirts  of  the 
Cheviot  Hills,  to  the  valley  of  the  Tweed,  has  hardly  a  single  feature  in  common  with  the 
inferior  part  of  the  Yorkshire  chain ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  has  almost  all  the  most  ordinary 
external  characters  of  a  coal  formation.  Corresponding  to  this  change,  is  also  a  gradual 
tliickening  of  carbonaceous  matter  in  some  of  the  lower  groups.  Many  coal  worlra  have 
been  opened  upon  this  line ;  and  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Tweed  (almost  on  a  parallel 
with  the  great  acar  limeatone)  is  a  cool  field,  with  five  or  six  good  seams,  some  of  which  are 
pretty  extensively  worked.  The  beds  of  sandstone,  shale,  and  limestone,  forming  the  base 
in  the  carboniferous  system  in  the  basin  of  the  Tweed,  are  often  deeply  tinged  witli  oxide  of 
iron ;  and  have  been  compared  sometimes  with  the  new,  sometimes  with  me  old,  red  sand- 
stone: to  the  new  red  sandstone  they  have  no  relations;  "and  I  would  rather  compare 
them,"  says  Sedgwick,  "  especially  as  the  old  red  sandstone  of  the  north  of  England  seldom 
exist  but  as  a  conglomerate,  and  is  seen  in  that  form  on  the  flanks  of  the  Cheviot  Hills,  with 
the  red  beds  of  mountain  limestone  and  sandstone,  which,  both  in  Cumberland  and  Lan- 
cashire, sometimes  form  the  base  of  the  whole  carboniferous  series," 

These  coal  fields  are  traversed  and  variously  deranged  by  great  faulta ;  interesting 
descriptions  of  which,  particularly  those  in  the  northern  fields,  have  been  published  by 
Messrs.  Phillips  and  Sedgwick. 

The  coal  strata,  or  metdla  as  they  are  sometii..es  called,  are  in  some  parts  of  England 
affected  by  Plutonian  trap  rocks,  but  in  a  very  inferior  degree  to  what  takes  place  in  Scot- 
la.id.  The  principal  trap  rock  is  greenstone,  which  appears  in  the  form  of  overJvtn^  masses, 
as  at  Clee  Hill  and  at  Dudley ;  in  the  form  of  intersecting  tabular  masses  or  dikea  (veins), 
as  in  Northumberland  and  Durham.  Sometimes  the  trap  mass  has  been  forced  between  the 
strata,  when  it  has  the  character  of  a  bed,  or  tiiese  bed-like  masses  may  be  some  of  the  rocks 
of  the  coal  formation  softened  and  recrystallised  in  situ  by  heat  from  below.  The  great 
whin  aill  of  Northumberland,  and  the  toiadstone  beds  of  Derbyshire,  are  examples  of  these 
trap  beds.  The  strata  near  the  trap  frequently  appear  changed,  the  clays  hardened,  the 
limestone  rendered  crysttdline  and  magnesian,  the  coal  charred^  and  the  sandstone  hardened, 
&c. ;  and  these  strata  are  either  moved  firom  their  original  ])osition,  or  are  unchanged. 

Although  rather  foreign  to  our  subject,  we  may,  as  an  illustration  of  the  importance  of 
the  coal  formation  to  England,  mention  the  quantityof  iron  manu&cturcd,  and  of  coal  con- 
sumed, in  the  carboniferous  district  of  Wales.  The  quantity  of  iron,  according  to  Mr. 
Forster,  annually  manu&cturcd  in  Wales,  has  been  calculated  at  270,000  tons.  Of  this 
quantity  a  proportion  of  about  throe-fourths  is  made  into  bars,  and  one-fourth  sold  as  pigs  and 
castings.  The  quantity  of  coal  required  for  its  manufacture  on  the  average  of  the  whole, 
including  that  used  by  engines,  workmen,  &c.  will  be  about  5J  tons  for  each  ton  of  iron ; 
the  annual  consumption  of  coal  by  the  ironworks  will,  therefore,  be  about  1,500,000  tons. 
The  quantity  used  in  the  smelting  of  copper  ore  imported  into  Wales  firom  Cornwall,  in 
the  manufticture  of  tin-plate,  forging  of  iron  for  various  purposes,  and  for  domestic  uses, 
may  be  calculated  at  350,000,  which  makes  altogether  the  annual  consumption  in  Wales, 
1,850,000  tons.  '  « 

(4.)  Magnesian  limestone  formation.  The  upper  part  of  the  coal  formation  has  some- 
times a  red  colour  with  an  arenaceous  and  conglomerated  character.  Above  or  resting  upon 
it  we  have  tlie  magnesian  limestone  deposit.  This  deposit  extends  through  Yorkshire  and 
Durham.  Its  lower  part  is  said  to  be  separated  from  the  coal  formation  by  a  deposit  of  sand 
and  sandstone,  with  occasional  red  marl  and  gypsum.  The  magnesian  limestone  itself  con- 
sists in  its  lower  part  of  a  bituminous  marl  slate,  abounding  in  fossil  fishes  of  the  genus 
PaltBothrissum ;  the  middle  and  upper  parts  being  a  yellowish  small  granular  or  glimmer- 
mg  magposian  limestone.    The  organic  character  of  this  limestone  approaches  nearly  te 


rm 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III 


that  of  tlil)''nllodfit&ih  limestbne  already  described.     It  contains  Producta,  which,  however 
do  not  occur  higher  in  the  series;  also  SpiriJ\r<e,  a  tribe  found  as  higii  as  the  oolite. 

(5.)  Variegated  or  new  red  sandstmie,  with  the  red  variegated  marl  deposit.  As  the 
Bliell  limestone  is  wanting  in  England,  the  variegated  sandstone  and  the  red  and  variegated 
marls  come  together,  and  may  here,  therefore,  be  viewed  as  one  formation.  They  rost 
immediately  upon  the  magnesian  limestone,  but  of  the  two  sets  the  marl  appears  in  general 
to  be  the  uppermost  or  newest  The  sandstone  is  of  a  looser  texture  than  that  of  the  uid 
red  sandstone  deposit,  has  a  red  or  variegated  colour,  and  the  strata  are  generally  horizontixl. 
The  marls  arc  red  or  variegated  in  colour.  In  these  sandstones  and  marls,  beds  and  great 
masses  or  nodules  of  gy^um  occur,  as  in  Derbyshire,  Staflbrdshire,  &c.  All  the  salt  mines 
in  England  are  situated  m  this  deposit  At  Northwich  there  is  an  extensive  deposit  of  solid 
rock  suit,  forming  two  beds,  together  not  less  than  60  feet  in  thickness.  These  beds  are 
supposed  to  form  large  insulated  masses  of  this  mineral,  extending  in  length  about  a  mile 
and  a  half,  and  in  breadth  about  1300  yards.  The  salt  works  at  Droitwich  in  Worcester- 
shire are  also  in  this  red  marl  deposit  Iron-sand  and  iserine  are  said  to  occur  in  this  sand- 
,  stone  on  the  banks  of  the  Mersey  opposite  Liverpool ;  and  in  other  places  sulphuret  of  cop- 
per, gray  oxide  of  cobalt,  and  black  oxide  of  manganese  occur  in  the  sandstone  or  its  marls. 
It  forms  the  sur&ce  of  vast  tracts  extendmg  with  little  interruption  firom  the  northern  bank 
of  the  Tees  in  Durham  to  the  southern  coast  of  Devonshire.  We  find  a  tract  in  the  great 
plain  in  the  centre  of  England  of  about  80  miles  in  length  and  sixty  in  breadth,  principally 
covered  with  this  deposit ;  several  islands  of  the  older  rocks,  however,  rising,  in  various 
places,  through  it  These  are,  1st,  the  sy^enite,  greenstone,  and  slate  district  of  Chamwood 
forest  in  Leicestershire ;  2dly,  the  coal  district  surrounding  Ashby  de  la  Zouch  in  the  same 
county ;  connected  with  which  are  several  patches  of  the  carboniferous  magnesian  lime- 
stone, and  a  patch  of  millstone-grit  at  Stanton-bridge  on  the  Trent ;  Sdly,  the  coal-field  of 
Warwickshire ;  4thly,  the  coal-field  in  the  south  of  Staffordshire,  with  the  transition  lime- 
stone on  which  it  rests;  5thly,  the  lower  and  northern  range  of  tne  Lickey  hill,  near  Broms- 
grove  in  Worcestershire,  which  exhi()its  strata,  probably  of  transition  quartz  rock.  Some 
trap  rocks  occur  in  this  formation  at  Upton  Pyne,  a  village  five  miles  north  of  Exeter,  and 
at  other  points  near  that  town. 

(6.)  XiUM  and  oolite  formation.  This  great  formation  occupies  a  zone  having  nearly  30 
miles  in  average  breadth,  extending  across  the  island  from  Yorkshire  on  the  north-east,  to 
Devonshire  on  the  south-west  It  is  eminently  remarkable  on  account  of  the  number  and 
variety  of  fossil  organic  remains  which  it  contains,  and  its  wide  distribution  not  only  in 
England,  but  also  in  many  other  parts  of  the  world.  In  this  formation,  at  Stonesfield,  the 
first  or  earliest  remains  of  mammiferous  anunals  were  found.  Crocodiles  and  many  vast 
and  strangely  organised  reptiles  occur  in  this  deposit,  with  a  vast  variety  of  shells,  many 
radiaria,  and  also  corals.  Fishes  are  also  met  with  in  a  fossil  B|ate,  but  by  no  means  so  fre- 
quently as  reptiles.  Fossil  plants  of  various  tribes  also  occur,  and  thus  add  to  the  organic 
variety  of  this  remarkable  formation :  they  belong  to  the  Alga,  Equisetacea,  Pilices,  Cy- 
cadete,  Conifera,  and  LUia.  Beds  of  coal,  generally  of  an  indifferent  quality,  occur  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  in  this  deposit 

(7.)  Wealden  clay  and  Purbeck  stone.  This  formation,  which  lies  immediately  upon 
the  oolite,  consists  of  limestones,  sands,  and  clays  abounding  in  fossil  organic  remains, 
principally  of  terrestrial  and  fresh-water  plants  and  animals,  marine  species  being  rare.  In 
the  lower  part  of  this  formation,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Weymouth,  there  is  a  bed  of  black 
earth,  called  the  dirt  bed,  containing,  in  a  silicified  state,  long  prostrate  trunks  of  coniferous 
trees,  and  stems  of  Cycadeoidae,  These  trunks  lie  partly  sunk  into  the  deep  black  earth, 
like  Mien  trees  on  the  surface  of  a  peat  bog,  and  partly  covered  by  the  incumbent  Purbeck 
limestone.  Many  trunks  of  trees  also  remain  erect,  with  their  roots  attached  to  the  black 
soil  in  Tbich  they  grew,  and  their  upper  part  in  the  limestone ;  and  show  that  the  surface  of 
the  subjacent  PorUand  stone  was  for  some  time  dry  land,  and  covered  with  a  forest ;  and 
probably  in  a  climate  such  as  admits  the  growth  of  the  modem  Zamia  and  Cycas,  remains 
of  these  genera  being  found  here.  This  forest  has  been  submerged ;  first,  beneath  the  fresh 
waters  of  a  lake  or  estuary,  in  which  were  deposited  the  Purbeck  beds,  and  san^ls  and  clays 
of  the  Wealden  formation  (amounting  together  to  nearly  1000  feet),  and  subsequently 
beneath  the  sa^  water  of  an  ocean  of  sufficietit  depth  to  accumulate  all  the  great  marine 
formations  of  green  sand  and  chalk  that  rest  upon  it 

(8.)  Chalk  formation  with  green  sand.  This  great  deposit  consists  principally  of  chalk, 
with  less  extensive  subjacent  beds  of  green  sand  and  tufiacejus  chalk.  It  stretclies,  with 
little  interruption,  from  Flamborough  Head  on  the  coast  of  Yorkshire,  to  near  Sidmouui  on 
the  coast  of  Devonshire ;  forming  a  range  of  hills  often  of  some  hundred  feet  high,  and  of 
which  the  most  precipit-  as  face  is  generally  on  the  north-west  side.  From  this  long  range 
several  ranges  shoot  toward  the  east  and  south-east.  Chalk  does  not  often  bear  the  charac 
ter  of  a  level  or  fiat  country ;  but,  on  the>contrary,  is  subject  to  perpetual  undulation  of  sur- 
face, tiie  hills  being  remarloible  for  their  smooth  rounded  outline,  and  the  deep  hollows  aiid 
mdentations  on  their  sides. 


however 
ite. 

As  the 
'wiegrated 
jTJiey  rost 
in  {renoral 
'of  the  oid 
lorizpntal. 
and  great 
<alt  minei 
ii  of  solid 
beds  are 
'Ut  a  mile 
'orcester- 
this  sand- 
■et  of  cop. 
its  marls, 
lern  bank 
the  great 
»rincipally 
in  various 
'hamwood 
the  same 
sian  lime- 
al-field  of 
ition  lime- 
sar  Broms. 
'k.    Some 
xeter,  and 

nearly  30 
•th-east,  to 
umber  and 
lot  only  in 
Jsfield,  the 
many  vast 
ills,  many 
ans  so  fte- 
le  organic 
licea,  Cy- 

occur  in 

tely  upon 
remains, 
rare.   In 
I  of  black 
oniferous 
ck  earth, 
Purbeck 
he  black 
jrface  of 
est;  and 
remains 
;he  fresh 
nd  clays 
jquently 
'■  marine 

f  chaik, 
5s,  with 
outii  on 
and  of 
f  range 
charac 
of  sur. 
yfB  aiid 


Book! 


tr«r>iw 


ENGLANIX 


The  upper  part  of  this  formation,  through  a  great  part  of  England,  is  characterised  by 
the  presence  of  conimon  gun-ilint,  anang^  in  thin  beds  or  in  variously-shaped  masses,  dis« 
posed  more  or  less  in  parallel  lines.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  formation  the  flints  becomo 
tees  and  less  abundant,  and  at  length  entirely  disappuar.  This  arrangement,  however,  is  not 
always  to  be  observed,  for  in  some  places  the  lower  chalk  abounds  in  flints.  In  the  chalk 
formation,  .the  upper  and  middle  parts  are  of  chalk,  while  the  lower  and  under  are  of  sands, 
Bandstones,  and  cla^s.  The  upper  part  may  be  considered  an  original  deposit,  the  matter 
derived  frqm  the  mterior  of  the  earth ;  the  lower  of  a  mechanical  and  alluvial  nature. 
Chalk  uboundb  in  fossil  remains  of  animals,  and  also  contains  fossilised  plants.  Corals  in  great 
variety,  radiated  animals,  particularly  echinites,  are  in  vvmi  numbers ;  shells  of  all  the  grand 
divisions  and  in  great  variety  add  to  the  zoological  interest  of  the  fbrmation,  which  is  further 
heightened  by  the  fossil  crabs,  fishes,  and  reptiles,  occasionally  met  with  in  it.  The  plants 
are  Cmfervee,  Pud,  Zo$tera,  Cycadea,  with  dicotyledonous  wood  |ierforated  by  some 
boring  animal.  The  formation,  as  it  occurs  in  England,  appears  to  have  been  variously 
elevated  and  depressed  at  difi'erent  times  by  some  subterranean  actions ;  but,  as  far  as  we 
know,  it  does  not  anywhere  occur  in  contact  with  trap  or  other  Plutonian  rocks. 

III.  Tertiary  rocks     Hitherto,  in  England,  these  deposits  have  been  found  only  in  what 
are  called  the  London  basin  and  the  Isle  of  Wiffht  basin ;  two  spaces  conjectured  formerly 
to  have  had  the  basin  shape,  but  now  more  or  less  filled  with  tertiary  rocks ;  an  opinion, 
however,  which  the  late  observations  of  Professor  Buckland  have  shown  to  be  less  plausible 
timn  has  been  generally  believed.     The  boundary  of  the  first  of  these  supposed  basins  may 
bfi  stated,  generally,  as  a  Ikie  running  from  the  inner  edge 'of  the  chalk,  south  of  Flam- 
borough  Head,  in  Yorkshire,  nearly  south,  till  it  crosses  the  Wash,  then  south-west  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  valley  of  the  river  Kennet,  near  Hungerford,  in  Wiltshire ;  and  thence 
trending  south-east  to  the  south  of  the  Thames,  and  the  north-west  angle  of  the  Isle  of 
Thanet :  in  ail  these  directioiis  the  boundary  line  is  formed  by  the  chalk  hills ;  on  the  east 
side,  the  boundary  is  the  coast  of  the  German  Ocean.    The  boundaries  of  the  Isle  of  Wight 
basin  may  be  stated  as  follows : — on  the  north,  a  few  miles  south  of  Winchester ;  on  the 
eolith,  a  little  north  of  Carisbrook  in  the  Isle  of  Wight;  on  the  east,  Brighton;  and  on  the 
west,  Dorchester.    It  is  everywhere  circumscribed  by  chalk  hills,  excepting  where  broken 
in  by  the  channel  between  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  the  main  land.    The  dirorent  members 
of  the  tertiary  series  met  with  in  England,  are  named  Plastic  clay,  London  clay,  Bagskot 
sands,  the  Freshwater  formations  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  the  Crag. — Plastic  clay.    This 
deposit  consists  of  a  plastic  clay  with  gravel  beds,  alternating  with  beds  of  sand  (sometimes 
in  a  state  of  sandstone)  and  clay.     Its  organic  remains  are  principally  marine  shells,  with 
•aycrs  of  lignite  or  brown  coal. — London  clay.    This  is  a  bluish  or  blackish  clay,  sometimes 
BO  much  impregnated  with  carbonate  of  lime  as  to  form  a  kind  of  compact  marl.    Layers  or 
nodules  of  septaria  (a  calcareous  concretion)  frequently  occur  in  it.    It  is  the  great  clayey 
deposit  on  which  London  is  built.    It  has  been  bored  to  a  depth  of  700  feet,  without  reach- 
Inc;  its  bottx)in.    The  highest  point  it  attains  is  the  summit  of  High  Beach  in  Essex,  being 
T.'W)  feet  above  the  sea.    It  abounds  in  fossil  organic  remains  from  the  animal  as  well  as 
from  the  vegetable  kingdom.    Crocodiles,  turtles,  fishes,  and  crabs  have  been  observed ;  but 
these  are  few  in  number  compared  with  the  host  of  fossil  shells.    These  shells  are  often 
«rery  beautifially  preserved,  frequently  retaining  the  appearance  of  recent  species.    There  are 
very  few  genera  of  recent  shells  which  have  not  some  representative  in  this  fcmiation,  but 
tlie  specific  character  is  usually  diflierent;  on  the  other  hand,  but  few  of  the  extinct  genera, 
so  frequent  in  the  older  formations,  occur  in  this.     The  Isle  of  Sheppey,  formed  of  Ixindon 
clay,  affords  a  vast  variety  of  fossil  finiits  and  seeds,  very  few  of  which  agree  witli  any 
known  seed-vessels ;  many  of  them  are  conjectured  to  belong  to  tropical  plants,  some  to  the 
cocoa-nut  and  spice  tribes.     Fragments  of  wood  pierced  by  a  shell  animal,  resembling  the 
Teredo  navalis,  are  met  with ;  a  fiict  which  shows  that  the  wood  may  have  floated  about  in 
the  sea. — Bagshot  sands.    These  rest  upon  the  London  clay ;  they  consist  of  sand,  with 
greenish-coloured  clay,  variously  coloured  marls.,  containing  grains  of  green  sand,  and  fossil 
Irochi  and  pectinites. — Freshwater  formations  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  Hampshire,  The 
Freshwater  strata  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  are  divided  into  two  deposits  by  a  rock  characterised 
oy  the  prefience  of  marine  remains,  and  named  the  upper  marine  formation,  from  being  a 
supposed  equivalent  to  the  sands  which  intenrene  between  the  two  freshwater  deposits  of 
Palis.    The  lower  freshwater  deposit  of  Binstead,  near  Ryde,  consists  of  a  limestone  formed 
oC  frigments  of  freshwater  shells,  white  shell  marl,  siliceous  limestone,  and  sand.    One 
t(:f>t!i  of  an  Anaplotherium  and  two  teeth  of  a  Palaotherium  have  been  found  ih  the  lower 
111  illy  beds  of  the  quarries  at  Binstead.     In  the  some  quarriep  several  rolled  fragments  of 
pncliydermat'-as  animals,  and  the  jaw  of  an  animal  allied  to  the  musk-deer  tribe.    In  Colwell 
Biy  the  upp(?r  pnrtof  this  deposit  contairs  a  mixture  of  freshwater  and  marine  shells. — The 
upper  marine  formation.     This  dt  osit  of  calcareous  beds  abounds  with  freshwater  shells 
in  thn  ^iwer  part,  but  in  the  upper  ,  irt  we  find  marine  shells;  hence  it  is  conjectured  to 
hr.v(!  been  formed  in  an  estuary. —  Vppfr  freshwater  formation.     This  consists  principally 
of  yellowish  white  marls.     The  organic  remains  are  either  freshwater  or  land.    The  geo- 
Vol.  I.  28 


«. 


826 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  m. 


logical  hiatorv  of  tho  tertiary  depoaits  in  England  has  not  yet  been  placed  in  direct  con- 
nexion with  that  of  similar  deposits  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  No  trap  or  granite  rocks 
have  hitherto  been  nlet  with  in  England  in  any  way  connected  with  the  tertiary  strata. 

IV.  Alluvial  rocks.  Nearly  the  whole  of  Ejiglaiid  is  more  or  less  covered  with  alluvium, 
or  debris  of  previously  existing  rocks :  thus  it  occurs  on  mountain  ridges,  and  on  the  sides 
and  bottoms  of  valleys ;  it  is  spread  over  plains,  fills  up,  wholly  or  partially,  tissures  in  rocks, 
and  caves,  and  caverns,  and  forms  beacnes  and  other  accumulations  of  greater  or  lesser 
extent  on  the  sea  coast  It  varies  in  age,  irom  the  oldest  called  diluvium,  which  stands  in 
immediate  connexion  with  the  crag  or  upper  tertiary  deposit,  to  the  newest,  those  forming 
at  present  through  the  agency  of  tiie  atmosphere,  springs,  lakes,  rivers,  and  the  waves  and 
currents  of  the  ocean.  It  encloses  numerous  remains  of  plants  and  animals,  either  more  or 
less  mineralized,  or  simply  bleached :  those  of  the  oldest  deposits  appear  to  be  of  animals, 
and  sometimes  of  plants,  which  are  cppuently  extinct ;  while  the  newer  enclose  remains 
only  of  living  animal  and  vegetable  species.  Although  our  limits  do  not  allow  us  to  enter 
into  details  on  this  very  important  and  curious  department  of  geology,  we  may  remark,  that 
the  characters  and  modes  of  distribution  of  these  alluvia  are,  m  many  instances,  intimately 
connected  with  risings  and  depressions  of  the  land ;  and  consequently  with  apparent  sinking 
and  rising  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  and  the  violent  agitations  sometimes  induced  in  the 
great  mass  of  the  ocean,  and  also  in  lakes,  by  changes  in  the  level  of  the  solid  parts  of  the 
globe. 

SinssoT.  2. — Bctany. 

The  botany  of  the  different  parts  of  the  British  empire  is  so  similar,  that  we  propose  to 
treat  under  one  head  that  of  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  their  adjacent  islands. 

Ibctending  through  eleven  degrees  of  latitude,  Great  Britain  includes  a  considerable  vari- 
ety  of  climate,  but  everywhere,  more  or  less  tempered  by  the  surrounding  ocean ;  so  that, 
in  no  part  of  the  island,  except  on  the  mountaini»^  or  high  table-lands,  can  the  temperature 
be  compared  to  similar  latitudes,  upon  the  European,  much  less  upon  the  American  conti- 
nent Yet  from  its  proximity  to  the  former,  the  vegetation  is,  with  few  exceptions,  similar 
to  that  of  the  adjacent  districts  of  Europe.  Although  in  consequence  of  the  un&vourable 
summers,  the  frequent  obscurity  of  the  sun,  the  damp  and  foggy  atmosphere,  it  is  not  pos- 
sible, without  artificial  heat  and  protection,  to  bring  many  of  the  fhiits  of  more  favoured 
climates  to  perfection ;  yet  the  mildness  of  the  winter  renders  it  easy  to  introduce  and  to 
naturalise  plants  of  much  more  southern  latitudes :  so  that  the  gardens,  porks,  slirubberies, 
and  even  forests,  are  adorned  with  the  most  varied  vegetation,  producing  the  most  beautifiil 
flowers,  or  the  most  valued  timbers. 

On  the  extreme  southern  coast  of  England  and  Ireland,  the  native  vegetables  of  the 
warmer  temperate  zone  are  successfully  grown  in  the  open  aur,  and  come  to  considerable 
perfection.  In  the  south  of  Devonshire,  the  orange  and  lemon  trees  are  loaded  with  fruit 
of  the  finest  kind,  trained,  indeed,  to  a  wall,  but  without  protection,  or  only  provided  with  it 
during  a  very  short  portion  of  the  winter  months ;  the  Lemon-scented  Vervain  (Lippia 
citriodora,  formerly  called  Verbena  triphyUa,  becomes  quite  a  tree,  without  any  artlAcial 
protection ;  the  American  Agave,  the  creeping  Cereus,  the  Prickly  Pear,  myrtles  from  the 
south  of  Europe ;  the  Tea,  Camellias  and  other  Chinese  and  Japanese  plants,  thrive  well  in 
the  open  air,  as  well  as  the  Magnolias,  and  many  other  trees,  fh)m  the  southern  states  of 
North  America,  whose  native  latitudes  lie  many  degrees  nearer  to  the  tropics. 

The  only  two  floras  of  Great  Britain,  which  are  so  complete  as  to  demand  particujhr  atten- 
tion, are  Sir  J.  E.  Smith's  English  Flora,  and  Gray's  Arrangement  of  British  Plants ,  Jie 
former  classed  according  to  the  Linnsan  system,  extending,  however,  only  to  the  end  of  the 
class  Polygamia,  and  the  first  order  of  the  class  Cryptogamia  Filices.  Gray's  Flora  includes 
the  whole  of  the  British  vegetables,  arranged  according  to  the  natural  method,  and  is  the 
only  one  that  approaches,  however  deficient  it  may  still  be,  to  any  thing  like  a  catalogue  of 
our  present  state  of  knowledge  of  the  Cryptogamia.  Among  the  Phienogamous  plants 
however,  Mr.  Gray  has  includ^  a  great  number  that  are  only  known  in  a  state  of  cultiva- 
tion, as  has  been  done  by  De  Candolle,  in  his  Flore  Francaise,  and  many  other  continental 
botanists.  We  have,  therefore,  deemed  it  convenient  thus  to  give  a  list  of  the  plantb 
according  to  each  of  these  authors ;  and  thf  increased  number  in  the  columns  of  species 
according  to  Mr.  Gray,  will  be  thus  easily  accounted  for. 


'  direct  con- 
rranite  tocki 
istrato. 
Ith  alluvium, 
F"  the  sides 
Ires  in  rocks, 
W  or  lesser 
f  n  stands  in 
pose  forming 
■"I  waves  and 
wr  more  or 
|of  animals, 
ose  remains 
,  us  to  enter 
remark,  that 
fi  intimately 
rent  sinking 
^ced  in  tlie 
arts  of  the 


propose  to 
ds. 

erable  vari- 
an ;  so  that, 
temperature 
rican  conti- 
ions,  similar 
inAvourable 
t  is  not  pos- 
re  favoured 
«uce  and  to 
shrubberies, 
wt  beautiful 

bles  of  the 
onsiderable 
'  with  fruit 
^ed  with  it 
in  (Lippia 
y  artificial 
I  from  the 
ve  well  in 
J  states  of 

tkr  atten- 
"nts,  Jie 
nd  of  the 
« includes 
id  is  the 
ilogue  of 
8  plants 
'  cultiva. 
ntinenial 
■   plantb 
species 


BookL 


ENGLAND. 


m 


Hf 


A  LiiT  of  the  Numher  of  Speelei  of  Britiih  Planu,  arranged  according  to  the  Claitea  and  principal  FamlliM  to 
which  they  belong ;  exhibiting  the  relative  proportion  which  theie  latter  bear  to  the  whole  of  the  reapeetiv* 

Clauei-* 


Namei  of  the  Natural 
FamiUea. 


Fungi 

Mtm 

Lichenea 

Hcpatiea,  by  Hooker.. 

MuMi,  by  Hooker 

Filicea 

ACOTTLIDORH 

Graminea 

Cyperaeea 

Juncea  and  Beitlaceee  . . . 

Grluroaeea 

Orchidea 

Monocotyledonea  eatene 

MONOCOTTLUIONM  ... 

Coniferm 

Amentacea 

EuphorbiacetB 

Berophul.  and  Orobanchea 
Labiate  and  Verbena. . . . 

Boraginea 

Ericinee  and  Pyrolea. 

Campanulacea 

Composita 

Rubiacea 

Umbellifera 

Rosacea 

Leguminoia 

Malvacea 

Caryophyllea 

Crucifere 

Ranunculacea 

Dicotyledonea  catera  . 
DicoTTLROoma 


-    -    355 


- 

- 

— 

90 

_ 

200 

- 

fiR 

121 

aa 

02 

_ 

32 

_ 

^ 

245 

,. 

37 

— 

73 

^ 

_ 



4 

,^ 

78 

_ 

16 

_ 

52 

_ 

56 

^ 

23 

.. 

22 

_ 

14 

. 

137 

_ 

21 

_ 

64 

_ 

81 

— 

66 

— 

6 

- 

50 

— 

71 

— 

36 

- 

342 

— 

- 

-    -  1148 


n 


2045 


416 


1220 


It  must  be  remarked,  that  in  Cyperacece,  Juncecs,  Salix,  Saxifraga,  Rosa,  Rtibua,  and 
some  others,  the  species  are  not  formed  on  the  same  rul^s  as  in  Smith'K  English  Flora ; 
and  therefore,  before  drawing  a  parallel  between  these  orders  in  Scotland,  and  m  the  whole 
of  Britain,  a  considerable  number  of  species  ought  to  be  added.  To  make  this  comparison, 
then,  about  twenty  species  may  be  added  to  the  Monocotyledones,  and  about  fifty  (say  forty- 
seven),  to  the  Dicotyledonous  plants,  making  these  two,  280  and  870;  whence  the  Monoco- 
tyledones of  Scotland  are  to  the  whole  of  those  in  the  British  dominions  as  one  to  one  and  a 
quarter,  or  as  four  to  five ;  and  the  Dicotyledones  as  eight  to  eleven. 

Ireland  possesses  a  flora  which  partakes  of  the  nature  of  those  of  England  and  Scotland. 
A  list  of  the  phaenogamous  plants  has  been  recently  published  by  Mr.  J.  T.  Mackay,  of  the 
Dublin  College  Botanic  Grarden.  It  exhibits  a  much  poorer  vegetation  than  its  sister  island, 
including  only  934  species;  of  which  there  are,  41  Filices;  211  Monocotyledones,  and  682 
Dicotyledones.  So  that  the  proportion  of  Filices  to  Phtenogamous  plants  is  as  1  to  21t; 
Monocotyledones  to  Phsenogamous  plants,  1  to  4} ;  Dicotyledones  to  Phffinogamous  plants, 
1  to  Ij.  The  proportion  of  Irish  Monocotyledones  to  BriUsh  Monocotyledones  (according 
to  the  species  of  Smith)  isasltol§,  oras3to5:  of  Irish  Dicotyledones,  1  to  1§,  or  as  3  to  5. 

*  Drawn  up  by  H.  A.  W.  Arnott,  Esq.  of  Edinburgh. 

fThii  proportions  in  the  CryptORamia  will  be  (bund  probably  much  more  correct  for  Scotland  than  those  given 

ill  the  British  table  are  for  the  whole  nf  Britain ;  owine  to  the  researches  made  in  that  tribe  by  Dr.  Oreville,  and 

Captain  Carmicbael ;  particularly  by  the  latter  in  the  Fiinj;i  and  Alee ;  the  discoveries  of  that  gentleman  alone 

1  thoBK  two  groups,  in  one  small  district  (Appin)  in  the  west  highlands  of  Scotland,  amount  to  more  species  than 

were  previouwy  described  aa  inhabiting  the  whole  of  the  British  dominiouc. 


DESCRIPTIVE.  GEOGRAPHY. 


PxEtia 


Pew,  'nd'ied,  of  the  Bpecies  of  f  lants  now  enumerated  as  natives  of  England,  Scotland 
and  Ireland,  and  the  adjacent  isie.fl,  can  be  considcreil  as  exclusively  belonging  to  these 
countries.  For  though  there  are  many  which  are  not  referred  to  as  species  in  the  works  of 
otlier  auUiors,  yet  they  are,  for  the  moat  part,  among  mch  families  as  are  not  well  under 
stood,  and  about  which  there  will  always  exial  a  difference  of  opinion ;  a»  among  the  Grasses, 
Willows,  Brambles,  &c. 

Many  plants  reach  their  northern  limits  in  the  south  of  England  and  Ireland.  Wo  must 
particularly  mention  the  Strawberry  Tree  (Arbutu$  Unedo,  fig.^  107.),  which  forms  so 
charming  a  ibature  in  that  most  beautiibl  of  all  scenery,  the  Lake  of  Killamey.  Some  have, 
indeed,  supposed  that  it  was  iatroduced  into  Ireland  by  the  monks  of  Mucruss  Abbey,  at 

107  A      108 


Strawbany  Tree. 


Cofiiuh  Heath. 


CUlated  Heath. 


some  very  remote  period.  Its  appearance  is,  however,  altogether  that  of  an  aboriginal  native, 
coming  to  a  great  size,*  perfecting  its  bright  scarlet  berries,  which  are  disseminated  over  the 
rocks  and  islands  in  every  durection.  The  Erica  vagana,  or  Cornish  Heath  {jig,  lOS.  a),  is 
found  nowhere  in  Britain  except  Cornwall ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  newly-disco- 
vered E.  dliaris  (6),  and  the  IblloWin^,  of  great  beauty  or  rarity :  Lobelia  Dorttnanna, 
Phyteuma  orbicularis  and  P.  spicata,  Stbthorpia  europaa  and  lanardia  palustrit,  are  quite 
southern  plants  in  the  British  dominions. 

The  Water-Soldier  (Stratiotes  aloides) ;  the  Water  Violet  {Hottonia  palustrit) ;  the  small 
Maidenhair  Grass  (JBriza  minor) ;  the  Sweet  Violet  (  Viola  odorata) ;  several  Mulleins ;  the 
Primrose-peerless  (iVarci«sus|H>e(tcu«  and  biflorua);  the  common  Snake's  Head  (FritUlaria 
meleogria) ;  the  AprotJtis  setacea,  the  Star  of  Bethlehem  {Omithogalum  pyrenaicum) ;  the 
two  species  of  Squill  {Scilla  autumnalis  and  bifolia);  the  Mountain  Spiderwort  (Antheri- 
cum  serotinum) ;  the  Solomon's  Seal  {Convallaria  polygonatum) ;  and  Sweet  Sedge  {Acorus 
Calamus) ;  the  Yellow-wort  (Chlora  perfoliata) ;  the  Mezereum  {Daphne  Mezereum) ;  the 
Flowering  Rush  {BtUomus  umbellatus) ;  the  Yellow  Marsh  Saxifrage  {Saxifraga  Hirculus) ; 
though  on  the  Continent  a  very  arctic  plant,  the  Clove  Pink  {Dianihus  caryophyllus) ;  and 
D.  prolifer;  several  Catchflys  (Silene)',  Euphorbias,  Cistuses,  Anemones,  the  Traveller's 
Jay  {Clematis  Vitalba);  the  Groai\i  Vme{Ajugat)hamapitys)',  the  Wood-Sage  (TeMcmm 
Scorodonia) ;  the  crested  and  field  Cow-wheat  {MHampyntm  cristatum  and  arvense) ;  some 
Orobanches,  the  Vella  annua,  Draba  aizoides,  and  Iberis  amara,  some  Fumitories  {Fumaria 
solida,  lutea,  and  parvijlora) ;  the  yellow  and  crimson  Vetchlings  {Lathyrus  Aphaca  and 
Nissolia) ;  the  Vicia  hybrida,  IsBvigata,  and  bithynica,  Hippocrepis  comosa ;  Orchis  Morio,t 
pyramidalis,  ustulata,  ilisca,  militaris,  tephrosanthos,  hircina ;  Aceras  anthropophora,  Her- 
minium  monorchis ;  all  the  species  of  Ophrys,  Epipactis  rubra,  Malaxis  luoeselii ;  the  beau- 
tiful and  rare  Lady's  Slipper  {Cypripedium  Calceolus) ;  the  Birthwort  {Aristolochia  Clema- 
titis) ;  the  Roman  Nettle  ( Urtica  pilulifera) ;  the  Xanthium  strumarium  and  Amaranthus 
Blitum ;  the  Spanish  Chestnut  Tree  {Fagus  castanea) ;  and  Misseltoe  ( Viscum  album) ; 
the  Sea  Buckthorn  {Hippophae  rhamnoides) ;  and  White  Poplar  {Populus  canescens) :  these 
are  some  among  the  most  striking  of  the  British  plants,  which  do  not  reach  the  middlu  of 
the  kingdom,  and  fail  below  the  south  of  Scotland. 

The  most  interesting  of  the  Scottish  plants  are,  principally,  such  whose  types  are  found 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  in  high  northern  latitudes,  or  in  the  extreme  wctic  regions  of 
both  Asia  and  America ;  such  as  Veronica  fruticulosa,  saxatilis,  and  alpina,  several  alpine 

grasses,  and  other  glumaceous  plants;  such  as  Phleum  alpinum  and  Alopecurus  alpintis. 
riophorum  alpinum ;  Juncus  castaneus,  arcticus,  and  biglumis ;  and  Luzula  arctica,  Primula 
scotica  {Jig.  109.  a),  the  Myosotis  alpestris  (d),  Azalea  procumbens,  Gentiana  nivalis  (c") 
Sibbaldia  procumbens,  Convallaria  verticillata,  Epilobium  alpinum.  Arbutus  alpina,  Pyrola 
uniflora  (6),  Saxifraga  nivalis  and  rivularis,  Stellaria  scapigera  (die  latter  is  exclusively 


*Mr.  Mackay  measured  a  trunk  of  this  flue  evererruen  tree  on  Rough  Island,  nearly  oppoeite  O'Sullivaii's  Cas- 
cade,' which,  in  1805.  was  9i  (opt  in  girth,  at  a  font  frnin  the  grouuil. 

fOn  the  authority  of  Lielitfnot,  iixl^oJ.  Iliii;  plant,  «o  aliunilontly  found  in  England,  ie  given  as  a  native  of 
Meotland ;  but  no  livinx  iMtauiat,  that  I  am  aware  of  baa  ever  Keen  it  there. 


A  Scotland 

Pg  to  tJieee 

Jio  works  of 

■well  under. 

Tlhe  Grasses, 

Wo  must 

In  forms  so 

|Somo  have, 

1  Abbey,  at 


AiokL 


•*P^f    ENGLAND. 


828 


inal  native, 
«d  over  the 
108.  a),  is 
ewly^isco. 
^ortmanna, 
»i  are  quite 

the  small 
lUeins;  the 
[Fritillaria 
icum);  the 
t  (Antkeru 
ge  (Acorua 
'eum);  the 
Hirculua); 
ilus);  and 
Praveller's 
Teucrium 
»e);  some 
(Fumaria 
ohaca  and 
is  Morio,t 
"lora,  Her- 
the  beau- 
ia  Clema- 
naranthus 
album) ; 
*) :  these 
middle  of 

»re  found 
egions  of 
il  alpine 

alpiniis. 

Primula 
mlis  (c) 
.  Pyrola 
ilusively 


an '8  Cag. 
natava  of 


BritislOt  Arenaria  rubella  and  fiutiffiata,  thu  Chorieria  aedoidefl.  Lychnis  Viscaria  and  alpina, 
S|)eri;ula  sa^inoides,  PotentUla  opaca,  Nuphar  Kalmiana,  Ranunculus  alpostris,  Ajuga  pyra< 
midalis,  Cardamine  bellidiflora,  Orobua  niger,  Astragalus  uralonais  and  compestiis,  Eritrflroo 

109     ,^mts.   e  ^  ^ 


' «,  Scottish  Primrow.  b,  Kock  Beorplon  Oria.  a,  Triflii-Laavad  dnqnefoU. 

e,  Similc-Flawered  Wttn-Onm.    d,  Small  Alpina  Ot.ntUn.  k.  Jointed  Pipowort, 

ftlpinum,  Corallorhiza  innata,  Achilleea  tomentosa,  Goodyera  repena ;  the  moet  alpine  Caricea 
and  Salices,  and  the  Dwarf  Birch  (Betula  nana). 

There  are  two  plants  which  deserve  particular  notice,  as  natives  of  Great  Britain,  and 
fbtind  nowhere  else  in  Europe ;  but  these  are  again  met  with  in  North  America ;  the  one  is 
Potentilla  tridentata  (Jig.  110.  a)  abundant  in  arctic  America  and  upon  the  Rocky  and  White 
Moimtains,  the  other  the  Eriocaulon  septangulare  (Jig.  110.  6).  TTiis  latter  genus  is  mostly 
tropical,  or  a  native  of  the  warm  temperate  zones  in  America,  tho  East  Indies,  and  Australia. 
The  only  exceptions  to  thin  rule  are  the  Eriocaulon  pellucidum  of  Michaux,  and  the  plant  in 
question ;  the  former  being  found  in  North  America  as  high  as  Canada ;  and,  upon  exanii- 
iialion,  the  two  species  prove  identical.  In  these  instances,  the  Eriocaulon  and  the  Poten- 
tilla seem  to  have  overcome  many  obstacles  in  their  migration,  and  to  have  reached  their 
eiistem  boundary.  The  Eriocaulon  is  confined  to  a  few  lakes  in  the  Hebrides,  where  we 
have  been  surprised  in  the  month  of  September  at  the  high  temperature  of  the  water,  which 
pobably  never  freezes ;  and  in  some  spots  in  the  south  aiid  west  of  Ireland :  the  Potentilla 
IS  only  found  on  one  hill  in  Angusshire. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  genus  Pedicularis,  which  is  so  numerons  in  species,  in 
the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  Europe,  almost  wholly  disappears  b  Britain ;  for,  notwith- 
standing the  vast  numbers  of  it  which  are  found  in  Siberia,  the  South  of  Russia,  Switzer- 
land, extending  even  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  Germany,  Great  Britain  possesses  but  two, 
which  are  equally  abundant  upon  the  Continent ;  and  although  almost  wholly  an  alpine 
genus,  the  British  mountains  possess  not  one  really  dpine  species.  It  would  appear  that  the 
climate  is  peculiarly  unsuited  to  their  nurture:  for  in  North  America,  in  the  same  and  espe- 
cially in  still  higher  northern  latitudes,  they  again  become  abundant. 

Ireland  exhibits  a  few  striking  peculiarities  in  some  of  its  vegetable  productions.  Besides 
the  Strawberry  tree  (Arbutus  unedd)  already  mentioned,  it  can  boast  of  Pinguicula  ^randi- 
flora  (fig.  111.  a),  a  beautiful  flower,  native  of  France  and  the  Pyrenees ;  Menziesia  poll- 

111        ,     *..  # 


-ymy  ifi\  ^j^a^  w^^ 


VouL 


a,  Lsrfe-flowered  Batterwort. 
d,  Naked-italked  Vellow  Poppy. 


^,  Irifrti  Menziflfia. 
e,  Mnrsh  Ledum. 

28* 


«  Kidney- leaved  Baaifirago 


♦■#> 


2R 


8M 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  IIL 


•,  Tm*  HakUn-Halr. 

h,  BhortttyM  BriiUe-Fen. 


folia  (6),  a  species  belon(;in|f  to  the  latter  country  and  to  Spain,  and  ibnnd  in  a  wild  state  in 
no  other  parts  of  the  world ;  it  is,  too,  a  most  lovely  one :  also  St.  Patrick's  Cabbage  (tNaxt- 
jfraffa  umltrota)  and  tlie  London  Pride  {8.  Oeutn,  c)  and  their  varieties,  which  are  scarcely 
known  to  exist  but  in  Switzerland  and  the  Pyrenees ;  Arcnaria  ciliatn,  a  native  of  tlie 
mountains  on  the  continent  of  Europe ;  and  to  these  rarities  have  lately  been  added  by  Pro- 
fesaor  Oiesecke,  the  Yellow  Poppy  {Papaver  nudicaule,  d),  and  the  Ledum  paiustre  (c,) 
both  of  them  peculiarly  arctic  productions,  and  plentiflil  on  the  northern  extremity  of  Ame- 
rica and  Greenland;  and  with  these  we  must  be  permitted  to  number,  though  Cryptogamic 

plants,  the  Trichomanes  brevisetum  (Jig.  112.  o),  which 
scarcely  grows  anywhere  else  in  the  world  but  in  Ma* 
deira  and  in  Yorkshire  (if  it  be  not  now  extinct  in  the 
latter  habitat),  the  Adiantum  Capillua  Veneris  (a),  whose 
only  locality  in  the  British  dominions  is  the  west  of  Ire- 
land, and  one  spot  in  Wales,  but  which  is  fl-equent  in 
the  south  of  Europe,  and  even  in  the  tropical  parts  of 
America;  and  two  mosses,  Hookeria  latevirens,  and 
Daltonia  splanchnoides,  entirely  peculiar  to  Ireland. 

That  country  also  possessefl  three  remarkable  vege- 
table  productions,  now  pretty  generally  distributed  in 
gardens  and  shrubberies  throughout  the  kingdom,  and 
universally  known  by  the  names  of  the  Irish  Broom, 
Irish  Furze,  and  Irish  Yew.  The  former  we  believe  to 
be  the  Spartium  patens  of  Linnsus,  a  Spanish  species, 
with  very  hairypods ;  and  it  is,  probably,  not  wild  in 
that  country.  Tne  Irish  Furze  has  an  appearance  very 
different  from  that  of  the  European  or  Dwarf  Furzes 
(^Vlex  europtBiu  and  nanus),  having  very  erect  short  branches,  and  closely  placed  spines; 
■0  that  the  whole  pUmt  has  a  rema;rkfibly  dense  and  compact  habit,  appearmg  almost  as  if 

it  were  kept  close  clipped  with  shears.  It  blossoms  rarelv, 
but  we  have  seen  both  flowers  and  seed-vessels,  which  do 
not  differ  in  any  material  point  from  those  of  Ulex  nanus. 
In  some  gardens  it  is  called  U.  europieuB  var.  strictus ;  but 
Mr.  Mackay  considers  it  to  be  quite  a  distinct  species,  and 
he  has  called  it,  in  his  "  Catalcwue  of  the  Indigenous  Plants 
of  Ireland,"  Ulex' strictus.    Still,  the  only  stations  for  this 

Elant  are  in  the  Marquess  of  Londonderry's  park  and  shrub- 
ories,  at  Mount  Stewart,  county  of  Down,  where  there  are 
some  very  large  bushes ;  but  whence  it  came,  no  one  can 
tell.  This  would,  however,  be  a  very  valuable  plant  to  the 
agriculturist ;  for,  it  has  been  planted  (it  increases  readily 
by  cuttings)  in  dry  hilly  pastures  in  the  north  of  Scotland, 
and  in  the  early  spring  throws  up  an  jibundant  crop  of  suc- 
culent shoots,  which  are  greedily  eaten  by  sheep,  when  there 
is  little  or  no  grass  to  support  them. 

The  third  Irish  botanical  curiosity  is  the  Irish  Yew  (Jig. 
113),  Florence-Court  Yew,  as  it  is  called  in  that  country, 
from  its  bein^  first  discovered  at  Florence  Court,  the  seat  of 
Lord  Enniskillen.  Mr.  Mackay  does  not  consider  it  to  be 
wild ;  but  Mr.  Hervey,  in  the  Agricultural  Magazine  for 
October,  1828,  says,  that  it  is  an  undoubted  native,  and  plen- 
tiful in  the  neighDourhood  of  Antrim,  whore  there  are  trees 
at  least  a  century  old.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  upright 
branches,  which  give  the  whole  plant  somewhat  the  habit  of 
a  Cypress ;  by  the  leaves  growing,  not  in  a  distichous  man- 
ner, but  from  all  sides  of  me  stem :  the  drupe  or  berry,  too, 
is  of  a  different  form  from  that  of  the  common  Yew. 
The  trees  that  are  aboriginal  natives  of  Britain  are  the  Oak  (two  species) ;  the  Elm  (five 
species) ;  tha  Beech,  the  Ash,  the  Maple,  Sycamore,  Hornbeam,  Lime  (three  species)  ;  the 
Spanish  Chestnut  (1) ;  the  Alder,  Birch,  Poplar  (four  species) ;  and  the  Scotch  Fir ;  to  which 
may  be  added  the  Mountain  Ash,  which  in  some  parts  of  Scotland  attains  to  a  great  size. 
Of  these,  then,  tfie  Oak,  the  Beech,  Birch,  and  Scotch  Fir,  live  in  society,  forming  vast 
forests,  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  other  trees.  The  finest  forests  of  Oak  and  Beech  are 
to  be  seen  in  the  Boathern  parts  of  Eugland ;  the  latter  nourishing,  in  an  extraordinary 
degree,  in  the  chalk  and  deep  clay  soils  of  Sussex  and  some  of  the  neighbouring  counties. 
In  Scotland,  the  oak,  though  there  may  be  some  exceptions,  generally  forms  copse  woods, 
and  IB  mostly  confined  to  uie  valleys.    Its  northern  limit  is  scarcely  within  Uie  British  donu- 


Irish  Taw 


.«^-s)'>  'SaiJ"  ~    ;X.>!.! >Mh  i.-r.W.F 


.!«■/ 


PA«Tia 

\i\d  state  in 
Iffl  (NaxU 
Ire  scarcely 
(live  of  tlie 
[led  by  Pro. 
klustro  (r,) 
Py  of  Ame- 
ryptofifamic 
"■  o),  which 
but  in  Ma- 
finct  in  the 
'  (a),  whose 
irest  of  Ire. 
lii-equent  in 
T»_l  parts  of 
>ireiiB,  and 
Ireland, 
able  vejfe- 
tributed  in 
iffdom,  and 
isn  Broom, 
9  believe  to 
iah  species, 
ot  wild  in 
trance  very 
'arf  Furzes 
:ed  spines; 
Imoet  as  if 
oms  rarely, 
».  which  do 
^ex  nanus, 
rictus;  but 
pecies,  and 
nous  Plants 
ms  for  this 
and  shrub, 
e  there  are 
no  one  can 
lant  tothe 
ses  readily 
'  Scotland, 
■op  of  suc- 
I'hen  there 

Yew  (Jg. 
t  country, 
he  seat  of 
r  it  to  be 
azine  for 
and  plen- 
are  trees 
8  uprigfht 
3  habit  of 
ous  man- 
erry,  too, 

V. 

31m  (five 
es);  the 
to  which 
eat  size. 
ing  vast 
Bech  are 
ordinary 
iounties. 
I  woods, 
shdomi* 


Bool  1. 


viTOi  r  ENGLAND. 


881 


Bcolefa  Fir. 


nions.    It  extendi  to  lat  60",  on  the  continent  in  Russia,  and  64°  in  Norway;  and  if  in  Scot* 
land  oaks  are  not  found  in  the  extreme  north,  it  is  rather  owing  to  want  of  shelter  and  of 
niitnble  soil,  than  to  any  other  circuinstance. 
The  Pine,  (i*tnu«  Sylveatrii,  fig.  114.)  constitutes  noble  forests  amonfr  the  mountainous 

districta  of  North  Britain,  nllin^  the  valleys, 
and  ascending,  probably,  to  the  height  of  25b0 
feet  upon  the  hills,  among  the  northern  Gram- 
pians,  «nd  exhibiting  individual  specimens  of 
great  size  and  beauty. 

Of  the  fl-uit  trees  which  are  successfully  cul* 
tivated  in  the  open  air,  the  number  is  limited. 
In  the  south,  exclusively,  or,  perhaps,  m  far  aa 
the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  under  fkvourable 
circumstances,  the  Vine,  the  Fig,  the  C^uince, 
the  Mulberry,  Chestnut,  Walnut,  and  Medlar 
may  be  advantageously  planted.  The  Apple, 
Pear,  the  Plum  of  various  kinds,  the  Peach, 
Nectarine,  and  Apricot ;  all,  according  to  soil, 
exposure,  and  other  local  circumstances,  lipcn 
their  fruit  in  the  open  air,  if  aflbrded  the  protec- 
tion of  a  wall,  as  nigh  north  as  Inverness,  tvnd 
some  of  the  most  hardy  ones' much  higher;  but 
the  want  of  sun  must  ever  he  a  hindrance  to  tlie 
thorough  perfecting  of  good  fVuit  in  the  north  of  Scotland. 

Of  the  various  kmds  of  Com,  which  are  used  as  food  for  man  or  cattle,  Wheat,  Barley, 
Here,  Bigg,  Oats,  and  Rye  are  the  universal  crops ;  and  these  all  succeed  in  situations 
not  too  much  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  as  far  to  the  northward  as  Inverness, 
beyond  which  the  wheat  becomes  a  very  uncertain  crop ;  and  even  considerably  south  of 
Inverness,  to  thr^  north  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  in  lat  66",  the  cultivation  of  wheat  is 
almost  wholly  cr  ..fined  to  the  eastern  side  of  the  country,  the  west  being  the  district  for 
pasture. 

In  regard  to  the  height  at  which  certain  plants  will  grow  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the 
Bouthern  and  midland  parts  of  Great  Britam  do  not  contain  mountains  upon  a  sufKciently 
lotly  scale  to  render  their  investigation  particularly  interesting.  The  northern  parts  of 
England  possess  mountains  of  upwards  oi  3000  feet ;  and  as  Winch's  "  Essay  on  the  Geo- 
graphical distribution  of  Plants  throughout  the  Counties  of  Northumberland,  Cumberland,  and 
Durham,"  of  which  the  lat.  55°  may  be  considered  the  medium,  embraces  a  very  great  pro^- 
tion  of  this  very  country,  which,  from  its  situation,  may,  in  point  of  climate,  be  considered  as 
intermediate  between  the  more  northern  and  Ktiuthem  floras  of  Great  Britain,  we  select 
from  his  work  what  concerns  the  more  valuable  and  more  striking  vegetable  productions. 

The  Oak,  in  lat.  55°,  attains  a  large  size  in  ihe  valleys ;  it  ascends  the  hills,  but  gmdu- 
ally  becomes  of  stunted  growth  in  Weardale  and  Teesdale,  to  the  elevation  of  1600  and 
1700  feet 

The  Common  Elm  ( Ulmtu  Campeslris)  is  not  indigenous  north  of  the  Tees ;  its  place 
being  taken  by  the  Wych  Elm  (I/,  montana),  which  skirts  the  mountains  at  a  height  of 
2000  feet 

The  Beech  and  Aspen  flourish  beautifully  in  the  low  sheltered  spots,  but  do  not  climb 
the  hills  to  equal  heights  with  t!.e  oak.  The  White  and  Black  Poplara  (Populus  alba 
and  nigra)  are  doubtful  natives  of  the  north  of  England,  as  of  Scotland  ;  though  the  White 
Poplar  is  remurkable  for  withstanding  the  north-easterly  winds,  which  are  so  destructive  to 
vegetation  in  the  counties  of  Northumbcland  and  Durham.  The  Lime,  {Tilia  Enroptcr), 
the  Chestnut  (^Castanea  vesca),  and  the  Hornbeam  (Carpintts  Betultui),  stand  in  the  same 
predicament. 

Holly  trees  are  among  the  chief  ornaments  of  the  woods  in  Durham,  Northumberland, 
and  Cumberland,  as  is  the  Yew  (^Taxxts  Baccqta).  The  Birch  {Betula  alba)  is  not  found 
on  the  mountains  at  a  greater  elevation  than  the  Sycamore  (Acer  Pseudo-jHatanus),  which 
m  the  subalpine  regions  seems  to  be  as  vigorous,  and  to  attain  as  great  a  size  as  it  doo" 
near  the  sea-coast  The  Mountain  Ash  {Pyrus  aucuparia)  is  found  on  the  hills ;  the  WhitA 
Beam  {Pyrua  Aria)  may  be  traced  from  the  High-Force  of  the  river  Tees  to  the  coast , 
the  Alder  (Alnua  glutinosa)  and  the  Guelder  Rose  (Viburnum  Opulus)  accompany  the 
streams ;  and  the  Hazel,  Black  Cherry  (Prunus  Ceratus),  Bird  Cherry  (Prunua  Padus), 
the  Spindle-tree  (JEwmymua  europaua),  the  Raspberry  (Ruhua  itUeus),  and  the  common 
Elder,  (^Sambncug  nigra),  are  found  in  all  the  woods  from  the  sea-shore  to  those  situated  on 
elevation  of  1600  feet :  but  the  common  Maple  (Acer  campestris)  occurs  only  in  thi. 


an 


hedges,  in  some  parts  of  the  flat  country. 

The  Ash  tree  (Fraxinua  excelsinr),  the  White  Thorn  (MespUua  Oxyacantha),  the  Crab 
tree,  or  Wild  Apple  (.Pyrua  Malua),  and  Black  Thorn  (Pruntw  trpinosa),  abound  throughout 


asii 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOORAPHY. 


PAfcTin. 


Uie  diitriet  in  question.  Tho  Biillaco  (PrttntM  innlitia)  ia  rero :  and  the  Plum-trao  (Prunu$ 
domeilica),  I'our  (I'yrua  communu),  Hm\  currant  {Rihe$  rultriim),  the  BoriKirry  (ihrlitrii 
vulffurin),  ami  (totm«l)erry  {Hihet  (ironnutoria),  thon^li  of  fViMjuent  occiirrenco,  npp^ar  not 
to  b«  ori|;inal  nativos  of  tho  noil.  But  thn  R<icic  ('urriint  (Ribra  petraiim),  tho  Aciii  Moiin< 
hiin  Currant  (^RUjcm  spicalnm),  Alpine  Currant  (Rihrs  alpinum),  Hliick  Currant  {Ribe$  ni- 
ifrum),  and  I'rivot  {LiffUMlrum  vulffare),  are  indiffoiiouH,  and  nut  unfru(|uont. 

Tho  Furze  (Ulex  euroiunua,)  attains  to  an  olevation  of  2U()0  feet  in  MOfiuoBtorod  Hpoto, 
accompanied  by  the  Bramble.  Juniper  may  be  tracod  tVom  the  coast  to  the  liuiuht  of  I'MK) 
iuot.  Tho  Cloudberry  ( Rubua  Ckamamorus),  tho  Boarberry  {Arbutui  Uva  Urii),  and  Hand 
Willow  {Salix  arenaria),  attain  tho  «amo  elevation;  while  the  Dwarf  Willow  (Salix  her- 
bitcea),  but  wittiout  itti  usual  attcn<iant  the  Reticulated  Willow  (S,  reticulata),  reaches 
to  the  toprf  of  the  lotliust  mountains,  upwards  of  3000  ibet  above  the  level  of  the  soa. 

(k>arHO  (Jrrasses,  Hedges,  and  Ruslios  too  otlon  cover  the  wet  moors  witli  a  scanty  and 
almost  useloss  vegetation.  To  tlio  agriculturist  tha  diflerent  lleatlui  are  scarcely  moro 
acceptable ;  but  thev  are  unquestionably  among  tho  most  beautiibl  of  the  native  plants,  and 
their  abundance  and  tlie  vast  extent  of  ground  which  they  clothe,  give  a  peculiar  character 
to  very  many  parts  of  Great  Britain,  especially  in  the  North.  In  tho  districts  in  question, 
the  common  Heather  (Cn/Zuna  vulffarit),  the  Fir-leaved  Hoath  {Erica  Cinerea),  and  tliu  - 
Cross-leaved  Heath  {Erica  Tetrnlix),  tho  latter,  however,  loss  fragrunt,  and  preferring  moist 
situations,  flourish  in  various  situations,  tVom  UNM)  to  dU(K)  foct  above  the  level  of  tliu  Kca. 
but  never  in  calcareous  soil,  which  circumntanco  occasions  the  striking  diflbrence  between 
the  heatiis  of  Durham  and  Northumborland,  and  the  Yorkshiro  Wolds  as  they  are  called, 
whore  the  substratum  ia  chalk. 

The  most  considerable  elevation  to  which  the  cultivation  of  wheat  extends  in  the  north 
of  England  does  not  exceed  1000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Oats  grow  at  nearly 
double  that  height ;  but  in  unfavourable  years  tho  sheaves  may  often  be  seen  standing  among 
tlic  snow,  which  not  uncommonly  covers  tho  tops  of  tho  mountains  in  October,  ami  is  never 
later  in  fiilling  than  the  middio  of  November.  Tho  limits  of  Barley  and  Rye  are  between 
those  of  wheat  and  oats ;  but.  Bigg,  a  more  hardy  kind  of  grain  than  either  of  the  former,  is 
no  longer  cultivated.  Turnips,  though  of  small  size,  and  Potatoes,  grow  at  the  same  height 
as  Oats.  On  the  soil  of  the  moors  being  ploughed  for  the  first  time,  and  lime  applied,  White 
Clover  {Tr\folium  repena)  comes  up  in  abundance. 

SuBaioT.  3. — Zoology  of  Oreat  Britain.  .vt 

The  Zoology  of  the  United  Empire  mi^ht  be  treated  of  under  the  three  kingdoms  of  which 
it  is  composed,  were  our  materials  sufficiently  ample  to  mark  the  peculiarities  of  each.  But 
although  every  year  witnesses  an  accession  of  new  ppecies  to  the  British  luuna,  no  attempt  has 
yet  been  made  to  generalise  these  discoveries,  with  reference  to  the  geographic  range  of  groups 
or  species.  Tho  zoology  of  Ireland  has  been  sadly  neglected,  and  we  are  still  without  a 
Fauna  Scotica.  We  must  therefore  consider  th*  natural  history  of  Britain  in  the  aggregate; 
noticing  such  species  as  more  particularly  belong  to  the  northern  and  the  southern  extre- 
mities. 

Of  Quadrupeds,  the  most  recent  catalogue  contains  sixty  living  species,  including  the 
whale  tribe;  besides  those  which  progressive  civiiistition,  an*'  the  effects  of  the  chuse,  have 
now  extirpated  from  the  islands.  Nine  species  of  Bats  ha'  o  been  detected,  four  of  which 
have  as  yet  been  found  only  in  the  «outhern  and  western  ccunties :  two  belong  to  tlie  division 
of  horse-shoe  bats,  so  named,  from  their  nnstrils  being  furnished  with  a  complicated  membrane, 
like  a  horse-shoe;  an  appendage  which  is  probably  intended  to  act  us  a  sucker  to  assist  the 
animal  in  retaining  its  prey.  The  \'f>spertiiio  murinus,  or  common  bat,  has  been  so  fki 
tamed  as  to  take  flies  out  of  it.^  mnster's  hand,  carefully  throwing  aside  the  wings.  The 
woods  and  heaths  still  shelter  the  Hedgehog  (_//_'.  115.),  a  harmless  and  a  most  useful  animal 

in  destroying  wnails,  slugs,  and  worms;  but  perseruted  by  the 
vulgar  for  a  long  list  of  imaginary  and  nonsensical  properties. 
These  prejudices  have  been  extended  to  the  Mole,  whose  little 
hillocks  form  the  best  top-dressing,  as  a  sensible  farmer  once 
assured  us,  to  poor  laiuls,  that  can  possibly  be  given :  their  soft 
fur  has  long  been  mixed  with  that  of  the  Beaver,  in  the  making 
of  hats.  Allied  to  the  Mole,  in  general  conformation,  are  the 
Shrew  Mice,  of  which  two  species  are  natives,  the  common  and 
the  Watf-r  Shrew  (Soy  r  araneua  and  fodiens):  both  tliese 
appear  to  be  widely  distributed.  Of  true  Mice  there  are  three 
distinct  sorts :  the  '^ommon  or  House  Mouse,  the  Field  Mouse,  and  the  Harvest  .Mouse ;  tiie 
latter  being  us  de^■"  iiciivu  to  uie  fiiririef  as  the  iirsi  is  ui  the  housewiftr.  The  Brown  niiii 
the  Black  Rat  infe^f  dwellings,  and  are  n  ually  injurious:  the  latter  is  known  by  the  tail 
being  longer  than  the  body;  whereas,  in  tho  Brown  Rat,  both  these  parts  are  equal.  The 
pretty  little  Dormouse  {Mvnxns  avellnnarins),  like  thf  Squirrel  and  Jferboa.  eats  it.8  food  in 
an  erect  aW'f'ide,  sitthir  "'  ita  haunches,  and  using  its  forefeet  as  hands.     The  Water  Rat 


HedgelioK. 


4t 


BomL 


.YJMAKfr.BNOLAND. 


»M 


ind  Hli(irt-tailo«l  MouM  of  IVnnant  (now  nlaceil  in  the  ffpnua  Arvitvtia)  occur  in  Rnfflntiil : 
mit  tho  tuniitir  im  hUiUhI  not  to  tiav«  litjon  tnnml  in  tho  nnrtliom  JMliindM;  thn  Inttnr  im  n  iiumI 
ilwlructive  littio  anintul  in  jfanloiin,  wIkth  it  fpnibB  up  howIm,  |>iirtirulttrly  nrnn,  jwl  nt\tit 
thuy  liuve  bvgun  to  (fennuiuto.  A  tow  yuan  (wck,  the  Rliort-tiiiloii  nioiiim  mulai-nly  np|)r»irfd 
111  iiainenHo  nunibora  in  tho  New  FuroHt,  ami  notwittuttundinif  ovory  artitice  cniployi>il  lo 
lUip  liiuir  ravagea,  tlioy  duitruycd  niony  thounnda  of  young  treea,  and  dnvaatatod  wholk 
acrtw  of  voung  plantations. 

The  Uad/ftr  u  a  nocturnal  feeder,  ileeping  in  ita  hole  during  the  day,  ^et,  when  attacked, 
ii  remarkably  quick  in  ita  motions,  and  nuccoMt^il  in  ita  defence.  If  undititurhed,  it  ia  hnnn- 
Ihm  and  inuttunHive,  chioHy  autMiating  uprm  vegetabiea,  alUtough  it  will  likftwiwe  devour  fVoga 
tnd  slugs.  Tho  Otter  hoa  boconio  much  Iosh  trcquont  than  tormerly ;  it  wan  once  cnnitidornd 
ua  bciut  of  chaau,  aa  old  giimo-booka  mention  otter  ho\md8  particularly  trained  for  huntiiii^ 
this  animal.  It  feuds  entirely  upon  tiah,  which  it  dives  atlov  with  groat  celerity ;  and,  unlcsa 
pressed  by  extreme  hunger,  invariably  loavcH  the  tail  extremity  untouched.  I'he  logs  aro 
very  sliort;  and  tlie  toea  being  connected  together  by  a  membrane,  givea  to  the  animal  the 
power  of  swimming  very  rapidly. 

The  rupacioua  or  carnivoroua  quadrupoda  of  Britain  are  very  few,  and  firom  their  small 
lize  too  insignificant  to  inflict  much  personal  injury  upon  man.  The  Bi^ar  and  thn  Wo{f 
liiiVG  long  bc'tiii  extinct  in  Britain,  and  the  Fox  might  have  shared  the  same  fhte,  had  it  not 
been  preserved  aa  a  beast  of  the  chose  since  the  extirpation  of  more  tbrmidable  gnme. 
Pennant  inontions  tiiree  varieties  of  this  animal  found  in  Wales  and  other  mountainous  |Hirta 
of  Britain :  —  1.  The  Milgri,  or  Greyhound  Fox,  i»  the  largest,  tt-Uest,  and  boldcHt,  and  la 
diiitinguished  by  a  white  tug  or  tip  to  the  tail.  2.  The  Maatiif  Fox,  which  is  less,  but  more 
strongly  built  8.  The  Ourffi,  or  Cur  Fox,  of  a  still  smaller  size,  and  having  the  tip  of  the 
tail  bluck.  {Brit.  Zool.  i.  87.)  The  varieties  do  not  appear,  however,  to  have  fhllen  under 
tlie  actual  observation  of  subaeouent  naturalista. 

The  Ferret  tribe  comprehends  the  Polecat,  Weasel,  Stoat  or  Ermine,  the  Common  Marten, 
and  the  I'ine  Marten. 

The  Polecat  {Putoriut  vulgaris  Cuv.),  called  also  the  Fitchet,  Fitchew,  or  Foumart, 
measures,  with  the  tail,  about  twenty-three  inches.  Its  tetid  smell  is  proverbial.  Although 
included  in  the  list  of  British  quadrupeds,  it  appears,  according  to  Strabo,  to  have  been 
imported  from  the  north  of  Africa.  Like  all  its  congeners,  ita  habits  are  sanguinary ;  for  it 
will  destroy  and  suck  the  blood  of  many  victims,  before  it  attempts  to  carry  on*  their  bodies. 
The  well-known  Ferret  is  considered  only  a  variety  of  this  species.  The  Weasel  is  much 
smaller,  and  although  repulsive  from  its  rMlour,  is  yet  an  elegant-shaped  animal.  It  foods  m 
mice  and  small  binls,  but  will  oc>-  h),  attack  animals  of  a  much  larger  si/c  Few 
persons  suspect  that  the  skins  td  u  naued  against  farm  out-houses  fVe(iuent1y  .>i>lnng  to 

ail  animal  whose  fur,  in  anothi  i  Htate,  ft^nns  a  most  elegant  and  expensive  ornament  to 
loinAle  dress.     This  animal,    it^ised  in  one  state,  and  valued  in  another,  is  the  Htoat 
(Jig.  116.),  the  pest  of  tht>  l&riiMgr,  and  the  destroyer  of  his  poultry.    In  the  temperate  and 
11«  117 

■'; 

.1-1 

Stuat.  Finn  Mutan. 

southern  parts  of  Europe,  its  fiir  is  yellowish-brown  above,  and  pale  yellow  beneath ;  yet 
80  soon  as  its  eographic  range  enters  on  the  more  northern  conntries,  as  Russia,  Norway, 
and  Siberia,  these  colours  vanish,  leaving  the  fur  of  a  pure  white  in  every  part  but  the  tail, 
which  is  tipped  with  deep  black ;  and  in  this  state  the  skin  is  called  ermine.  In  Scotland 
the  animal,  during  winter,  is  frequently  found  in  on  intermediate  stage  of  summer  and  win- 
ter clothing.  Although  small,  it  will  attack  large  rats,  and  has  teen  known  to  pursue  a 
young  hare  by  the  scent 

The  Common  or  Beech  Marten  {M.  Fagorum  Ray)  seems  to  prefer  dwelling  near  habita» 
tions,  choosing  the  shelter  of  out-houses  and  ikrm-buildingB,  as  convenient  retreats  for  carry- 
'fig  on  its  depredations  among  poultry,  of  which  it  is  a  great  devourer;  it  also  breeds 
occasionally  in  the  hollows  of  trees. 

The  Pine  Marten  (M.  Abietum  Ray,  fig.  117.)  is  rather  larger,  and  is  fbrther  distinguished 
ftcm  the  last  in  having  the  throat  and  breast  yellow,  instead  of  white.  It  is  wild  and  solitary; 
shunning  mankind ;  and  only  dwells  in  thick  woods  and  jbresis,  principally  those  composwl 
of  pines.  It  climbs  with  great  facility ;  preys  upon  birds  and  their  e^gs,  and  also  upon 
bquurels;  the  female  generally  making  use  of  the  nest  of  one  of  her  victims  for  the  rearing 


4184 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PAiTlIL 


of  her  own  young-    The  akin  of  this  is  much  more  prized  than  that  of  the  common  Marten, 
and  appears  to  have  been  formerly,  at  least  in  Scotland,  a  lucrative  article  of  commerce. 

The  Wild  Cat  closes  our  list  of  these  small  but  ferocious  indigenous  animals.  Its  manners 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  lynx,  and  Mr.  Pennant  justly  calls  it  the  British  tiger.  In  its 
savage  state  it  appears  to  be  mnih  larger  than  the  ordinary  domestic  cat ;  and  the  teeth  and 
claws,  for  tlie  size  of  the  animal,  are  tremendous.  It  is  still  fojnd,  although  rarely,  in  the 
mountainous  and  woody  parts  of  Great  Britain.  Formerly  thef  appear  to  have  been  much 
more<  numerous,  and  to  have  been  considered  a  beast  of  chase.  The  best  authorities  agree 
in  considering  this  species,  common  to  the  forests  of  Europe,  aii  the  origin  of  our  domestic 
breed,  the  usual  varieties  of  which  are  well  known.  Another,  which  seems  peculiar  to 
Cornwall,  is  without  any  visible  tail,  and  is  stated  to  be  an  hereditary  variety.  {Cuv.  ii.  480.) 
To  enumerate  the  varieties  of  the  Dog  now  domesticated  in  Britain  would  be  tedious, 
particularly  after  the  luminous  manner  in  which  this  subject  has  been  treated  by  Pennant 
{Brit.  Zool.  i.  70.).  Britain  has  been  famous  for  her  dogs  from  remote  antiquity.  The  British 
mastitfs  were  held  in. such  estimation  by  the  Romans,  Uiat  their  emperors  appointed  an  officer 
in  the  island,  with  tho  name  of  Procurator  Cynegii,  whose  business  was  to  transmit  thence 
such  aa  would  prove  equal  to  the  ferocious  combats  of  the  amphitheatre.  Strabo  also  men- 
tions that  the  mastifis  of  Britain  were  in  great  repute,  being  trained  for  war,  and  used  by 
the  Gauls  in  their  battles. 

The  Bloodhound,  during  the  troubled  periods  of  English  history,  was  in  high  estimation, 
and  mucli  used  to  track  the  footsteps  of  robbers  and  marauders ;  but  the  breed  is  now  extinct. 
A  remarkable  variety  of  tlie  Greyhound,  more  peculiar  to  Ireland  (hence  called  the  Irish 
Greyhound  or  Wolf  Dog),  is  nearly  lost,  ,^  few  couples  alone  having  been  preserved  in  one 
of  the  parks  in  that  island.  The  Terrier  is  the  best  house  guard ;  while  the  Shepherd,  the 
Water,  and  the  Newfoundland  dogs  are  probably  the  most  sagacious. 

Of  ruminating  animals  now  existing  in  a  state  of  nature,  there  are  but  three;  the  Stag  or 
Red  Deer,  the  Fallow  Deer,  and  the  Roebuck.  It  would  appear,  however,  that  the  first  two 
are  not  indigenous  to  these  islands,  Mr.  Pennant  writes — "We  have  two  varieties  of  fallow 
deer,  which  are  said  to  be  of  foreign  origin :  these  were  introduced  by  King  James  I.  out  of 
Norway,  which  he  visited  for  his  intended  bride,  Anne  of  Denmark.  He  first  brought  some 
into  Scotland,  and  firom  thence  transported  them  to  his  chases  of  Enfield  and  Epping,  to  be 
near  his  palace  of  Theobald's."  The  only  memorial  of  this  palace  is  probably  preserved  in 
the  name  of  Theobald's  Road.  M.  Cuvier,  indeed,  expresses  a  doubt  whether  the  stag  was 
originally  European ;  but  Major  Hamilton  Smith,  with  much  better  reason,  considers  the 
Fallow  Deer  (jCervus  Datna)  as  indigenous  to  Europe :  adding,  that  it  is  still  found  wild 
from  Sweden  to  Gibraltar,  and  from  Ireland  to  Constantinople.  The  Stag  {Cervus  Elaphus) 
seems  to  be  unquestioned  as  an  indigenous  species ;  and  although  tlie  wild  breed  is  yearly 
diminishing  in  numbers,  it  is  still  found  in  Gloucestershire,  the  north-west  part  of  Devon, 
and  in  some  of  the  remote  districts  of  Scotland.  Pennant,  by  some  unaccountable  mistake, 
has  placed  the  Stag  and  the  Fallow  Deer  as  varieties  of  one  species. 

The  Roebuck  {Cervus  capreolus  Ham.  Smith)  is  much  less  than  the  two  preceding,  and 
is,  indeed,  the  smallest  of  European  deer.  It  is  remarkably  graceful  and  active,  habitually 
preferring  the  sides  of  elevated  woods  or  forests.  As  he  leaves  a  strong  scent,  nature  has 
given  him  peculiu  sagacity  to  perplex  his  pursuers :  he  begins,  after  a  forward  dash,  bv 
doubling  over  his  track,  to  mislead  the  hounds,  and  then  by  some  great  bounds  he  springs 
forward  to  a  cover,  where  he  lies  down  to  let  the  chase  pass.  The  roebuck  is  now  become 
very  scarce  in  Britain,  and  was  equally  so  in  Scotland,  but  we  are  told  it  has  re-appeared  of 
late  years  in  Fifeshire,  in  consequence  of  the  increased  plantations.    (Brit.  An.  p.  26.) 

The  Ox  is  the  only  remaining  animal  of  this  order  which  clauns  a  place  among  the 
indigenous  quadrupeds.  We  have  before  observed,  that  in  remote  ages,  a  gigantic  race  of 
oxen  was  numerous  throughout  Europe ;  and  that,  although  now  extinct,  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  the  colossal  species  mentioned  by  Caesar,  as  existing  in  his  time,  was  of  this 
race,  now  only  known  by  its  fossil  bones.  These  remains  lie  scattered  through  the  whole 
of  temperate  Europe,  in  the  same  strata  with  the  lost  bpecies  of  Elephant  but  that  the  race 
was  preserved  to  a  much. later  period  is  proved  by  similar  bones  occurring  in  more  recent 
formations,  as  in  peat  mosses,  drained  lakes,  marshes,  and  beds  of  sand.  The  wild  races, 
of  inferior  size,  belonging  to  this  species,  may  probably,  as  Major  Smith  observes,  even  now 
exist  in  Asia.  However  this  may  be,  it  appears  certain  that  the  real  Urus  was  found  wild 
in  the  Vosges  mountains,  and  in  the  forests  of  Ardennes  and  Germany ;  while  its  existence 
in  England  is  incontestably  proved  by  Fitz-Stephen,  who  speaks  of  the  Uri  silvestres,  which 
in  his  time  (that  is,  about  1150)  infested  the  great  forests — round  Ixjndon ! 

The  only  existing  breed  of  wild  oxen  now  known,  is  the  white  Urus,  or  Urus  scotieus  of 
Ham.  Smith.  Its  skull  agrees  with  the  fossil  breed  in  being  "  square  from  the  orbits  to 
the  occipital  crest,  somewhat  hollow  at  the  foreheiul,  and  the  horns  showing  a  peculiar  rise 
fi'om  their  root,  at  tlie  side  of  thn  above  crest,  upwards,  and  then  bending  outwards,  tiien 
forward  and  inward :  no  domestic  race  shows  tliis  turn."    The  true  Urus  was  further  di» 


Book  I. 


'/  '  1  •!  / 


ENGLAND. 


'  W 


Wild  ScotUib  Ox. 


tinguished  by  u  .nane,  which  is  still  observed  about  two  inches  lon^,  in  old  bulla  of  tiie  Scot* 
^^"  tish  race  (^^.  118.).    When  this  breed  was  exterminated 

from  the  open  forests  is  not  known ;  but  it  was  confined 
to  parks  long  before  the  Reformation.  The  colour  is  en- 
tirely white,  with  the  muzzle  wholly  black.  Their  man- 
ners  are  singular :  upon  perceiving  a  stranger,  they  gallop 
wildly  in  a  circle  round  him,  stop  and  gaze,  toes  their 
heads,  and  show  signs  of  defiance ;  this  is  repeated  seve- 
ral times,  each  circle  being  made  smaller,  till  they  ap> 
proach  sufficiently  near  to  nuJce  an  eifective  charge.  The 
cows  conceal  their  young  eight  or  ten  days:  and  when 
one  of  the  herd  is  wounded  or  enfeebled,  the  others  gore 
it  to  death.  The  breed  is  still  preserved  at  Chillingham 
Castle,  near  Berwick-upon-Tweed,  Wollaston  m  Notting- 
ham, Gisbume  in  Craven,  Limohall  in  Cheshire,  and  at  Chartley  in  Staffordshire. 

The  domestic  Ox  (Bos  Taurus),  considered  by  some  as  a  variety,  and  by  others  as  a  dis- 
tinct species  irom  the  last,  is  supposed  by  Hamilton  Smith  to  have  been  first  domesticated 
by  the  Caucasian  nations  of  western  Asia.  It  b  stated  to  have  fourteen  ribs,  whereas  those 
of  the  B.  Vrus  are  but  twelve ;  a  distinction  sufficiently  important  to  sanction  the  belief  of 
a  specific  difiference.  Whether  or  not  this  parent  of  our  domestic  races  ever  existed  in  these 
islands  in  a  state  of  nature,  is  very  doubtful  The  various  breeds  for  which  Britain  has  long 
been  justly  celebrated  will  be  noticed  under  the  head  of  domestic  animals. 

The  marine  and  cetaceous  mammalia  are  few,  and  are  not  very  generally  dispersed.  Two 
species  of  seal  have  been  noticed  by  Pennant.  The  Piked  Whales  {Balmnoptera  musculus 
and  bonps),  the  Razor-back  Whale,  and  several  others  of  the  great  northern  cetacea,  wander 
near  the  Hebrides  and  Orkney  islands,  and  occasionally  visit  the  shores  of  Northumberland 
and  Yorkshire.  The  Porpoise  and  the  Grampus  have  a  wider  range,  and  large  shoals  roam 
unmolested  near  all  the  coasts. 

Exterminated  native  animals.  In  every  country  the  increase  of  civilization  and  agricul- 
ture is  marked  by  tlie  progressive  diminution  and  final  extirpation  of  the  larger  quadrupeds, 
particularly  of  such  as  are  injurious  to  man.  Among  those  which  history  clearly  informs  us 
were  once  living  in  Britain,  the  most  remarkable  are  the  Bear,  the  Wolf,  the  Beaver,  and 
tlic  wild  Boar.  To  the  writings  of  Pennant  and  Hamilton  Smith  we  are  indebted  for  the 
following  notes  on  these  lost  inhabitants  of  our  forests. 

It  appears  that  Bears,  in  the  time  of  Plutarch,  were  transported  from  Britain  to  Rome 
where  they  were  much  admired.  They  appear  to  have  been  extinct  in  Britain  long  before 
Queen  Elizabeth's  time. 

Wolves.  It  seems  to  have  been  a  vulgar  error  that  the  wolf  was  extirpated  in  Britain 
by  the  salutary  edicts  of  King  Edgar,  who  accepted  their  tongues  and  heads  as  tribute,  or  as 
a  commutation  for  certain  crimes :  for  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  these  anunals  had  again 
increased  to  such  a  (i.  jrree,  that  officers  were  appointed  to  promote  their  destruction,  and 
lands  were  held  by  hunting  and  destroying  them.  Wolves  infested  Ireland  many  centuries 
atler  their  extinction  in  England ;  some  having  been  killed  so  late  as  1710.  In  Scotland, 
the  last  on  record  was  destroyed  in  1680. 

The  Beaver  was  still  an  inhabitant  of  the  Welsh  rivers  in  1188,  as  is  attested,  according 
to  Pennant,  by  Giraldus  Cambrensis ;  but  even  at  that  remote  period  they  must  have  con- 
siderably dimmished,  as  the  historian  only  mentions  their  being  found  on  the  river  Teivi. 
Local  names  of  other  waters  in  the  principality  attest  their  existence  in  other  places.  Fossil 
remains  of  this  species  are  stated  to  have  been  found  in  beds  of  marl,  under  peat  moss  in 
Berkshire ;  and  similar  bones  have  occurred  in  Perthshire  and  Berwickshire. 

The  Wild  Boar,  from  which  have  sprung  the  domestic  breeds  of  swine,  must  be  reckoned 
among  indigenous  quadrupeds,  although  now  extinct  in  Britain.  William  the  Conqueror 
punished  those  who  killed  the  Wild  Boar,  the  Stag  and  the  Roebuck,  by  the  loss  of  their 
eyes.  Fitz-Stephen  affirms  that  the  vast  forest,  which  in  his  time  stood  on  the  north  side  of 
London,  was  the  i-etreat  of  Stags,  Fallow  Deer,  Wild  Boars  and  Bulls.  At  a  more  recent 
period,  Charles  the  First  turned  out  Wild  Boars  in  the  New  Forest ;  but  tliey  were  destroyed 
during  the  civil  wars. 

Fossil  quadrupeds.  The  splendid  discoveries  that  have  resulted  from  the  investigations 
of  Bnckland,  Mantell,  Conybeare,  and  other  eminent  geologists,  have  opened  a  field  of  re- 
searcli,  which  in  Britain  had  long  been  overlooked  or  neglected.  Without  entering  into  tlie 
qutstion  whether  these  fossil  remains  belong  to  animals  which  did  or  did  not  at  some  period 
inhabit  the  spots  wherein  their  bones  have  been  found,  it  is  sufficient  to  confine  ourselves  to 
simple  ikets.  The  remains  of  the  cave  bear  of  Dr.  Buckland  occur  in  several_cavems,  and 
are  sufficient  to  prove  the  living  animal  must  have  equalled  a  horse  in  size.  I'he  Kirkdale 
and  Plymouth  caves  abound  with  the  bones  of  an  extinct  hyaena,  somewhat  resembling  in 
its  osteology  that  now  existing  in  South  Africa ;  with  these  have  been  found  the  bones  of  a 
tiger,  which  must  have  been  as  large  as  the  Bengal  species.    Tlie  tusks,  teeth,  and  othc 


:# 


Mff 


.w 


DESCRIPTISTE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  til. 


Jaw  of  Maisupisl  Animal. 


fraj^ments  of  an  eirtmct  species  of  elephant,  totally  different  from  thoB©  now  in  existence, 

have  been  detected  in  marl  clay,  &c.  joined  with  those  of  twu 
other  gigantic  quadrupeds,  a  rhinoceros  and  hippopotamus;  whilo 
the  jaw  of  a  marsupial  animal,  unknown  among  the  existing 
race  of  beings,  has  been  found  in  the  Stonesfield  slate  quarries 
(Jig.  119.) 

Domestic  (quadrupeds.  No  nation,  perhaps,  has  been  more 
solicitous  to  improve  their  originally  poor  breeds  of  domesti- 
cated quadrupeds  than  the  British ;  and  hence  tlieir  present  superiority  over  most  of  those 
on  the  Continent  Under  this  head  we  commence  with  the  ruminating  animals,  as  the  ox, 
the  sheep,  and  the  goat,  so  essential  in  supplying  food  and  clothing  to  man ;  while  the  horse, 
the  ass,  and  the  dog  assist  him  in  his  labour,  or  protect  his  property. 

The  principal  breeds  of  oxen  more  peculiar  to  Great  Britain  have  been  arranged  by  Major 
Hamilton  Smith  under  nme  divisions.   Of  these,  three  belong  to  England,  three  to  Scotland, 
two  to  Wales,  and  one  to  Guernsey. 
The  long-homed  or  Lancaster  breed  (^Jig.  120.),  as  the  name  implies,  is  remarkable  for 

long  horns;  they  have  firm  thick  hides,  long  close  hair, 
large  hoofs,  and  give  in  proportion  less  milk,  but  more 
cream.  They  are  of  various  colours,  but  are  in  general 
finched,  that  is,  with  a  white  streak  above  the  spine, 
and  a  white  spot  inside  the  houghs.  The  improved 
Leicester  is  a  slight  variety,  originally  bred  near  Co- 
ventry. 

The  short-horned  breed  includes  those  that  arc  named 

the  Holdemess,  Teeswater,  Yorkshire,  Durham,  and 

Northumberland.    This  has  been  the  most  improved, 

The  loDg-horoed  Ox.  producing  Usually  twenty-four  quarts  of  milk  per  day 

and  three  firkins  of  butter  per  season.    Their  colour  varies,  but  is  generally  red  and  white 

mixed;  called  by  the  graziers  fleeked. 

The  middle-homed  includes  the  Devon,  Hereford,  and  Sussex  breeds :  they  are  active, 
hardy,  and  much  esteemed  for  draught :  but  although  they  fatten  early,  do  not  milk  so  well 
as  the  last.  The  pure  Devons  are  of  a  high  red  colour,  without  spots,  a  light  dun  ring 
round  the  eye,  fine  in  bone,  clear  neck,  thin  fb,ced,  and  the  tail  set  on  high :  tiie  north  Devon 
is  most  esteemed  for  eating.  The  Sussex  and  Hereford  are  larger,  the  ox  weighing  firom  60 
to  100  stone. 
The  Scottish  breeds  may  be  arranged  under  the  Polled,  the  Highland,  and  the  Fifeshire. 
The  Polled  Galloway  is  the  most  esteemed :  it  is  straight  in  the  back,  the  hair  soft,  the 
colour  black  or  dark  brindled,  and  the  size  not  large.  They  travel  well,  and  reach  the 
London  markets  without  deterioration.  The  Suffolk  Dun  is  a  variety  of  this  race.  The 
Highland  race  includes  several  varieties,  the  most  valuable  ones  being  the  West  Highland, 
Argyle,  or  Skye,  and  the  Kyloe  fi-om  the  Hebrides.  The  Norlands  is  another  variety,  with 
coarse  hides,  long  legs,  and  of  a  narrow  make.  The  Orkney  or  Shetland  are  very  diminu- 
tive :  an  ox  weighing  about  60  lbs.  a  quarter,  and  a  cow  40  lbs.  Their  colours  are  various, 
and  their  shapes  bad ;  but  they  give  an  abundance  of  excellent  milk,  and  fiitten  rapidly. 
The  Fifeshire  appears  an  improved  breed  of  the  Highlands,  crossed  with  the  Cambridge- 
shire ;  they  are  black,  spotted  with  gray ;  the  horns  small,  white,  and  very  erect :  a  variety 
occurs  in  Aberdeenshire. 

The  Welsh  have  two  breeds :  the  first  is  large,  dark  brown,  with  some  white ;  the  legs 
long  and  slender ;  the  horns  white,  and  turned  upwards :  these,  next  to  the  Devon,  are  the 
best  in  yoke,  and  are  a  cross  of  the  long-homed :  the  second  is  lower,  well  formed,  black 
with  little  white,  and  are  good  milkers.  The  Alderney  or  Guernsey  race  is  proverbially 
sirmll:  their  colour  is  mostly  yellow  or  light  red;  marked  with  white  about  the  face  and 
limbs,  and  with  cmmpled  horns.  The  true  breed  is  known  by  being  yellow  within  the  ears, 
and  at  the  root  of  the  tail  nnd  its  tuft. 

Respecting  draught  Oxen,  we  cannot  refrain  from  here  inserting  an  excellent  and  judi- 
cious remark  of  Pennant.  "  It  is  now,"  observes  this  sensible  writer,  "  generally  allowed, 
that,  in  many  cases,  oxen  are  more  profitable  in  the  draught  than  horses :  their  food,  harness, 
and  shoes  being  cheaper ;  and  should  they  be  lamed  or  grow  old,  an  old  working  beast  will 
be  as  good  '  -eat,  and  fatten  as  well,  as  a  young  one."  {Brit.  Zool.  i.  28.) 

The  She^p  is  scarcely  inferior  in  utility  to  the  ox :  and  the  breeds  now  cultivaled  in 
Britain,  taking  all  their  qualities  into  consideration,  are  perhaps  the  most  valuable  in  tiie 
•vorld.  It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  the  famed  Merino  sheep  of  Spain  originated  from  the  Eng- 
lish breed,  sent  to  that  country  by  Edward  IV.  as  a  present  to  King  John  of  Arragon.  (Baft. 
Chron.  p.  206.)  Major  H.  Smith  estimates  the  present  annual  value  of  wool  shorn  in  Eng 
land,  at  five  millions  sterling. 

The  British  sheep,  according  to  Mr.  Culley,  may  be  arranged  under  fourteen  different 
breeds,  and  some  others  might  also  be  enumerated.    These  may  be  classed  under  two  prin 


■/T'(ri'^iv^i;«;-'T/^^''-i;7T'^-^~-''?'?'"r'^-^y'-'*'7*'*-'~-'''*''"'''^'''^^^ 


Part  ni. 

I    existence, 

pnins;  vvhili. 
■the  existing 
jlate  quarries 

been  more 
.  of  domeati- 
lost  of  those 
Js,  as  the  ox, 
lie  the  horse, 

red  by  Major 
I  to  Scotland, 

jarkable  for 
g  close  hair, 
pk.  but  more 
re  in  general 
e  the  spine, 
»e  improved 
ed  near  Co- 
at are  named 
>urham,  and 
|t  improved, 
ilk  per  day 
sd  and  white 

^  are  active, 
milk  80  well 
ht  dun  ring 
I  north  Devon 
fling  from  60 

B  Pifeshire. 
lair  soft,  the 
i  reach  the 
race.    The 
it  Highland, 
ariety,  with 
ery  diminu- 
are  various, 
en  rapidly. 
Cambridge- 
:  a  variety 

'»  the  legs 
•n,  are  the 
med,  black 
roverbially 
■  face  and 
n  the  ears, 

t  and  judi- 
y  allowed, 
!,  harness, 
beast  will 

tivaied  m 
ble  in  the 
the  Enar. 
)n.  (Bak. 
linEng 

diflerent 
two  prin 


BookL 


ENGLAND. 


im 


ripal  divisions ;  those  derived  from  the  ancient  race  being  furnished  with  horns,  while  the 
otiiers  in  general  have  none. 

Of  the  horned  breeds,  the  most  ancient  is  the  black-&ced  (^g.  121.),  still  met  with  in 
wme  heathy  parts  of  Yorkshire,  and  the  adjacent  northern  counties :  the  wool  is  coarse  and 
shaggy-  The  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  sheep,  also,  have  the  horns  large  and  spiral,  with  the  face 
black,  !i<.t  the  wool  is  short  and  fine:  they  have  a  voracious  appetite,  and  a  restless  dispo- 
sition. In  the  Dorset  the  face  is  no  longer  black,  but  botii  sexes  are  usually  homed.  This 
breed  is  remarkable  for  producing  lambs  at  almost  every  season,  and  is  therefore  highly  valu- 
able for  supplying  the  London  markets  with  house  lamb.  The  Wiltshire  is  a  much  larger 
variety,  having  no  wool  on  the  belly.  The  Hertfordshire  is  a  fine  productive  variety,  with 
ihort  tails.  The  Exmoor  comes  from  Devonshire :  it  is  small,  the  wool  long,  and  the  face  and 
legs  white.  Scotland  furnishes  three  breeds  of  homed  sheep;  the  Dun-faced,  the  Shetland, 
and  the  Hebridean. 


The  Black-Faced  Sheep. 


The  Hereford  Shuep. 


The  hornless  race  may  be  divided  into  nine  breeds.  The  Lincoln  has  long  wool  and  a 
white  face :  in  the  Teeswater  the  wool  is  shorter  and  lighter,  and  the  legs  longer.  The 
Uishley,  or  new  Leicester,  is  distinguished  by  a  clean  head,  and  the  excellency  of  its  flesh. 
The  Dc'OT'  Nots,  like  the  three  preceding, are  long-woolled ;  they  have  white  faces  and 

legs,  thic(  ,  short  legs,  and  large  bones.    The  short-woolled  hornless  breeds  are  the 

following  -  Hereford  (^g.  122.)  nave  very  fine  wool,  which  grows  close  to  their  eyes, 

the  legs  and  face  being  white :  the  store  sheep  of  this  country  are  called  Ceilings  or  Rylands. 
The  South  Down,  principally  cultivated  on  the  chalky  downs  of  Sussex,  have  the  face  and 
legs  gray,  and  are  highly  esteemed  for  the  table.  The  Cheviot  have  the  head  bare  and  clean, 
and  are  sometimes  spotted  with  gray  or  dun ;  the  fleece  is  very  short  and  fine.  The  H  r .'- 
wicke  is  peculiar  to  the  rocky  districts  of  Cumberland,  and  is  speckled  on  the  fiice  and  legs. 
The  Goat,  which  in  some  parts  of  Italy  supplies  the  only  milk  and  butter  knov/n  to  the 
inhabitants,  is  of  little  utility  in  a  country  abounding  in  sheep  and  o.xen.  But  to  the  Welsh 
mountaineers  it  is  a  valuable  animal :  the  suet  will  make  excellent  candles ;  the  meat  is 
little  inferior  to  venison,  and  those  who  have  habitually  feasted  upon  mountain  kid,  know 
how  superior  its  flavour  is  to  lamb. 

The  Horses  of  Britain,  improved  as  they  have  been  by  the  most  sedulous  care,  next  to 
the  Arabian,  are  the  finest  in  the  world.  The  British  breeds,  originally  but  ill  adapted  for 
the  saddle,  have  progressively  improved ;  and  the  crossing  of  the  indigenous  kind  with  those 
of  other  countries  has  produced  four  principal  classes  of  horses, — the  Uacer,  the  Hunter,  the 
Roadster,  and  the  Dray  Horse ;  to  these  may  be  added  the  Pone^,  one  of  the  original  breeds. 
The  Ornithology  of  Great  Britain,  afler  the  general  observations  already  made  on  that  of 
Europe,  will  be  here  but  briefly  dwelt  upon.  The  native  birds  may  be  arranged  under  three 
natural  divisions: — 1.  the  rapacious;  2.  the  perching;  and  3.  the  walking,  running  and 
swimming  orders. 

The  rapacious  birds,  as  in  all  other  countries,  are  the  smallest  in  number,  but  the  most 

formidable  in  strength.    Among  these  the  Golden  Eagle  {Aquila  chrysa'etos,fig.  123.)  is  the 

12,3  largest  known  in  the  British  islands:  this  noble  bird 

weighs  twelve  pounds,  and  is  still  fbund  among  the 
highest  of  the  Welsh  and  Cumberland  mountains ;  it  is 
said  also  to  breed  in  Orkney.  The  Eme  or  Sea  Eagle 
is  somewhat  smaller,  and  is  principally  confined  to  the 
maritime  rocks  of  Wales  and  North  Britain.  The  Fal- 
con tribe  is  more  numerous  in  species ;  but  the  destruc- 
tion to  which  they  are  doomed  by  game  preservers  has 
long  been  diminishing  their  numbers :  some  species  are 
Golden  Eafia.  almost  extirpated,  and  nearly  all  are  now  become  rare. 

The  Osprey  (^Pandion  HaluBtus),  or  Fishing  Eagle,  is  now  seldom  met  with.  The  two 
species  of  Henharrie  (Circug  cyaneus  and  cinerascena)  were  first  discriminated  by  Montagu. 
Tile  Owls  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Continent,  but  the  great  Snowy  Owl  has  only  of  late 
years  been  detected  in  the  north  of  Scotland  as  a  native  bird.  The  Eagle  or  great  horned 
Owl  is  of  the  same  size ;  the  former  hunting  by  day,  the  latter  by  night.  The  Bam  oi 
White  Owl  is  known  to  every  fanner,  and  appears  to  be  distributed  over  rte  whole  habi 
table  giobe. 
Vol.  I.  W  2  8 


(.1- 


388 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartIU. 


The  toothed-bill  or  peichin^  birds  {Dentiroatrea  Sw.)  are  thoee  iUmiBhed  with  a  notch  to 
Mieii  bill,  by  which  their  food  is  held  firm  before  it  is  swallowed.  Some  are  formed  to  climb, 
others  to  hop  on  the  ground,  and  a  few  catch  their  food  (like  the  swallows)  upon  the  wing. 
Tbny  are  united  to  the  rapacious  order  by  the  nhrikes  or  butcher-birds,  so  called  fiom  their 
singular  custom  of  impaling  insects  and  small  birds  upon  the  tliom  round  tlieir  nesta.  Three  . 
species  of  these  birds  are  known  in  Britain.  The  melody  of  the  Blackbird  and  Song-thrueh 
need  not  be  eulogised;  and  during  spring  and  summer  the  woods  and  hedges  are  enlivened 
by  numbers  of  warblers,  or  small  insectivorous  birds,  which  visit  them  in  the  breeding  season : 
among  which  th  Nightingale  is  most  conspicuous.  I^arge  flocks  of  Finches,  and  similar 
lianl-billed  birdb  .east,  in  winter,  upon  the  red  berries  of  Ihe  black  and  white  thorn;  while 
Oows,  StarlingH,  and  Fieldfares  devour  prodigious  quactitier  of  slugs,  worms,  and  other 
animals  noxious  to  the  farmer.  The  Woodpeckers,  Creepers,  and  Titmice  prey  only  upon 
tlioso  insects  prejudicial  to  trees;  the  Swallows,  during  summer,  join  with  the  warblers  in 
liceping  within  due  bounds  tlie  myriads  of  insects,  which  would  otherwise  increase  to  an 
alarming  extent 

The  entire-billed  birds  (,Curtipedea  Sw.)  are  those  which  have  no  notch  at  the  end  of  their 
bill,  and  never  seek  their  food  among  trees :  tliey  are  united  to  the  former  by  the  Pigeons, 
and  comprise  the  gallinaceous,  wading,  and  swimming  tribes.  Among  the  first  Britain  pos- 
sesses the  Partridge,  Grouse,  and  Quail,  but  more  particularly  the  Great  Bustnrd,  the  largest 
of  the  European  gallinacea:  its  weight  is  about  25  lbs.,  and  its  flesh  excellent.  To  enume- 
rate the  wading  and  swimming  birds  would  far  exceed  our  limits :  they  visit  the  coasts  prin- 
cipally in  winter,  and  depart  in  spring. 
The  exterminated  birds  are  very  few;  for  altliough  some,  as  the  Egret  (Jig.  124.)  and  the 
Crane,  are  no  longer  common  in  Britain,  yet  individuals  are  some- 
times met  with,  showing  that  man  and  not  nature  has  scared  them 
from  their  hereditary  range.  Perhaps  the  only  extirpated  species 
is  the  cock  of  the  wood,  or  cap  ^caillie  grouse  (Tctroo  Vrogallus  L,), 
a  noble  bird  of  game,  weighing  near  thirteen  pounds;  once  com- 
mon in  the  fir  forests  of  Scotland,  but  which  has  not  been  seen,  it 
is  said,  since  1760. 

Of  domesticated  birds  th:;  Pheasant  originally  came  from  Abia 
Minor;  the  Guinea  Hen  fh)m  Afirica;  the  Peacock  and  Fowl  from 
India;  and  the  Turkey  from  America. 

The  fishes,  both  marine  and  fireshwater,  are  numerous:  most  are 
edible,  and  many  highly  esteemed.  Whale,  and  other  cetacea,  are 
mostly  confined  to  the  northern  shores:  but  those  of  the  west  are 
fejnous  for  the  herring  and  pilchard  fisheries.  The  John  Doree  is 
as  remarkable  for  its  grotesque  form  as  for  its  exquisite  flavour. 
The  Turbot,  Cod,  Sole,  &c.  are  well  known.  The  chief  river  fish 
are  the  Salmon,  Trout,  and  Char;  and  these  are  principally  fUr- 
nished  by  the  northern  counties.  The  salmon  fisheries  are  highly  important,  and  have  long 
engaged  the  attention  of  the  legislature :  the  eggs  of  one  fish  will  often  exceed  15,000. 
riie  Char  is  confined  to  the  lakes  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland ;  thoee  of  Windermere 
ire  the  best,  and  when  potted  become  a  great  delicacy.  The  Herring  and  Sprat  supply  the 
ptrnr,  during  winter,  with  a  wholesome  dish ;  while  the  citizens  of  London  consider  another 
sjiecies,  called  the  White  Bait,  as  possessing  a  peculiarly  fine  flavour.  The  Anchovy  is  not 
unknown  in  some  of  our  estuaries;  and  even  the  Flying-fish  has  occasionally  wandered  to 
the  Welsh  coast. 

The  reptiles  of  Britain,  known  in  a  living  Etr,te,  are  very  few.    Besides  the  Warty  Efl 
( fjocerta  palustria  Lin.,  Jig.  125.)  there  are  two  other  water  lizards,  and  probably  as  many 
125  12a 


EgreL 


Wartr  Eft.  Common  Viper. 

R|tf>cies  inhabiting  the  land.  Of  the  Prog  and  Toad  two  sorts  of  each  occur.  The  snakes 
mid  the  blind-worm  are  harmless;  the  Common  Viper  (fg.  126.)  being  the  only  veiiomoua 
reptile :  yet  this  species  varies  so  much  in  its  colours,  that  naturalists  have  described  it  under 
several  names.  The  Great  or  Gigantic  Frog  of  Pennant  is  only  a  variety  of  the  common 
toad. 

Extinct  reptiles.  The  researches  of  geologists  have  brought  to  light  the  remains  of  such 
gigantic  and  extraordinary  reptiles,  that  but  for  such  indubitable  proofs,  their  existence 
might  be  thonirht  fabulous.  \t  the  head  of  these  we  may  place  the  Megalosaurus,  resem 
biing  both  a  lizard  and  a  crocodile,  whose  probable  length  was  near  40  feet!     The  Ichthyo 


Part  III. 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


889 


lend  of  their 
ihe  Pigeons. 
iBritain  pos- 
'  the  largest 
To  enume- 
coaate  prin- 

24.)  and  the 
are  some- 
icared  them 
ted  species 
ogallus  L.\ 
once  corn- 
Ben  seen,  it 

'■  from  Asia 
1  Fowl  from 

s:  most  are 
Jetscea,  are 
be  west  are 
\m  Doree  is 
ite  flavour, 
if  river  fish 
cipally  flir- 
I  have  long 
led  15,000. 
'^indermere 
supply  the 
er  another 
iiovy  is  not 
andered  to 

iVarty  Efl 
''  as  many 


le  snakes 
'onomoua 
1  it  under 
common 

9  of  Bucb 
sxistence 
f»  rtsem 
Ichthtfo 


laurus,  unltinff  the  characters  of  a  lizard  with  the  snout  of  a  dolphin,  the  teeth  of  a  croco- 
dile, the  :'■  "  -*  a  turtle,  and  the  vertebrte  of  a  fish,  is  scarcely  less  wonderfiil.  The  Plerio- 
tmirus  is  si  J 1  more  extraordinary ;  for  with  the  fins  of  a  turtle,  it  had  the  head  of  a  lizard,  and 
a  long  ne  ;k,  formed  like  the  body  of  a  serpent  Lastly,  the  remains  of  several  distinct 
species  of  crocodiles  have  been  discovered  in  similar  strata.  All  tliese  attest  the  existence, 
at  some  unknown  period,  of  a  stupendous  race  of  aquatic  monsters,  which  have  long  been 
swept  away  from  the  existing  animal  creation. 

Among  the  radiated  animals,  vast  shoals  of  transparent  Medttses  wander  about  the  coast 
during  summer,  and  are  frequently  by  a  sudden  change  of  wind  cast  up  on  the  beach  in 
great  numbers.  But  the  deep  recesses  of  the  ocean  frequently  give  to  the  nets  of  the 
fisherman  animals  still  more  singular.  The  Black  Line  Worm,  or  Sea  Long  Worm  (Lin- 
n<Bus  loneissimus  Sow.,  fig.  127.),  whose  mouth  is  hardljr  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide,  is  said, 
by  the  fishermen,  to  measure  tjvelve  fathoms  in  length:  it  is  soft,  and  so  fragile,  that  the 
entire  animal  seems  not  yet  to  have  been  procured.  i- 

m  "        "^ 


Black  line  Worm. 


MB7-bloHom  Coial. 


Ellis  was  the  first  to  make  known  the  true  nature  of  those  plant-like  productions  generally 
termed  corallines.  Of  Corals,  the  British  seas  afibrd  few  native  species ;  the  largest  and 
most  elegant  is  the  May-blossom  coral  (Caryophyllia  ramea),  (Jig.  128.),  common  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  occasionally  found  upon  the  Cornish  coast :  it  is  cinnamon-coloured ;  and 
retains,  for  many  years,  a  slight  scent,  like  that  of  hawthorn. 

The  Conchology  of  Britain,  in  the  number  and  interest  of  its  species,  compensates  for  its 
deficiency  in  large  or  richly  coloured  objects.  The  beautifrtl  varieties  of  Pecten  opercu- 
laris  are,  nevertheless,  frequentlv  variegated  with  the  most  lovely  tints  of  yelloiv,  orange, 
pink,  and  deep  red ;  they  also  afiord  a  nutritious  food  to  the  lower  classes.  The  most  cele- 
brated edible  shell-fish  is  the  oyster,  well  known  and  highly  prized  by  the  luxurious  Romans ; 
and  even'  one  is  acquainted  with  the  superior  excellency  of  those  from  Colchester  and 
Milton.  Fluviatile  shells,  in  a  country  so  humid  and  wat<;red  as  Britain,  are  more  abundant 
than  towards  the  south  of  Europe.  Most  of  the  rivers  produce  Unio  pictorum  (Jig.  129.  a), 
and  Unio  ovatus  (6) :  Cyclas  cornea  (d)  is  generally  found  in  the  same  situations.  The  ponds 
and  stagnant  waters  are  frequently  covered  with  Lymneus  palustris  (e),  ovatus  (g),  and 
Planorbis  comeus  (I) ;  while  the  large  Duck-mussel  (Anodon  miatintu)  (o)  burrows  in  the 

«       129  ^ 


Unio  HargariUren. 


Fluviatile  8tie1lR. 


muddy  bottom,  A  little  fragile  shell,  Succinea  amphibia  (/),  crawls  upon  rushes  and  aquatic 
plants ;  and  Physa  tbntinalis  (A),  Ancylus  lacustris  (t),  and  Planorbis  vortex  (k)  prefer  clear 
shady  streams  and  ditches  overhung  with  wood. 

Native  pearls  w^cre  reckoned  by  the  Romans  among  the  productions  of  Britain.  They 
are  the  produce  of  a  fluviatile  bivalve  shell,  the  Unio  margaritifera,  (Jig.  130.),  still  com- 
mon in  manv  of  the  northern  counties ;  but  it  was  on  the  bulks  of  the  Welsh  rivers  that  the 
Oritish  pearl  fishery  was  chiefly  carried  on. 


'^■•^yiji^t'jmTW''' 


340 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IH. 


^JJu'J.  I'u.  Co"»«'e"nS  Jfie  nature  of  the  climate,  it  may  excite  eurprise,  that  more  than 
lO.CKK)  different  species  have  actuHlly  been  foan.l  inhabit  Britain.  Yet  the  bee  mav  tu 
reciioned  the  only  insect  whose  services  are  imn.  .atelv  and  obviously  beneficial  to  man 
Ainong  the  butterflies,  are  many  of  great  beauty ;  whilo  Eurymus  Europome,  or  the  Clouded 
{sulphur  iJig.  131.),  w  considered  one  of  the  rarest  British  insecta  v^muuea 


-r- 


Clouded  Sulphur 


Bad  GrooM. 


Scotland.  The  zoolo^  of  Scotland  exhibits  many  arctic  animals  as  common  inhabitants, 
which  are  only  known  as  rare  visitants  to  the  western  shores  of  England ;  in  other  respects, 
it  does  not  materially  differ  from  that  of  South  Britain.  The  northern  islands  f^ve  shelter 
to  innumerable  wild  fowl,  and  to  many  peculiar  land  birds,  as  the  Ptarmigan  and  the  Golden 
Eagle.  The  great  honied  or  Eagle  Owl,  is  found  to  breed  in  Orkney.  The  Highlands  are 
famous  for  an  abundance  of  Grouse,  the  red  species  (Lagopus  tcoticus,  fig.  132.)  being  the 
only  bird  peculiar  to  Great  Britain. 

The  domestic  animals  are  of  a  small  size ;  in  other  respects,  they  are  highly  valuable. 
The  polled  or  hor-Jess  cattle,  with  the  Highland  and  the  Fifeshire,  have  already  been  noticed. 
The  Kyloe  breed  are  so  named,  because  in  their  progress  to  the  south  from  the  Hebrides, 
they  cross  the  kyloes  or  ferries  in  the  main  land  and  Western  Islands.  {Ham.  Smith.) 
The  same  writer  considers  that  the  sheep  of  "^his  kingdom  spring  from  three  principal  breeds : 
the  first  is  generally  named  dun-faced  sheep ;  they  are  a  small,  homed  race,  said  to  have 
been  originally  imported  from  Denmark  or  Norway,  and  are  still  found,  with  slight  varia- 
tions, in  the  North  of  Scotland  and  the  isles.  In  Kincardineshire,'this  breed  is  known  by 
its  yellow  face  and  legs,  and  by  the  dishevelled  texture  of  its  fleece,  which  is  in  part  coarse, 
and  in  part  remarkably  fine  wool ;  ita  flesh  also  is  delicate  and  highly  flavt  .-ed.  The  Shet- 
land breed  carry  a  very  fine  wool,  in  three  different  successions  yearly,  two  tf  which  resem- 
ble long  hair  more  than  wool,  and  are  called  Fors  and  Scudda.  The  wool  is  of  various 
colours.  The  Hebridian  sheep  is  the  smallest  animal  of  its  kind ;  its  horns  ore  usually  short 
and  straight,  the  face  and  legs  white,  the  tail  very  short,  and  the  wool  of  different  colours. 

The  Highland  Ponies  and  Shetland  Ponies  {fig.  133.),  notwithstanding  tiieir  diminutive 
size,  are  greatly  esteemed  for  their  activity  and  strength. 

133  134 


Highland  Ponr. 


Scoi'.tUi  Grerbound. 


Among  the  numerous  breeds  of  dogs,  there  appear  to  be  three  more  particularly  found  in 
Scotland :  the  true  Shepherd's  Dog,  or  Colly,  is  still  preserved,  unmixed,  in  many  of  thR 
sheep  districts :  the  Shetland  Hound,  approaches  in  character  to  the  Greenland  Dog ;  while 
the  Scottish  Greyhound  (Jig.  134.),  common  in  the  Highlands,  is  possessed  of  great  sagacity, 
strength,  and  swiftness. 

The  Zoology  of  Ireland  has  been  much  neglected ;  nor  are  we  prepared  to  show  what 
peculiarities  belong  to  its  natural  history.  The  Irish  Wolf  Dog,  called  also  the  Irish  Grey- 
hound, has  generally  been  thought  peculiar  to  this  island ;  but  others  consider  it  the  same 
breed  aa  the  French  m&tin  (Canis  laniarius  L.)  It  is  a  noble  animal,  standing  near  four 
feet  in  height,  and  seems  to  have  been  mainly  instrumental  in  clearing  the  country  of  the 
numerous  wolves  which  once  over-ran  it.  The  cattle  and  sheep  are  inferior  to  those  of 
Britain.  Yet  Ireland  exports  vast  quantities  of  salted  provisions,  besides  the  supplies  fur- 
nif>hed  to  the  navy  and  shipping  interests.  The  remains  of  the  Fossil  Elk  (fig.  135.)  arc  of 
frequent  occurrence  in  beds  of  shell  marl,  beneath  peat.  Its  antlers  measure  fitjm  the 
extreme  tip  of  each,  no  less  than  ten  feet  ten  inches,  and  from  the  tip  of  the  right  horn  to 


"'/!f:'WT":  "•!'?■;/"■ 


Part  lit. 

more  than 
|bee  may  ho 
lial  to  man. 
fhe  Clouded 


IIookI. 


./H'i/ 


ENGLAND. 


m 


inhabitants, 

Jer  respects, 

Ifive  shelter 

the  Golden 

fhlands  are 
beuig  the 

ly  valuable. 

!en  noticed. 

e  Hebrides, 

m.  Smith.) 

ipal  breeds  : 

said  to  have 

light  varia- 

:nown  by 

part  coarse, 

The  Shet- 

hich  resem- 

i  of  various 

sually  short 

}nt  colours. 

diminutive 


t 


7  found  in 
my  of  thft 
og;  while 
'■  sagacity, 

bow  what 
ish  Grey- 
the  same 
near  four 
ry  of  the 

those  of 
plies  fiir- 
>.)  arc  of 
from  the 

horn  to 


its  root,  five  feet  two  inches.  Remains  of  the  same  animal  have  been  also  found  in  England, 
and  a  very  perfect  sjiccimen  in  the  Isle  of  Man.  The  Irish  shores  furnish  the  conchologist 
with  several  native  shells,  seldom  seen  on  the  British  coasts,  particularly  the  Isocardia  cor, 
wf  Heart  Cockle  C^g-.  136.).    :    v"  *        *      '  ,q« 


■v-.> 


Foiill  Elk. 
'  Hetrt  Coekla. 

Sect.  in. — Historical  Oeography. 

Britain  was  originally  peopled  from  Gaul,  by  inhabitants  of  the  Celtic  race.  For  a  long 
time  it  appears  to  have  been  noticed  only  as  a  country  supplying  tin ;  a  rare  and  useful  metal, 
not  then  found  in  any  other  part  of  Europe,  or  in  Western  Asia.  To  obtain  this  valuable 
mineral,  the  coasts  of  Britain  were  at  an  early  period  sought  by  the  ships  of  various  mer- 
cantile states,  especially  the  Carthaginians ;  and  the  tin  of  Tarshish,  mentioned  by  Ezekiel, 
was  doubtless  brought  from  the  mines  of  Cornwall. 

Britain  was  invaded  by  the  Romans,  about  fifly-five  years  before  the  Christian  era.  Of 
the  thirty  tribes  of  barbarians  among  whom  the  country  was  then  divided,  the  most  consid- 
erable  wer*^  the  Belgoj  in  the  west,  the  Brigantes  in  the  north,  the  Silures  in  South  Wales, 
the  Iceni  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  and  the  Cuntii,  who  occupied  Kent  and  part  of  Middlesex. 
The  latter  had  made  some  progress  in  agriculture  and  the  arts  of  civilized  life ;  but  the 
other  inhabitants  derived  thair  subsistence  from  flocks  and  herds,  clothed  themselves  in  skins, 
and  painted  their  bodies.  The  precarious  authority  of  the  chiefs  derived  support  from  the 
influence  exercised  by  the  Dniids,  in  one  of  the  most  terrible  forms  of  superstition  that  ever 
enslaved  the  human  mind.  Besides  the  ordinary  implements  of  war,  they  had  armed  chariots, 
wiiich  they  managed  with  surprising  dexterity;  and  they  were  united  in  a  species  of  politi- 
cnl  confederacy,  of  which  Cassivelaunus  was  Vie  head.  They  could  not,  however  prevent 
the  landing  of  Julius  Crosar,  but  that  conqueror  was  prevented  by  more  urgent  affairs  from 
prosecuting  an  enterprise  of  which  the  difficulties  were  not  likely  to  be  compensated  by  its 
plory.  In  the  reign  of  Claudius  the  hardihood  of  Carnctacus,  and  the  heroic  desperation  of 
Boadicea,  failed  of  exciting  on  eflectual  resistance  to  the  disciplined  legions  of  Rome,  whose 
victorious  progress  was  continued  during  the  reign  of  Nero.  In  that  of  Domitian,  the  Ro- 
man dominion  was  extended  by  the  wisdom  and  valour  of  Agricola,  who  defeated  the  Cale- 
donians under  Galgacus,  at  the  foot  of  the  Grampians ;  and  the  only  part  of  the  island  which 
remained  unsubdued  was  the  region  which  lies  north  of  that  natural  rampart. 

The  Britons  now  subjected  to  the  Roman  empire  were  compelled  to  cultivate  the  habits 
and  arts  of  peace :  but  when  that  empire,  weakened,  distracted,  and  verging  to  its  decline, 
was  compelled  to  withdraw  its  protection  from  its  distant  provinces,  the  Scots  and  Picts, 
emerging  from  their  mountain  fastnesses,  then  broke  in,  and  committed  dreadful  devastations 
amoi.Qf  their  unwarlike  neighbours.  The  Romans  had  recourse  to  the  expedient  of  frontier 
walls ;  first,  one  between  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  called  the  Wall  of  Antonine,  and  afterwards 
a  similar  rampart  between  the  Tyne  and  Solway,  called  the  Wall  of  Severus.  About  the 
niiddle  of  the  fifth  century,  the  Roman  forces  were  finally  withdrav/n,  and  the  Britons 
wore  left  to  depend  entirely  on  their  own  resources. 

The  Saxons  jvere  called  in  as  allies,  about  forty  years  after  the  dissolution  of  the  Roman 
government  These  hardy  adventurers,  originating  from  .the  north  o*"  Germany,  and  occupy- 
ing the  line  of  coast  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  to  .Tutland,  hau  i.,.  infested  by  their 
piracies  the  neighbouring  parts  of  Britain  and  Gaul.  They  eagerly  accepted  an  invitation 
to  a  country  so  superior  to  their  own.  In  the  year  450,  1600  men  under  Hengist  and  Horsa, 
arrived  in  Britain,  and  obtained  an  easy  victory  over  the  Scots  and  Picte.  The  success  ot 
f  lio  two  brothers  attracted  numerous  bands  of  their  countrymen ;  and  in  the  course  of  a  cen 
tiirv,  colonies  arrived  from  the  mouths  of  the  Elbe,  the  Weser,  and  the  Rhine,  chiefly 
onniposed  of  three  valiant  tribes,  the  Jutes,  the  Old  Saxons,  and  the  Angles.  PVom  allies, 
they  became  formidable  enemies  to  the  Britons ;  whom,  after  a  long  and  sanguinary  struggle 
of  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  tJiey  compelled  to  retire  into  Wales  and  Cornwall. 

Tlius  was  established  the  Heptarchy,  or  Seven  Saxon  Kingdoms  in  Britain :  viz.  1.  Kent ; 
2.  Sussex,  including  Surrey;  3.  EastlJnjriiiH,  including  Norfolk^  Suflblk,  the  Isleof  fJly,  and 
Cambridgeshire;  4.  Wessex,  including  all  the  southern  counties  from  Berkshire  to  Cornwall; 
T).  North nmlierland,  including  all  the  northern  counties  of  England,  and  the  southern  coun- 
jne  of  Scotland  to  the  Frith  of  Forth ;  6.  Essex,  including  Essex,  Middlesex,  and  part  of 

29* 


842 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  m. 


Hertfordshire;  7.  Mercryc,  or  Mercia,  the  largest  division,  including  the  midland  districts 
of  England  to  the  confines  of  Wales. 

About  the  year  800  these  small  states  were  united  into  one  kingdom,  under  the  name  of 
Emfland,  by  Egbert,  kin^  of  Wessex.  The  Anglo-Saxon  dynasty  derived  its  chief  lustro 
from  Alfred,  one  of  the  wisest  and  most  virtuous  monarchs  that  have  appeared  in  any  age  or 
country.  He  delivered  his  country  from  the  thraldom  of  the  Danes ;  but  in  the  course  of 
the  ensuing  century,  however,  they  Regained  the  ascendency ;  and  in  1017,  Canute,  kinfr 
of  Denmark  and  Norway,  added  England  to  his  dominions.  It  was  held  successively  by  bin 
sons,  Harold  and  Hardicanute;  but  on  the  death  of  the  latter,  it  was  restored  to  the  Saxoa 
dynasty,  and  Edward  the  Confessor  ascended  the  throne. 

The  conquest  bv  William  of  Normandy,  in  1066,  overUirew  fbr  a  time  the  liberties  of  tlio 
people  of  England.  Claiming  the  crown  bv  virtue  of  a  pretended  grant  from  Edward  th(> 
Confessor,  and  acquiring  it  by  victory  over  Harold  II,  himself  an  usurper,  to  the  prejudice 
of  Ed^  Atheling,  the  rightful  heir,  he  maintained  by  tyramiy  a  dominion  gained  by  fraud 
and  violence.  One  of  the  consequences  of  the  acquisition  of  the  English  crown  by  Williain 
was  to  convey  to  the  kings  his  successors  certain  claims  on  the  French  territory,  which  led 
to  long,  expensive,  and  sanguinary  wars. 

Henry  the  Second,  surnamed  Plantagenet,  son  of  Geoffry  of  Anjou,  who  married  Matilda, 
daughter  of  Henry  I.,  in  the  riffht  of  his  father,  was  master  of  Anjou  and  Touraine ;  in  that 
of  his  mother,  of  Normandy  and  Maine;  in  that  "f  his  wife,  of  Guienne,  Poitou,  Saintonge, 
Auvergne,  Perigord,  Angoumois,  and  the  Limousin.  To  these  states  he  afterwards  annexed 
that  of  Bretogne.  .  The  possession  of  provinces  composing  above  one-third  of  the  Frencli 
monarchy,  and  superior  in  opulence  to  the  rest  of  the  territory,  rendered  this  vassal  more 
powerful  than  his  liege  lord,  and  contributed  to  provoke  that  rivalry  which  for  ages  existed 
between  England  and  France.  Henry  the  Second  acquired  the  sovereignty  of  Ireland ; 
Edward  the  First  annexed  Wales  to  his  dominions,  and  for  a  time  subjugated  Scotland. 
The  contending  claims  of  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster  for  tlie  crown  of  England,  afler 
a  civil  war  of  nearly  sixty  years,  were  adjusted  by  the  marriage  of  Henry  the  Seventh  with 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  the  Fourth.  Among  the  memorable  events  that  occurred 
under  the  Plantagenets,  may  be  noticed  the  signature  of  Magna  Charta,  extorted  bv  the 
barons  from  King  John ;  the  rise  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  the  reign  of  Henry  the  Tiiird ; 
and  the  reformation  of  the  church,  commenced  by  John  Wickliffe,  in  x369. 

The  reign  of  Henry  the  Seventh  was  signalized  by  the  overthrow  of  the  feudal  sway,  and 
by  the  introduction  of  the  modem  system  of  polity.  The  emancipation  of  the  kingdom  from 
papal  dominion  was  effected  by  his  successor.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  the  most  strenuous 
exertions  were  made  to  strengthen  the  maritime  power  of  England,  and  extend  her  com- 
mercial intercourse.  The  result  of  these  measures  was  to  raise  the  nation  to  a  very  pros- 
perous and  flourishing  condition,  and  to  overturn  the  lawless  domination  of  the  nobles, 
substituting  for  it,  however,  an  authority  almost  absolute  on  the  part  of  the  sovereign. 

The  union  of  the  two  crowns  on  the  accession  of  James  the  Sixth  of  Scotland  to  the  throne 
of  England,  terminated  those  animosities  which  had  proved  alike  injurious  to  both  countries. 
The  despotic  conduct  of  Charles  the  First  led  to  a  struggle  in  which  he  lost  both  his  crown 
and  his  life.  In  the  interregnum  which  ensued  under  the  Commonwealth,  the  vigilant, 
energetic,  and  decisive  policy  of  Oliver  Cromwell  exercised  a  commanding  influence  over 
every  cabinet  in  Europe.  Charles  the  Second  sufiered  England  to  lose  the  ascendency 
which  she  had  attained,  and  the  infatuated  conduct  of  James  the  Second  led  to  the  revolu- 
■tion  of  1688,  from  which  epoch  to  the  present  time,  the  industry,  commerce,  and  wealth  of 
Great  Britain,  rapidly  rose  to  a  height  unparalleled  in  any  other  nation,  ancient  or  modern ; 
but  her  political  power  sustained  various  fluctuations.  She  acquired  in  the  East  and  in  the 
West  two  empires,  each  far  more  extensive  than  her  own  territory.  That  in  the  East  she 
retains  and  is  continually  extending ;  that  in  the  West,  having  become  independent,  is  lit . 
rival  in  commerce,  and  manifests  a  disposition  to  dispute,  at  no  distant  period,  her  maritiu.e 
supremacy.  Among  the  memorable  transactions  and  events  of  this  perio(J  may  be  ranked 
the  union  with  Scotland  in  1707  ;"that  with  Ireland  in  1801 ;  the  Scottish  rebellions  in  1715 
and  1745 ;  the  Irish  rebellion  in  1798 ;  and  a  series  of  wars  with  France,  occurring  at 
intervak  rarely  exceeding  eight  or  ten  years.  The  contests  arising  from  the  French 
',''t.!ution  were  distinguished  by  the  most  brilliant  naval  achievements,  and  afterwards  by 
tuccasiies  which  raised  the  military  glory  of  England  to  a  level  with  her  maritime  renown, 
rendering  her  influence  paramoimt  among  the  states  of  Europe.  ,,,.^.        ■.  ,  / 

Sect.  IV. — Political  Geography. 
The  constitution  of  Great  Britain  centres  in  the  laws  by  which  the  country  is  governed, 
and  in  the  union  of  powers  by  which  the  laws  are  made  and  the  government  is  administered. 
The  leffislative  power  is  veoted  in  the  Parliament,  consisting  of  the  Kino,  an  hereditary 
sovereign ;  the  Lords,  an  hereditary  aristocr&cy ;  and  the  House  of  Commons,  consisting  of 
members  chosen  by  the  people  from  among  themselves,  and  therefore  said  to  represent  th« 
t»uimona  o'i  the  realm.    The  executive  power  is  entrusted  to  the  king. 


Pa«t  Hi. 

Hand  dutrictg 

hf  the  name  of 
Tto  chief  luatro 
pin  any  age  or 
••he  course  of 
,  Canute,  kinir 
Ie88ively  by  his 
to  the  Saxon 

■liberties  of  the 
|ni  Edward  tho 
'  tlie  prejudino 
amed  hy  ft^ij 
yn  by  VVillia,,, 
pry,  wiiich  led 

tnied  MatiJda, 
"aine ;  in  that 
5u,  Saintonjre, 
ivards  annexed 
of  the  Frencli 
8  vassal  more 
r  ages  existed 
y  of  Ireland ; 
ted  Scotland. 
England,  after 
Seventh  with 
that  occurred 
torted  by  the 
uy  the  Third ; 

dal  sway,  and 
kingdom  from 
lost  strenuous 
end  her  com- 
>  a  very  pros- 
f  the  nobles, 
ereign. 
to  the  throne 
•th  countries, 
th  his  crown 
the  vigilant, 
fluence  over 

ascendency 

the  revolu- 
id  wealth  of 

or  modern ; 
t  and  in  the 
fie  East  she 
dent,  is  he. 
sr  maritiu.e 
r  be  ranked 
3ns  in  1715 
;curring  at 
he  French 
srwards  by 
le  renown. 


governed, 
linistered. 

lierpHitarv 

isistmg  of 
esent  the 


Book  I.  /^-I  v.      ENGLAND.  Kl  843 

Of  the  three  estates  of  the  realm  thus  composing  the  legislature,  the  King  is  itie  higheot : 
he  is  the  head  or  chief  of  the  parliament:  and  except  in  extreme  cases,  a  parliament  cnnnot 
bo  held  unless  convoked  by  him,  nor  can  it  except  by  him  bo  dissolved  or  proro'ruod.  His 
as$ent  is  requisite  to  give  the  force  of  law  to  any  measure  proposed  by  either  of  the  two 
houses,  and  agreed  upon  by  them.  Propositions  of  laws,  or  btlla  as  they  are  technically 
called,  may  be  brought  fbrward  in  either  house ;  all  money  bills  muat  take  their  origin  in  tiie 
House  of  Commons ;  but  only  in  one  instance  <;an  the  king  initiate  an  act  of  parliament,  and 
that  is,  an  act  of  grace,  for  the  ^rdon  of  persons  after  a  rebellion,  or  for  the  release  of  insol« 
vent  debtors. 

The  King  is  not  supposed  U  hold  his  throne  hy  divine  right,  or  in  virtue  of  any  indefea- 
Bible  liereditary  claim.  The  nvtion,  by  its  supreme  council,  has  dictated  certain  rules  of 
exclusion  with  regard  to  the  succession,  of  which  the  most  important  is,  tliat  the  sovereign 
shall  maintain  the  Protestant  rf  tbrmed  religion,  and,  either  at  his  coronation  or  on  the  ^r»x 
day  of  the  first  parliament,  shall  i<^peat  and  subscribe  the  declaiation  against  popery.  On 
the  death  or  demise  of  the  king,  his  heir  becomes  instantly  invested  with  the  kingly  office 
and  regal  power. 

By  a  constitutional  fiction  accordant  with  the  feudal  policy,  all  lands  are  held  mediately  or 
immediately  from  the  crown.  Thus  the  king  is  entitled  to  all  lands  left  by  the  subsiding  of 
the  sea;  and  estates  may  revert  to  him  by  escheat,  from  the  commission  of  crime  by  their 
possessors.  He  is  sovereign  in  ull  seas  and  great  rivers;  he  alone  has  a  prerogative  to  erect 
beacons  and  lighthouses ;  he  is  entitled  to  all  royal  mines  of  gold  and  silver,  and  is  entrusted 
with  the  coinage.  All  persons  bom  in  his  dominions  are  his  subjects,  and  owe  to  him  an 
allegiance  which  they  can  neither  renounce  nor  transfer  to  any  foreign  prince.  He  is  su- 
preme head  of  the  church  within  his  dominions;  and  as  patron  paramount  of  all  the  benefices 
in  England,  he  has  a  right  to  present  to  all  dignities  and  benefices  of  the  advowson  of  arch- 
bishopric j  and  bishoprics  during  the  vacancy  of  their  re^ective  sees.  He  is  the  fountain  of 
justice,  and  has  an  undoubted  prerogative  in  creating  ofncers  of  state,  ministers,  judges,  and 
other  functionaries.  To  him,  as  parens  patria,  belongs  the  care  of  all  who  are  unable  to 
take  care  of  themselves ;  he  has  an  original  right  to  superintend  the  disposal  of  charities ; 
and  in  all  such  cases  the  application  is  to  the  Cfourt  of  Chancery.  He  has,  in  certain  cases, 
the  high  prerogative  of  pardoning,  and  likewise  that  of  issuing  special  proclamations  for  tlie 
prevention  of  offences.  The  power  of  making  war  or  peace  is  lodged  singly  in  the  king.  He 
is  held  to  be  incapable  of  doing  wrong,  and  if  an  unlawful  act  be  done,  the  minister  instru- 
mental in  that  act  is  alone  obnoxious  to  punis^iment.  By  virtue  of  his  prerogative  the  king 
may  make  grants  and  letters  patent,  conferriag  various  rights  and  privileges.  Lastly,  the 
king  cannot  be  attainted,  and  is  never  a  minor;  though  when  the  crown  has  devolved  to  a 
very  young  heir,  it  has  been  thought  prudent  to  appoint  a  regent,  or  council  of  regency. 
The  sar.ie  expedient  has  been  adopted  when,  by  reason  of  grievous  illness,  the  exercise  of 
the  royal  fiinctions  has  b<en  interrupted. 

All  supplies  granted  by  parliament  are  given  to  the  king;  but  of  these  the  largest  pro- 
portion belongs  to  the  public  or  its  creditors ;  that  which  pertains  to  the  king  in  his  distinct 
capacity,  called  the  Civil  List,  is  the  provision  for  the  support  of  the  honour  and  dignity  of 
the  crown.  On  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  William  IV.,  the  civil  list  was  entirely 
new-modelled,  being  limited  to  the  personal  expenses  of  the  sovereign,  and  the  maintenance 
of  his  state ;  while  the  branches  of  administration  hitherto  defrayed  out  of  it  were  charged 
upon  the  Consolidated  Fund.    The  sum  of  510,000i.  was  granted,  under  the  following 

|]6fl.n8  *  • 

Privy  purse.  King's, JEOO.OOO 

Queen's, 50,000 

Maintenance  of  royal  establishment, 171,000 

Salaries  in  the  departments  of  Chamberlain,  Steward,  Master  of  the  horse, 

home  secret  service,  &c.  .----.i--    ------    154,000 

Pensions, -    -      75,000 

£510,000 

Thus  the  royal  prerogative  is  counterbalanced  hy  the  control  which  the  representatives 
of  the  people  in  parliament  exercise  over  the  public  purse.  The  king  has  the  prerogative 
of  commanding  arniies  and  equipping  fleets;  but  without  the  concurrence  of  his  parliament 
he  cannot  maintain  them.  He  can  confer  appointments  to  offices ;  but  without  his  parlia- 
ment he  cannot  pay  the  salaries.  He  can  declare  war ;  but  without  the  aid  of  parliament 
he  cannot  carry  it  on.  He  has  the  exclusive  right  of  assembling  parliaments;  but  by  law 
he  must  assemble  a  parliament  every  three  years.  Though  head  of  the  church,  he  cannot 
alter  the  established  religion,  or  call  individuals  to  account  for  their  religious  opinions.  He 
cannot  create  any  ncv/  office  inconsistent  with  the  constitution  or  prejudicial  to  the  subject. 
He  has  the  privilege  of  coining  money ;  but  he  cannot  alter  the  standard.  He  has  the  power 
of  pardoning  offenders ;  but  he  cannot  exempt  them  from  making  compensation  to  the  injured 
fearties.    Even  with  the  military  power  he  is  not  absolute,  since  it  is  declared  in  the  Bill  of 


344 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  in. 


Rightt  that  a  standing  army  without  the  consent  of  parliament  is  illefi^a).  The  liing  himself 
cannot  be  arraigned  ;  but  if  any  abuse  of  power  bo  committed,  tlioM!  who  wore  eittier  the 
advisers  or  the  mstruments  of  the  measure  may  be  impeached  uiid  tried  before  tlie  Houbp  of 
Lords;  in  which  case  it  is  of  no  avail  to  plead  the  kind's  command,  or  to  produce  his  pardon. 
A  dissolution  of  parliament  does  not  abate  an  impeachment,  neither  can  the  royal  aultiority 
interpose  to  stay  or  suspend  its  course.  Otlier  restraints  on  the  preroffative  exist  in  the 
uncontrolled  freedom  ot  speech  in  parliament,  socurcd  by  the  Bill  of  Ri^fnts,  and  in  tlie  im- 
|K>rtant  provisions  by  which,  during  tlie  reign  of  George  III.  *  the  independence  of  the  judges 
wiis  established. 

The  House  of  Lords  is  composed  of  the  l(>rdB  spiritual  and  temporal  of  England ;  sixteen 
tomporal  peers  of  Scotland ;  one  archbishop,  three  bishops,  and  twentv-eight  temporal  peers 
of  Ireland.  The  roll  of  the  lords  spiritual  and  temporiil  forming  the  House  of  Peers,  in  the 
session  of  18S3,  exhibits  426  lords,  mcluduig  the  Catholic  peers  of  England.  They  are  thus 
distinguished : — 


Rnyildukni 4 

Archbinhiirx  .,'■•• 3 

DiknH  with Eiifliih  titlet 31 

MirqueiMi 19 


Etrl* 100 

ViKoiinU 18 

BlKlinpi 37 

Baront 181 


Feen  of  BentUnd M 

of  Ireland 38 


Total. 


4S8 


The  Lords  Spiritual  are,  for  England,  two  archbishops  and  twenty-four  bishops ;  and  for 
Ireland,  one  archbishop  and  three  bishops ;  the  English  hold  their  seats  for  lite,  the  Irish  by 
rotation.  The  archbishops  rank  above  all  dukes  except  the  princes  of  the  blood ;  the  bishops 
next  below  viscounts. 

The  Lords  Temporal  are  not  limited  in  number,  it  beuig  the  prerogative  of  the  kin?  to 
raise  to  the  peerage  any  of  his  subjects  whom  he  thinks  deserving.  They  consist  of  dukes, 
marquesses,  carls,  viscounts,  and  barons.  The  sixteen  peers  of  Scotland  are,  by  the  articles 
of  union,  elected  by  the  peers  of  that  country  from  among  themselves:  the  election  is 
renewed  for  every  parliament  The  Peers  of  Ireland  are,  as  established  by  the  art  of  union, 
four  lords  spiritual  sitting  by  rotation  of  sessions,  and  twenty-eight  lords  temporal  elected  tor 
life  by  the  peers  of  Ireland.  As  a  supreme  court  of  judicature,  the  House  of  Lords  exercises 
jurisdiction  in  civil  causes  upon  appeals  or  writs  of  error  from  the  inferior  courts ;  and  in 
criminal  questions,  when  brought  before  them,  by  presentment  of  the  House  of  Commons,  in 
the  form  of  an  impeachment 

All  members  of  parliament  have  the  privilege  for  themselves  and  their  menial  servants  of 
being  freed  from  arrests  or  imprisonment  for  debt  or  trespass ;  but  not  from  a;redts  for  treason, 
felony,  or  breach  of  the  peace.  The  peers  have  other  privileges  peculiar  to  themselves.  In 
all  cdses  of  treason,  felony,  or  misprision  of  felony,  a  nobleman  ii;  tried  by  his  peers ;  but  in 
misdemeanours,  he  is  tried  like  a  commoner.  In  judicial  proceedings,  a  peer  gives  Iiis  ver- 
dict not  upon  oath,  but  upon  his  honour ;  he  answers  also  to  bills  in  chancery  u7<on  his  honour; 
but  when  examined  as  a  witness  in  the  inferior  courts  or  in  the  high  court  of  parliament, 
either  in  civil  or  criminal  coses,  he  must  be  sworn.  Slander  against  a  peer  subjects  the 
offender  to  very  heavy  punishment,  being  branded  by  the  law  with  the  term  scandalum  mag- 
nutum.  Every  peer,  by  license  from  the  king,  may  make  a  proxy  to  vote  for  him  in  his 
absence,  a  privilege  which  cannot  be  held  by  a  member  of  the  lower  house.  All  bills  which 
may  affect  the  rights  of  the  peerage,  are,  by  the  custom  of  parliament,  to  originate  in  the 
House  of  Peers,  and  to  suffer  no  changes  or  amendments  in  the  lower  house. 

The  House  of  Commons,  as  a  distinct  branch  of  the  legislature,  is  the  peculiar  boast  of 
the  British  constitution.  In  the  earliest  times  of  which  any  record  exists  in  English  history, 
there  appear  to  have  been  assemblies  of  the  nation,  convoked  to  deliberate  on  occasions  of 
great  emergency ;  but  it  was  not  until  (A.  D.  1266)  afler  the  overthrow  of  Simon  Montfort, 
earl  of  Leicester,  that  the  people  were  regularly  summoned  by  the  king  to  send  represent- 
atives to  the  ^eat  council  of  tJie  nation.  The  crown,  little  apprehensive  of  the  formidable 
character  which  the  House  of  Commons  was  afterwards  to  assume,  favoured  all  the  steps  of 
its  early  progress,  hoping  by  those  means  lo  counterpoise  the  overbearing  sway  of  the  greu  - 
barons,  and  at  the  same  time  to  obtain  supplies  of  money  from  the  growing  wealth  of^  the 
people.  The  decline  of  the  feudal  system  had  for  some  time  favoured  such  a  course  of  policy. 
Bironies  escheated  by  forfeiture  or  for  want  of  issue  had  been  subdivided ;  hence  arose  a 
class  of  men  called  i..  lor  barons,  holding  by  knight's  service ;  and  these  being  too  numerous 
and  too  poor  to  be  all  called  to  parliament,  and  to  rank  witli  the  greater  barons,  were  allowed 
to  sit  by  representatives.  Of  these  knights,  each  shire  was  summoned  to  send  two;  writs 
to  that  effect  being  addressed  to  the  sheriffs  of  the  several  counties.  The  Cinque  Ports 
probably  about  the  same  period  sent  their  barons,  and  the  cities  and  boroughs  their  burgesses. 
In  early  times  these  representatives  appear  to  have  considered  attendance  in  parliament  aa 
n  hardship  rather  than  an  advantage.  It  was  expensive,  ""d,  from  the  imperfect  police  then 
tistablished.  often  insecure ;  and  the  summcas,  being  always  the  prelude  to  a  demand  for 
money,  was  by  no  means  welcome.  With  the  granting  of  supplies,  however,  was  neces- 
sarily combined  the  right  of  petition,  of  stating  grievances,  and  demanding  {,'uarantees ;  and 
tliese  could  not,  by  a  sovereign  pressed  by  various  exigencies,  be  always  denied.    • 


PaetIH 

_»>nfif  himwlf 

|e  eiUior  the 

uie  IfouBP  of 

.e  his  pardon. 

Jyal  authority 

jexiet  in  the 

|d  ill  tile  im- 

pf  the  judjfcg 

ind;  sixteen 

ipoml  peers 

^eers,  in  the 

Phey  are  thug 


Id 


loui. 


4sa 


fops ;  and  for 
the  Irish  by 
;  the  bishops 

the  king  to 

ist  of  dukes, 

the  articles 

election  is 

act  of  union, 

il  elected  for 

rds  exercises 

urts;  and  in 

[^omnions,  in 

1  servants  of 
8  for  treason, 
mselves.  In 
eers;  but  in 
ives  ilia  ver- 
I  his  honour; 
parliament, 
subjects  the 
lalum  mag. 
him  in  his 
bills  which 
inate  in  tiie 

iar  boast  of 
ish  history, 
ccasions  of 
1  Montfbrt, 
represeiit- 
formiddble 
lie  steps  of 
'  the  jj-reu . 
ilth  of  the 
'■  of  policy. 
36  arose  a 
numerous 
re  allowed 
tvo;  writs 
que  Ports 
urffesses, 
iament  as 
)Iice  tlien 
?mand  for 
as  neces- 
ees;  and 


Boot  I.  ■''"■'     ENGLAND,  ^'i*'^'*"'  fll 

The  election  of  the  Commoiu  never  rested  on  any  principle  of  univenal  or  eten  geuenU 
sultiraKe,  exceptinff  perhaps  that  of  knights  for  each  shire.  As  the  kings,  howev'>r,  could 
iiiil,v  nttiiin  tlieir  objects  by  assembling  the  most  powortlil  and  influential  of  the  people,  they 
eruit-avoured  to  make  an  equal  distribution  of  the  right  of  election,  so  far,  at  least,  as  related 
Ui  prupe'iy  and  influence^  at  the  time  when  such  a  meatturu  was  adapte<l  to  countervail  the 
pr('|K)nderancu  of  the  barons.  In  atter-times,  when  seats  in  parliament  came  to  be  appre- 
ciated as  coutierring  a  desirable  privilege,  and  as  constituting  a  powerflil  check  on  the  pre- 
rci^'dtive  of  the  monarch,  it  would  have  been  irregular  to  have  allowed  to  the  king  an  arbi- 
trury  selection ;  and  all  parties  adhered  to  the  rights  conferred  on  tliem  by  earlv  gift  or  long 
u.-viKC  'I'his  permanence  of  the  elective  franchise,  amidst  the  local  changes  tliat  ensued  in 
tliu  course  of  ages,  gave  rise  to  some  very  striking  anomalies.  Manchester,  Leeds,  and 
Bevural  other  towns,  which  within  the  last  century  have  become  the  commercial  capitals  of 
tlie  kingdom,  did  not  send  a  single  representative ;  while  places  once  important,  but  now 
dwindled  into  insignificance,  returned  each  two  members.  Cornwall,  at  a  period  when  the 
Ti'A  of  the  kingdom  was  poor  and  rude,  enjoyed  an  abundant  source  of  opulence  in  its  tin 
mines,  and  retained  a  number  of  chartered  boroughs,  beyond  all  proportion  greater  than  those 
ol'  liny  other  county.  The  places  holding  the  right  of  election  were  in  many  instances  so 
giniill,  that  what  is  called  the  patronage  of  them  was  easily  acquired ;  and  that  patronage  of 
course  involved  the  advantage  of  nominating  one  or  both  candidates  for  the  representation. 
'J  li(!80  were  called  close  boroughs,  or,  more  rejiroachfuUy,  rotten  boroughs.  Another  anomaly 
coiiHisted  in  a  numlior  of  what  were  called  treasury  boroiipflis,  the  nomination  of  which  rested 
wilii  the  administration.  With  the  view  of  remndying  these  defects,  the  Reform  Bill  wa« 
pattHcd,  in  1832,  after  long  discussion  and  oppohition.  By  this  bill  fiftynsix  of  tlie  smallest 
boroughs  were  entirely  disfranchised,  and  thirty  were  reduced  from  two  members  to  one, 
while  Weymouth  and  Melcombe  Regis  were  reduced  from  four  to  two ;  a  reduction  was  thus 
mude  of  144  members.  In  the  room  of  these,  twenty-two  large  places, — Manchester,  Bir- 
niin^jham,  Leeds,  Sheffield,  Greenwich,  Sunderland,  Devonport,  Wolverhampton,  Bolton, 
Bliickbum,  Bradford,  Brighton,  Halifax,  Macclesfield,  Oldham,  Stockport,  Stoke-upon-Trent, 
Htrund,  and  four  districts  of  the  metropolis,  viz.  Marylebone,  Finsbury,  Tower  Hamlets, 
and  Lambeth, — received  each  tlm  right  of  electing  two  members;  while  twenty  smaller 
towns, — Ashton-under-Line,  Bury,  iChatham,  Cheltenham,  Dudley,  Prome,  Gateshead,  Hud- 
derHtield,  Kidderminster,  Kendal,  Rochdale,  Salford,  South  Shields,  Tynemouth,  Wakefield, 
Wulsall,  Warrington,  Whitby,  Whitehaven,  and  Mcrthyr  Tydvil, — acquired  Uie  right  of 
nominating  one  member  each.  At  tho  same  time  twenty-seven  counties  acquired  the  power 
of  sending  each  two  additional  members,  and  seven  that  of  sending  one  additional  member. 

The  representation  of  Great  Britain  now  stands  as  follows : — 

English  membera  for  countiea 143 

universities 4 

cities  and  borouglu 324 

471 

Webh  mQinben  lor  countiei 15 

cities  and  boroughs 14 

S9 

Scotch  memben  fur  counties 30 

cities  and  borougtiB 23 

53 

Irish   memben   for  counties 64 

university 2 

cities  and  boiouglis 39 

105 

Making  in  all 658 

The  qualifications  requisite  for  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons,  in  respect  to  pro- 
perty, are  these : — A  person  to  be  eligible  as  a  member  for  a  county  must  have  a  freehold  or 
copyhold,  or  must  have  been  mortgagee  in  possession  at  least  seven  years,  of  a  clear  estate 
of  the  value  of  6001.  per  annum ;  and  to  be  eligible  for  a  city,  borough,  or  other  place, 
except  the  universities,  of  the  value  of  300^  per  annum.  The  person  so  qualified  is  also  to 
be  of  mature  age,  and  must  take  the  oaths  imposed  as  indispensable  to  a  member  of  the 
legislature.  Among  the  persons  who  cannot  sit  in  the  House  of  Commons  are  judges,  cler- 
gymen, persons  holding  certain  offices  under  the  crown,  and  persons  having  pensions  under 
the  crown  during  pleasure  or  for  any  term  of  years;  sheriffs  of  counties,  and  mayors  and 
bailifTs  of  boroughs,  are  ineligible  in  their  respective  jurisdictions;  but  a  sheriff  of  one 
county  is  eligible  as  knight  for  another. 

The  qualifications  required  in  electors  differ,  as  they  relate  to  counties  or  to  boroughs.  In 
the  election  of  county  members  every  member  must  have  a  freehold  of  the  clear  yearly 
value  of  forty  shillinga,  over  and  above  all  rents  and  charges  payable  out  of  and  in  respect 
of  the  same,  and  must  have  been  in  the  actual  possession  of  it  for  twelve  calendar  months, 
unless  it  came  to  him  within  that  time  by  descent,  marriage  settlement,  devise,  or  promotion 
to  a  benefice  in  the  church,  or  to  an  office.     To  these  freeholders  the  new  bill  has  added  all 

Vol.  L  3T 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa»t  III. 


perioM  holding  proptitty  to  th«  amount  of  ten  poumli  on  copyhold,  or  on  Inum  of  not  l<>n 
than  sixty  yean;  anil  alim  thvuo  occupying  lamia  or  tenonionta  for  any  pt;riud,  at  a  rent  of 
not  loM  than  50/.  per  anniini. 

The  (;ualitlcationa  of  elocturx  for  cities  and  boroughs  wore,  provioun  to  the  preHent  net, 
extremely  various.  Thu  right  of  voting  in  ditferent  pliicoM  roHidod  variuuHly  m  thu  frco- 
hulders,  Uio  corporationa,  the  burgage  tonants,  and  •omotimoH  in  the  wholo  iMwly  of  ruaidunt 
houHolioldcri*.  The  new  act,  however,  admits  only  the  simple  qualiflcation  of  occupying  a 
house  rated  at  not  loss  than  10/.  per  annum.  Those,  however,  who  wore  tVeenien  under  the 
former  system  are  still  entitled  to  vote,  altliuugh  not  powoHwd  of  the  10/.  qualiiication, 
provided  they  reside  within  the  borough. 

The  mode  of  proceeding  to  an  election  tor  a  county  and  for  a  borough  is  nearly  the  same 
O'  A  ditMolution  of  parliament,  virits,  pursuant  to  a  warrant  fh)m  the  king,  are  issued  uiidoi 
tliu  great  neal,  addressed  to  the  i^tierifts  of  counties,  directing  thorn  to  summon  the  people  to 
elect  twu  knights  lor  each  county,  and  one  or  two  burgosscs  for  oach  borough.  To  supply  a 
vacancy  while  parliament  is  silling,  tlie  warrant  tor  Uie  writ  proceeds  At)m  tlie  Houmu  of 
Commons.  A  certain  day  aller,  the  date  or  teste  of  the  writ  is  hxed  for  the  election  to  cuin- 
mence ;  and  on  that  day  the  candidate  or  candidates  are  put  in  nomination,  at  the  uluce 
appointed,  in  the  presence  of  the  returning  ofRcer.  In  a  county  election,  the  sherifl'  or 
Uie  under-sheriff  is  the  returning  officer ;  in  a  city  or  borough,  ths  mayor  or  bailiff.  If  there 
be  rival  candidates  put  in  nomination,  the  returning  officer  calls  on  tlio  voters  for  a  dcclHioii 
by  a  sliow  of  the  hands,  afler  which  the  friend  of  any  candidate,  if  •liHsatisfied,  may  d(<n\nnd 
a  poll.  The  poll  was  formerly  taken  at  only  one  place,  and  mi^ht  last  for  titleen  days;  but 
under  the  new  act,  the  cities  and  counties  are  divided  into  districtti.  with  separate  boothH,  or 
polling-places,  appropriated  to  each.  The  poll  is  allowed  to  ecu  itinue  only  for  two  days, 
which  must  be  successive,  and  it  must  close  at  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  the  Hecond 
day.  Poll  clerks  attend,  to  record  the  names  of  the  voters,  and  their  accuracy  is  watched 
by  inspectors  nominated  on  each  side.  The  returning  officer  who  presides  must,  if  reciuired, 
oblige  tlio  candidates  to  swear  to  their  qualifications.  At  the  close  of  the  election,  or 
on  the  following  day,  the  returning  officer  declares  the  names  of  the  persons  who  have  the 
majority  of  votes;  and,  unless  a  scrutiny  be  demanded,  he  forthwith  makes  his  return. 

The  duration  of  a  Parliament  has,  tor  more  than  a  century,  been  extended  to  the  t(<rni  of 
seven  years,  from  that  of  three,  to  which  it  was  formerly  limited.  The  king,  however,  has 
the  power  of  dissolving  parliament  at  any  time ;  he  can  also  prorogue  it  at  any  time  and  for 
any  period ;  and,  as  such  prorogation  concludes  the  session,  it  puts  an  end  to  all  bills  or  other 
proceedings  depending  in  either  house,  which  must  in  the  next  session  be  again  instituted, 
as  if  they  had  never  been  begun.  Either  house,  or  both  houses,  may  adjourn  of  thtiir  own 
accord,  and,  at  their  meeting  again,  may  take  up  the  bills  and  other  proceedings  in  tlic  state 
of  advancement  in  which  they  were  left.  A  session  of  parliament  usually  commences  in 
January  or  February,  and  continues  until  June  or  July. 

At  the  commencement  of  every  session  committees  of  the  whole  house  are  appointed ;  one 
called  the  Committee  of  Supply,  to  consider  the  amount  required  by  the  crown  for  the  ser 
vice  of  the  army,  navy,  ordnance,  and  other  departments ;  and  the  other  the  Committee  oj 
Wayg  and  Means,  to  devise  modes  of  raising,  by  taxes  or  loans,  the  sums  which  the  house 
have  granted.  In  this  committee  of  ways  and  means,  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  in 
an  exposition  technically  called  the  Budget,  demonstrates  to  the  house  in  detail  that  the 
sums  voted  are  sufficient  to  justify  the  committee  in  imposing  such  taxes,  or  sanctioning 
such  loans,  as  are  then  recommended.  When  the  two  committees  are  closed,  the  House  of 
Commons  pass  a  bill  in  which  t  iie  grants  made  in  the  committee  of  ways  and  means  are 
recapitulated,  and  directed  to  bt  applied  to  the  services  voted  by  the  committee  of  supply 
specifying  the  particular  sums  grunted  for  each  service. 

Parliament  have  the  sole  right  of  making,  altering,  and  amending  all  the  laws  of  the 
kingdom,  and  by  their  authority  alone  can  taxes  be  imposed  or  levied.  An  annual  vote  of 
the  House  of  Commons  is  requisite  to  maintain  the  land  and  sea  forces  at  the  degree  of 
strength  which  is  every  year  fixed  and  determined  upon.  By  these  and  other  privileges, 
the  annual  meeting  of  parliament  is  secured  without  any  express  stipulation  to  that  efiecl.. 
By  withholding  these  annual  votes  they  may  testify  their  disapprobation  of  the  measures  of 
government,  and  even  compel  it  to  change  its  ministers ;  indeed,  the  principle  has  now 
become  indisputable,  that  the  minister  who  cannot  rely  on  a  majority  of  votes  in  parliament 
is  disabled  from  conducting  the  afikirs  of  the  nation. 

The  Privy  Council  is.  composed  of  persons,  appointed  by  the  king,  who  are  bound  by  oath 
to  advise  their  sovereign  to  the  best  of  their  judgment  with  all  the  fidelity  and  secrecy  whirh 
their  station  prescribes.  The  king  with  the  advice  of  his  privy  council  publishes  proclaniu- 
tions  binding  on  the  subject;  but  they  are  to  be  consonant  to,  and  in  execution  of,  the  laws 
of  the  land.  The  power  of  the  council  is,  to  inquire  into  all  offences  against  the  govern- 
ment, and  to  commit  the  offenders  to  safe  custody  for  trial  in  some  of  the  courts  of  law ;  but 
persons  so  committed  are  entitled  to  their  habeas  corpus  as  much  as  if  they  had  been  com- 
mitted by  an  ordinary  justice  of  the  peace.   The  privy  council  is  a  court  of  appeal  in  planV 


p*»T  in. 

J«  of  not  le,, 
|i  i»l  a  rem  of 

prewnt  net, 

III  the  frpo. 

\y  of  rciident 

occiipyiniii-  a 

nen  under  tho 

I  qualification, 

'ly  the  Hame 

""ued  undei 

the  people  to 

To  supply  a 

"iO    lIoUHf  of 

'ctioH  to  coin. 
at  tho  place 
*o  Hherifl"  or 
'.I'ff:    If  there 
[for  a  dccidion 
may  (lenmnd 
'en  days ;  but 
ate  b<MjthH,  or 
for  two  days, 
<>♦'  tlio  Hccond 
cy  is  watched 
't,if  require<l, 
'  election,  or 
who  have  the 
1  return, 

0  the  term  of 
however,  has 

'  time  and  for 

1  bills  or  other 
tin  instituted, 
I  of  their  own 
rs  in  the  stiite 
ommeiiceB  in 

)pointed ;  one 
n  for  the  eer 
Committee  oj 
ich  the  house 
!xchequer,  in 
tail  that  the 
'  sanctioning 
he  House  of 
id  means  are 
■e  of  supply 

laws  of  the 
nual  vote  of 
e  degree  of 

privilepea, 

that  eflecl, 
measures  of 
le  has  now 
parliament 

nd  by  onth 
recy  whirh 
I  proclaniu- 
f,  the  laws 
le  govern- 
f  law ;  but 
been  com- 
1  in  plant* 


Bool  L 


ENGLAND. 


W 


tlioo  and  tilminltv  cauaei,  which  ariM  out  of  the  jurisdiction  of  th«  kingdom,  m  also  in 
ci»n»  of  uliotcy  anu  lunacy.  When  quoationH  ariao  Uitween  two  colonixH  reiiMicting  the 
extent  of  their  charter,  "the  kiiiff  in  council"  exerciM*  uri|;inal  juriadiction  in  tiiuin,  t  n  the 
principles  of  feudal  suvoreignty  ;  he  aU>  cletunninoii,  on  tho  mnie  principle,  the  validitv  of 
claimM  to  an  island  or  province  founded  upon  grant  from  the  king  or  his  aiiceittiirs.  Butirom 
til  the  dominions  of  the  crown  excepting  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  an  appellulv  jurisdiction, 
in  tho  laat  resort,  is  vested  in  the  privy  council.  The  judicial  authority  is  exercised  in  a 
coniniittee  of  the  whole  privv  council,  who  hear  allegations  and  proois,  and  make  their 
report  tu  hi$  majeity  in  council,  hy  whom  judgment  is  finally  given.  The  dissolution  of  the 
privy  council  depends  on  the  pleiumre  of  the  king,  who  may  at  his  own  discretion  discharge 
any  member,  or  the  whole  of  them,  and  appoint  another  council.  It  continues  six  muntlia 
afler  the  demise  of  the  crown,  iiiilesH  sooner  determmed  by  tht  ^uccossor.  Any  natural- 
born  subject  of  England  ia  capable  uf  being  a  mombor  of  tho  privy  council,  taking  the  proper 
oaths  for  security  of  the  government  and  test  ibr  tlie  security  of  tlie  church.  A  privy  coun- 
sellor, if  he  be  only  a  private  gentleman,  is  styled  right  honourable,  and  takes  precedence 
of  all  knights,  baronets,  and  the  younger  sons  of  all  hirons  and  viscounts. 

A  cabinet  council  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  recognise«l  by  the  constitution,  but  by  uxage 
it  is  regarded  as  a  body  selected  bv  the  sovereign  to  conduct  llio  business  of  tho  Htiite ;  and 
the  members  composing  it  are  held  to  be  the  responsible  advisers  of  the  crown.  The  cabinet 
council  usually  consists  of  those  ministers  of  state  who  exorcise  tho  most  important  func'iono 
of  the  executive  authority ;  thoir  number  and  selection  depend  only  on  tho  kingV  plenHuro ; 
and  each  member  receives  a  summons  for  every  attendance.  Though  this  body,  as  consti- 
tuting what  is  eHsentially  the  government,  be  composed  principally  of  officers  o''  state ;  yot 
a  privy  counsellor  selected  by  tho  king  as  a  member  of  his  cabinet  council,  mav  hold  hin  ne-it 
as  such,  without  accepting  any  particular  office.  The  officers  of  state  are  tlic  onuiner<i'  id 
in  the  following  lists : — 

Offietr$  9f  8tatt  forming  lk$  Cabintt. 

Bncrt-tary  of  State  fnr  Cnlonlei  and  War. 


Firit  Lord  of  the  Treatury. 

Lnril  Chancellor. 

Loril  Privy  Beftl.  "    V 

Presidfint  of  the  Council, 

Bflcretary  of  State  fur  the  Home  Department. 

Secretary  of  State  for  the  Foreign  Dcpurlment, 


Lord  Chamberlain 
Lord  Steward. 
Manter  of  tho  Horae. 
Berrutary  at  War. 
Treaiiirer  of  the  Navy. 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 
Paymaiter  of  the  Forces. 

Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland. 
Lord  Chancellor. 
Commander  of  the  Foreei. 
Chief  Secretary. 


Chancellor  '>f  tlio  Exchequer. 
Firit  Ixinl .  r  tlio  Admiralty. 
Maitor.genurul  of  the  Ordnance. 
Preiiident  of  tho  Board  of  Confri 
Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lam   iter. 

OgUtri  ej  8UU$  not  qf  (A<  Cabinet. 

Vice-Preiidont  of  tho  Board  of  Trade. 
Poitmaater-Ouneral. 
Llpiitcnnnt-Ofneral  of  the  Ordnance. 
Firxt  Coniiiiiiiiiouer  of  tho  Land  Revenut. 
Attorney  Hencral. 
Bolicitor-Geueral. 

Ireland, 

Vice-Treanurer. 
Attorney  Onneral. 
SolicitorGiMieral. 


That  officer  of  state  who  holds  the  appointment  of  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  is  hjr 
eminence  the  minister.  In  the  event  of  a  change  of  ministry,  tho  person  who  is  directed 
by  the  king  to  form  another,  receives  an  implied  offer  of  i^tt  high  office,  and  is  generally 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  administration.  The  first  lor  ■  ;'  '.a  treasury,  that  is,  the  first  of 
the  five  lords  commissioners  for  executing  the  office  of  lo  i  high  treasurer,  possesBos  mo«it 
of  the  powers  formerly  held  by  the  lord  high  treasurer,  and  is  sometimes,  though  not  in- 
variably, chancellor  and  under  treasurer  of  the  exchequer.  The  revenue  applicable  to  the 
general  purposes  of  the  state  is,  with  a  trifling  ex  ;  ption,  derived  entirely  from  taxes.  In 
the  course  of  the  last  century  it  increased  to  an  amount  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  any 
other  country ;  but  in  consfuiuence  of  the  wara  in  which  Great  Britain  was  cngafjed  with 
little  intermission  until  the  year  1815,  it  did  not  keep  pace  with  the  expenditure,  and  an 
enormous  debt  was  gradually  contracted,  the  interest  on  which  occasioned  a  correspondent 
increase  of  taxation. 

Since  1817,  a  deduction  has  been  made  of  about  sixty  millions  from  the  principal  of  the 
debt,  and  about  Jive  millions  from  the  annual  charge  on  its  account.  This  diminution  has 
been  principally  effected  by  taking  advantage  of  the  fall  in  the  rate  of  interest  since  the 
peace,  and  offering  to  pay  off  the  holders  of  different  stocks,  unless  they  consented  to  accept 
a  reduced  payment. 

The  system  of  fiinding  by  which  the  debt  has  been  rendered  national,  rests  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  assigning  for  the  amount  of  a  loan,  an  equivalent  amount  of  nominal  capital,  I)caring 
interest  charged  on  the  national  revenue  in  half-yearly  payments  called  dividends,  or  of 
terminable  annuities  also  payable  half-yearly.  Annuities  granted  for  an  indeflnito  period 
are  called  redeemable  debt,  being  fedeemable  at  the  option  of  government  when  at  par ; 
tJiose  granted  for  a  limited  period  are  called  irredeemable  debt ;  they  exist  only  lor  a  certain 
number  of  years,  and  a  portion  of  the  capital  is  annually  absorbed  in  the  interest.    The 


»48 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  rii. 


lili 


funds  are  respectively  designated  according  to  the  rate  per  cent,  they  bear*  and  the  sfioro 
which  a  public  creditor  holds  in  any  of  them,  beuig  transferable  by  sale  under  the  name  of 
stock,  they  constitute  a  kind  of  circulating  capital. 

The  rate  of  interest  granted  on  certain  portions  of  the  national  debt,  though  nommall; 
lower  than  that  of  five  per  cent  allowed  by  law,  has  been  rendered  advantageous  to  the 
lender  by  being  charged  on  a  larger  amount  of  nominal  capital  than  the  sum  borrowed 
Loans  have  been  made  in  funds  at  four  and  five  per  cent,  but  the  greater  part  has  bee 
made  in  a  fund  bearing  three  per  cent  interest  on  the  nominal  capital,  and  commonly  calle 
the  three  per  cent,  consolidated  annuities.    The  prices  of  these  and  other  annuities  consti 
tuting  the  redeemable  debt  are  rated  according  to  the  money  value  of  one  hundred  pound 
on  such  stock ;  terminable  annuities  according  to  the  number  of  years'  purchase  which  they 
are  supposed  to  be  worth. 

Particular  taxes  were,  at  an  early  period  of  the  funding  system,  appropriated  to  defhy 
the  interest  of  different  descriptions  of  debt;  but  in  the  year  1786,  the  whole  were  collected 
into  one  fund,  called  the  Consolidated  Fund.  The  particular  branches  of  revenue  included 
in  it  were  the  customs  (with  the  exception  of  a  certain  amount  applicable  to  other  public 
services),  the  excise,  the  stamps,  the  land  and  assessed  taxes,  and  the  post-office.  To  this 
fund  are  applicable  moneys  arising  ftom  other  resources,  specified  in  the  annual  accounts. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  progress  of  the  national  debt,  fi-om  the  Revolution  to 
the  present  time: — 


DbMi  at  the  Revolution  In  lAft9 

Principal. 

Interest. 

604,203 
15,730,439 

£ 

39,85S 

1,271,087 

ExccM  of  debt  contracted  during  the  reign  of  William  III.  above  debt 
naid  off.  •>« .......* ■■■ 

10,394,708 

1,310,942 

54,145,363 

3,351,358 

Debt  ai  the  accession  of  (George  II.  in  1737 • • 

52,092,238 

2,217,551 

Debt  at  the  oeace  of  Paris,  in  1763 • 

138,865,430 

4,852,051 

Debt  at  the  commencement  of  the  American  war  in  1775 

128,583,635 

4,471,571 

249,g51,()28 

9,451,772 

Debt  at  the  cnrnmcncement  nf  the  French  war  in  1703 

239,350,148 
608,932,329 

9,208,495 
24,645,971 

Total  (Unded  and  unfunded  debt,  5th  January,  18]7,  when  the  English  and 
Irish  Exchequers  were  consolidated 

848,282.477 

33,854,466 

A  sinking  fund  for  the  gradual  reduction  of  the  debt  had  been  formed  by  Sir  Robert  Wal- 
pole  in  1716,  but  had  been  so  frequently  encroached  upon,  that  in  the  course  of  half  a  cen- 
tury, it  had  not  extinguished  above  fifteen  millions.  Its  revival  formed  part  of  the  financial 
arrangements  of  Pitt  in  1786.  Out  of  the  aggregate  of  the  taxes  applicable  to  the  consoli- 
dated fund,  government  then  pledged  itself,  that  one  million  annually  should  be  paid  to  the 
commissioners  for  the  reduction  of  the  national  debt  To  this  annual  million  were  added  the 
amount  of  government  annuities  as  they  successively  expired,  and  the  interest  of  such  stock 
as  was  annually  redeemed.  In  1792,  Pitt  obtained  an  act  of  parliament  declaring,  that 
besides  a  provision  for  the  interest  of  any  loan  that  might  be  thenceforward  contracted,  taxes 
should  be  imposed  for  a  sinking  flind  of  one  per  cent  on  the  capital  stock  created  by  it 
which  should  be  exclusively  employed  in  the  liquidation  of  such  particular  loan;  and  that  no 
relief  should  be  afforded  to  the  public  from  the  taxes  which  constituted  the  one  per  cent, 
sinking  fund,  until  a  sum  of  capital  stock,  equal  in  amount  to  that  created  by  the  loan,  had 
been  purchased  by  it.  That  being  accomplished,  both  the  interest  and  the  sinking  fiind  were 
to  be  applicable  to  the  public  service.  It  was  calculated  that  under  the  most  unfavourable 
circumstances,  each  loan  would  be  redeemed  in  forty-five  years  from  the  period  when  it  was 
contracted.  The  provisions  in  this  act  ind  in  the  former  act  of  1786,  were  altered  by  sub- 
secjuent  enactments ;  but  by  an  act  passed  in  1813,  those  alterations  were  rescinded ;  and 
it  was  provided  first,  that,  as  a  sum  equal  to  the  debt  of  1786,  and  hearing  an  interest  nearly 
equal  to  the  interest  of  that  debt,  was  then  vested  m  the  liands  of  the  commissionor3,  tlie 
dtsht  of  1786  should  be  declared  discharsred  as  soon  as  the  interest  of  tlie  debt  redcempd 
ehoaid  bncome  fully  equal  to  that  debt ;  the  sums  appropriated  to  its  interest  and  sinking 
ftsnd  applied  to  the  charge  of  future  loans,  anl  no  new  taxes  imposeil  for  interest  ann  sinking 
flind  of  those  loans,  till  the  same  should  amount  to  a  sum  equal  to  the  interest  of  that  con- 
sidered as  released.  Secondly,  tliat,  instead  of  applying  the  one  per  cent,  sinkinjr  tiind  on 
each  loan  to  the  separate  discharge  of  that  loan,  the  whole  funds  of  that  kind  united  siiould 


-.-^.Jfe." 


lid  the  share 
the  name  of 

fh  nominaJly 
keous  to  the 
pi  borrowed 
^rt  has  bee 
■monly  calle 
luities  consti 
lured  pound 
■>  which  they 

I  -  to  defhy 
pre  collected 
Jiue  included 
■other  public 
ve.  To  this 
I  accounts. 
Revolution  to 


Interest. 
£ 

1.310,912 
3,35], 358~ 
_2^2I7,55r 
4,852,05? 
4.471,571 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


349 


_9.4S1,772 
5',a08,4R5 


obert  Wal- 
fialf  a  cen- 
G  financial 
he  consoli- 
'aid  to  the 
added  the 
'uch  stock 
ring-,  that 
>ted,  taxes 
ited  by  it, 
id  that  no 
per  cent, 
loan,  had 
iind  were 
tvourable 
3n  it  was 
1  by  sub- 
led;  and 
't  nearly 
iPrs,  the 
'deemed 
sinking 
sinking 
nt  con- 
fiintl  on 
I  should 


be  applied  to  the  discharge  of  the  first  contracted  loan,  and  successively  to  the  redemption 
of  all  the  loans  contracted  since  1792 ;  the  whole  sinking'  fund  created  in  1786,  or  subse- 
quently, being  continued  for  the  redemption  of  all  debts  then  existing  or  to  be  created.  Tlie 
system  established  by  this  act  continued  until  March,  1823,  when  an  act  of  parliament  was 
passed,  directing  that  on  the  5th  of  April  of  that  year,  all  payments  out  of  tlie  consolidated 
fund  to  the  commissioners  for  the  reduction  of  the  national  debt  should  cease,  all  stock  in 
their  names  be  cancelled,  and  that  in  Jiiiture  the  annual  sum  of  five  millions  shtill  be  payable 
quarterly  to  the  commissioners,  and  set  apart  for  the  reduction  of  the  debt,  not  to  be  infringed 
upon  until  the  accumulation  of  this  sum  shall  amount  to  one  hundredth  part  of  the  debt  then 
existing:  at  present,  however,  the  sinking  fund  is  declared  to  be  the  excess  of  income  over 
expenditure,  whatever  that  may  be.     In  1830  it  amounted  to  2,792,707i.  14s.  Old. 

On  the  consolidated  fund  are  likewise  charged  the  annuities  for  forty-five  years,  created 
in  the  year  1822,  for  the  purpose  of  apportionmg  the  burden  occasioned  by  the  military  and 
naval  pensions  and  civil  superannuations  (collectively  called  the  Dead  Weight),  amountin^^ 
to  5,0UO,OOOZ.,  into  equal  annual  payments.  The  original  intention  was  to  contract  with 
parties  who  might  be  willing  to  engage  to  pay  into  the  exchequer  within  forty-five  years  the 
sum  wanted,  for  a  fixed  amount  of  annuity  for  forty-five  years;  but  no  capitalists  bemg  found 
to  accept  these  terms,  it  was  agreed,  instead  of  assigning  the  fixed  annuities  to  any  corporate 
body,  or  to  private  individuals,  that  t'^^y  should  be  vested,  namely,  2,800,000Z.  terminable  at 
the  end  of  rorty-five  years,  and  charged  upon  the  consolidated  fund,  in  trustees  appointed  by 
parliament;  payable  at  the  exchequer  half  yearly  (viz.  October  10.  and  April  5.),  and  to 
cease  in  April,  1867.  In  March,  1823,  a  portion  was  sold  to.  the  Bank  of  England  by  the 
trustees,  on  condition  that  the  bank  should  undertake  the  payments  to  be  made  in  pursuance 
of  the  act,  firom  the  5th  of  January,  1823,  to  the  5th  of  January,  1868,  upon  tlie  transfer  to 
the  bank  of  an  annuity  of  585,740Z.,  to  commence  from  the  5th  of  April,  and  to  continue  for 
the  term  of  forty-five  years.  The  total  amount  of  payments  undertaken  to  be  made  by  the 
bank  in  consideration  of  the  said  annuity  is  13,089,419{. 

Besides  the  funded  debt, 'there  is  generally  a  considerable  amount  in  exchequer  bills, 
navy  bills,  and  ordnance  bills,  denominated  the  unfunded  or  floating  debt.  Exchequer  bills 
are  issued  in  consequence  of  acts  of  parliament,  for  obtaining  part  of  the  money  required  for 
public  service.  They  are  sometimes  granted  on  the  credit  of  supplies  for  the  current  year, 
and  the  produce  of  the  annual  taxes  is  in  this  way  often  anticipated.  Sometimes  they  are 
charged  on  the  supplies  of  the  following  year ;  and  in  time  of  war,  a  large  sum  to  be  thus 
raised  is  generally  authorised  by  a  vote  of  credit  previous  to  the  rising  of  parliament.  New 
exchequer  hills  are  often  issued  in  discharge  of  former  ones ;  and  it  has  frequently  been  found 
necessary  to  fund  them,  by  granting  capital  in  some  of  the  stocks  on  certain  terms,  to  such 
holders  as  are  willing  to  accept  them.  Exchequer  bills  are  issued  for  100/.,  500/.,  1000/., 
and  upwards,  but  none  for  less  than  100/. ;  and  they  bear  interest  at  two-pence  a  dav  for 
every  100/.  After  being  in  circulation  they  are  received  in  payment  of  taxes  or  other  debts 
due  to  government,  and  sometimes  they  are  paid  ofT  pursuant  to  previous  notice  by  advertise- 
ment. The  daily  transactions  between  the  bank  and  the  exchequer  are  chiefly  carried  on 
by  bills  of  1000/.  each,  which  are  deposited  by  the  bank  in  the  exchequer,  to  the  amount  of 
the  sums  received  by  them  on  account  of  government ;  they  remain  in  the  exchequer  as 
pledges  or  securities,  of  course  bearing  interest  until  the  advances  on  which  the  bank  first 
received  them  are  paid  off.* 

Number  of  persons  deriving  incomes  from  the  funds.  It  appears  from  the  regular 
returns,  that  in  1830  (and  the  number  has  not  sensibly  varied  since),  274,823  dividend 
warrants  were  issued  to  persons  deriving  incomes  from  tlie  funds.  The  number  of  persons 
dependent  upon  the  funds  for  support  is,  however,  much  greater  than  appears  upon  the  face 
of  this  account:  for  the  dividends  upon  the  funded  property  belonging  to  public  establish- 
ments, are  paid  upon  single  warrants,  as  if  they  were  due  to  so  many  private  individuals. 

The  customs  and  excise  form  the  two  main  branches  in  the  collection  of  the  revenue;  the 
former  relating  to  goods  imported,  the  latter  to  those  produced  and  manufactured  within  the 
country.  Among  the  accommodations  to  trade,  established  by  Mr.  Pitt,  i^  the  bonding 
system,  by  which  the  goods  of  mei  chants  are  warehoused  under  the  joint  custody  of  the 
proprietor  and  of  government ;  payment  of  duty  not  being  demanded  until  a  sale  is  effected. 
This  has  been  also  extended  to  British  spirits. 

The  navy  is  the  force  on  which  Great  Britain  mainly  relies  for  maintaining  her  own 
independence  and  her  ascendency  over  foreign  nations.  By  it  she  has  acquired  the  sover- 
eignty of  the  seas,  and  the  advantages,  which  that  sovereignty  confers,  of  securing  her  pos- 
sessions in  the  most  distant  quarters  of  the  globe,  of  protectmg  her  commerce,  and  sustaining 
the  exertions  of  her  armies  during  war.  During  the  most  active  period  of  the  last  maritime 
war,  the  number  of  seamen  in  employment  amounted  to  140,000 ;  and  there  were  in  com- 
mission 160  sail  of  the  line  and  150  tirigates,  with  30,000  marine".    The  estimate  for  1831 


Vol,  L 


*aee  Statistical  Tables,  at  end  of  Chap.  IV. 

80 


850 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtIII. 


comprehended  22,000  eeatnen  and  10,000  marines.  The  pay  of  these  men  amounts  to 
1,081,000'. ;  their  subsistence,  to  603,000?. ;  which,  with  the  cost  of  stores,  and  allowance 
for  wear  and  tear,  raised  the  regular  current  expense  to  nearly  2,000,0001.  The  building 
and  repair  of  vessels,  the  charges  of  the  dock-yards,  pay  of  officers  connected  with  the  navy, 
and  a  variety  of  odier  items,  amounted  to  about  an  equal  sum.  These  charges,  with 
1,688,0002.  in  half  pay  and  pensions,  made  up  the  sum  of  4,657,0002.  as  the  entire  navy 
estimate  for  the  year  1831. 

The  military  force  of  the  nation,  at  the  close  of  the  French  wars,  amounted  to  200,000 
regular  troops,  exclusive  of  about  100,000  embodied  militia,  a  large  amount  of  local  militia 
and  volunteers,  to  which  might  also  be  added  a  number  of  regiments  employed  in  the  terri- 
tories of  tlie  E2ast  India  Company,  and  in  its  pay.  After  the  peace  of  1815  a  rapid  reduction 
of  the  military  establishment  was  effected.  The  militia  were  disembodied ;  the  regular  force 
was  reduced,  and  in  1835  the  estimates  were  for  81,271  men,  independent  of  19,720  employed 
in  India,  and  paid  out  of  the  land  revenue  of  that  country.  The  charge  for  these  forces  was 
5,784,808?. ;  but  about  half  of  this  sum  consisted  of  half-pay,  retved  allowances,  pensions, 
and  other  charges  consequent  on  the  former  immense  establishment. 

The  laws  of  England,  established  during  ten  centuries  of  legislation,  constitute  the  most 
extensive  system  of  jurisprudence  ever  constructed.  The  municipal  law  is  divided  into  two 
kinds,  the  unwritten  or  common  law ;  and  the  written  or  statute  law.  The  common  law 
derives  its  force  from  immemorial  usage ;  and  its  evidences  exist  in  the  records  of  the  seve- 
ral courts  of  justice,  as  well  as  in  books  of  reports  and  judicial  decisions.  It  includes  not 
only  the  system  by  which  the  ordinary  courts  of  justice  are  guided  and  directed ;  but  certain 
portions  of  the  ancient  civil  and  canon  laws  which  are  used  in  the  eccleiiastical  courts,  the 
military  courts,  the  court  of  admiralty,  and  the  courts  of  the  two  imiversities.  The  written 
laws  are  those  made  by  the  king,  lords,  and  commons,  in  parliament  assembled ;  they  are 
judicially  called  Statutes,  and  are  either  declaratory  of  the  common  law,  or  remedial  of 
some  of  its  defects.  The  statutes  are  also  distinguished  as  either  general  or  special,  public 
or  private. 

The  high  court  of  parliament,  independently  of  its  legislative  functions,  is  the  supreme 
court  of  judicature  in  the  kingdom.  The  House  of  Lords  exercise  jurisdiction  in  civil 
causes,  upon  appeals  or  writs  of  error  from  the  inferior  courts,  and  in  criminal  questions, 
when  brought  before  them  by  presentment  of  the  House  of  Commons,  in  the  form  of  an 
impeachment. 

The  high  Court  of  Chancery,  in  which  presides  the  Lord  High  Chancellor,  has  two  dis- 
tinct tribunals :  the  one  ordinary,  being  a  court  of  common  lu  .v ;  the  other  extraordinary, 
being  a  court  of  equity.  From  the  ordinary  or  legal  court  issue  all  original  writs  that  pass 
the  great  seal,  all  commissions  of  charitable  uses ;  as  also  of  bankruptcy,  idiotcy,  and  lunacy ; 
for  such  writs  it  is  always  open  to  the  subject.  In  the  extraordinary  court,  or  court  of  equity, 
the  chancellor  exercises  a  most  extensive  jurisdiction,  determining  causes  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  ordinary  tribunals,  and  others  iu  which  reason  and  justice  require  that  the  rigorous 
application  of  the  rules  of  common  law  should  be  mitigated.  These  decisions  emanate  from 
the  judgment  of  the  lord  chancellor  alone.  An  assistant  judge,  called  Vice-chancellor  of 
England,  has  power  to  hear  and  determine  all  causes  depending  in  the  court ;  all  his  decrees 
are  valid  and  effectual,  subject,  however,  to  reversal  by  the  lord  chancellor,  and  not  t'-  be 
enrolled  until  signed  by  him ;  nor  are  they  to  discharge,  reverse,  or  alter  any  decree  of  the 
lord  chancellor  or  of  the  Master  of  the  Rolls.  The  Master  of  the  Rolls,  who  ranks  next  to 
him  in  dignity,  and  holds  his  office  for  life,  acts  in  a  judicial  capacity  as  assistant  to  the  lord 
chancellor,  and  also  hen  and  determines  causes  on  certain  appointed  days ;  but  his  orders 
and  decrees  cannot  be  enrolled  until  signed  by  the  lord  chancellor,  who  has  the  power  to 
discharge  or  alter  them.  The  masters  in  chancery  are  twelve  in  number,  including  the 
Mestei  of  the  Rolls,  who  is  their  chief,  and  also  including  the  Accounfant-General.  They 
are  assistants  and  associates  of  the  lord  chancellor  and  the  master  of  the  rolls,  and  sit  with 
them  in  court  by  turns,  two  at  a  time.  In  1826  the  property  of  suitors  in  chancery  amounted 
to  more  than  40,000,000/.  The  masters  make  up  their  accounts  with  the  Accountant- 
general,  and  pay  into  the  Bank  of  England  all  moneys  remaining  in  their  hands,  to  be  placed 
to  his  account.  He  merely  keeps  the  account  with  the  bank,  the  governor  and  company 
being  answerable  for  such  moneys. 

The  Court  of  King's  Bench  is  the  supreme  court  of  common  law  in  the  kingdom,  and 
takes  cognisance  both  of  criminal  and  civil  causes :  the  former  in  what  is  called  the  crown 
side  or  crown  office ;  the  latter  in  the  plea  side  of  the  court.  It  is  also  a  court  of  appeal, 
into  which  may  be  removed,  by  writ  of  error,  determinations  of  all  tlie  courts  of  record  in 
England.    The  court  consists  of  a  chief  justice,  and  three  puisne  judges. 

The  Court  of  Common  Pleas  takes  cognisance  of  all  civil  actions  depending  between  sub- 
ject and  subject.  Many  questions,  however,  may,  by  legal  contrivances,  be  brought  into 
this  or  into  the  Court  of  King's  Bench  at  the  option  of  the  parties.  The  Court  of  Common 
Pleas  consists  of  a  chief  justice,  and  three  puisne  judges. 


POOK  I. 


ENGLAND. 


The  Court  of  Exchequer  has  jurisdiction  both  in  law  and  equity.  In  it  are  tried  all  qnes* 
lions  relating  to  the  revenue,  and,  by  fictions  of  law,  various  civil  actions  and  personal  suits. 
Tlie  judges  are  four ;  a  chief  baron  and  three  puisne  barons. 

Trial  by  jury,  an  institution  coeval  with  the  origin  of  the  constitution,  and  justly  valued 
by  the  people  as  the  bulwark  of  their  liberties,  is  employed  in  all  cases  between  the  crown 
and  the  subject,  in  all  criminal  cases,  and  in  all  those  for  which  damages  are  awarded.  The 
jury  in  England  consists  of  twelve  persons,  whose  verdict  must  be  delivered  by  their  fore- 
man as  unanimous,  or,  in  the  technical  phrase,  as  agreed  ufxm. 

Courts  of  Assize  and  Nisi  Prius  are  auxiliaries  to  the  superior  courts  at  Westminster  for 
the  trial  of  causes  in  every  county  in  England,  twice  a  year  in  most  counties,  once  a  year 
in  otheis.  The  counties  are  comprised  in  six  circuits:  1st,  the  Home  Circuit;  2d,  the  Mid- 
land ;  3d,  the  Norfolk ;  4th,  the  Oxford ;  5th,  tlie  Northern ;  and  6th,  the  Western  Circuit. 
These  circuits  are  supplied  by  the  twelve  judgec,  two  being  appointed  to  each.  In  these 
courts,  the  senior  or  superior  judge  generally  sits  on  the  crown  side  fbr  the  trial  of  criminals, 
and  the  junior  or  inferior  judge  on  the  nisi  prius  side,  for  the  decision  of  cases  of  property. 

A  Court  of  General  Quarter  Sessions  of  the  Peace,  held  in  every  county  once  in  every 
quarter  of  a  year  is  the  most  important  of  the  minor  tribunals.  Its  jurisdiction  extends  to 
all  felonies  and  trespasses ;  but  capital  felonies  are  usually  remitted  to  the  assizes.  The 
sheriffs  toum  is  also  a  court  of  record,  held  twice  a  year  at  some  place  within  the  county. 
The  court -leet  or  view  of  firank-pledge  is  a  court  of  record  held  once  a  ^ear,  within  a  par- 
ticular hundred,  lordship,  or  mtuior,  befbre  the  steward  of  the  leet.  It  is  the  King's  court 
granted  by  charter  to  the  lords  of  those  hundreds  or  manors.  In  aid  of  these,  and  other 
institutions  tending  to  the  maintenance  of  order  and  tranquillity  throughout  the  country, 
subordinate  magistrates  are  appointed  in  each  county,  under  the  name  of  justices  of  the 
peace.  They  hold  special  commissions  from  the  king,  and  are  empowered  to  suppress  riots 
and  affrays,  to  take  securities  for  the  peace,  and  to  commit  felons  and  inferior  criminals. 
Their  jurisdiction  is  enforced  by  constables  and  other  subordinate  officers.  ' 

Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry. 

The  productive  industry  of  England,  at  this  moment,  far  surpasses  that  of  any  other 
country,  either  ancient  or  modern.  Her  fabrics  clothe  the  most  distant  nations;  her  vessels 
traverse  alike  the  polar  and  equatorial  seas.  The  downfall  of  the  feudal  power;  the  civil 
and  social  advantages  which  the  people  acquired  under  the  last  Henries ;  and,  above  all,  the 
spirit  of  enterprise  diffused  among  them  under  Elizabeth,  gave  a  great  impulse  to  commerce 
and  industry.  It  was  not,  however,  till  tlie  era  of  the  Revolution,  that  the  nation  entered 
upon  that  grand  career  of  prosperity,  in  which  she  has  ever  since  proceeded  with  accele- 
rated activity. 

Agriculture,  as  the  greatest  and  most  essential  source  of  human  wealth  and  comfort,  must 
always  claim  pre-eminence  over  the  other  branches  of  human  industry.  For  two  or  three 
centuries  the  English  tenantry  have  been  an  independent  and  substantial  race.  Such  had 
been  the  progress  of  agriculture,  that,  even  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  England  had 
become  a  regular  grain-exporting  counlry.  Still,  fifty  years  ago,  the  practice  of  this 
important  art  was  comparatively  cumbrous,  costly,  and  unproductive.  Since  that  time, 
nobles  and  statesmen  have  vied  with  each  other  in  their  zeal  fbr  the  promotion  of  agricul- 
ture. Prizes,  exhibitions,  and  other  institutions  calculated  to  excite  a  spirit  of  improvement, 
have  been  established  on  a  great  scale.  Even  royal  patronage  was  extended  to  this  most 
useful  of  arts,  and  a  board  was  formed  under  public  auspices  for  its  promotion.  An  extraor- 
iinary  impulse  was  also  given  by  the  scarcity  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century;  when 
the  continental  ports  were  closed,  and  grain  rose  to  an  unprecedented  price,  from  which  it 
iias  since  been  reduced,  indeed,  but  not  to  its  former  rate.  The  old  routine  system  was, 
after  thit  crisis,  broken  up,  and  every  exertion  made  to  augment  the  products  of  tlie  soil. 
Commons  were  enclosed,  marshes  drained,  grasses  of  the  most  useful  species  cultivated,  and 
every  process  that  multiplied  experiments  had  proved  to  be  advantageous,  introduced.  Par- 
ticular attention  was  bestowed  in  improving  tlie  breed  of  cattle  and  sheep ;  and  for  the 
accomplishment  of  this  purpose,  the  best  species  were  imported  from  abroad.  At  the  same 
time,  economical  farming  was  greatly  studied ;  the  disproportionate  number  of  horses  and 
oxen  was  reduced ;  and  machinery,  particularly  the  threshing-machine,  came  into  general 
use.  Thus  a  great  augmentation  took  place  in  the  produce  of^  the  soil ;  still  greater  in  the 
profit  of  the  farmers,  and  much  the.  greatest  in  the  rent  of  the  landlord,  which,  in  many 
instances,  was  more  than  tripled.  Tne  reduced  prices,  however,  which  have  ultimately 
been  the  result  of  this  augmented  production,  have,  at  last,  rendered  it  difficult  to  suppor 
the  great  advance  in  tliis  last  particular. 

The  natural  fertility  of  England  is  not  equal  to  that  of  the  countries  in  the  south  of 
Europe.  Her  pastures,  however,  are  richer ;  and  her  soil  is  capable  of  yielding  all  the 
valuable  kinds  of  grain  in  abundance,  and  of  good,  if  not  superior  quality.  These  natural 
advantages,  improved  by  her  extraordinary  intlustry,  raise  tlie  agricultural  products  of  Eng 
land  to  a  much  greater  amount  tlian  those  of  any  other  country  in  Europe. 


852 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  hi. 


Tiie  surface  of  England  ip  thirty-seven  millions  of  acres.  About  half  a  million  is  occu. 
pied  by  roods;  and  if  we  also  make  allowance  for  waters,  natural  and  artificial,  &,c.,  we  may 
prob'Wy  have  to  deduct  two  millions  from  the  part  which  forms  the  proper  subject  of  airri- 
culture.  Of  this,  half  ia  under  the  plough,  and  half  devoted  to  pasturage;  upwards  of  tliroo 
millions  are  in  wheat;  about  three  millions  in  oats  and  beans,  and  between  two  and  three 
millions  in  barley.  About  300,000  cwt  of  hops,  of  the  value  of  £200,000,  and  4,400,OU() 
gallons  of  cider,  are  annually  produced. 

The  manufactures  of  Britain,  still  more  than  even  the  immense  products  of  her  agricul- 
tare,  have  astonished  the  world,  and  raised  her  tc  a  decided  superiority  over  all  other  nationn. 
This  distinction  she  has  attained,  not  so  much  by  their  extreme  fineness;  for,  as  to  this 
particular,  France  excels  not  only  in  silks  and  cambrics,  but  even  in  woollens ;  and  British 
porcelain  does  not  equal  that  of  Dresden.  But  she  stands  unrivalled  in  the  immensity  of 
useful  and  valuable  products,  calculated  for  the  consumptioi^  of  the  great  body  of  mankind ; 
and  above  all  in  the  stupendous  exertions  made  in  contriving  and  constructing  the  machinerv 
by  which  they  are  produced. 

The  woollen  manufacture  is  the  old  staple  of  the  country.  As  soon  as  England  began  to 
exercise  any  kind  of  industry,  her  first  aim  was  to  manufacture  her  own  wools,  instead  of 
leavin<;f  this  operation  in  the  hands  of  the  Flemings.  The  fabric  began  in  Kent  and  Sus- 
sex ;  but  soon  spread,  and  fixed  itself  in  the  interior  districts ;  that  of  coarse  woollens  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  and  that  of  the  finer  cloths  in  Gloucestershire  and  Wiltshire.  In 
1800,  the  total  value  of  the  fabrics  was  20,000,000/.,  of  which  not  much  less  than  half  was 
exported.  In  the  course  of  the  century  it  has  continued  increasing,  though  not  with  the 
same  rapidity  as  some  other  fabrics.  The  quantity  exported  has  not,  however,  been  aug- 
mented in  proportion.  In  1802,  it  exceeded  7,000,000/. ;  but  in  1832  was  only  5,240,000/. 
This  manufacture,  however,  depending  chiefly  upon  home  consumption,  is  less  liable  to  vicis- 
situde than  those  which  have  their  principal  ma.*ket  in  foreign  countries. 

The  wool  is  partly  produced  in  Britain,  partly  drawn  from  abroad.  English  wool  is 
divided  into  long  and  short.  The  former  was  long  considered  as  exclusively  adapted  to 
worsted  stuffs ;  but  the  recent  improvements  in  machinery  have  enabled  the  manufacturer  to 
produce  these  stuffs  almost  equally  well  from  shorter  wool.  TI.e  short  wool  is  fitted  for 
cloth  and  hats ;  but  all  that  is  produced  in  England  is  of  secondary  fineness.  Efibrts  were 
made,  about  the  close  of  the  last  century,  to  introduce  the  merino  breed  from  Spain,  and  not 
without  success ;  but  the  flesh  being  bad,  the  fiirmers  gave  it  up,  and,  devoting  themselves 
to  the  improvement  of  the  carcase,  have  allowed  the  woo}  even  to  degenerate,  though  the 
increased  quantity  is  supposed  to  indemnify  them.  The  best  short  wool  is  that  of  Sussex 
(Southdown)  and  Norfolk ;  the  best  long  wool  that  of  Lincoln.  The  number  of  shortrwoolled 
sheep  throughout  England,  in  1828,  amounted  to  about  14,850,000,  that  of  long-woollcd  tc 
4,150.000;  and  the  produce  was  264,000  packs  of  long,  and  120,000  packs  of  short  wool ; 
to  which  might  be  added  69,000  packs  of  lamb's  wool,  and  9000  for  Wales ;  making  in  all 
463,000.  The  defect  of  English  wool  renders  it  necessary  to  import  a  large  quantity  from 
abroad.  The  fleece  chiefly  valued  is  that  of  the  merino,  long  confined  to  Spain :  and  Spanish 
wool,  in  the  early  pcul  of  this  century,  was  introduced  to  the  extent  of  6,000,000  lbs.  annu- 
ally, but  in  1827  it  fell  short  of  4,000,000  lbs.,  and  in  1832  did  not  exceed  2,626,000  lbs.  It 
has  been  supplanted  by  the  wool  of  Saxony,  and  other  parts  of  northern  Germany,  where  tlie 
merino  breed  has  been  introduced  and  propagated  with  the  greatest  success.  The  importa- 
tion from  Germany,  which  in  1810  was  only  778,000  lbs.,  was  in  laSO  so  high  as  26,073,000  lbs., 
though  in  1832  only  19,832,000  lbs. :  New  Holland  and  Van  Diemen's  Land  in  that  year 
furnished  2,377,000  lbs.  of  very  fine  wool ;  and  the  supply  is  increasing.  The  entire  im- 
port amounted  in  1830  and  1831  to  about  32,000,000  lbs. ;  in  1832  to   nly  28,140,000  Ibs^ 

The  annual  value  of  the  woollen  manufacture  appears  to  be  about  20,000,000/.  gterlin^;, 
and  the  persons  employed  between  400,000,  and  500,000.  There  were  exported,  m  1832, 
396,661  pi'jces  of  cloth;  23,453  pieces  napped  coatings,  duffels,  &c. ;  40,984  pieces  of  .ker- 
seymeres; 34,874  pieces  baize;  1,800,714  stuffs  or  worsted;  2,304,750  yards  flannels; 
1,681,840  yards  blanketing;  690,042  yards  carpeting,  &c.  There  were  exported  also 
4,199,000  lbs.  of  British  wool,  and  2,204,000  lbs.  woollen  yam. 

The  cotton  manufacture  is  of  much  more  recent  introduction,  and  for  a  kng  period  the 
progress  of  this  branch  of  industry  was  slow.  In  1760,  the  value  of  the  fabric  was  only 
200,000/.  In  1767,  James  Hargreaves,  a  common  Lancashire  weaver,  invented  the  spinning 
jenny,  by  which  at  first  8,  and  finally  120  spindles  were  moved  by  a  single  spinner.  Har- 
greaves became  exposed  to  the  persecution  of  the  working  people  employ^  in  this  operation  ; 
was  obliged  to  flee  to  Nottingham ;  and  died  in  poverty.  Richard  Arkwright,  a  barber  of 
Nottingham,  invented  the  water-twist,  or  "  perpetual  twist,"  spinning  frame,  in  which  the 
whole  process  was  •.:?rfQnned  by  the  machine,  and  the  workmen  had  only  to  supply  the  material 
and  watch  its  progress.  Samuel  Crompton,  in  1775,  produced  the  machine  called  the  mule, 
a  combination  of  the  two  preceding,  which  it  soon  superseded  both  in  the  finer  and  more 
valuable  articles. 

Tiiat  machinery  should  weave  as  well  as  spin,  was  necessary  to  consummate  the  triumph 


Part  HI, 

lllion  is  occii. 
I*'".,  we  limy 
Pject  of  njrri. 
lards  of  tli^Ro 
•voand  throe 
nd  4,400,00() 

^  her  agricul- 

|)ther  nations. 

as  to  this 

and  British 

mmensitv  of 

|of  mankind; 

p  machinerr 

'd  began  to 
.  instead  of 
■nt  and  Sua- 
ollens  in  the 
-'iltshire.   In 
lan  half  was 
not  with  the 
'r,  been  mg- 
'  5,24O,(K)0i. 
iable  to  vicis- 

■lish  wool  is 
y  adapted  to 
lufacturer  to 
is  fitted  for 
Eflbrts  were 
^in,  and  not 
:  themselves 
,  though  the 
at  of  Sussex 
hort;woollod 
g-woolled  tc 
short  wool ; 
laking  in  all 
lantity  from 
and  Spanish 

0  lbs.  annu- 
,000  lbs.  It 
•,  where  the 
he  importa- 
^3,000  lbs., 

1  that  year 
entire  iin- 
,000  Ib^ 

^l.  |terlip(^, 
i,  m  18.32, 
3es  of.ker- 
flannels ; 
orted  also 

period  the 
was  only 
'  spinning 
er.  Har- 
peratioD ; 
barber  of 
.'hich  the 
I  material 
ihe  mule, 
^d  moro 

triumph 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


:i{M 


of  art.  This  wu  accomplished  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Cartwright,  a  clergyman  of  Kent,  who  in- 
vented a  machine  by  whicli  cloth  was  woven ;  but  the  first  trial  was  unsuccessful  us  to  profitt 
and  on  impression  long  prevailed  that  cottons  could  be  woven  cheaper  by  the  hand.  Witliin 
tho  last  few  years,  however,  the  system  of  power-loom  weaving  has  been  adopted  to  an  im. 
mense  extent ;  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  in  Britain  80,000,  absorbing  10,000,0002.  of  fixed 
End  5,000,00011.  of  floating  capital,  employing  160,000  operatives,  and  working  up  124,800,00i> 
pounds  of  cotton. 

The  steam-engine,  the  moving  power,  the  greatest  of  all  these  discoveries,  remains  to  bi 
tnentioAed.  Machines  moved  by  horses  and  water,  origuially  employed  in  manufacturing 
and  other  processes,  were  cumbrous,  expensive,  and  often  unmanageable.  The  steam-engine, 
brought  to  perfection  by  Watt,  became  at  once  the  moving  power  of  all  this  machinery,  and 
the  principal  cause  to  which  its  vast  results  may  be  attributed. 

The  cotton  wool  imported  into  Britain,  which  in  1781  little  exceeded  5,000,000  lbs.,  rose 
in  1809,  to  93,000,000;  in  1817,  to  126,000,000;  and  in  1832,  to  288,000,000.  The  finest 
is  that  called  Sea  Island,  a  name  given  to  what  is  grown  on  the  coast  of  Georgia  and  Caro- 
lina. The  bowed  Georgia,  produced  in  the  interior,  is  not  of  equal  value.  Next  to  the  Sea 
Island  rink  the  West  India  and  Brazil.  Of  the  quantity  imported  in  1831,  there  came 
from  the  United  States,  219,333,000  lbs. ;  from  Brazil,  31,695,000;  from  the  East  Indies, 
25,805,000;  from  the  West  Indies,  2,401,000;  and  from  Egypt,  7,714,000  lbs.  The  con- 
sumption of  printed  cottons  has  diminished  in  England,  silk  being  preferred  as  an  ornamental 
dress,  and  the  use  of  cotton,  printed  or  dyed  previously  to  weaving,  having  become  preva- 
lent The  demand  abroad,  however,  is  rtili  extensive,  so  that  the  amount  of  pieces  printed 
is  about  4,500,000,  giving  employment  to  100,000  persons. 

The  produce  of  the  cotton  manufacture  is  34,000,0002.  annually.  Of  this  18,000,000/.  is 
paid  in  wages  to  800,000  persons  employed  in  its  different  branches ;  and  allowing  for  those 
who  are  dependent  upon  them,  and  for  the  subsidiary  employments,  it  afibrds  subsistence  to 
not  much  fewer  than  1,400,000  people.  The  value  of  cotton  manufactures  exported  in  1831 
was  13,282,0002.;  of  twist  and  yarn,  3,975,0002.  They  were  chiefly  of  the  following 
descriptions: — Calicoes,  cambric  muslins,  dimities,  &c.,  299,.597,000  yards;  lace,  gauze-net 
and  crape,  48,164,000  yards ;  cotton  and  linen,  mixed,  1,668,000  yards ;  velvets  and  vel- 
veteens, 404,000  yards;  counterpanes  and  quilts, number, 23,000;  hosiery,  shawls,  handker- 
chiefs, &.C.,  536,000  dozen ;  tapes,  bobbins,  &,c.,  99,000  dozen ;  thread,  1,105,000  lbs. ;  twif^ 
and  yarn,  48,098,000  lbs. 

The  working  in  metals  is  also  one  of  the  branches  in  which  England  has  attained  to  a 
most  decided  pre-eminence.  About  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  rose  to  the  rank 
of  a  staple ;  and  within  the  last  half  century  it  has  greatly  mcreased  in  importance.  Shef- 
field, perhaps  the  original  seat  of  the  trade  in  England,  is  still  distingnished  for  the  most 
solid  and  useful  articles,  knives,  grates,  and  their  appendages,  agricultural  implements,  &c,; 
while  Birmingham  adds  to  these  utensils  a  variety  of  small  articles,  ornaments,  and  toys, 
which,  though  minute  in  detail,  amount  to  a  vast  value  m  the  aggregate.  Each  of  these 
two  great  cities  forms,  as  it  were,  the  centre  of  a  large  circle  of  population,  all  employed  in 
the  same  manner.  The  number  of  persons  employed  in  the  product  and  manufacture  of 
metals  is  estimated  at  350,000,  and  the  entire  produce  at  17,000,0002.  The  export  of  hard- 
ware and  cutlery  in  1831  amounted  to  16,799  tons,  value  1,620,0002.;  in  1832,  it  was  15,294 
tons ;  value,  1,433,0002. 

The  silk  manufacture  was  of  late  origin  in  England ;  but  it  was  coiip'  1  drably  improved  by 
the  revocation  gf  the  edict  of  Nantes,  which  drove  a  number  of  Frt  •  weavers  into  that 
country.  It  is  established  in  a  quarter  of  the  metropolis,  called  Spitaliields,  where  it  em- 
ploys about  25,000  men :  at  Macclesfield,  Manchester,  Coventry,  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
country,  the  number  occupied  in  it  may  amount  to  40,000.  The  entire  value  oi  the  manu- 
facture was  estimated  some  years  ago  at  4,000,0002. ;  and  may  now,  probably,  be  between 
5,000,0002.  and  6,000,0002.  Notwithstani!",;  -^  the  removal  of  the  prohibitory  duties  on  the 
importation  of  foreign  silks,  the  British  manufacture  has  maintained  its  ground,  and  gone  on 
increasing.  The  importation  of  raw  and  thro^vn  silk  in  1832  >-'ns  4,224,000  lbs. :  of  which 
1,814,000  lbs.  were  frorn  the  East  Indies  and  China;  1,006,001;  .is.  from  France ;  564,000  Vyr. 
from  Italy;  s.id  4^8,000  lbs.  from  Turkey.  The  exports  amo'onted  in  1832  to  525,  .*> 
chiefly  to  North  America  and  the  West  Indies. 

In  the  manufacture  of  earthenware  and  porcelain,  England  has  of  late  made  vast  ad- 
vances, and  brought  its  various  products  to  a  high  degree  of  beauty  and  elegance.  Burslem 
in  Staffordshire  had,  for  centuries,  been  noted  for  its  fabrication  of  a  coarse  kind  of  ware ; 
but  it  was  reserved  for  Mr.  Wedgwood  to  carry  this  art  to  perfection  by  a  combination  of 
elegance  and  cheapness.  Pine  white  clay  from  the  south-western  counties,  and  ground  flint, 
are  the  chief  materials  of  this  celebrated  ware,  which  bears  the  name  of  its  inventor.  The 
white  ware  of  Derby  and  the  porcelain  of  Worcester,  though  on  a  smaller  scale,  are  still 
finer  productions.  The  latter  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  13  different  materials,  and  each 
cup  passes  through  23  hands.     Earthenware  pays  no  duty,  so  that  its  amount  cannot  be  ofli- 

VoL.  I.  80*  2U 


»jiP«,W««»t« 


iiM 


DL-^ORIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtUL 


cially  asrefbined ;  the  eiport,  Lowever,  has  diminiBhed  from  nearly  700,000/.  in  1815-16 
to  on!)  ^j'i,\:m.  in  1832. 

}i\:}K-  1  !!  i-nported  from  all  quarters  of  the  world;  the  entire  quantity  in  1824  wu 
300,00>  n.,  <ralue  700,0002.  In  1830  only  225,000  cwt  were  imported.  In  that  year  the 
hides  taiii^t"!  or  otherwise  manufactured  amounted  to  46,800,000  lbs.,  value  3,000,0002. ;  and 
as  tlie  value  of  the  finished  article  is  supposed  to  be  three  times  that  :l  ;hc  mauriul,  this 
value  will  amount  to  nearly  12,IM10,00(M.  The  shoes  made  in  Enciund  ore  oetin.v.ted  a: 
6,8(K),00()Z.  and  the  whole  manU;MCture  employs  about  250,000  peKio)w. 

Beer,  glaas,  soap,  and  candles  ,re  branches  of  production  which  <« mplt-  ■>  >i  lar^n  capitui 
and  numerous  workmen,  p.nd  yieh*  a  yearly  amount  of  great  value.  Ja  Loi.dvn  the  tiuami'  / 
of  malt  liquor  annually  bt  wed  is  1,700,000  barrels,  of  whio'i  38,000  iije  exmirtsd.  ""m  )\ 
cliiefly  poiter,  a  liquor  peculiarly  uppropriate  to  London,  anii  .br  whit  a  the  is  tariioup  tiiiough- 
out  the  world.  In  all  England,  thes-e  were  brewed,  ?n  182^,  about  7,4(.>0,000  barrels,  ortiic 
value  of  \;pwards  of  22,000,0002. ;  without  inclndiriir  l,500,0Gv;  barrel  oi' table-beer,  tin- 
diet. — In  1829,  the  manufacture  aiiioucted  to  H(i,(i'!0,000  lbs.,  ■'  hicb  would  make  a  vane 
of  3,208,0002.  Soap. —  The  maiiuikviure,  in  ISi'J,  was  10U,000,000  lbs.  which  woi  Id 
ai.vjunt  to  3,175,0002. 

The  linen  manufacture  is  that  in  which  England  is  most  r! rficionV',  for  though  she  i;^  fj.ij,- 
rwHod  to  produce  the  value  of  1,000,00(\'.  a  year,  tiii^  doen  not  i  '..'.perKcde  the  n<3cessiiy  of 
'.•r;a  importa  from  ScotlaiJ  and  Ireland.  Of  late,  the  eL,t^nt  mnnufnclnre  <>"  lace  hcs 
ht-ci)  cnjried  tc  f■T''s.^  iierfe'ion  by  mksai.^  of  bobbinet  firamr,  By  this  mp.nufeclc^  a  vakio 
of  100,0! "Ol.  .1.  Ki'v  uid  Seu  Idland  cotton  i?  wrought  into  lacf,  eBtimuted  si  1,890,0002.  and 
eniployiiig'  2(>t  t.HN^  p«re  miJ.  DisHHed  liquotB  or  spirits,  too,  though  they  produce  a  revenue 
of  2,(>(M»,()002.,  arc  iieiiM  riTOal  in  quality  nor  amount  to  those  of  the  sister  countries  of 
R.'ctiand  and  Iiels  irt,  '.vik  jo  y,rc<luce),  if  it  had  not  been  excluded  hy  national  jealousy,  would 
ptp.'wh.y  hy  ihis  tii  it  ;  vc  urivoi)  ihat  of  England  out  of  the  market.  The  quantity  distilled 
in  18;ri  and  1832  wvtr.ifed  7,310,000  gallons. 

Min-M  fonn  otto  of  the  iiiost  copious  sources  of  the  wealth  of  England.  The  useful  metals 
and  iniret  als,  thiose  which  afford  the  instruments  of  manufacture  find  are  subservient  to  the 
daily  parj.'Ofses  of  life,  are  now  drawn  from  the  earth  more  copioufcly  there  than  in  any  other 
country.  Her  most  valuable  metals  are  iron,  copper,  and  tin ;  bei'  principal  minerals  ara 
Cfial  and  salt. 

Iron,  tho  material  of  so  important  a  class  of  manufacture,  abounds  in  England,  particularly 
in  Wales,  Htaftbrdshire,  and  Derbyshire.  While  it  was  Eupirosed,  however,  that  the  blast 
fiirnaces  cc  lid  be  composed  only  of  charcoal,  the  limited  supply  of  wood  depressed  the  pro- 
duce, and  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  the  iron  made  in  England  fh)m  fifly  new  fur- 
naces  did  not  exceed  17,000  tons.  It  was  then  found,  ho^vever,  that,  furnaces  filled  with 
coke  might  be  heated  to  the  sane  degree  os  those  of  charcoal,  and  the  inexhaustible  supply 
of  coal  might  be  employed  in  bringing  the  iron  mines  into  value,  Hence,  the  increased 
production  has  been  astonishingly  rapid.  In  1796,  it  amounted  to  125,000  tons;  in  1806,  to 
■ir)0,000  tons;  in  1830,  it  was  680,000  tons,  worth  5,100,0002. ;  and  which  the  additional 
labour  of  forming  it  into  bar  iron  may  rai'ae  to  6,300,0002.  The  export  amounted  in  1832  to 
r.bout  150,000  tons,  worth  1,120,0002.  It  is  exported  chiefly  in  the  forms  of  bar  iron,  to  the 
amount  of  74,024  tons ;  bolt  and  rod  iron,  6938 ;  pig  iron,  17,566 ;  cajst  iron,  12,495 ;  hoops, 
9417;  nails,  4347,  &c. 

Copper,  also,  has  risen  to  importance  m  the  course  of  the  last  half  century.  It  is  found  chiefly 
in  Cornwall,  to  the  amount,  in  1832,  of  11,947  tons,  and  is  carried  thence  to  Swansea,  to  ')e 
smelted  with  the  coal  of  North  Wales,  which  itself  produced  1320  tons  of  copper.  'I he 
total  produce  is  14,449  toa's,  which,  at  902,  per  ton,  will  be  1,300,4102. 

Tin,  a  rare  and  peculiar  metal,  is  found  only  in  Cornwall  and  part  of  Devon.  So  early 
was  it  known,  that  we  find  the  British  Islands  first  recognized  by  its  name,  and  it  is  enu- 
merated among  the  articles  with  nhich  the  Carthaginians  supplied  the  markets  of  Tyre. 
x\8  Cornwall,  with  the  exception  of  the  Indian  island  of  Bancn,  is  th'^  only  tract  known  to 
produce  tin  in  large  quantities,  there  is  a  considerable  export  to  m>  s.;  countries  of  Europe, 
particularly  France  and  Italy.  The  annual  produce  of  the  mines  ■  ■  ■mts  to  83,000  cwt. ; 
of  the  value  of  115,0002. 

Lead  is  found  in  Cumberland,  Derbyshire,  and  Northumberlar 
of  about  16,000  tons  an,  >  'y  ?  which,  at  202.  per  ton,  wij . "  wr 
British  lead  exported  v      .   ,898  tons. 

Coal,  the  most  valu^  >  .  ,  all  the  mineral  substances  frr   ,  <;  > 
perity,  exists  in  almost  inexhaustible  quantities  in  the  chiuw  . 
and  Stafford,  and  in  that  of  Glamorgan  in  South  Wales,    L  ft 
sleani  ^vniCu  sets  tue  maciiincry  in  motion,  and  is,  mdeeti,  .*  .cuv 
every  substance  into  a  useflil  and  merchantable  form.      By  %■ 
sity  of  extensive  plontations  for  fuel,  it  enables  a  much  ffreator 
devoted  to  cultivation.     The  Northumberland  and  Durl  iin  field 


le  supposed  amount 
jJifiOOl    In  1833,  the 


square  miles,  the  South  Wales  field  is  1200 ;  which,  allowing  for  the  average  depth,  will. 


■■■.  Britain  derives  her  proS" 

f  Northumberland,  Derby, 

the  metals,  produces  the 

■  'I  ^1    in    Kyinmnrp  nlmnafr 

oding  also  the  neces- 

ion  of  the  soil  to  be 

een  estimated  at  732 


Book  L 


ENGLAND. 


8M 


,t  is  calculated,  be  aufficient  to  supply  all  England  for  1700  or  2000  yeus-  At  all  events,  it 
geema  curtain  that  she  is  secure  ror  many  centuries  against  any  deficiency.  The  quantity 
thipi.:"^  from  Durham  and  Northumberland  is  stated  at  3,300,000  tons;  and  the  whole  em- 
ployed as  fuel,  and  in  the  manufactories  and  mines  throughout  Elngland  (adding  700,000 
expo;  ted  to  Ireland),  at  not  less  than  15,500,000  tons.  The  mines  on  the  Tyne  employed 
S491  persons  underground,  and  3463  above ;  those  on  the  Wear,  about  three-fourths  of  this 
nuuber :  the  conveyance  of  these  'coastwise  employs  1400  vessels  and  15,000  men ;  while, 
in  London,  7500  whippers,  lighter-men,  factors,  agents,  &c.  are  engaged  in  landing  and 
distributing  it  Taking  into  view  the  whole  of  Great  Britain,  Mr.  M'Culloch  considers  that 
the  coal  trade  will  give  occupation  to  not  less  than  160,000  persons.  In  1820,  the  total 
i|('antity  sliipped  was  6,224,125  tons;  of  which,  5,014,132  were  sent  coastwise;  840,246,  to 
Ireland ;  128,893,  to  the  British  colonics :  356,419,  to  foreign  countries. 

Of  salt,  Britain  possesses  an  ir'mense  supply.  The  finest  and  most  valuable  kind  is  the 
reck  salt,  drawn  from  mines  a  id  from  brine  springs  in  the  county  of  Chester.  The  salt  is 
refined  by  being  boiled  along  with  the  brine  of  the  nrings,  and  is  then  called  white  salt 
The  annual  prr^uce  is  15,0^,000  bushels,  of  which  about  10,000,000  are  exported,  chiefly 
to  North  America,  the  Netherlands,  and  Russia. 

The  commerce  of  Britain,  like  her  manufacturing  industry,  is  now  completely  without  a 
rival.  The  exports  of  Britain  consist  almost  wholly  of  her  manufactured  produce.  Cotton 
takes  the  precedence  of  all  others.  In  1830,  the  quantity  exported,  including  twist  and 
yarn,  was  valued  at  about  15,000,000/.  sterling ;  being  two-fiilhs  of  the  whole  exportation. 
They  are  sent  to  every  country,  but  most  especially  to  those  from  which  the  raw  material  is 
imported.  The  United  States  take  an  immense  quantity ;  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil  im- 
port largely ;  the  market  in  the  independent  states  of  South  America  is  daily  enlarging,  and 
they  make  their  way  in  increasing  quantities  even  into  the  East  Indies.  In  Europe,  Portu- 
gal and  Italy  are  extensive  markets ;  and  though  studiously  excluded  from  Spain,  large  con- 
signments are  sent  to  Gibraltar,  evidently  with  a  view  to  clandestine  introduction.  Germany 
takes  a  great  quantity  both  of  manufactured  goods,  and  of  yarn  and  tw)stfor  her  own  manu- 
factories. The  woollen  manufacture  has  a  different  and  less  extensive  range.  The  United 
States,  the  greatest  market  take  three-eighths  of  the  whole ;  after  which  rank  the  East  In- 
dies, Russia,  Portugal,  and  Germany.  The  wrought  metals  find  a  great  variety  of  markets. 
Of  bar  iron,  7000  tons,  and  copper  50,000  tons,  go  to  the  East  Indies.  Ireland  takes  7000 
tons  of  bar,  700  of  cast,  and  2300  of  wrought  uron.  The  West  Indies  take  largely  both 
iron  and  copper.* 

Among  the  imports,  a  large  portion  consists  of  raw  materials,  brought  in  vast  quantities  to 
be  manufactured,  in  many  instances  for  the  use  of  the  regions  fh)m  which  they  come.  Under 
the  heiiJ  of  manu&ctures,  w  -3  have  enumerated  the  principal  of  these  articles,  and  the 
countries  from  whence  imported.  They  are  chiefly  cotton,  wool,  silk,  and  hides ;  to  which 
may  be  added,  bark,  ashes,  and  barilla ;  cochineal,  indigo,  madder,  and  other  dyeing  stuffi. 
Although  p'>"'<n  and  provisions  are  now  produced  in  sufficient  quantity  fbr  intenul  consump- 
tion, the^e  is  much  want  of  the  raw  produce  of  uncultivated  land.  Under  this  head  a  promi- 
nent rank  may  be  assigned  to  timber  and  naval  stores.  Fir  and  oak  timber,  and  staves,  are 
brought  chiefly  firom  North  America ;  masts,  deals,  and  deal  ends,  from  Norway  and  Russia ; 
oak  planlc  from  Pi^ssia. 

The  import  trade  of  consumption  is,  afl:er  all,  the  most  extensive :  it  consists  chiefly  in 
obtaining  from  southern  regions,  and  those  warmed  by  tropical  suns,  the  accommodations  and 
luxuries  which  cannot  be  matured  under  a  less  genial  sky.  Wine  would  have  been  intro- 
duced to  a  very  great  extent,  had  not  its  exclusion  been  made  a  prime  object  of  flscal  regu- 
lation. This,  however,  has  been  so  potently  applied,  that  the  use  of  wine  has  not  increased 
in  any  proportion  to  the  general  wealth  of  the  nation ;  and  it  has  been  forced  from  the  near- 
est and  best  wines  of  Fruice,  to  tlie  less  palatable  produce  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  Brandy, 
also,  fistill  accounted  the  fiinsf  of  spirituous  liquors,  forces  itself,  to  a  certain  extent,  into  the 
circle  of  i!t\  fj  ^'.at  dis  E!.,^harine  and  aromatic  products  of  the  tropical  plains  form  the 
basis  of  f"  hnaiensa  com"  1  sice,  which  even  the  adherents  of  the  mercantile  system  cherish, 
under  ^  iiiea  that  much  of  ';  is  carried  on  with  English  colonies.  The  leading  articles  are 
Buga  cea,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  pices.  Notwithstanding  the  immense  cotton  manu&cture 
of  Britain,  the  piece  goods  of  India,  by  the!/  pe;;uliar  excellence,  still  find  their  way  into 
the  country. 

The  shipping  by  which  so  extensive  a  trade  is  canied  on,  muat  necessarily  be  very  exten- 
sive. In  1663  it  was  only  95,000  tons.  It  rose  in  1701  to  273,000;  in  1751,  to  609,000; 
in  1792,  to  IJ  S6,000.  The  vessels  belonging  to  the  British  empire  at  the  end  of  1834,  were 
iS-OS.*),  of  2,716,000  tons,  and  navigated  by  168,061  men.  The  entries  and  clearances  for 
the  coasting  trndfi,  in  1832,  amountou  each  to  8,ouO,000  tons.  Besides  these,  in  the  same 
year  4546  fcreign  vessels,  comprising  639,979  tons,  and  navigated  by  35,399  men.  entered 
fJv>  ports  oi  •' j'-eat  Britain.* 


•  ace  Statiitical  Tables,  at  tml  v  fCbap.  }:','. 


856 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtUI 


The  fisheries  do  not  seem  to  have  beer,  so  much  cultivated  in  Britain,  u  the  hardy  entnr. 
prise  of  the  nation  might  have  led  us  to  expect.  The  wiiale  fishery  was  considered  so  valu. 
able,  both  for  its  products,  and  as  a  nursery  for  seamen,  tiiat,  till  1824,  a  bounty  was  granted 
in  proportion  to  tlie  tonnage  of  the  vessels  employed.  They  have  found  their  way  to  the 
antarctic  polar  sea,  in  search  of  an  oil  which,  though  not  superior  for  burning,  is  better 
adapted  to  the  purposes  of  manufacture,  than  that  drawn  from  the  arctic  regions.  This 
fishery,  within  the  last  twelve  years,  has  considerably  diminished  both  in  amount  and  in  the 
value  of  its  products,  owing  to  the  use  of  gas,  the  greater  cheapness  of  rape-oil  for  manu- 
facture, and  also  to  a  larger  part  of  the  tn^e  being  engrossed  by  Scotland.  In  1629  there 
sailed  from  England  only  41  vessels,  of  13,766  tons  burden ;  which  brought  in  4912  tuns  of 
oil,  and  289  tons  of  whalebone.  The  tbllowing  year  was  still  more  deficient,  owing  to  the 
disasters  encountered  by  the  vessels  engaged  in  the  fishery. 

Of  the  fisheries  in  the  British  seas,  that  of  Herring  the  most  important,  belongs  almost 
antirely  to  Scotland.  Next  to  this  ranks  that  of  Pilchards,  on  the  coast  of  Cornwall  and 
aart  of  Devon.  The  fish  is  found  there  in  such  immense  shoals,  that  it  forms  the  chief  food 
of  the  people  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  is  also  largely  salted  for  exportation. 
The  value  annually  taken  is  reckoned  at  50,00W.  or  60,00(M. 

The  interior  navigation  of  England  is  justly  regarded  as  one  of  the  prime  sources  of  her 
prosperity.  Till  the  middle  of  last  century,  the  making  of  canals  did  not  enter  into  the 
system  of  English  economy.  In  1755  was  formed  the  Sankey  canal,  a  line  of  twelve  miles, 
to  supply  Liverpool  with  coal  from  the  pits  at  St.  Helen's.  The  example  then  set  by  the 
Duke  of  Bridgewatcr  gave  a  general  impulse  to  the  nation.  Since  that  time,  upwards  of 
30,000,000/.  sterling  have  been  expended  in  this  object.  Twenty-one  canals  have  been  car- 
ried across  the  central  chain  of  hills,  by  processes  in  which  no  cost  has  been  spared ;  all  the 
resources  of  art  and  genius  have  been  employed ;  every  obstacle,  however  formidable,  which 
nature  could  present,  has  been  vanquished.  By  locks,  and  by  inclined  planes,  the  vessels 
are  conveyed  up  and  down  the  most  rugged  steeps ;  they  are  even  carried  across  navigable 
rivers  by  bridges.  When  other  means  fail,  the  engineer  has  cut  through  the  heart  of  rocks 
and  hills  a  subterraneous  passage.  Of  these  tunnels,  as  they  are  called,  there  are  said  to  be 
forty-eight,  the  entire  length  of  which  is  at  least  forty  miles. 

The  Duke  of  Bridgewater  formed  the  plan  of  opening  a  communication  between  Man- 
cheater  and  his  extensive  coal-mines,  at  Worsley.  The  obstacles  were  so  great,  both  from 
nature  and  art,  that  the  attempt  must  have  proved  abortive,  had  he  not  been  seconded  by  the 
genius  of  Brindley,  who,  from  a  common  millwright,  raised  himself  to  be  the  first  engineer 
of  the  age.  The  canal  was  carried  through  vast  excavations,  made  partly  in  the  interior  of 
the  mine  itself;  it  was  led  by  aqueducts  over  a  succession  of  public  roads,  and  over  the  river 
Irwell  by  a  niagnificent  bridge,  which  left  space  for  vessels  with  their  sails  spread  to  pass 
beneath.  By  deep  cuttings,  and  by  artificial  mounds,  in  some  places  supported  upon  piles, 
a  level  of  upwards  of  fifty  miles  was  completed.  The  Duke  expended,  in  this  undertaking, 
his  whole  fortune,  amounting  to  350,0002. ;  and  its  failure  would  have  left  him  destitute : 
but,  as  it  immediately  enablwl  him  to  reduce  the  price  of  coal  in  Manchepter  to  one  half,  the 
trade  in  a  short  time  yielded  twenty  per  cent  upon  his  outlay,  and  r.  )iJly  produced  an 
immense  income. 

T'  e  Grand  Trunk  Canal,  an  undertaking  on  a  still  greater  scale,  formed  under  the 
patronage  of  the  Marquess  of  Stafi!brd,  by  a  course  of  ninety  miles  through  Staffordshire, 
connects  the  Trent  with  the  Mersey,  Liverpool  with  Hull,  and  the  eastern  with  the  western 
coasts.  It  gave  animation  to  the  trade  of  all  the  districts  through  which  it  passed,  particu- 
larly that  of  the  Potteries,  and  served  as  a  basis  for  various  canals  and  railways  branching 
from  it.  Prom  a  point  near  the  commencement  of  the  Grand  Trunk,  the  Ellesmere  canal 
has  branched  far  into  Wales,  and  conveys  to  Liverpool  the  mineral  and  agricultural  produce 
of  that  principality.  From  its  eastern  termination,  large  branches  have  been  extended  to 
Derby,  to  Nottingham,  to  Grantham,  and  other  considerable  towns. 

The  Leeds  and  Liverpool  Canal,  by  a  more  northerly  line  of  one  hundred  and  twenty 
miles,  connects  the  Mersey  with  the  Aire,  a  tributary  of  the  Ouse,  and  thus  enables  Liver 
pool  and  Hull  to  communicate  by  another  line  across  the  great  cloth-manufacturing  districts. 
An  important  branch  of  this  canal  is  carried  to  Lancaster,  and  on  to  KendfL 

Prom  the  vicinity  of  London  the  Grand  Junction,  at  an  expense  of  two  millions,  was  car- 
ried by  a  line  of  ninety  miles  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Coventry.  Near  Daventry,  the  Grand 
Union  strikes  off,  and  joins  the  Grand  Trunk,  thus  securing  for  London  an  inlanf'  communi- 
cation with  Liverpool,  and  with  all  the  great  manufacturing  cities  of  the  West.  A  great 
system  of  canals  was  formed  round  Birmingham,  of  which  one  result  wac  t.  connect  the 
Grand  Trunk  with  the  Severn,  and  thus  to  form  a  connexion  between  ab  the  four  great 
rivers  of  England,  and  all  its  commercial  and  manufacturing  cities.  A  csridl  had  already 
been  formed  from  Coventry  to  Oxford.  That  of  the  Thames  and  Severn  joined  these  two 
main  rivers  at  the  highest  navigable  point  of  the  former.  The  Gloucester  and  Berkeley  is 
a  lateral  canal  to  the  Severn,  by  means  of  which  Gloucester  is  connected  with  tJie  Bristol 
Channel  by  a  direct  line.    The  principal  cpnal?  to  the  south  of  the  Thames  are  the  Kennet 


Part  III 

fp  hardy  entor. 

pwered  bo  valu. 

f  y.  was  granted 

feir  way  to  the 

jn>np.  IB  better 

■regions.    This 

T«nt  and  in  the 

fj>"  for  manu- 

I  In  1829  there 

T  4912  tuns  of 

'  owing  to  the 

|-elongs  almost 
Cornwall  and 
[the  chief  food 
w  exportation. 

sources  of  her 
[enter  into  the 
'"twelve  miles, 
hen  set  by  the 
ue,  upwards  of 
have  been  car- 
iwred ;  all  the 
nidable,  which 
es.  the  vessels 
iross  navi^ble 
heart  of  rocks 
are  said  to  be 

between  Man- 
•eat,  both  from 
iconded  by  the 

first  engineer 
the  interior  of 
over  the  river 
spread  to  pass 
M  upon  piles, 
'undertaking, 
lim  destitute: 
>  one  half,  the 

produced  an 

d  under  the 
Staffi)rd8hire, 
I  the  western 
Jsed,  particu- 
^8  branching 
wmere  canal 
ural  produce 
extended  to 

and  twenty 
ables  Liver 
ng  districts. 

18,  was  car- 
',  the  Grand 
■'  communi- 
t.  A  great 
lonnect  the 

four  great 
ad  already 

these  two 
Jerkeley  ia 
tJie  Bristol 
he  Kennet 


Book  t 


ENGLAND. 


™^rr»»™r--I»i1  ^»1I^»  3r  " 


■  »;■;!•! 


wr 


lod  Avon  canal,  and  the  Berks  and  Wilts  canal,  through  which  a  communication  is  formed 
from  the  Thames  near  Abingdon  to  tho  cities  of  Bath  and  Bristol.  The  total  length  of  canals 
in  Great  Britain,  excluding  those  under  five  miles,  is  2561  miles. 

Railways  form  another  contrivance,  by  which  the  conveyance  of  goods  is  wonderfiilly 
facilitated,  by  causing  the  wheels  to  roll  over  a  smooth  surface  of  iron.  Railways  were  at 
first  used  only  on  a  small  scale,  chiefly  in  tlie  coal-mines  round  Newcastle,  for  convcj^in|f 
the  mineral  from  the  interior  to  tlie  surtace,  and  thence  to  the  place  of  shipping ;  and  it  is 
reckon  'd  that  round  that  city  there  is  an  extent  of  about  tlu-ee  hundred  miles  of  these  rail- 
ways. Thev  were  gradually  employed  on  a  greater  scale,  particularly  in  Wales,  where  the 
county  of  Glamorgan  has  one  twenty-five  miles  long,  and  in  all  two  hundred  miles  of  rail- 
way. The  railway  between  Manchester  and  Liverpool  extends  thirty-one  ^iles,  and  is  car- 
ried over  sixty-three  bridges,  thirty  of  which  pass  over  the  turnpike  road,  and  one  over  the 
river  Irwell.  The  entire  cost  was  about  820,000/. ;  but  the  intercourse  has  been  so  exten- 
sive as  to  alTord  an  ample  remuneration.  The  Cromford  and  High  Peak  railway  is  carried 
over  the  high  mountainous  district  of  Derbyshire,  connecting  the  two  canals  which  bear 
these  names.  Its  length  is  thirty-three  miles,  carried  over  fitly  bridges,  and  rising  to  a  level 
of  992  feet  above  the  Cromford  canal.     The  entire  expense  has  not  exceeded  180,0002. 

The  common  high  roods  of  the  kingdom  are  also  an  object  of  high  importance  to  trade  and 
general  intercourse.  Half  a  century  ago  most  of  them  appear  to  have  been  in  a  miserable 
state,  but  they  arc  now,  perhaps,  the  best  in  the  world,  chiefly  through  the  application  of  the 
turnpike  system,  under  which  they  are  made  and  repaired  by  tolls  levied  upon  the  travellers, 
ami  administered  by  county  trustees.  There  are  a  few  cases  where  roads  are  to  be  carried 
through  poor  provinces,  or  form  grand  lines  of  national  communication,  in  which  government 
judges  it  expedient  to  assist,  or  even  to  undertake  tlie  entire  construction  of  them.  In  1823, 
the  turnpike  roads  extended  in  all  to  24,51)1  miles  in  length.  The  amount  of  tolls  was 
1,214,0002.,  burdened  with  a  debt  of  5,200,0002. 

Bridges,  in  a  country  intersected  by  numerous  and  often  broad  rivers,  necessarily  attracted 
a  great  share  of  attention ;  and  the  ingenuity  and  wealth  of  England  have  been  employed 
in  niaKing  extensive  improvements  in  this  branch  of  architecture.  Southwark  Bridge  is  the 
most  complete  of  any  yet  formed  of  iron.  This  species  of  bridge  has  the  advantage  of  being 
lighter,  and  of  requiring  much  fewer  arches  than  those  of  stone.  A  still  more  daring  form 
igy  has  been  given  to  this  material  by 

bridges  of  suspension,  formed  by 
iron  chains  stretched  acriss,  and 
-apported  by  fixed  points  oii  each 
side.  This  construction,  on  a  cer- 
tain scale,  has  existed  in  Ciiii  ;. 
from  the  earlic  £.  ages.  The  An,  '■• 
ricans  were  the  first  to  adopt  it  of 
Mcnai  Bridfe.  any  western  nation.    The  greatest 

undertaking  of  this  kind  yet  executed  is  the  Menai  Bridge  (Jg.  137.),  over  the  strait  which 
separates  Wales  from  Anglesea.  Arches  of  masonry  on  each  side,  at  the  distance  of  five 
hundred  and  sixty  feet,  are  united  by  a  bridge  of  suspension,  composed  of  iron  chains. 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State.  '      '  ' 

The  population  of  England  in  former  times  was  imperfectly  known,  being  calculated  only 
from  very  vague  surveys  and  estimates.  In  1377  the  results  of  a  poll-tax  were  given  as 
2,300,000 ;  but  from  the  many  evasions  to  which  such  a  census  would  give  rise,  that  number 
was  probably  below  the  truth.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  during  the  alarm  of  a  menaced 
Spanish  invasion  in  1575,  a  pretty  careful  survey  was  made,  the  result  of  which  ga:  '  "JO. 

At  the  time  of  tlie  Revolution,  the  increase  appeared  to  be  about  a  million.*  Froi  „■■  ;  m- 
meiice  nent  of  the  present  century  decennial  enumerations  have  been  made,  of  which  tho 
following  are  the  results: — 


Gniland 

Wales 

Armv  Na.v\                    ■>■■.*. 

PopuUlkm, 

Tsoi. 

tncreue 
percent. 

Ftipublion, 
1811. 

Increue 
percent. 

Fopulntton, 
1S41. 

Increaie 
percent. 

I'oniilatjon, 
1831. 

8,331,434 
541,540 
47»,598 

141 

13 

9,551,888 
611,788 
040,500 

17 

11,281,437 

737,438 
319,300 

10 
12 

13,0S8.M8 
805,236 
277,017 

9.343,578 

m 

10.804,170 

34t 

12,298,175 

28 

14,180,591 

*  Population  qf  the  BritUh  Empire  and  Colonies. 

Greht  Brttain  and  Ireland 24,3il,f.'M 

Nortd  Americttn  Colonies 1,:l00,(i00 

800,000 

"          , aOO.IKX) 


.  india 

AlVican 
Asiatic 
Auitralia  > 
Bast  India  ' 


••  ,   1,000,000 

" !15,000 

ompany 123,000,000 


Ttotal 150,800,834 

[Au.  Ed.' 


r^k 


dB8 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPrlY. 


Paet  II. 


Proportion  of  deaths,  marriageg,  cf-c.  to  the  ptypulation. — Amongf  the  facts  that  attest  th« 
improved  condition  of  the  poopio  of  Rn^rland  since  1770,  the  extraordinary  diminution  in  the 
rate  of  mortality  is  or^<  of  the  least  equivocal.  In  1780,  the  deaths  in  Kn(;land  and  Wales 
amounted  to  about  1  m  40  of  the  population;  in  1700,  to  about  1  m  45;  in  1811,  to  1  in  52; 
and  at  an  average  of  the  five  years  ending  with  1630,  1  in  54.  The  improvement  has  been 
particularly  conspicuous  in  the  great  to\\  ns  ;  and  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  more  comfortable 
•ituation  of  all  classes,  the  ^Tcatcr  attention  paid  to  cleanliness,  &c.  The  proportion  of 
marriages  to  the  population  has  recently  declined.  In  1760,  there  waH  1  mnrriuge  for  every 
116  individuals;  in  1780,  1  in  \"  .  ;  I'ring  the  five  years  ending  wUii  1810,  it  was  as  1 
to  122;  and  during  Uie  fivi  .it  ■ir.V  'i  vvith  1830,  it  was  as  1  to  129.  But  this  decrease 
is  to  l)e  ascribtHl  wnoUy  !.  ;">r  ;Tf  ,  reval^nce  of  moral  restraint,  the  pro|)orlion  of  ille- 
gitimate births  not  havn-f/  ifm;* eased.  The  number  of  births  to  a  marriage  in  England  In 
about  4.    Consumption  ib  the  most  fatal  disease. 

The  national  chariK  U;r  of  the  English  exhibits  some  very  bold  and  marked  features.  Of 
these  the  most  conspicuous  is  that  love  of  liberty  which  pervades  all  classes.  The  liberty 
for  which  the  En^^lish  have  successfully  contended,  includes  the  right  of  thinking,  saying, 
writing,  and  doing  most  thingn  which  opinion  may  dif^ite,  and  inclination  prompt.  Tlie 
knowledge  tha'  ihe  highest  offices  and  digni*'  v  i  ,v  iv?  aro  Tccessihle  to  all,  redoublp» 

their  activity,  and  encourages  them  to  {«;rBcveranct.  It  is  but  little  more  than  a  century 
since  they  began  to  be  distinguished  as  a  manutacturing  and  commercial  people,  yet  they 
have  already  outstripped  other  European  nations  in  mechanical  ingenuity,  in  industry,  and  in 
mercantiln  enterprise.  The  enormous  increase  of  capital,  and  the  substitution  of  machinery 
for  humaii  lobour  in  most  of  their  manu&ctures,  seem  likely  at  no  distant  period  to  produce  a 
total  chai.j  in  the  condition  of  British  society.  Much  of  its  tone  is  given  by  the  landed 
gentry;  a  uimerous  body,  whose  estates,  though  generally  considerable,  are  not  enormous: 
while,  on  the  Continent,  landed  property  is  usually  in  one  or  otlier  of  two  extremes ;  eitlinr 
divide'i  into  minute  portions,  or  partitioned  into  a  few  princely  domains.  The  English  gentry, 
unlike  tlieir  continental  neighbours,  reside  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year  at  their  coun- 
try-seats; appearing  in  London  and  at  court  only  for  a  few  months  in  the  spring.  In  tliiK 
cla&s,  and  indeed  among  the  English  in  general,  an  uncontrolled  temper,  elevated  by  the 
feeling  of  indepenUonce,  often  impels  individuals  into  extremes  both  of  good  and  evil.  No- 
where exists  a  purer  spirit  of  patriotism ;  nowhere  break  forth  more  violent  excesses  of 
faction.  In  no  country  of  Europe,  perhaps,  are  there  so  many  men  who  act  '"-adily  upon 
principle;  yet  in  none  exists,  at  the  same  time,  so  large  a  proportion  of  indiviUu.ls  living  in 
habitual  and  open  violation  of  all  principle,  and  frequently  in  contempt  of  legal  ordinances. 
Domestic  life  is  cultivated  by  the  English  more  sedulously  than  by  any  of  the  continental 
nations ;  the  sanctity  of  marriage  is  more  carefully  guaMed ;  and  chastity  in  the  female  sex 
more  strictly  obs'irved.  Tn  its  minor  features,  the  English  character  has  undergone  various 
changes.  The  vices  of  drinking  and  swearing,  once  so  prevalent,  are  happily  no  longer 
fashionable.  Horse-racing,  hunting,  and  rural  sports,  are  carried  to  excess  by  some  of  the 
country  gentlemen ;  and  the  more  barbaroas  practice  of  boxing  still  has  cultivators.  Per- 
haps the  most  estimable  quality  of  t\c  En<,'lish  is  their  love  of  justice ;  the  source  of  all 
honourable  dealing  among  the  higher  classes,  ami  of  what  is  emphatically  caWeA  fair  play, 
in  the  transactions  of  humbler  lit'o.  The  principl  ■.  that  a  man's  word  should  be  his  bond,  is 
acted  upon  most  rigorously  \,  liere  th<-  greatest  rests  are  at  stake ;  as  on  its  observance 
more  than  on  that  of  any  law  that  has  been  or  c.  i  be  devised,  the  commercial  and  financial 
prosperity  of  the  country  depends.  The  Englisii  are  the  most  provident  people  in  the  world. 
More  than  a  million  of  individuals  are  members  of  friendly  societies,  and  the  deposits  in 
savingF  banks  exceed  13,000 10l/i.  The  great  p. tension  of  li'  insurance  affords  another 
proof  0/  this  laudable  disposition.  The  English  iilpo  deserve  to  be  called  a  humane  people, 
zealous,  both  fium  feeling  and  from  principle,  lor  the  proniotion  of  every  lliing  that  tends  to 
the  welfare  of  their  fellow-creatures.  Crime  in  R' inland  has  undergone  o  considerable 
change.  Highway  robbery,  so  prevalent  tov  ards  i..  beginnin^^  and  middle  ot  last  century, 
is  now  nearly  unknown,  and  all  sorts  of  c:  ^  and  \  iolence  have  been  materially  lessened. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  has  been  a  very  >  inc  ase,  particularly  within  the  last  twenty 
years,  of  crimes  against  property.  A  mai  n.il  ch  ige  has  recently  been  efl^cted  in  the 
criminal  law  of  England,  by  the  abolition  of  •  n  iinmi  ise  number  of  capital  punishments. 


ir 


Prmitimfor  the  Poor.    A  compulnnry  rate  has  been  levied  on  all  kinds  of  flxed  propeily,  for  tlm  support  ol  all 
nt,  poor,  and  unernplnyed  persuns,  tver  since  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.    In  1700  the  rates  amounted  to  iibniit 


1  «i()O,00O/.,~and,  notwithstandinir  tht;  increase  of  population  and  taxation  in  the  interval,  tliey  were  little  mure 
than  2,000,000<.  at  the  close  of  the  American  war.  In  17i)5  several  ill-considereil  changes  were  made  in  the  inoile 
of  sraiilinK  relief,  uiiil  the  pernicious  practice  of  eking  out  wages  by  contrihulinns  from  the  rates  was  then  iilso 
adopted.  From  this  period,  down  to  the  termination  of  the  late  French  war,  the  progress  of  the  rates  wns  very 
rapid,  so  that  they  amounted  to  0,320,0002.  in  the  year  1817-18.  They  have  since  lieen  reduced,  but  they  still 
amounted  in  1831-33  to  8,S0!),000/.  The  abuses  arising  out  of  the  practice  of  paying  wages  out  of  rates  are  not 
inherent  in  the  system.  They  were  engrafted  upon  it  so  late  as  1705,  and  may,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  will,  be  en- 
liiely  removed.  A  reform  of  this  sort  would  of  itself  take  nearly  a  third  part  from  the  rates,  [ny  th«  net  "f  uih 
AiigiiSi,  lo34,  Wuich  prtiviues  for  ihe  appointment  of  three  poor-law  commissioners,  with  power 'to'makn  rules  and 
reiulation«  for  the  management  of  the  poor  and  the  administration  of  the  poor  laws,  these  abuse*  have  beei 
«brined.— Am.  £o 


Pa«t  II. 

fkcta  that  attest  the 

T  diminution  in  the 

-npland  and  Wnleg 

n  1811,  to  1  in  52; 

irovement  has  been 

e  more  comfortable 

The  proportion  of 

mnrriiige  fiir  every 

1810,  it  waa  aa  1 

But  this  decrease 

proportion  of  ille- 

iago  in  England  in 

ked  features.     Of 
sses.     The  liberty 
'  thinking,  saying, 
tion  prompt.    The 
le  to  all,  redoubl»»» 
)re  than  a  century 
1  people,  yet  they 
in  industry,  and  in 
ution  of  machinery 
period  to  produce  a 
iven  by  the  landed 
are  not  enormous: 
)  extremes ;  eitlmr 
he  Enplish  gentry, 
year  at  their  coun- 
le  spring.     In  this 
3r,  elevated  by  the 
ood  and  evil.    No- 
iolent  excesses  of 
act  '-adily  upon 
idivitiuils  livinij  in 
f  legal  ordinances, 
jf  the  continental 
in  the  female  sex 
undergone  various 
happily  no  longer 
;ss  by  some  of  the 
cultivators.     Per- 
the  source  of  all 
1^  caUed  fair  play, 
nld  be  his  bond,  is 
on  its  observance 
rcial  and  financial 
iople  in  the  world, 
d  the  deposits  in 
!e  affords  another 
a  humane  people, 
iing  that  tend.s  to 
le  o  considerable 
e  of  last  century, 
iterially  lessened, 
n  the  last  twenty 
n  effected  in  the 
punishments. 

'or  the  Biipport  ot  nil 
'.a  amounted  tn  iibniit 
hey  were  little  iiicire 
re  made  in  the  iiiinle 
;  rntos  was  tlicn  also 
f  the  rates  was  very 
iueed,  but  they  8till 
i  out  of  rates  are  not 
be  hoped  will,  be  cn- 
[Ry  th«  net  nf  14tli 
er  to  makn  rules  and 
le  abuiei  bave  beea 


Book  L 


ja^GLAND.     '^■..*Mn 


8AU 


"ligioiis,  though  the  nation,  among  ita  other 
*y  and  fanaticiiiin.     Tito  Church  of  Eng- 


The  Engliah  arn,  in  general,  a  people  aobcri 
exccDHCa,  haa  proiitiiiti>d  atriking  duplaya  of  ini 

land  was  estnbiirihuU   n  the  reign  of  Queen  El  th,  when  the  refonnation  was  completed 

which  had  bet- u  begun  in  that  of  Henry  V  i  'I.   l    la  an  integral  part  of  the  conHtitution,  hav> 
ing  tor  ita  head  the  king,  who,  aa  head  of  the  church,  nominate*  to  vacant  biitiiopricii  and 
cartain  other  prefermenta,  conatitutea  or  reatraina  eccleaiaaticol  juriadictiona,  intlictii  eccle- 
giaatical  consurea,  and  decidea  in  the  lait  retort  in  all  ecclesiaatical  causea,  an  appeal  lying 
ultimately  to  him  in  chancery,  from  the  aentence  of  every  ecclesiaatical  judge.     In  renpuct 
to  its  church  government,  England  is  primarily  divided  into  two  provinces  or  archbiahoprica, 
Canterbury  and  York.    £!ach  province  contains  various  dioceaos  or  seata  of  suffragan  bishops, 
Canterbury  including  twenty-one,  and  York  three,  besides  the  bishopric  of  iSodor  and  Man, 
which  waa  annexed  to  it  by  Henry  VIII.     Evej;y  dioceae  is  divided  into  archdeaconries, 
of  which  the  whole  number  amounta  to  sixty,  each  archdeaconry  into  rural  deaneries,  which 
are  the  circuita  of  the  archdeacon'a  and  rural  dean'a  jurisdiction ;  and  each  deanery  into 
parishes,  towns  or  villagea,  townships,  and  hamleta.    The  principal  church  of  each  see  is 
appropriately  called  the  cathedral  church ;  it  is  poaaeascd  by  a  spiritual  body  corporate,  called 
a  iJean  and  chapter,  who  are  the  council  of  the  biahop,  but  derive  their  corporate  capacity 
th)tn  the  crown.     Chapters  are  usually  composed  of  canons  and  prebendaries;  the  mainte- 
nance or  stipend  of  a  canon  aa  well  as  of  a  prebendary  being  a  prebend.     Prebendaries  ore 
distinguished  into  simple  and  dignitary.     A  simple  prebendary  hoa  no  cure,  and  nothing  but 
his  revenue  for  his  support ;  a  dignified  prebendary  has  always  a  jurisdiction  annexed,  which 
is  gained  by  prescription.     The  archdeacon  has  authority  in  the  bishop's  absence  to  hold 
visitations,  and  under  the  bishop  to  examine  clerks  previous  to  ordination,  and  also  before 
institution  and  induction.     He  has  also  power  to  excommunictite,  to  impose  penances,  and 
to  reform  irregularities  and  abuses  amoi     ihe  clergy,  and  has  charge  of  the  parish  churches 
within  the  d.  ^ese.     BpIow  tlie  archdeui  m  and  the  ecclesiastics  composing  the  chapter,  no 
member  of  tlie  Church  of  England  is  entitled  to  the  appellation  of  dignitary.     The  inferior 
c'-ders  constituto  what  is  called  tlie  parochial  clergy.     The  principal  person  of  a  parochial 
church  is  entitled  either  rector  or  vicar,  that  title,  which  is  realty  more  appropriate  and 
honourable,  having  become  corrupted  by  vulgar  misuse.     The  revenues  of  the  church  of 
England  are  very  extensive ;  and  considering  the  different  offices  and  gradations  of  its  mem- 
bers, very  variously  distributed.  The  rental  subject  to  tithe  has  been  stated,  in  returns  made 
to  parliament,  u.  20,(XK),000^    Bf 'sides  the  tenth  of  this  amount,  that  is  to  say,  the  tithe, 
the  clergy   hi  -     lier  funds,  which  are  supposed  to  raise  their  entire  income  to  upwards  of 
'^,000,()(K)/.         >i:  Episcopal  revenues  are  of  various  amounts;  that  of  the  see  of  Durham  is 
timated  a'    >u,000/.  per  annum,  and  is  usually  considered  the  largest.    The  lowest,  that  of 
i^andaff,  falls  short  of  3(.)00Z.     The  prebends  enjoyed  by  canons  and  prebendaries  are  some 
of  t'  em  very  ample ;  those  which  exceed  1000/.  a  year  are  called  golden  prebends.     Those 
ui;       iries  are  also  competent  to  hold  livings  aa  rectors  and  vicars.     The  salaries  of  curates 
were  lormcrlv  in  many  cases  extremely  small;  but,  by  a  legislative  provision  and  by  funds 
allotted  o'!t     •"  the  public  revenue,  most  of  them  have  been  augmented  in  proportion  to  the 
value  of  til         lefice  and  its  population;  80/.  a  year  is  the  lowest  stipend,  and,  if  the  living 
bf  worth  4iMii.  per  nnnum,  the  bishop  may  allow  the  curate  of  such  living  100/.  a  year, 
whatever  be  its  population. 

In  her  intellectual  character,  England  may  be  justly  considered  as  standing  proudly 
eminent.  Bacon,  Boyle,  Locke,  Newton,  Davy,  with  a  long  train  of  coadjutors,  have  dis- 
closed to  mankind  perhaps  a  greater  sum  of  important  truths  than  the  philosophers  of  any 
other  country.  Strong,  clear,  sound  sense  appears  to  be  the  quality  peculiarly  English; 
ond  her  reasoners  were  the  first  to  explode  those  scholastic  subtleties  whicb,  having  usurped 
the  name  of  philosophy,  so  long  reigned  in  the  schools.  It  was  their  nieri!,  to  discover  and 
establish  true  philosophy,  and  apply  it  to  objects  of  real  interest  and  utility. 

In  works  of  imagination,  the  geniu!^  of  the  English  is  bold,  original,  and  vi^rous.  In  the 
drama,  Shakspeare  stands  unrivalled  among  ancient  and  modern  poets,  by  his  profound  and 
extensive  knowledge  of  mankind,  his  boundless  range  of  observation  throughout  all  nature, 
his  exquisite  play  of  fancy,  and  iiis  irresistible  power  in  every  province  of  thought  and  feel- 
incr,  the  sublime  and  the  pathtKc,  the  terrible  and  the  humorous.  In  epic  poetry,  Milton 
is  acknowledged  by  common  consent  to  stand  first  among  the  moderns.  Spenser  and  Dryden 
are  alike  eminent,  the  one  for  sweetness,  the  other  for  versatility ;  while  in  correctness  ot 
taste,  and  the  polished  harmony  of  numbers,  Pope  has  no  rival  among  the  poets  of  any 
modern  nation. 

In  historical  writing,  England  has  many  illustrious  names,  among  which  that  of  Gibbon 
deserves  an  honourable  plaro  In  oratory,  some  of  her  statesmen  have  acquired  great 
renown,  though  the  general  ta:  >e  both  in  the  senate  and  at  the  bar  seems  to  delight  rather 
in  plain  sense  and  in  cogency  of  argument,  than  in  those  elaborate,  ornate,  and  declamatory 
flights  by  which  the  groat  spcakfTS  of  antiquity  acted  on  the  imagination  and  {Missions  of 
their  hearers, 
''^he  institutions  for  public  education  in  England  are  extensive  and  splendidly  endowed. 


800 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


VamtTB.. 


I'he  two  univeraities  of  Oxford  aiid  CambriHffe  are  not  only  the  wealthieat  b>it  the  moat 
ancient  in  Europe.  Thoy  enjoy  amon^  otlior  pnvilei^a  that  ot'rfltuminff  eac°>  r  '\  m  "  iMn 
to  pnrliament,  and  of  holdinff  courta  for  the  deciaiun  of  cauaoa  in  which  met.  i  :u  jf  their 
own  btxiy  are  intoreated.  They  were  of  eccleaioatic  origin;  but  they  have  lung  been  con- 
suiered  aa  lay  corporationa.  Tneir  reaourcen  have  been  augmented  by  the  muniflconce  vtf 
poveroignti,  and  of  opulent  individuala.  The  eatabliHhninntii  com|>o()ing  them  are  diMtinguiHhed 
into  cuiu'gea  and  halls ;  the  latter  being  academical  houaea  not  incorporated  or  endowed, 
though  they  have  had  conaiderablo  benefactiona,  which  are  dinpenHod  to  the  atudenta  in  exlii- 
bitiona  limited  to  a  stated  period.  Oxford  hao  nineteen  collegea  urid  five  hnlla;  Cambridge 
haa  thirteen  collegea  and  four  halla,  which  laat,  however,  poaaeaa  the  same  privilogea  aa  the 
turmor.  Each  univeraity  ia  under  the  government  of  a  cliancellor,  high  ateward,  vice- 
chancellor,  and  other  omcora ;  the  peraona  who  preaide  over  the  different  eatabliahmenta  aa 
moflters,  wardens,  rectora,  principals,  or  provoets,  bear  the  general  denomination  of  heads  of 
colleges,  and  each  college  has  a  number  of  fellowships  to  which  large  emoluments  and  easy 
duties  ore  attached.  They  possess  also  extensive  patronage  in  church  livings,  and  n  number 
of  exhibitions  or  scholarships.  These,  though  ot  considerable  value,  are  not  suppoeed  ade- 
quate to  defray  the  expense  of  a  residence  at  a  university,  which,  at  the  lowest,  ia  calcu- 
lated to  amount  to  150/.  a  year.  On  the  hooka  of  each  univeraity  ore  the  names  of  many 
members  who  have  long  ceased  to  reside ;  but,  exclusive  of  these,  the  number  actually  resi- 
dent at  Oxford  may  be  stated  at  8000,  and  those  at  Cambridge  amount  to  conNiderab'y  more. 
Htudenta,  according  to  their  proficiency  in  learning,  are  entitled  to  the  degrees  of  bachelor 
and  master  of  arts,  bachelor  and  doctor  in  divinity,  and  bachelor  and  doctor  in  tiio  faculties 
of  physic  and  law.  The  time  required  by  the  statutes  to  be  occupied  in  study  before  each 
student  can  be  qualified  for  taking  those  degrees  is  three  years  for  a  bachelor,  and  about  four 
years  more  for  a  master  of  arts ;  seven  years  atler  that  he  may  commence  bachelor  of  divinity, 
and  then  five  years  more  entitle  him  to  take  the  degree  of  doctor  in  divinity.  In  law,  a 
student  may  commence  bachelor  after  six  years',  and  in  physic  afler  five  years'  standing. 
Only  one  year's  attendance  and  the  hearing  of  a  single  course  of  lectures  are  required  as 
projMiratorv  for  entering  into  holy  orders,  the  lownesa  of  tlie  inferior  church  livings,  and  the 
expense  of  residence,  rendering  it  difficult  to  exact  more  from  the  greater  number  of  can- 
didates for  ordination.  The  qualifications  for  a  bishop  include  the  degree  of  doctor  in  divinity. 

The  mode  of  instruction  is  by  private  tutors,  who  teach  classical  literature  and  the 
mathematics,  the  latter  branch  of  study  being  particularly  cultivated  at  Combri^e.  The 
public  examinations  are  conducted  with  great  diligence,  and  excite  emulation.  The  lucra- 
ti\  e  fellowships  may  sometimes  tempt  their  possessors  to  indulge  in  luxurious  ease ;  but  to 
those  who  are  seriously  disposed  to  study,  they  afford  facilities  for  research  hardly  attainablo 
in  any  other  sphere. 

Two  educational  establishments,  the  London  University  and  King's  College  have  been 
recently  instituted  in  liondon. 

Of  the  public  schools  of  England,  the  most  distinguished  are  those  of  Westminster,  Eton, 
Winchester,  and  Harrow.  Aitliough  originally  founded  as  charity-schools,  yet  being  now 
appropriated  to  the  education  of  boys  of  the  first  families,  the  habits  formed  in  them  are 
very  expensive.  Greek  and  Latin  are  almost  exclusively  taught  there  by  masters  eminently 
qualified;  and  Englishmen  of  education  generally  excel  in  the  knowledge  of  both  languages. 

For  boys  of  the  middle  rank,  and  those  destined  for  commercial  pursuits,  there  are  numer- 
ous private  academies. 

Colleges  for  the  particular  study  of  law  and  equity  have  long  been  established  in  the 
metropolis,  under  the  names  of  inns  of  court  and  inns  of  chancery.  The  principal  of  these 
are  the  Middle  and  Inner  Temple,  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  Gray's  Inn.  Before  any  person  can 
be  admitted  to  practise  as  an  advocate,  he  must  be  regularly  entered  in,  and  be  a  member 
of,  one  of  the  inns  of  court  for  five  years,  and  must  have  kept  his  commons  in  such  inn, 
twelve  terms.  In  fiivour  of  those  who  have  taken  a  degree  of  master  of  arts  or  bachelor  of 
laws  at  an  English  university,  three  years  are  sufficient  to  be  a  member  of  the  inn.  Afler 
complying  with  these  conditions,  and  paying  the  regular  fees,  the  student  may  be  called  to 
the  bar  without  having  been  requu-ed  to  make  any  public  demonstration  of  his  proficiency  or 
ability. 

Of  primary  schools  for  the  great  body  of  the  people,  there  formerly  existed  a  considerable 
number;  but  the  deficiency  of  them,  at  present,  is  greatly  to  he  deplored.  The  metropoliB, 
indeed,  contains  several,  of  which  the  most  considerable  is  Christ-church  Hospital  or  the 
Blue-coat  School,  in  which  about  1100  children  are  maintained  and  educated.  The  number 
of  charitable  foundations  in  different  parts  of  the  country  amounts  to  8,896,  yielding  an 
income  of  65,396/.  Of  these,  however,  many  give  also  board  and  lodging,  so  that  their 
advantages  can  extend  to  only  a  small  number ;  others  have  been  neglected,  and  left  exposed 
tc  those  abuses  to  which  old  establishments  are  generally  liable.  So  greatly  was  the  in- 
fluence of  these  institutions  on  the  great  body  of  the  lower  orders  diminished,  that  within 
the  last  30  years  the  larger  prupoftion  of  labouring  people  were  unalblc  to  read.    The  evUt 


pA«Tin, 

t  *"it  the  moat 
'■''-'  m.":ber« 
;'. '   •••  jf  their 
long  been  con- 
muniflconce  of 
adiatin^uinhed 
i  or  endowed, 
udenUi  in  t-xhi. 
■  ;  C'ombridffo 
vilogea  as  the 
•toward,  vice- 
ablislimonta  aa 
on  of  lieads  of 
lenta  and  cany 
and  u  number 
BuppoHod  ode- 
west,  ia  calcu- 
amea  of  many 
actually  resi> 
iderab'y  more. 
F!M  of  bachelor 
1  the  fiiculties 
y  before  each 
and  about  four 
or  of  divinity, 
y.     In  law,  a 
ars'  standing. 
■0  required  as 
infra,  and  the 
iniber  of  can- 
or  in  divinity, 
ture  and  the 
hriige.    The 
The  lucra- 
oase ;  but  to 
dly  attainablo 

e  have  been 

linster,  Eton, 
it  being  now 
in  them  are 
re  eminently 
h  languages. 
9  are  numer- 

ished  in  the 
pal  of  these 
person  can 
«  a  member 
n  such  inn, 
bachelor  of 
inn.  After 
be  called  to 
oficiency  or 

'onsidcrable 
metropolin, 
•ital  or  the 
'he  number 
'ielding  an 

that  their 
pft  exposed 
'as  the  in- 
hat  within 

The  evils 


Boor  T. 


y.i' 


ENGLAND 


t>  -III 


Ml 


tnning  fVom  want  of  education  among  them  have,  at  length,  been  strongly  flslt ;  and  verjr 
ffront  oxortions  have  been  made,  chiefly  by  the  benevolence  of  private  individuals,  tn  remedy 
tho  liefcct. 

Of  the  KJentiflc  institutions  of  England  the  foremost  is  "  the  Royal  Society  of  London 
for  improving  Natural  Knowledge."  In  it«  infkncy  it  owed  much  to  the  protection  of  Oliver 
Cminwoll;  and  having  survived  the  Cunimonwealth,  was  incorporated  by  royal  charter,  in 
l(Mi:i,  The  Society  publiHli  an  annual  volume  under  the  name  of  Philntnfihiral  'iVaiuaO' 
tions  The  Hociety  of  Antiquaries  traces  its  origin  to  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  btit 
wiiH  not  incur|N)rated  until  1821.  It  has  published  a  scriesof  volumes  entitled  Archteologia, 
H«<veral  private  societies  have  been  formed  fur  the  cultivation  of  particular  branches  of 
knowledge,  by  the  union  of  individuals  distinguished  for  thei;-  attainments  in  or  devotion  to 
those  branches,  fiosides  these  and  other  institutions  in  the  metropolis,  nKMt  of  the  great 
prov'inciul  towns,  as  Manchester,  Bristol,  Derby,  Liverpool,  and  Newcastle,  have  formed 
lilGrary  and  philosophical  societies,  which  have  made  spme  important  contributions  to  science 
and  literature  in  their  Transactions. 

The  principal  public  libraries  have  owed  their  origin  to  the  spirit  and  enterprise  of  private 
imlividuals;  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford  was  the  be(|uest  of  Hir  Thomas  Dudley,  and 
was  enriched  by  successive  donations.  The  British  Museum  derived  its  flrst  treasures  tVom 
tiie  collections  of  Hir  Hubert  Cotton  and  Hir  Hans  Hloane;  but  has  acquired,  through  purchase 
by  parliament,  the  Ilarleian  and  Lansdowno  MSH.,  the  libraries  of  Major  Edwards  ami  Dr. 
Biirnoy,  and  several  valuable  collections  of  coins  and  minerals.  It  has  also  been  enriched 
by  the  entire  collection  of  George  III.,  presented  to  the  nation  by  his  successor.  With 
tliiri  accession,  the  library,  which  previously  consisted  of  125,000  volumes,  has  boon  aug> 
incnted  by  one-half.  The  Museum  is  also  very  rich  in  specimens  of  natural  history,  par- 
ticularly of  mineralogy. 

Institutions  of  a  highly  useful  character  have  sprung  from  the  general  desire  of  knowledge 
which  marks  the  present  age.  Their  object  is  to  communicate  knowledge  to  the  commor- 
cial  classes,  as  well  tm  to  persons  who  have  not  opportunities  for  a  regular  course  of  study ; 
and  the  chief  mean?  employed  for  this  purpose  are  a  library,  a  reading-room,  and  courses  of 
lectures.  Of  these  establishments  are  the  Royal  Institution,  the  London  Institution,  &«.; 
and  all  the  p^reat  cities  and  towns  have  now  their  public  libraries. 

Of  the  Fine  Arts,  that  of  painting  has  been  greatly  neglected  in  Enj^land.  Portrait 
painting,  indeed,  always  met  with  encouragement;  yet  Vandyke,  the  leader  in  this  branch  of 
art,  was  a  foreigner.  It  was  only  toward  the  close  of  the  last  century  that  Reynolds  formed 
a  style  decidedly  English,  and  of  distinguished  excellence. 

The  Royal  Academy,  under  the  immediate  patronage  of  the  king,  consists  of  forty  artists, 
including  the  president,  while  a  number  of  others  are  attached  in  expectancy  as  associates. 
There  are  four  professors,  viz.  of  painting,  of  architecture,  of  anatomv,  and  of  perspective, 
who  annually  read  public  lectures  on  the  subjects  of  their  several  denartments.  To  tho 
schools  of  this  academy  iVee  admission  is  given  to  all  students  properly  qualified  for  receiv- 
ing instruction,  and  there  is  an  annual  exhibition  of  paintings,  sculpture,  and  architectural 
designs,  to  which  all  artists  may  send  their  works  for  admission,  if  approved  by  Uio  commit' 
tee  appointed  to  judge  them.  The  splendid  collection  of  paintings  formed  by  the  regeni 
duke  of  Orleans  was  imported  entire,  and  the  greater  port  of  it  now  embellishes  tho  gallery 
of  the  Marquess  of  Stafford.  The  nobles  of  Italy,  also,  on  the  devastation  of  that  country 
were  obliged  to  strip  their  palaces  of  these  valued  ornaments,  and  to  dispose  of  them  at 
low  rates  to  English  speculators.  Prom  those  sources  were  formed  the  Grosvonor  the  An* 
gerstein,  and  many  other  private  collections.  On  the  death  of  Mr,  Angerstein,  in  1824,  his 
collection  was  purchased  by  parliament,  and  made  the  basis  of  a  national  gallery,  which  has 
since  received  considerable  additions  both  by  purchase  and  bequest. 

In  the  other  departments  of  the  fine  arts,  music,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  tho  English 
have  been  far  excelled  by  the  continental  nations ;  in  engraving,  they  have  produced  some 
distinguished  names. 

The  publishing  and  selling  of  books  form  one  of  the  pnncipal  branches  of  her  productive 
industry.  Periodical  literature  has  a  very  extensive  circulation.  In  tho  metropolis  nearly 
sixty  magazines  and  reviews  are  published,  of  which  the  monthly  value  has  been  estimated 
at  6000/.  Another  important  characteristic  of  the  national  spirit  may  be  remarked  in  the 
immense  circulation  of  newspapers,  notwithstanding  a  heavy  stamp-duty.  There  arc  in 
London  eight  daily  morning  papers,  and  five  daily  evening  papere ;  seven  jiapors  published 
thrice  a  week ;  and  upwarfs  of  forty  weekly  papers.  Of  the  latter  species  of  newspaper, 
every  provincial  city  has  two  or  three,  and  every  town  of  consequence  hoB  one,  Tho  num- 
ber of  stamps  issued  for  the  London  newspapers  in  1832  was  21,432,882,  The  produce  of 
tho  duty  in  that  year  was  490,4512, 

The  favourite  amusements  of  the  English  are  those  which  combine  the  advantages  of  air 
and  exercise.  Tho  stage,  though  eminently  rich  in  dramas,  and  supplied  with  actors  of  high 
talent,  is  not  the  habitual  resort  of  the  people.  In  former  times  fiunting  was  almost  the 
sole  business  of  life  among  the  English  stiuires :  and  though  their  taster  are  now  much 

Vol.  I.  31  2V 


ir 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  UI 


varied,  this  original  pastime,  in  all  its  forms,  continues  to  be  eagerly  fbllowed.  By  the 
nobility  and  gentry,  horse-iacing  is  supported  with  equal  ardour,  and  no  country  rivals  Eng< 
land  in  the  high  excellence  to  which  she  has  brought  the  breed  of  animals  employed  in  this 
diversion.  The  races  of  Doncaster,  of  York,  and  atmve  all  of  Newmarket,  are  attended  by  the 
most  distinguisiied  persons  in  the  country  for  rank  and  opulence ;  and  other  cuce-courses 
attract  great,  multitudes  of  miscellaneous  spectators.  Among  the  common  people  boxing 
matches  present  a  similar  occasion  of  laying  wagers.  Bull-baiting  was  put  down  only  by 
statute.  Of  the  national  outdoor  games,  those  of  cricket  and  tennis  deserve  especial  ocm- 
mendation,  from  their  tendency  to  enliven  the  spirits  and  invigorate  the  frame. 

In  their  habits  and  modes  of  ordinary  life,  the  English  may  be  called  a  domestic  people, 
especially  when  compared  with  the  French.  In  common  with  other  northern  nations,  the 
English  retain  a  taste  for  fermented  or  distilled  liquors,  which,  however,  has  been  in  a 
great  measure  corrected  and  subdued  among  the  higher  and  middle  classes.  Beer  and  porter 
constitute  the  staple  drink  of  the  great  body  of  the  people ;  but  malt  spirit  of  a  cheap  and 
very  pernicious  kmd  is  consumed  in  great  quantities  by  the  lowest  orders,  especially  in  the 
metropolis,  where  it  is  rapidly  accelerating  their  degeneracy.  Among  the  middle  classes 
the  wmes  of  Spain,  Portugal  and  Madeira  are  in  general  use ;  but  the  cellars  of  the  rich 
are  stored  with  the  choicest  products  of  the  French  vineyards.  Convivial  excess,  so  long  the 
reproach  of  the  English,  has  become  comparatively  rare. 

I*.vkifa.(  .i!...^;"<ifc;K''=  «*         Sect.  Vn. — Local  Geography.         .--. 

England  and  Wales  are  divided  into  counties  or  shires.  Wales,  until  the  time  of  Ed- 
ward 1.,  was  an  independent  principality,  but  is  now  an  appendent  territory,  of  very  inferior 
magnitude.  It  has  still,  however,  its  own  courts  of  judicature,  and  retains  some  national 
peculiarities.  The  number  of  counties  in  England  is  forty,  and  in  Wales  twelve ;  making  in 
all  fifty-two.  The  following  statistical  table,  gives  a  general  view  of  the  extent,  popula< 
tion,  employment,  and  wealth  of  each  county: — 


e,f 

Income 

in  1814-15,  arisiag  flrom 

0a<iBti«i. 

101.  ind 
upmudt. 

Renlal 
ofHoiM. 

tbn, 

Und. 

Trade. 

OtSem. 

II 

BatM, 

CiltoudTowiM. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

Bedford 

Berks  

430 

744 

733 
3,713 

12,619 
83,572 

95.383 
145,389 

364,2re 
719,889 

94,796 
399,703 

1,481 
3,317 

96,994 
139,533 

Bedford 

ReaHi"? 

•  Winui.or 

Newbury .... 

6,959 

15,595 

7,103 

5,9.59 

Buck* 

748 

1,894 

35,655 

146,539 

663,873 

333,981 

1,098 

158,483 

Buckingham . 
Aylesbury  . . . 

3,610 

5,021 

Cambridge — 

686 

3,645 

49,781 

143,955 

703,371 

339,687 

5,109 

115,163 

Cambridge .  .. 
Ely 

8e,!117 
6,189 

Cheater  (a)  ... 

1,017 

1,784 

93,854 

334,410 

1,114,937 

389,309 

44207 

86,608 

144,103 

Chester 

Macclestield  . 

21,363 
2S,129 

CornwaH 

1.407 

3.852 

48,117 

303,440 

923,358 

330,115^ 

3,233 

77,986 

131,802 

Launceston. . 
Falmouth.... 

2,2:)1 
4.-00 

Cumberland . . 

1,497 

3,400 

43,040 

169,681 

737,438 

179,758 

3,447 

46,397 

58,850 

Carlisl,; 

Wliitcbaven . 

ao.oofii 

n,3!i3 

Derby  (»).... 
Devon 

Oonet 

1,077 

3,488 

1,129 

3,287 
12.397 

3,051 

A633 
337,000 

57,868 

237,170 
494,168 

159,353 

d83,370 
1.934,913 

726,263 

310,583 
754,444 

241,634 

2,908 
9,471 

4,002 

43,000 
32,800 

106,303 
250,713 

104,822 

Derby 

(Exeter 

■  Plymouth.  ■ .. 
Devon  port . .. 
Weymouth  . . 

■  Poole 

Sherhorno  . . . 

2:i,(>27 

87.!132 

40,(i51 

34,H83 

7,f55 

6,4  W 

4,(175 

Durham  (e) .  ■ . 

1.040 

4,369 

69,471 

853,83' 

885,560 

353,631 

3,771 

5^,300 

100,646 

Durham 

Sunderland  .. 

10,i;i5 
I7.0lfl 

iEwexW 

1,S35 

6,384 

139,806 

317,333 

1,534,108 

603,935 

8,630 

53,348 

320,541 

Cotchester ](),1li7 

■   Harwich 4,2!i7 

Saffl-on  Walden  4,T(;2 
(Oloncester 1],<i:<;) 

Gloucester  («). 

Herefbrd 

Hertford 

Huntingdon  . . 

1,133 

971 
003 
341 

9,080 

1.794 

3,490 

045 

351,974 

30,434 
70,299 
16,79] 

386.904 

110,976 
14.3,34 1 
53,149 

1,315,723 

639,156 
583,657 
325,694 

367,343 

61,851 

2eC,i9 

68,401 

2,897 

2,790 
4,319 
4,150 

.... 

301,403 

70,000 

115,093 

50,0»8 

1  Bristol 

1  Tewkesbury  . 
(Cirencester .. 

Hereford 

Hertford 

Huntinjrdon  . 
(Canterbury  .. 

5!i,«74 
5,7tO 
5.4i0 

lO.SK-J 
5,'Jt7 
3,2(!7 

13,04!) 

Kenl(/)^..  . 

1,463 

16,139 

347,110 

479,155 

1,687,443 

1,686,228 

19,343 

399,686 

jDeptford  and 
Q     "-reenwich. 
( : '     Ntone  . . . 

44,348 
15,387 

[«)  Nantwich  -   - 

4.88 
5,77 
3,36 

5  ('19 

5      Bii 
9         r 

atmhead 
hop  Wei 
louth 

-    15,177 
"'  14,488 

Stock 

South 

(d)  Che 

Ion  -   -   7 
ShieMt  9 
nuford    S 

763    (e)C 
074        Bi 
435    (/) 

'hftltUBt 

mini    - 
Rochti 

te.'     ■> 

T  1      i  .,»1 

Margate - 
.  1    Bamniate 

.'1 

1_ 


Past  m 

Dowed.  By  the 
ntry  rivals  Eiiff. 
employed  in  this 

attended  by  the 
ler  race-courses 
1  people  boxing 
It  down  only  by 
'e  especial  ccm- 
le. 

omestic  people, 
srn  nations,  the 

has  been  in  a 
Beer  and  porter 
of  a  cheap  and 
specially  in  the 
I  middle  classes 
lars  of  the  rich 
less,  80  long  the 


the  time  of  Ed- 
o{  very  inferior 
I  some  national 
Ive ;  making  in 
extent,  popula- 


Book  L 


'ItiMUdToWM. 


ord 

U*i» 

uMt 

bury 

ingham.. 

Bbury  

bridge .... 

ler.....'..' 
lestield  .. 
cestnn... 
outh 

'!« 2d,66(;i 

etaaven  . .  1 1,393 

' S;i,()27 

<T 27,932 

>llth 40,(151 


6,959 

15,595 

7,103 

5,9,59 

3,610 

5,t21 

80,917 

6,189 

31,363 

23,129 

2,2:111 

4.760 


iport . . 

•  34,H83 

louth  . 

.     7,t55 

[)rno  . . . 

•     4,075 

m 

■  10,i:f5 

riand  .. 

•  17, tm 

ster  . . . 

■  vi.m 

Ch 

■     4.2!17 

1  Walden  4,-(i3l 

stcr ... 

.  11, wt 

.  59,074 

sbiiry  . 

•     5,7^0 

ester . . 

5,4'->0 

rd 

10,2f-'2 

rd 

5,'i47 

gdon  . 

3,2(!7 

biiry  . . 

13,649 

rd  and 

nwich.. 

44„348 
15,387 

_    .    . 

une .... 

>l 

7,268 

rga'c  - 

'((.:«9 

nogaie 

'JHd 

;/p rr .     ENGLAND.  ■ '  '-'•  )-i:?U 


» 

Income  in  1814-15,  arising  ftom 

Oountiet. 

lU.  ud 
npwiidi. 

Bontil 

OfHOHM. 

leai! 

UDd. 

Tnii*. 

OOea. 

II 

Rain, 

iioa 

ClIlMudTMni. 

X 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

(  Manchester. . 

183,813 

Lancashire  (a) 

1,806 

38,406 

795,833 

1,336.854 

3,130,043 

9,892,079 

38,030 

413,939 

1  Liverpool.... 
1  Lancaster  . . . 

165.175 
13,1113 

Leicester  (6) . . 
Lincoln  

816 
8,787 

3,357 
4,036 

62,748 
78,604 

197,003 
317,344 

051,908 
3,096,611 

319,607 
373,071 

5.837 
6.550 

158J»4 

228,953 

(  Wigan 

Leicester .... 

1  Lincoln 

'  Boston 

Stamford  .  . . 

20,V74 
39.306 
11,843 
11,2!0 

5,8?7 

Middlesex.... 

297 

116,37» 

5,1A340 

1,358/141 

5,763,373 

1S,3S5,84£ 

1.174,865 

770,125 

Fart  of  London  and  1 
Westminster.         1 

Monmouth  •  •  • 

516 

1,688 

31,572 

08,130 

298,981 

103.571 

437 

9,900 

32,080 

Monmontii  . . 

4,9111 

Norfolk  (c)... 

2,013 

5,333 

97,067 

390,054 

1,916,651 

533.010 

16.505 

338,867 

Norwich 

Yaruouth  ■ . . 

61,116 
21,110 

Northamp-     ) 
ton 1 

065 

3,337 

40,327 

179^6 

947,578 

1854204 

1,431 

173,018 

Northampton 
Peterborough 

15,:?51 
5,5.53 

Ni^rthum-      ( 
berland  (d)  { 

1,809 

6,140 

120,434 

233,913 

14291,412 

436.404 

5,763 

59.900 

88,035 

Newcastle . . . 
Berwick 

42,21.0 

8,' 20 

Nottingham . . 

774 

3,597 

71,396 

235,330 

751,626 

314,501 

3,073 

106,707 

Nottingham  . 
Newark 

50.()l-0 

9,.557 

Oxford 

Rutland 

Salop 

Somerset  («)  .. 

742 
300 

1,403 
1,549 

3,628 
341 

3,403 
16,568 

61,869 
4,631 

63,001 
512,909 

151,7&5 
19,385 

833,503 
403,908 

790.^6 
138.216 

1.063.701 
3,308.723 

313,809 
30,938 

879,933 
1,3394265 

4,815 
799 

4,861 
13,887 

36.305 
30,100 

151,335 

}2,378 

99,665 
309.566 

Oxford 

( Shrewsbury. . 
J  Wenlock  ... 

Bridgcnorth  . 

Ludlow 

i  Bath 

<  Bridgewaier . 
(  Taunton  . . .  ■ 
(  Southampton 

<  Portsmouth. . 
(Winchester.. 
(  Stafford 

<  Newcastle . . . 

f  Lichfleld 

(  Ipswich 

•jBury  St.  Ed- 
(     mund's .... 

Scuthwark  . . 
Guildford .... 

20,649 

33,4it2 

17,4;« 

5,2i« 

5,253 

38.0(^3 

7,897 

11,1:19 

19, 1:14 

50,309 

8,712 

6,!i.5« 

8,192 

6,409 

304!01 

11,4:16 

91,.501 

3,916 

Southamp- 
ton....... 

Stafford  (/)... 

Suffolk 

Surrey 

1,533 

1,196 

1,566 
811 

9,363 

6,123 

3,573 
33,865 

198,321 

108,507 

61,909 
964,438 

314,313 

410,485 

396.304 
486,336 

1,240,547 

14200,324 

1,151,304 
1,589,701 

923,713 

536,720 

453,484 
1,564,533 

10.751 

10.826 

11.972 
21,023 

8,700 
48,600 

239,133 

171.«8 

299,084 
331,304 

Sussex (<r)  •••• 
Warwick  (A). . 

1,461 
984 

6,818 
0,368 

303,837 
lOO.'XS 

373,328 

336,9b8 

010,350 
1,369,756 

373,058 

669,369 

4.610 
13,966 

16,950 

389,051 
193,303 

(  Brighton  . . .  ■ 

<  Lewes 

(  Chichester . . . 
(  Birmingham. 

<  Coventry .... 
(Warwick 

40,i,;m 

8,5'.0 

8,270 

14l\!iH> 

27,070 

Westmore- 
land  

722 

1,039 

31,120 

55,041 

'399.583 

52,575 

1.184 

33,044 

Kenda! 

I«,<'I.' 

Wilts 

Worcester  (0 . 

1,283 

074 

3,632 
4,873 

68,577 
100.836 

3:19,181 
311,356 

1,215,619 
830,030 

376,070 
273,303 

6,981 
1,137 

3,100 
3,800 

220,931 
97,178 

Salisbury .... 
Worcester . . . 
York 

York(») 

6,013 

30,189 

415,539 

1,371,296 

4,700,434 

1,719,886 

84,416 

62.300 

J86,126 

)  Leeds 

)Hull 

.'2S,:i!l3 

N.  WAttK. 

Anglcsea 

Caernar- 
von (/)•  ■ . . 
Denbigh  (m)  .. 
Flint  (n)...... 

403 

220 

4,080 
7,983 

48,385 
65,753 

Oi,'r60 
131,313 

3W8 

19,196 
23,440 

(-Sheffield 

I  Beaumaris.. 

59,111 

2,497 

775 

538 

30,641 

230 

)  Holyhead .... 
Caernarvon. 

4,282 

7,')  49 

.... 

856 
176 
292 
605 

460 

570 

14,411 
3,375 

4,578 
7,971 

7,599 

999 

8,363 

83,167 
60,012 
35,809 
66,485 

47,763 
64,780 
100,653 

312,576 
17.5,115 
112,516 
212,083 

161,989 
146,816 
282,091 

19,677 

n,r.66 

7,261 
18,748 

22,78:; 
13,727 
30,320 

sosl 

795*15,400 

68 

794  ....• 

560 

283 

5,301 

41,139 
25,513 
10,760 
38,665 

30,938 
20,(585 
37,957 

Denbigh  — 
Holvwell  . . . 
Dolgelly  — 
Welshpool... 

Brecknock . . . 
Cardigan  . . . 
Cacrniarthcn 

:i,7K6 
8,™i9 
4,0H7 
5.255 

5,02ti 
2,795 
9,955 

Montgomery  . 

S.  Wales. 
Brecknock. . . . 

— 

Cardigan  (0)  . . 
Caermanhen  . 

726 
926 

Glamor-         ) 

gan(f)...  i 

Pembroke  (j)  . 

Radnor 

.... 

1.713 

31,208 

126,012 

372,603 

103,203 

3,149  55.900 

43,301 

Swansea  . . . 

13,CC4 

.... 

740 
174 

12,701 
3,302 

81,484 
24,65) 

220,241 
101,956 

45,:M8 
3.429 

1,531 

40 



38,:«)8 
15,29(i 

Pembroke  . . . 
Radnor . . 

6,511 

1,989 

I— 

>i)  Bolton  -  - 

Siillord  -  - 

Rochdale  -  - 

Predion  -  .  - 

Oldham  -  - 

n:ti.: .  __ 

t  IIKIIIKIDII 

Crumpton 
Blackburn 
Toxteih  Pnrk 
Chiirlinn  Row 
Warrington    - 


41.195 
40,786 
a5,7a5 
3:1,113 
33,:<8I 

1  I   IHV) 

7,004 
37,091 
24,067 
30..569 
16,018 


Bury   -   - 

Chorler   - 

Pretcot     -    - 

(i)  Louirhbo- 

rougn    -    - 
/-\  t  ..„„  »„..:.. 

d)  Tynemouth 
North  Shields 
Hexhnin  -  - 
Morpeth  -   - 

(«/ Wells   -   - 


15,086 
9,282 
5.055 

10,800 
11  -rrn 

ib'.J82 
6744 
6,042 
3,t-90 
6,649 


(/)  Wolverhamp- 
lon    -    -    -    24.733 

RiUion     .    -    14,499 
(^)Hastin(s   -    10.09? 

Bye     -   -    -     3,715 

11,1  Loixninrlon  6  0110 
kcnilwortli  -      3;0B7 

(i)  Dudley  -  -  23.043 
Kidilei  minster  14.981 
Hornbrldge  -  6.148 
Evesham     -     3,991 


Drnilwich  - 
(*)  Whilby  - 
Scarborough 
Beverley  -  - 
Doncntier  - 
lliiHdnrafiuld 
HalifHX  - 
Bradford  -  - 
Barniler  -  - 
Ripon 
Poote:riu:i 


2,487 

11;725 

8.7RH 
8,309 
10,801 
I9.0:<5 
15,388 
23,23.1 
10.330 


(I)    Bnngor    - 
(m)  Wrexham 

LInnKollen  - 
(niMold     -    - 

Flint  -  -  - 
(o)  >\b«ryslwiih 
(p)  Merlhyr  Tyd- 

vil     -        -    92.0H3 

CHrdifi     -    -     6,187 
(Qlliaverfoidwest  3,915 

Tenby         -    3,lSi 


1.7.51 

5.-)83 
3,6:10 
H.OHl 
2.-JI6 
4.128 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pakf  til 


The  topographical  details  of  England  may  be  distributed  under  the  following  su6seo 
tirms : — 1.  ^uthern  counties ;  2.  Eutem  counties ;  3.  Midland  counties ;  4.  Northern  coun* 
ties ;  5.  Western  counties. 

SuBSECT.  1. — Southern  Counties, 

Under  this  head,  Kent,  Surrey,  Sussex,  Berkshire,  Hampshire,  Wiltshire,  and  Dorset,  the 
counties  south  of  the  Thames,  and  along  the  Channel,  will  be  comprehended.  This  fine 
district  is,  in  geui^ial,  of  a  level  character;  but  is  traversed,  however,  by  ranges  of  low  hills 
or  dovs'ns,  which  give  to  it  a  varied  and  picturesque  aspect.  Chclk  is  a  predominant  feature 
in  its  soil ;  and,  on  the  coast,  forms  those  bold  cli/ls,  which  characterise  the  southern  bound- 
ary of  Britam.  Many  tracts  are  under  high  cultivation,  yielding,  in  pe:  lection,  the  usual 
agricultural  products,  with  others  of  great  value,  peculiar  to  this  district ;  mrticularly  hops, 
in  Kent,  and  part  of  Sussex  and  Surrey.  A  prominent  feature  consists  of '.arge  expanses  of 
downs,  composed  of  chalky  soil,  scarcely  fit  for  the  plough,  but  pastured  by  vast  flocks  of  sheep. 
Kent,  the  largest  and  finest  of  these  counties,  holds  a  conspicuous  place  in  English  annals. 
The  men  of  Kent  have  been  noted  as  a  race  peculiarly  stout,  hardy,  and  courageous.  In 
the  west  are  extensive  wealds,  presenting  still  many  finely  wooded  districts ;  also  large  marshy 
tracts,  interspersed,  however,  with  dry  cultivated  portions,  in  which  the  best  grain  in  the  king- 
dom is  raised.  The  interior  around  Maidstone  and  Canterbury. forms  almost  a  continued 
garden,  supplying  Iruits  for  the  markets  of  London ;  .and  above  all,  hops,  that  essential  ingre- 
dient in  the  staple  beverage  of  the  English  nation. 

Canterbury,  the  chief  place  in  Kent,  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  venerable  of  the  English 
cities.  It  is  tlie  ecclesiastical  metropolis  of  the  kingdom,  the  residence  of  its  primate ;  who, 
as  such,  places  the  crown  on  the  sovereign's  head,  and  ranks  next  in  dignity  to  the  royal 

family.  Its  cathedral  (^Jiff.  138.)  is  of  early 
origin  and  of  vast  extent ;  while  revered  through 
the  Catholic  world  as  the  shrine  of  the  mur- 
dered Becket,  it  was  visited  by  crowds  of  pil- 
grims, and  enriched  with  offerings;  but  of  these 
treasures  it  was  stripped  by  Henry  VIII.  Can- 
terbury is  built  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  in- 
tersected by  branches  of  the  Stour.  Manufac- 
tures of  cloth,  silk,  and  cotton  were  early  in* 
'  troduced,  and  still  subsist,  though  they  cannot 
bear  a  comparison  with  those  of  the  great  towns 
of  the  interior  and  of  the  north. 

Maidstone  and  Tunbridge  are  among  the 
agreeable  inland  towns  in  Kent.  The  former, 
of  great  antiquity,  has  one  of  the  most  elegant  parochial  churches  in  the  kingdom.  It  is 
the  chief  market  for  hops ;  and  has  some  manufactures,  particularly  of  paper.  Tunbridge 
Wells,  situated  five  or  six  miles  from  the  town  of  Tunbridge,  have  long  been  a  place  of 
public  resort.  The  b)  Tings  are  considered  eflUcacious  in  cases  of  debility  and  certain  chronic 
disorders.  The  town  has  also  a  thriving  manufacture  of  Tunbridge  ware,  consisting  of 
various  wooden  ornaments,  snuff-boxes,  children's  toys,  &c. 

But  the  chief  places  of  Kent  are  maritime,  the  most  ancient  being  those  called  the 
Cinque  Pons.  At  an  eariy  -period,  they  were  considered  the  most  important  stations  for  the 
defence  of  the  kingdom,  and  were  bound  to  furnish  and  equip  fifty-seven  vessels,  each 
manned  with  twenty-one  sailors ;  in  return  for  which,  their  citizens  held  the  rank  of  barons, 
and  f,ent  two  members  to  parliament  from  each  port  Their  greatness  is  now  departed,  and 
some  of  their  harbours  have  been  filled  up  by  sand. 

The  Kentish  Cinque  Ports  are  Dover,  Sandwich,  Hythe,  and  Romney.  The  first  is  still 
a  place  of  considerable  note.  The  spacious  castle  on  a  commanding  eminence,  the  white 
and  towering  cliffs,  present  to  the  approaching  mariner  an  imposing  spectacle.  As  the  main 
channel  of  communication  with  France,  it  maintains  twenty-seven  packets  in  constant  ser- 
vice. Romney  and  Hythe  arc  of  little  maritime  importance.  Sandwich  on  the  east  v.oast, 
1S9    ^        '  yields  in  importance  to  its  nominal  de- 

•^        '"-''  pendencies.  Deal,  Margate,  and  Rams- 

gate.  Deal  derives  its  pronperity  from 
the  vicinity  of  that  fine  ancho  age,  tjje 
Downs,  where  the  outward-bound  fleets 
of  England  usually  remain  for  a  certain 
period,  when  they  obtain  Bupplios  niid 
refreshments  from  Deal.  Margate  is 
crowded,  tlioiifjh  not  fasiiionaUlo ;  and 
the  establishment  of  stoam-packets  al- 
lows daily  intercourse  with  the  metro- 
Dover  Caitle.  polis.    It  likewise  carries  on  some  trade 


Caotefbury  Cathedral. 


PAiir  Til 

wing  subsec- 
orthem  coun* 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND, 


3d5 


»d  Dorset,  the 
i-    This  fine 
9  of  low  hills 
liuant  feature 
ithern  bound- 
on,  the  usual 
cularly  hops, 
I  expanses  of 
>cks  of  sheep, 
ifjlish  annals, 
rageous.    In 
large  marshy 
T  in  the  king- 
a  continued 
ential  ingre- 

'tlie  English 
imate ;  who, 
to  the  royal 
is  of  early 
;red  through 
of  the  mur- 
owds  of  pil- 
but  of  these 
VIII.  Can- 
OSS,  and  in- 
Afanufac- 
re  early  in. 
they  cannot 
great  towns 

among  the 
fhe  former, 
dom.  It  is 
Tunbridge 
1  a  place  of 
tain  chronic 
nsisting  of 

called  the 
ions  for  the 
ssels,  each 
c  of  barons, 
Mirted,  and 

irst  is  still 
the  w.hite 
s  the  main 
nstant  ser- 
east  coast, 
ominal  de- 
nd  Rams- 
erity  from 
0  agn,  the 
lund  flents 
■  a  cert!)  in 
iplios  iiiid 
^•n'gat,o  is 
if>lo;  and 
ickets  al- 
le  metnv. 
nne  trade 


with  the  Baltic,  and  supplies  the  metropolis  with  grain  and  fish  Having  risen  within  the 
last  half  century,  it  is  built  with  regularity,  and  contains  twelve  marble  baths,  into  which 
the  sea-water  is  admitted  for  those  who  prefer  that  mode  of  bathing.  Ramsgate,  situated 
on  the  isle  of  Thanet,  possesses  the  advantage  of  a  smooth  and  extensive  beach.  Conside- 
rable improvements  have  been  made  in  the  harbour  at  tlie  expense  of  government,  with  the 
view  to  its  yielding  protection  to  vessels  navigating  this  coast,  where  the  dangerous  shoals 
of  the  Goodwin  Sands  have  often  proved  fatal. 

Deptfbrd,  Woolwich,  Chatham,  and  Sheerness,  ai-e  grand  establishments  for  the  construc- 
tion of  ships  of  war.  Deptford  contains  also  the  Victualling  Office.  Woolwich  is  the  de- 
p6t  of  artillery,  and  the  Uieatre  of  all  the  operations  connected  with  its  construction  and 
preparation.  Here  is  also  the  Royal  MUitary  Academy,  in  which  an  hundred  young  men  of 
respectable  &mily  are  trained  in  all  the  branches  of  knowledge  necessary  for  the  engineer- 
ing department;  and  who,  after  a  strict  examination,  are  appointed  to  commissions  in  the 
service.  Chatham  is  the  grand  magazine  of  naval  stores.  The  rope-house  is  1128  feet  long, 
in  which  cables  101  fathoms  in  length,  and  upwards  of  two  feet  in  circumference,  are  con- 
structed. Twenty  forges  are  constantly  employed  in  the  fabrication  of  anchors,  some  of 
which  are  five  tons  in  weight.  This  important  post,  with  the  exception  of  Portsmouth,  is 
now  the  strongest  in  Britain.  Sheerness,  on  the  Isle  of  Sheppey,  is  a  smaller  station, 
chiefly  employed  in  the  repair  of  shattered  vessels, 
Greenwich,  about  two  miles  below  Deptford,  is  celebrated  for  its  superb  hospital  (Jig.  140.) 

for  disabled  and  superannuated  ma- 
riners. This  edifice  was  begun  by 
Charles  11.,  on  a  design  of  Inigo 
Jones,  as  a  royal  palace.  It  remained 
unfinished,  until  tlie  reign  of  Wil- 
liam III.,  when  it  was  converted 
into  a  naval  hospital.  It  was  en- 
larged by  the  addition  of  three  wuigs, 
enriched  by  donations,  and  by  a  tax 
of  6d.  a  month  from  every  seaman, 
and  it  now  supports  3000  boarders, 
and  pays  pensions  to  5400  in  dif- 
ferent quarters  of  the  kingdom.  In 
Greenwich  Hospital.  Greenwich   park  stands  the  cele- 

brated observatory,  fiimished  with  the  best  instruments  that  can  be  obtained  for  perfecting 
astronomical  observations.  The  recorded  observations  of  Flamsteed,  of  Halley,  of  Bradley, 
and  of  Maskelyne,  rank  among  the  most  important  contributions  to  astronomical  science. 

At  Gravesend,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  the  vessels  employed  in  foreign  commerce, 
both  in  going  up  and  down,  must  stop  and  undergo  an  examination.  Rochester,  with  an 
ancient  cathedral,  contains  in  its  vicinity  numerous  seats,  among  which  may  be  particularly 
noted  Cobham  Hall.  Lee  Priory  is  also  remarkable  for  its  works  of  art ;  and  Knowle  Park 
forms  a  magnificent  structure  of  great  extent. 

Sussex  extends  about  forty  miles  along  the  Channel.  It  is  covered  to  the  extent  of 
170,000  or  180,000  acres  with  noble  oaks  which  are  sought  for  the  use  of  the  royal  navy. 
The  Sussex  sheep  are  peculiarly  valued  both  for  muttim  and  avooI. 

The  capital  is  Chichester,  an  r.ncient  lit'l-i  ity  with  a  cathedrul.  Winchelsea,  Rye,  enl 
Hastings  are  Cinque  Ports,  whicli  iiave  lost  their  ancient  importance ;  but  Hastings,  from 
its  fine  views  of  land  and  sea,  attracts  numerous  visitants  during  the  summer.  Brighton,  the 
gayest  of  all  the  southern  watering-placo's,  from  being  a  large  fishin^^-  village,  rapidly  rose  to 
be  an  elegant  town.  Its  extensive  lawn  called  the  Steyne,  sloping  towards  the  sea,  forms 
an  agreeable  promenade.  The  Pavilion,  or  palace  built  by  George  IV.,  and  the  chain  pier 
are  among  the  objects  of  note. 

The  rough  downs  and  bleak  heaths  of  Surrey  contrasted  with  its  numerous  fine  parks 
and  wooded  districts,  give  to  its  scenery  a  striking  and  picturesque  character.  Southwark 
is  in  Surrey ;  but  it  is  too  entirely  a  part  of  Londovi  to  be  treated  separately  from,  the  rest  of 
that  capital.  Along  the  southern  ba;ik  of  the  Thanies  are  Kew,  with  its  puiacc  and  fine 
gardens,  cr.ilaining  plants  from  every  quarter  of  tiio  w^rld;  Richmond  and  its  hill,  which 
conmiandf:  a  magnificent  view  of  the  Thames  windm^  /mon^-  wooded  parks  and  palaces. 
Camberwell,  Clapham,  and  other  villages  in  the  vicinity  of  the  capital,  are  entirely  composed 
of  the  villas  of  opulent  citizens,  and  the  seats  are  numerous.  At  St.  Anne's  Hill,  a  boautiftil 
villa  on  the  Thames,  Fox  passed  the  latter  years  of  his  life  in  literary  retirement. 

Berkshire  contains  extensive  sheep  pastures;  and  a  great  expanse  of  its  eastern  border  is 
occupied  by  forests ;  yet  more  than  half  its  extent  consists  of  fine  arable  land.  The  sheep 
fair  of  Ilsley  is  the  most  considerable  in  the  kingdom,  the  annual  number  sold  averaging  two 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand.  The  hogs  also  of  this  county  are  in  high  repute.  Berkshire  is 
remarkable  for  its  manufactures  of  copper,  which  is  brought  ftom  Swansea  to  the  annual 
extent  of  six  hundred  to  one  thousand  tons. 

31* 


800 


DESCRIFnVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  m 


Readiiuf.  the  capital  of  Berkshire,  is  remarkable  in  history,  as  several  parliaments  were 
held  there,  and  a  siege  was  sustained  during  the  civil  war.  It  still  enjoys  some  prosperity, 
through  the  export  of  the  produce  of  the  fertile  surrounding  district 

Windsor,  from  the  beauty  of  its  site,  on  an  eminence  near  the  Thames,  and  the  magnifi- 
cence of  its  royal  castle  (Jig.  141.),  fbraos  a  commanding  feature  in  the  prospect  for  many 


:-fV,s-  i^wl;>-f4ri!''f(ir^'-;  [v 


.v> 


Wiodior  CutK). 

miles  around.  William  I.  constructed  here  a  fortress  of  considerable  size ;  but  the  whole 
structure  was  re-modelled  by  Edward  III.  Since  it  ceased  to  be  important  as  a  place  of 
strength,  it  has  been  occupied  as  a  palace ;  and  is  the  only  one,  in  fact,  suitable  to  the  dignity 
of  the  monarch.  The  noble  terrace  walk  1870  feet  in  length,  commands  a  finely  varied 
and  extensive  prospect.  George  III.  completely  repaired  St.  George's  chapel,  and  partly 
restored  the  north  front  of  the  upper  ward ;  but  in  consequence  of  his  illness,  the  improve- 
ments were  suspended  ffar  eleven  years.  George  IV.  resumed  them  on  a  scale  commensurate 
with  the  importance  of  so  venerable  an  edifice ;  and  large  sums  of  money  were  voted  by 
parliament  for  this  national  purpose.  The  royal  apartments  contain  an  extensive  collection 
of  paintings,  among  which  are  some  fine  portraits  by  Vandyke,  and  some  histoiical  pictures 
by  Guide,  Correggio,  Carlo  Dolci,  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  The  chapel  of  St.  George  is 
considered  one  or  the  finest  specimens  of  the  ornamented  Gothic  in  the  kliigdom.  The  choir 
in  particular  is  of  admirable  workmanship,  and  adorned  with  banners  o^  knights  of  the  garter 
ranged  on  each  side.  It  includes  also  the  tombs  of  many  of  the  English  princes,  particularly 
their  late  majesties,  and  the  Princess  Charlotte ;  and  some  of  its  windows  are  painted  after 
the  designs  of  Reynolds.  To  the  south  of  the  palace  extend  Windsor  Great  Park,  and 
Windsor  Forest,  grand  features,  first  formed  by  William  the  Conqueror.  Even  after  tlie 
considerable  abridgment  that  has  taken  place,  the  domain  is  still  fifty-six  miles  in  circum- 
ference, containing  within  its  range  some  noble  timber.  Parts  of  it  wcie  devoted  by  George 
III.  to  his  favourite  pursuit  of  experimental  farming. 

Tho  other  towns  of  Berkshire  are  small;  at  Newbury,  two  obstinate  battles  were  fought 
in  1643  and  1644.  Maidenhead  (formerly  Mainhithe),  on  the  Thames,  is  beautifiilly  encircled 
with  villas. 

Hampshire  contains  extensive  remains  of  those  grand  forests  which  once  overspread  so 
great  a  part  of  England.  The  principal  is  the  New  Forest,  bordering  on  the  Channel  and 
the  bay  of  Southampton.  From  this  tract  of  about  92,.365  acres,  William  the  Conquercr 
drove  out  the  inha  )itant«,  a.id  demplished  the  parish  churches,  that  the  royal  ^ports  might  be 
carried  on  undisturbed.  The  forests  of  BeX;  Holt,  Alice,  &c.,  containing  upwarr's  of  30,000 
acres,  belong  also  to  tiie  crown.  The  wood  is  chiefly  oak  and  beech ;  (lie  former  with  a 
short  thick  trunk  and  strong  crooked  branches,  rendering  it  of  excellent  service  as  knee- 
timber  for  the  navy,  while  the  masts  and  icorns  feed  hogs  of  vast  size,  weighing  sometimes 
eight  hundred  pounds,  and  producing  the  best  bacon  in  the  kingdom. 

Winchester  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  venerable  cities  in  England,  During  part  of 
the  Sa3:on  period,  it  was  the  motropolis,  ft  had  at  one  time  upwards  of  ninety  churches  and 
chapel>;,  with  colleges  and  monaeleries  attached  to  them.  Being  frequented  on  accour-t  of 
its  feirs,  and  chosen  as  one  of  the  staples  for  v  ooi,  it  became  at  one  period  the  seat  of  a  very 
extensive  commerce.  After  the  Norman  comju'st,  when  London  becamp  the  royal  residence, 
the  decline  of  Winchester  commenced  and  was  accelerated  by  the  rpmoval  of  the  wool 
trade;  but  above  rt\  by  the  di8s«jlutioii  of  'Jio  monasteries,  in  tfip  tine  of  Henry  VIII.  It 
now  owes  its  impf»/*:,Reo  to  its  rnnk  as  an  c-oxtoopul  city,  and  a  county  town  in  which  assizes 
cxc  J. eld  a  ^-rr,rit-?lv  wiiJi  Southampton  iw  venerable  cathedral  (fifr  142.)  han  been  tha 
work  of  successive  agos.  li  was  foiiiidod  under  (he  Snxon  kings,  epii'rypd  hy  William  of 
Wykeham  under  Edward  III.,  and  cmiipleted  by  Hishop  Fox,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  wh»ti 


Pabt  in 

'liaments  were 
me  prosperity, 

1  the  magnifi- 
pect  for  many 

•I    U:-'r,K   i,  I,     ; 


but  the  whole 
as  a  place  of 
to  the  dignity 
I  finely  varied 
2l,  and  partly 
,  the  improve- 
:ommensurate 
rere  voted  by 
live  collection 
'i-ical  pictures 
St.  George  is 
n.   The  choir 

of  the  garter 
I,  particularly 

painted  after 
at  Park,  and 
i^en  after  Uie 
38  in  circum- 
ed  by  George 

I  were  fought 
illy  encircl'Hl 

•verspread  so 
Channel  and 
le  Conquercf 
orts  mi^ht  be 
r.'''?  of  30,000 
brmer  with  a 
i'ice  as  knee- 
ig  sometimes 

uring  part  of 
ihurrhes  and 
1  account  of 
eat  of  a  very 
al  residence, 

of  the  wool 
iryVIII.  It 
.'Hich  assi/.ea 
!iie  been  the 

William  of 
tntury,  wbc 


Book  I. 


ENGLAND. 


367 


extfinaive  additions  were  mode  to  it  in  the  highly  ornamented  and  pointed  English  style; 


./"l 


;»■■.■  .    .  .     '  ~  •\  t    '■ 


WIocbMtw  Cathedral. 


142      .--^-^      ,  T- >-^.  of  which  several  of  the  specimens  here  pre- 

served are  reckoned  the  finest  in  the  kmg- 
dom.  The  college,  or  rather  school,  founded 
by  Bishop  Wykeham  is  also  a  magnificent 
edifice,  and  is  one  of  the  four  great  classical 
schools  to  which  the  distinguished  youtli  of 
England  resort.  Southampton  now  surpasses 
Wmchester,  and  is  a  flourishing  town,  at  the 
head  of  the  bay  called  Southampton  Water. 
It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  with  the 
south  of  Europe,  and  regular  packets  sail 
•TWfr  from  it  to  Havre  de  Grace. 
Portsmouth  is  the  grand  arsenal  for  equipping  the  powerful  navies  of  Great  Britaui.  The 
harbour  is  formed  by  a  considerable  bay,  with  a  commodious  entrance,  perfectly  landlocked, 
and  sheltered  from  every  wind,  affording  secure  anchorage  all  round ;  and  capable  from  its 
dimensions  of  containing  tiie  whole  British  navy.  The  Isle  of  Wight  forms  at  its  eastern 
extremity  the  safe  and  magnificent  road  of  Spithead,  the  principal  rendezvous  of  the  national 
fleets.  The  place  has  been  strengthened  by  fortifications,  till  it  has  become  the  strongest 
and  most  finished  fortress  in  the  empure,  and  is  considered  absolutely  impregnable.  Ports- 
mouth itself  is  situated  on  an  island  about  fourteen  miles  in  circumference,  separated  from 
the  land  only  by  a  narrow  channel.  The  suburb  of  Portsea,  on  the  same  island,  begun  only 
a  century  ago,  has  now  outgrown  the  original  town,  and  contains  the  principal  dockyards. 
Here  are  carried  on,  upon  a  gigantic  scale,  all  the  operations  subservient  to  building,  equip- 
ping, and  refitting  ships,  and  supplying  the  navy.  The  sea-wall  of  the  dockyards  extends 
nearly  three  quarters  of  a  mile,  and  encloses  an  area  of  one  hundred  acres:  the  forge,  where 
anchors  of  huge  dimensions  are  formed;  the  ropery,  above  a  thousand  feet  long;  the  spacious 
dry  docks ;  the  endless  range  of  warehouses ;  tiie  gun-wharf,  the  armoury,  are  objects  which 
astonish  by  their  immensity. 

Christohurch  is  noted  for  a  fine  ancient  church;  Beaulieu  for  the  ruins  of  its  venerable 
abbey ;  Andover,  Basingstoke,  and  Romsey  are  considerable  towns. 

The  Isle  of  Wight  is  about  twenty-three  miles  m  length,  and  thirteen  in  breadth ;  divided 
by  a  channel  of  only  a  few  miles  from  the  coast,  on  which  are  the  bays  of  Portsmouth  and 
»)uthampton.  It  is  traversed  by  a  ridge  of  chalky  downs,  in  which  are  fed  about  fort/ 
thousand  fine-woolled  sheep  of  the  Dorsetshire  breed.  On  the  north  are  luxuriant  meadows 
supporting  valuable  breeds  of  horses  and  cattle ;  while  on  the  south  are  fine  arable  plains, 
yielding  grain  much  beyond  the  consumption  of  the  island.  The  island  is  celebrated  for  its 
striking  and  pe<ru!iar  scenery ;  the  grand  views  of  land  and  sea  enjoyed  from  its  high  open 
downs ;  the  deep  and  dark  ravines  of  its  southern  shore,  and  the  bold  romantic  cliffe  which 
it  there  presents  to  the  expanse  of  the  English  Channel.  One  of  the  most  conspicuous 
features  is  the  range  of  coast  called  the  Undercliff.  This  district  presents  the  appearance 
of  a  series  of  gigantic  steps  rising  firom  the  shore,  to  the  summit  of^  the  great  perpendicular 
wall.  The  chines,  or  chasms,  with  torrents  bursting  through  them,  are  also  characteristic 
features. 

The  westen)  part  of  the  Isle  presents  the  rugged  and  pomted  clifis,  called  the  Needles, 
and  a  range  of  magnificent  white  cliffs,  rising  perpendicularly  to  the  height  of  500  or  600 
feet.  These  precipices  are  inhabited  by  gulls  and  puffins,  the  eggs  of  which  are  taken  by 
the  islander,  suspended  in  a  basket,  which  is  fixed  by  a  rope  to  the  summit.  The  eastern 
shore  presents  the  Culver  Cliffs,  a  range  qf  precipices  which,  in  grandeur  and  ruggedness, 
are  not  surpassed  by  any  other  on  the  island. 

The  castle  of  Carisbrook  is  an  ancient  edifice,  in  which  Charles  I.  waa  for  some  time 
imprisoned.  The  towns,  Newport,  Yarmouth,  Cowes,  and  Ryde,  are  small. 
Dorset  consists  of  open  chalky  downs,  fit  only  for  sheep,  which  are  here  of  a  breed  called 
the  Southdown  (^Jig.  143.),  peculiarly  fine  both  as  to  carcase  and 
wool.  The  fleece  is  very  short  and  fine ;  the  mutton  fine  in  the 
grain,  and  of  an  excellent  flavour.  The  number  of  sheep  is  estimated 
at  800,000,  producing  2,790,000  pounds  of  wool.  The  islands  of 
Purbeck  and  Portland  are  valuable  for  the  production  of  fine  free- 
stone. 

Dorsetshire  has  no  remarkable  towns.  Dorchester,  the  capital ; 
Poole,  with  an  excellent  harbour ;  and  Weymouth,  finely  situated 
for  a  bathing-place,  are  the  principal. 
W  iltshire  is  a  fine  county ;  the  chalk  hills  here  terminating,  form 
the  fitW<'-lnnd,  termed  Salisbury  Plain ;  a  naked,  undulating  surface,  which  aflbrds  pasturage 
%T  afwep.  The  northern  part  of  Wiltshire,  watered  by  the  Thames,  is  chiefly  underwood 
an4  pastuff  and  supports  a  valuable  breed  of  cattle,  from  whose  milk  is  made  the  excellent 


floalhdown  Hheep. 


'.■>■ 


DEvSCRTPTTVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PiuiT  in. 


SoUibanr  Cathedral. 


elieese  bearing  the  name  of  the  province.  Wiltshire  iu  a  manufacturing  county.  The  pro- 
duce is  of  the  finest  description ;  superfine  broadciotli,  kerseymeres,  and  fancy  articles ;  hue 
flannels  at  Salisbury,  and  at  Wilton  the  carpets  which  bear  its  name. 

Salisbury,  the  capital,  is  a  handsome  and  well-built  town.  The  streets  are  spaciou:!  and 
tegular,  croesing  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  kept  clean  by  streams  of  water,  Irum  the 

river  Avon.  The  pride  of  Salisbury  is  its 
cathedral  (^Jig.  144.)  completed  in  1258, 
which  is  considered  the  most  elegant  end 
finished  Gothic  structure  in  the  kingdom. 
It  has  also  the  loftiest  spire,  rising  to  the 
height  of  four  hundred  and  ten  feet. 

Wiltshire  Has  a  number  of  thriving  littl« 
towns,  in  which  fine  woollen  manufacluiea 
are  carried  on  with  activity:  Devizes, 
Marlborough,  Chippenham,  Malmsbury, 
Warminster,  Wilton,  &c.  Most  of  them 
are  adorned  with  fine  old  churches. 

Stonehenge  {fig.  145.),  in  Salisbury 
Plain,  a  remarkable  monument  of  antiquity , 
is  supposed  to  be  the  remnant  of  a  temple 
of  the  Druids.  "  It  consists,"  says  Mr. 
Sullivan,  "  of  the  remains  of  two  circular 
and  two  oval  ranges,  having  one  common 
centre.  The  outer  circle  h  one  hundred 
and  eight  feet  in  diameter,  aii»i  in  its  per- 
fection consisted  of  thirty  upright  stones.  The  upright  stones  are  from  eighteen  to  twenty 
fe«>l  high,  from  six  to  seven  broad,  and  about  three  feet  thick ;  and  being  placed  at  the 

distance  of  three  feet  and  a  half 
from  each  other,  are  joined  at 
the  top  by  imposts  or  stones  laid 
across.  The  inner  circle  is 
somewhat  mere  than  eight  feet 
from  the  inside  of  the  outward 
one,  and  consisted  originally  of 
Btonehenie.  forty  smaller  stoncs;  of  which 

only  eleven  are  standing."  In  the  interior  of  all  are  two  oval  ranges,  supposed  to  be  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  work,  composing  the  cell  or  adytum.  The  stones  that  form  it  are  stupen- 
dous, some  of  them  measuring  thirty  feet  in  height  The  whole  number  is  computed  to  have 
been  originally  one  hundred  and  forty. 

No  county  is  adorned  with  so  many  fine  seats  as  Wiltshire.  Wilton  House  contains  the 
finest  private  collection  of  ancient  sculpture  in  the  kingdom.  Corsham  House  and  Longford 
Castle  contain  celebrated  collections  of  pictures.  Wardour  Castle  is  distinguished  for  its 
grand  terrace;  Stourhead.  for  the  romantic  beauty  of  the  grounds:  Longleat  is  a  superb  seat. 

SuBSECT.  2. — The  Eastern  Counties, 

Under  this  title  are  comprehended  the  counties  of  Essex,  Suffolk,  Norfolk,  Cambridge, 
Huntingdon,  and  Lincoln.  Tiie  surface  of  this  division  is  flat  and  unvaried.  Its  sluggish 
streams  unite  in  the  shallow  mar.^hy  estuary  of  the  Wash;  a  great  proportion  of  its  watere, 
however,  never  reach  that  receptacle ;  but,  spreading  and  stagnating  over  the  land,  form  the 
Fens,  a  tract  which  is  not  unproductive  to  the  Imsbandnian,  but  sends  forth  pestilential 
vapours,  subjecting  the  inhabitants  to  attacks  of  fever  and  ague.  The  district  contains  wide 
portions  of  good  arable  land,  which  are  well  cultivated  by  skilflil  farmers  with  large  capitals; 
and  is  noted  for  its  breeds  of  cattle,  and  for  the  products  of  butter  and  cheese. 

Essex,  situated  along  the  north  of  the  Thames,  is,  perhaps,  the  richest  of  the  Ei<2flihh 
counties.    It  is  diversified  by  gentle  undulations,  which  do  not  interrupt  the  carefhl  culture 

S riven  to  its  rich  alluvial  soil.    Its  wheat,  with  that  of  Kent,  is  reckoned  the  best  in  Eng- 
and ;  but  the  districts  near  the  metropolis  are  chiefly  in  pasture,  or  artificial  grass,  'or  sup- 
plying calves  to  the  London  market,  or  for  fattening  the  cattle  brought  up  from  the  north. 

Chelmsford,  the  county  town,  is  a  small  regularly  built  place,  with  a  handsome  town-hall. 
Colchester,  the  ancient  Camelodiinum,  contains  a  strong  castle,  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  the  Romans.  It  is  supported  by  a  manufacture  of  baize,  and  by  the  oyster  fishery, 
Harwich,  a  seaport  with  a  deep  and  spacious  harbour,  is  the  place  where  the  government 
packets,  in  time  of  peace,  sail  for  Holland  and  Germany.  Many  villas  have  been  erected  in 
this  countv.  in  cnnsfiniiRncp  of  its  "''••nitv  to  the  metronolis. 
Suflblk  is  bordered  by  only  a  small  portion  of  eastern  coast.    The  greater  part  of  it  a 


Pa«t  in. 

ty.     The  pro. 

articles;  fiiie 

spaciou:)  and 
Iter,  Irom  the 
lalisbury  is  its 
5ted  in  1258, 
it  elegant  and 
the  kingdom. 

rising  to  the 
en  feet, 
thriving  little 
manufactuiea 
ty:  Devizes, 
Malmsbury, 
Most  of  them 
iirches. 
in  Salisbury 
it  of  antiquity, 
t  of  a  temple 
f,"  says  Mr. 
'  two  circular 

one  common 

one  hundred 
md  in  its  per- 
sen  to  twenty 
)laccd  at  the 
;et  and  a  half 
are  joined  at 
or  stones  laid 
jer  circle  is 
lan  eight  feet 
the  outward 
originally  of 
38 ;   of  which 

0  be  the  prin- 
It  are  stupen- 
)uted  to  have 

contains  the 
md  Longford 
lished  for  its 

1  superb  seat. 


,  Cambridge, 
Its  sluggish 
)f  its  waterg, 
md,  form  the 
I  pestilential 
ontains  wide 
rge  capitals; 

the  English 
refill  culture 
best  in  Eng- 
rass,  *br  sup- 
the  Jiorth. 
le  tcwn-hall. 
eer'  founded 
ster  fishery, 
government 
n  erected  in 

part  of  it  'a 


Boor  1. 


ENGLAND. 


3(hi 


capable  of  good  cultivation,  and  is  carefully  tilled.    The  county  is  almost  purely  agricul 
tnral,  there  being  neither  trade  nor  manufactures  of  any  im|)ortaiice. 

Among  the  towns  of  Sutlblk,  Ipswich  is  considerable,  though  its  employment  is  confined 
to  seniling  down  the  Orwell  malt  and  grain,  the  produce  of  the  county.  Bury  8t.  Edmund's, 
an  uncient  town,  is  rendered  venerable  by  some  fine  old  churches.  Lowcstoff,  the  most 
easterly  point  of  England,  is  a  noted  seat  of  the  herring  fishery. 

Norfolk,  though  inferior  in  fertility  to  the  two  counties  now  described,  hem,  biy  its  industry, 
rendered  itself  more  flourishing  than  either.  The  soil  generally  is  a  light  sand,  scarcely  fit, 
originally,  for  any  thing  but  sheep;  beneath,  however,  is  a  bed  of  rich  soapy  marl,  which 
the  farmers,  with  great  labour,  dig  out,  and  spread  over  the  ground.  The  light  sandy  loam 
thus  formed  is  peculiarly  favourable  to  the  growth  of  barley,  in  which  grain  two-thirds  of 
tlic  country  is  laid  out.  Norfolk  has  extensive  manu&ctures;  producing  various  ornamental 
fabrics  of  silk  and  worsted.  The  ports  carry  on  a  considerable  export  oi^ain,  and  a  spirited 
fishery. 

Norwich  is  the  finest  city  in  tJie  east  of  England.  The  chief  industry  of  Norwich,  how- 
ever, consists  in  manufactures.  Towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  a  large  colony 
of  Flemings  settled  there,  and  established  the  fabric  of  woollens,  which  soon  reached  an 
unprecedented  height.    The  light  and  ornamented  forms  became  the  staples ;  bombasines, 

crapes,  fine  camblets,  and  worsted  damask.  In  its 
general  structure,  it  has  the  defects  of  an  old  town, 
the  streets  being  narrow  and  winding,  though  those 
recently  built  are  in  a  more  improved  style.  The 
cathedral  {Jig.  146.),  founded  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, ranks  among  the  finest  ecclesiastical  edifices  in 
the  kingdom.  Its  style  of  architecture  is  the  Saxon, 
of  that  broad  and  massive  character  which  prevailed 
before  the  introduction  of  the  pointed  arch  and  the 
o^    liuni  light  ornamental  style.     The  castle,  placed  in  the 

J    -    el^SI    ir~~ /^  centre,  is  more  ancient  still,  since  antiquaries  refer 

(^-^■~,rwit^^    ^^     .-^„  it  to  the  reign  of  Canute.    Its  style  is  Saxon ;  the 

keep  remains  entire. 

Yarmouth,  by  commerce  and  fishery,  has  attained 
a  prosperity  almost  equal  to  that  of  Norwich.  Situ- 
ated at  the  mouth  of  the  Yare,  it  is  the  chief  chan- 
nel by  which  the  manufactures  of  that  city  are 
transported  to  foreign  parts.  A  more  important 
resource  is  its  herring-fishery,  which  employs  six 
thousand  seamen,  and  produces  annually  upwards 
of  fitly  tliousand  barrels.  Its  quay,  upwards  of  a 
mile  long,  is  said  to  be  second  only  to  that  of 
Seville.     Yarmouth  is  also  much  frequent;<(l  as  a  watering-place. 

Lynn  Regis  is  a  flourishing  seaport  on  tiie  Wash,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ouse,  which,  with 
its  tributaries,  brings  down  the  agricultural  produce  of  many  rich  counties. 

.SV'rt<s. — Norfolk  contains  several  of  the  most  superb  seats  in  England.  Holkham,  built  by 
I^Dfil  Leicester  on  a  design  of  Inigo  Jones,  and  particularly  noted  for  a  gallery  room,  is  richly 
adorned  with  sculpture  and  paintings,  and  has  also  a  very  extensive  library.  Houghton  is  a 
magnificent  seat. 

Cambridgesiiire  presents  a  considerable  variety  of  surface.  Its  northern  district,  called 
the  Isle  of  Ely,  intersected  by  the  lower  channels  of  the  Ouse  and  theiNen,  exists  almost  in 
an  intermediate  state  between  land  and  sea.  Drainage,  however,  to  a  great  extent  has  been 
cflected,  and  many  tracts  have  been  converted  into  fine  meadow,  or  made  to  yield  large 
crops  of  oats,  though  the  danger  of  inundation  can  never  bo  wholly  averted.  The  classic 
stream  of  the  Cam  or  Granta,  in  descending  to  join  the  Ouse,  waters  a  valley  called  "the 
Dairies,"  where  some  good  cheeses  and  long  rolls  of  excellent  butter  are  prepared  for  the 
tables  of  the  Cambridge  students.  The  southern  and  western  districts,  encroached  upon  by 
tlie  downs  from  the  south,  are  only  fit  for  the  pasture  of  sheep. 

The  capital  of  Cambridge  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the  two  great  universities.  There  are 
thirteen  colleges  and  four  halls,  in  which  the  masters,  tutors,  and  students,  not  only  teach 
and  are  taught,  but  are  lodged  and  boarded.  Some  of  the  largest  of  these  endowments  are 
stated  to  be  for  "  poor  and  indigent  scholars ;"  but  are  filled  with  the  sons  of  opulent  fiimilies, 
who  cannot  live  there  but  at  a  very  considerable  expense.  Yet  the  resort  continues  to 
increase,  and  the  existing  colleges  are  insufficient  to  contain  the  applicants,  who  must  often 
wait  several  years  previously  to  admission.  These  colleges  are  large,  and  generally  fine 
and  handsome  buildings ;  yet  they  do  not  produce  the  same  noble  and  imposing  eflTect  as 
tliose  in  the  sister  university.  There  are,  however,  two  structures  such  as  its  rival  cannot 
Vol.  L  2  W 


Norwich  Cathedral. 


-•-■-/-,■  ■— 1»" 


arro 

match. 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  in 


147 


ll.IJ.iii.Milii.l 


Kini'i  Colin*  Chapel. 


The  fint  of  these  is  the  chapel  of  King's  Collece,  {fig.  147.)«  built  between  the 

reigns  of  Henry  VI.  and  Henry  VIII.  Its 
interior  has  been  called  matchless;  the  roof 
is  of  the  most  perfect  workmanship,  and  its 
support  without  pillars  has  been  viewed  as 
an  architectural  mjrstery.  But  the  most 
striking  characteristic  is  the  prodigious 
blaze  of  painted  glass,  on  each  side,  from 
twelve  brilliantlv  tinte<l  windows  fifly  feet 
hi^h,  giving  to  the  fabric  the  appearance  of 
bemg  walled  with  painted  glass.  The  other 
is  Trinity  College,  particularly  admired  for 
its  library,  two  hundred  feet  long,  uesigned 
by  Sir  (Jhristopher  Wren,  and  perhaps  the 
most  ele^nt  library-room  in  the  kin^om. 
The  hall  is  also  the  largest  in  Cambridge ;  and  the  roof  is  ornamented  with  fine  specimena 
of  old  wood-imrk.  Its  chapel  is  marked  by  a  beautiful  simplicity,  and  contains  Roubiliac's 
statue  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  supposed  the  best  resemblance  that  e.xist8  of  that  great  man. 

The  principal  library  contains  100,000  volumes,  many  of  which  are  scarce  and  valuable. 
Trinity  college,  in  its  ornamental  hall,  has  40,000.  Earl  Fitzwilliam,  from  his  seat  neai 
Richmond,  presented  lately  a  handsome  library,  some  fine  pictures,  and  a  large  collection  of 
engravings.  The  botanic  garden  is  inferior  to  none  in  the  kingdom,  except  those  of  Kew 
and  Liverpool.  The  collection  of  valuable  manuscripts  and  antiquities  is  likewise  extensive. 
Since  the  university  was  adorned  by  the  immortal  name  of  Newton,  mathematics  and  natural 
nliilosophy  have  been  the  ruling  pursuits ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  lustre  reflected  on  it  by 
Milton,  OS  well  as  by  Bentley  and  Porson,  it  has  left  to  Oxford  the  foremost  place  in  classical 
knowledge. 

At  Newmarket,  horsn^actng  has  chosen  its  most  favourite  ground.  This  town  lies  amid 
bleak  hills,  that  have,  however,  a  sufficient  extent  of  level  heatl)  to  make  the  finest  course 
in  the  kingdom.  It  consists  of  one  long  street,  chiefly  filled  with  inns  and  coffee-houses  for 
tlio  reception  of  the  sporting  world,  who  crowd  thither  in  the  appropriate  seasons,  which  are 
April,  July,  and  October.  The  bustle  is  then  immense.  "  Trains  of  horses,"  aaya  Dr. 
5piker,  "  were  led  up  and  down  the  streets.  Excellent  equipages,  gigs,  curricles,  landaus, 
lew  past  us  and  past  each  other  with  the  swiftness  of  an  arrow.  Horses  were  prancing 
ibout  with  their  riders;  jockeys  were  carrying  bridles  to  and  fro:  in  short,  all  was  life  and 
Justle."  The  course  is  covered  with  turf,  whence  the  pursuit  of  horse-racing  itself  is  hbu- 
illy  designated  the  turf.  Close  to  the  goal  is  drawn  on  rollers  a  small  wooden  house,  in 
which  sits  the  judge,  usually  an  experienceu  groom,  who  decides  which  is  the  winner.  The 
stand  is  an  open  raised  house  for  ladies  and  other  curious  spectators ;  but  men  of  real  busi- 
ness crowd  round  the  betting  poet,  immediately  behind  tlie  judge,  where  they  remain  closely 
wedged  together,  "  and  nothing  is  heard  but  the  continual  cry  of  twenty ,  thirty,  forty,  two 
hundred  pounds  on  such  a  horse." 

The  small  city  of  Ely  rises  like  an  island  amidst  the  surrounding  fens,  and  displays  a 
magnificent  cathedral.  Wisbeach,  a  thriving  town  on  a  navigable  branch  of  the  Ouse, 
combines  a  prosperous  trade  with  some  spirit  of  literary  enquiry. 

Huntingdonshire  lies  to  the  eastward  of  Cambridge;  the  two  are  governi d  by  the  same 
.ajierifl',  chosen  alternately  in  each.  Huntingdon  is  entirely  agricultural;  the  pastures  arc 
peculiarly  ricli,  and  adapt  it  for  producing  the  famous  Stilton  cheese.  Hnntingdnn,  tho 
:7ounty  town,  though  small,  has  an  antique  and  respectable  appearance.  St.  Ives  is  a  large 
village  on  the  Ouse. 

Lincolnshire  occupies  the  eastern  coast  from  the  Wash  to  the  Htunber.  The  southern 
:erritory,  called,  from  that  circumstance,  "  Holland,"  comprises  more  than  half  of  the  Bed- 
ford level,  or  fen  country,  and  is  naturally  an  almost  continuous  swamp ;  but  a  great  extent 
Df  it  has  now  been  drained,  and  produces  fine  pasture  land,  and  excellent  crops  of  oats.  The 
rearing  of  live  stock  formsthe  chief  occupation;  and  Lincoln  has  breeds  of  every  descrip- 
tion that  are  held  in  high  estimation.  The  sheep,  which  amount  to  upwards  of  2,000,000, 
produce  the  long  wool,  which,  firom  the  length  of  its  staple,  is  ciiiefly  fitted  for  worsted, 
t)aize,  and  other  fabrics.  Rabbits,  almost  innumerable,  are  bred  in  the  upper  districts ;  and 
the  unreclaimed  fens,  durin?  the  wet  season,  swarm  with  teal,  ducks,  geese,  and  aquatic 
gamn  of  every  form  and  description,  with  which  London  and  many  other  parts  of  England 
are -chiefly  supplied  from  this  county.  Manufactures  have  entirely  deserted  it;  even  its 
own  wool,  since  the  late  inventions  in  machinery,  is  no  longer  spun  or  carded  within  it5«-f. 
The  Trent,  during  all  its  course  through  this  county,  is  navigable  tor  large  vessels,  and 
ftftificia!  channels  unite  it*  streams-,  narticularlv  tl'e  Foss  Dyke,  hetweeri  the  Witham  ami 
tlie  Trent.  Foreign  commerce,  iiowevor,  is  much  limited  by  the  increasing  sand-bauks,  by 
which  the  coasts  and  harbours  are  obstructed. 


Boor  L 


ENGLAND. 


am 


The  city  of  Lincoln  was,  during  the  middle  ases,  one  of  the  mont  conspicuoua  and  splen- 
did capitalaof  England.    The  cathedral  (Jig.  146.)  still  holds  the  Arst  rank  among  relipious 

edifices.  From  a  distance  its  three  towers 
appear  conspicuous  i  two  of  them  180,  and 
ono  900,  feet  high,  and  ornamented  with 
various  pillars  and  tracery;  and  as  the 
structure  stands  on  a  hill,  m  the  midst  of 
a  vast  surrounding  flat,  it  has  tlie  most 
commanding  site  in  the  county.  When 
plundered  by  Henry  VIII.,  it  was  found 
to  contain  an  extraordinary  treasure,  in 
gold  and  silver,  pearln,  diamonds,  and 
other  precious  stones.  Lincoln,  supported 
only  by  its  county  trade,  and  by  the  re- 
maming  opulence  of  the  cathedral,  now 
holds  a  moderate  rank  among  provincial 
Lincoln  CaUMdnl.  towus.    Its  fifty  churches  are  reduced  to 

eleven ;  and  the  fragments  of  the  others  are  dispersed  throughout  the  town,  many  ordinary 
houses  being  adorned  with  Gothic  arches,  doorways,  and  windows. 

Boston,  on  the  Withom,  carries  on  the  tiade  of  Holland,  or  southern  Lincolnshire.  It 
exports  the  grain,  and  aflbrds  a  great  market  for  catde ;  and  has  thus  doubled  its  population. 
A  fine  Gothic  church  attests  the  early  prosperity  ui"  Boston. 

BuBSKOT.  3. — Central  Countiet. 

Under  this  t:  im  we  comprehend  that  part  of  the  interior  which  is  bounded  on  the  soutli 
and  south-west  by  the  two  divisions  already  described ;  on  the  north  and  north-west  by  York- 
shire and  Lancashire ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  counties  of  Salop,  Worcester,  and  Gloucester. 

In  a  description  of  this  portion  of  the  country,  London  claims  a  distinct  and  separate 
notice.  As  the  metropolis  of  the  united  kingdom,  it  is  the  seat  of  le^'islation,  jurisprudence, 
and  government ;  the  principal  residence  of  the  sovereign,  at  which  af&irs  of  state  are 
transacted,  and  relations  maintained  with  foreign  courts ;  the  centra  of  all  important  opera- 
tions whether  of  commerce  or  finance,  and  of  correspondence  with  every  quarter  of  the  globe, 
liondon,  in  its  comprehensive  sense,  includes  the  city  and  liberties  ot  London,  the  city  of 
Westminster  and  its  liberties,  the  borough  of  Southwark,  and  the  parishes  and  precincts 
contiguous  to  those  three  component  parts  of  the  metropolis.  Its  extent,  from  Poplar  in 
the  east  to  Belgrave-square  in  thti  west,  ia  nearly  eight  miles ;  its  breadth,  from  Islington 
in  the  north  to  Walworth  in  the  south,  exceeds  five  miles.  The  circumference,  allowing  for 
inequalities,  is  computed  at  thirty  miles.  The  buildings,  streets,  scj.  ..:->«  and  other  spaces, 
including  that  taken  up  by  the  river  Thames,  winding  from  the  eastern  ->  tu^  western 
extremity,  about  seven  miles  on  an  average  breadth  j)  "•  quarter  of  a  mile,  oc-.ujy  an  area 
of  eighteen  square  miles. 

By  a  more  convenient  topographical  arrangement,  Loiiu^n  has  been  divided  into  six  grand 
portions:  Ist,  the  City,  which  may  be  termed  the  cer».al  division;  2d,  the  western  division, 
including  Westminster ;  3d,  the  north-west  division,  including  the  district  north  of  Oxford- 
street  and  west  of  Tottenham-court-road, — these  two  last  mentioned  divisions  constitute  the 
west-end  of  the  town ;  4th,  the  northern  division,  comprising  the  whole  district  north  of 
Holbom  and  the  City  from  Tottenham-court-road  on  the  west  to  Shoreditch  and  Kingsland- 
road  on  the  east,  including  St.  Pancras,  Somers-town.  Pentonville,  Islington,  Ho.xton,  and 
Kingsland ;  ."ith,  the  eastern  division,  including  the  \  hole  district  east  of  the  city  and  of 
Shoreditch ;  6th,  the  southern  division,  comprising  the  borough  of  Southwark,  and  the  ' 
mass  of  buildings  extending  from  Rotherhithe  to  Vauxnall,  and  ranging  southward  for  more 
than  two  miles.  The  divisions,  north  and  south  of  the  Thames  communicate  by  five  bridges, 
— London  Bridge,  Southwark  Bridge,  Blackfriars,  Waterloo,  and  Westminster  bridges. 
The  port  of  London  extends  from  London  Bridge  to  Deptford,  a  distance  of  about  four 
miles,  with  an  average  breadth  of  from  four  hundred  U<  five  hundred  yards.  Its  divisions 
are  the  Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower  Pools,  and  the  space  .jetwoon  Limeliouse  and  Deptford. 
Connected  with  it  arc  certain  spacious  dfxiks,  which  will  bn  hereafter  noticed. 

The  population  cf  London,  according  to  the  returns  in  1831  of  the  census  in  1830,  is  thus 

«Uted : — 

Persons 

City  of  London  within  th<>  wiilln 57,(195 

wlUinut  the  walls  (inci«»!ing  the  Inns  of  Court) .• 67,878 

Borough  of  Southwark Ol.-Wl 

Ci  tv  of  West  mi  nster 202.080 

Pnhdhed  within  the  hlllr  of  mortRlitv •761,348 

Adjacent  |>ari8huii  not  within  the  i>iiiB 2t!3.SG? 

Total       1,474,(W9 


372 


DESPRIPTIVK  OROT.RAPIfY. 


Part  III. 


The  north  tliviainn  of  T,(,<don,  nn  viowo<l  from  Ihn  ino«t  contml  ntwl  olovatfxl  \mul,  riw'sj 
giMilly  from  the  ThiimcH,  nrd  i-xlftxlB  to  tlii>  t(K)t  of  n  rim>,'<!  of  liillHon  wlncli  iiro  mtiiniitd 
the  villiij^'PH  of  llniiipHtcp.  1  unit  ilif;lifrato.  Ou  tli)*  rust  iiiid  ^vt^Ht  aro  fcrtilt!  jiIiuiih  (ixtnnliM^r 
at  liMHt  twnnty  milcx,  anil  wiiliTcd  iiy  tlio  wmiliiiijf  iiml  j^'t'iitly  tlowiiij'  'rimincM.  On  llii; 
sontli,  tlio  (liHtiint  view  is  |.>  .  t-.i  \.,y  the  iii),>ii  f^nuinilf.  nt'  Iticlinionii,  WinildiKinn,  K|)s(iiii, 
N  irwtHHl,  and  lilacklieiith,  t(  iKiiiiiUmLr  in  ^'x'  tiori/on  liy  U'itli  Hill,  Uoy'ii  1,  itnd  tlio  IliU 
yiilo  mid  Wrotlm>n  I'll's.  Hhootor'H  Tfiil  m  ii  conapicuoui!  ol)jei;t  to  the  •  >  '  urd ;  and,  in  ;i 
nioro  nortlu'rly  I'i  cction,  jMirta  of  Kppinff  Forest  and  other  wooded  uplf.i        i  Khsox. 

So  early  iis  tlic  reign  of  Nero,  London  nail  bocomo  a  place  of  considorablo  tratlic,  uh  apptiuiu 
from  TacituB,  the  earliest  of  the  Roman  historianu  wiio  niontions  it  by  name.  IMie  Uomaiiii 
fortified  it  .vith  a  wall,  and  made  it  one  of  their  principal  etationa.  At  the  boffinnin^  of 
the  third  century,  it  is  represented  as  a  (rreat  and  wealthy  city,  and  considered  to  be  the 
niotropolis  of  Britain.  In  the  end  of  the  sixth  century,  it  became  the  capital  of  the  Eont 
Siixons,  whose  king,  Sebcrt,  is  reputed  tlio  founder  of  the  cathedral  church  dedicated  to 
Saint  Paul,  and  of  the  abbey  and  abbey  church  of  Westminster.  Atler  the  union  of  the 
•even  kingdoms,  Egbert,  in  883,  hold  hero  hie  first  toittenaffemote,  or  council :  but  London 
was  not  constituted  the  capital  of  England  until  its  recovery  from  the  Danes  by  Alfred. 
William  of  Normandy,  whose  interest  it  was  to  conciliate  the  citizens,  'hough  he  built  the 
fi)rtrcs8  called  th6  Tower,  to  keep  thorn  in  awe,  confirmed  the  privileges  and  immunities 
which  they  had  enjoyed  under  Edward  the  Confessor.  Notwithstanding  sevenxl  visitations 
of  fire  and  pestilence,  Iiondon  continued  to  increase,  especially  aflei  the  accession  ot'  t'le 
Tudors,  when  the  overthrow  of  feudal  voasalnge,  and  the  more  frequent  resort  to  the  capital, 
caused  an  augmentation  so  rapid  as  to  alarm  the  govcrnmeyt.  The  dissolution  of  inonus- 
teriee,  of  which  l^ndon  contained  so  large  a  proportion,  accoleratod  this  increase,  while  it 

Jave  an  impulse  to  industry  and  commerce.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  the  iiiflux  of  strangers 
riven  from  the  Netherlands,  by  the  persecutions  of  the  Duke  of  Alvo,  heii^htonod  the  alarm, 
and  the  queen  was  even  induced  to  issue  the  absurd  decree  that  no  morn  dwelling-houses 
should  be  built:  a  prohibition  which  did  not  retard  the  growth  of  the  city.  In  1(W6,  the 
refmcmcnts  of  Pans  and  Madrid  were  emulated  in  London  by  the  introduction  of  hackney 
coaches  and  sedan  chairs. 

The  reign  of  Charles  II.  includes  the  most  memorable  epoch  in  the  history  of  London. 
In  1665,  a  plague  swept  away  100,000  persons.  In  Sc^^mber,  1606,  broke  out  that  great 
and  awful  fire  which  k-tilroyed  400  streets,  13,0(X)  hou..  i.  and  89  churches.  For  the  re- 
building of  the  city,  in  ruhmrable  plan  was  presented  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  the  archi- 
tect: the  difficulty  tf  recof  ciling  conflicting  interests,  allowed  it  to  be  but  very  partially 
oilopted.  He  rr>)i:ii;  tb  •  cathedral  of  St.  Paul  and  most  of  the  parish  churches  in  the 
Grecian  style,  and  ihv  irimi  of  Guildhall  in  the  original  Gothic.  Instead  of  wood  and  plaster, 
the  chief  materials  of  dn;  former  city,  the  new  buildings  were  of  brick,  in  the  substantial 
though  heavy  style  then  in  vogue.  There  were  no  flagged  footpaths ;  the  streets  were  ill- 
ptived :  and  as  there  was  no  system  of  drainage  by  sewers,  and  no  distribution  of  pure  water 
by  pipes,  they  were  in  some  places  far  from  endurable.  The  city,  however,  gained  by  the 
oliange,  though  with  the  sacrifice  of  many  interesting  memorials  of  its  ancient  state,  and  of 
its  most  glorious  times. 

Westminster,  though  founded  in  the  time  of  the  Saxons,  and  chosen  at  an  f.arly  period  as 
a  royal  residence,  did  not  at  first  keep  pace  with  Ijondon.  The  abbey  and  its  church,  founded 
by  Sebert,  were  rebuilt  by  the  architects  who  reared  so  many  splendid  fabrics  of  Gothic 
masonry  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  III.  and  Edward  I.  The  celebrated  hall  was  built  by  William 
Rufus  in  1097  and  1098,  and  it  underwent  a  thorough  repair  in  that  of  Richard  II.  On  the 
dissolution  of  monasteries,  Henry  VIII.  converted  this  religious  establishment  into  a  college, 
and  afterwards  into  a  bishopric.  Westminster  thus  became  a  city,  and  has  ever  since  re- 
tained that  rank  by  courtesy,  though  it  never  had  but  one  bishop,  having  been  transferred  by 
Edward  VI.  to  the  see  of  Norwich. 

The  city  of  Westminster  is  comprised  in  the  united  parishes  of  St.  Margaret  and  St. 
John ;  the  liberties  include  seven  other  parishes,  St.  Martin's  in  the  Fields,  St.  James's,  St. 
Ann's,  St  Clement  Danes,  St.  Mary's  le  Strand,  St.  George's  Hanover  Square,  and  St.  Paul's 
Covent  Garden,  with  the  precinct  of  the  Savoy  and  that  of  St.  Martin's  le  Grand.  Several 
of  the  parishes  westward  of  Temple  Bar  had  each  its  church  and  contiguous  village,  com- 
municating with  each  other  by  roads  and  footpaths.  The  Strand  was  originally  a  high  road 
connecting  London  with  Westminster  by  the  village  of  Charing.  Afler  the  Restoration, 
the  west  end  of  the  town  rapidly  increased ;  and  its  inhabitants,  affecting  superior  refine- 
ment of  manners,  claimed  to  be  considered  as  a  distinct  class  of  beings  from  the  industrious 
ihcrchants  east  of  Temple  Bar.  By  degrees,  as  the  vacant  ground  was  built  upon,  the  two 
cities  andtheir  suburbs  were  united;  and  at  length  the  distant  villages  of  Mary-le-bonc 

I  ftnri  ^t    Pnnrras  hnrnmp  intpnrml  nnrfa  nf  fhii  mptrnnnlia.        A  enlpnrlul  nimrtpr   nnu?  iv*niinipf1 
.  a....  _„ _ B-"  I -•• 1 r- — — —  1— - — 7— •• j..__ 

by  the  most  fashionable  part  of  the  community,  has  been  built  to  the  west  of  St.  James  s 
Park  and  the  new  palace.     The  villages  surrounding  London,  formerly  at  some  distance,- 


M 


■■w?,-- 


Part  fIT. 


BookL 


ENGLAND. 


378 


tOi\ 


I  urn  Hitiiiitiid 
liUIIN  <)xtniil|il}r 
iimt'H.  On  itn; 
l)li!ti()n,  Hpmiiii, 
I,  uikI  tlio  llrl- 
ml ;  and,  in  a 

KrtHOX. 

artic,  UH  appcuiu 
Tlie  Iloinnnrt 
le  boffinnin),'  of 
(lorca  to  bo  tim 
till  of  the  Eawt 
:h  dedicated  to 
e  union  of  the 
11:  but  London 
mcB  by  Alfrnd. 
gh  he  built  the 
uid  imniunitioH 
vcidI  viaitiitions 
cccssion  of  t'le 
rt  to  tlic  ciipilal, 
ition  of  inonus- 
crpiiBO,  while  it 
lux  of  Btninpora 
onod  the  alarm, 
Iwellin^-houBea 
.  In  1(W6,  the 
tion  of  hackney 

tory  of  London. 

out  that  great 
38.  For  the  re- 
Vren,  the  archi- 
ll very  partially 
hurches  in  the 
(xxl  and  plaster, 
tlie  substantial 
itrgets  were  ill- 
1  of  pure  water 

gained  by  the 
nt  state,  and  of 

r.arly  period  as 
jhurch,  founded 
brics  of  Gothic 
uilt  by  William 
ird  IL  On  the 
I  into  a  college, 

ever  since  re- 
I  transferred  by 

rgaret  and  St. 
St.  James's,  St. 
!,  and  St.  Paul's 
rand.  Several 
IS  village,  com- 
.lly  a  high  road 
le  Restoration, 
luperior  refine- 
the  industrious 
t:  upon,  the  two 
f  Mary-le-bonc 

'    nnu7  n/«#*iinip<1 

of  St,  James's 
me  distance,- 


011  the  cast,  Stepney  and  LimchouM);  on  the  nuutli,  Pcckham,  Camberwell,  Brixton,  Cla|^ 
liaiii;  on  the  went,  Hroinpton  and  KniirhtHhridgo ;  on  the  north,  lliu-kney,  Ihixton,  iHlingUm, 
lli^'ligato  and  I lainiwlead, — In-ing  now  joined  to  tiio  nu!tro|M)liH  by  wiftiiiued  rnngoH  of 
Hrcet^  may  Ito  considered  lut  integral  ]M)r'>.toiiH  of  it.  The  |K)pulation  \>  Hiio  a  radius  of 
vi|.'lit  inilert  t'niin  St.  PaiiPH,  which  iH  all  virtually  Loudon,  d<M!H  not  fall  hIkh  i  of  LH<NMHK). 

Tiie  ^ruvv'h  ui'  lionddii,  im  a  |H)rt,  wimat  tirst  by  no  nu-aiiH  rii|iul.  In  lK:{'.i,  iHisidoH  Umtn 
mill  otlitT  rrall  in  ♦  rcgiHlt^red,  lliero  belonged  to  the  portot'  l/)ii(lon*2fMll)HhipH,(f'tHe  burthen 
ul  r>ttr),174  tons;  manned  by  ;)2,7H(I  men  and  Ixiys.  In  the  iiic  ycnr,  thr;  groHs  cuxtoins 
(inly  (;ollecte<l  in  the  port  of  lionilou  amounted  to  9,4:)4,Hi>i/  'I  i;  iM>rt  of  l/indun  liiu 
already  btien  described  n^  extending  from  Ix)ndon  Bridge  to  Di  ord,  a  diHtaiu  o  of  four 
unit's;  tlio  average  breadth  being  t'lilly  a  (juarter  of  a  mile.  Iv,  u  thoHo  limit.s  were  litr 
from  ai}(>rdinga<lc(iuale  ac(U)mnio<lut ion  to  the  shipping;  and  the  l^\Illnplo  of  i  provemout 
exliihited  by  Liver)M)ol  at  length  roused  the  inorchants  of  London  to  form  compumes  tor  con- 


The  West  India  iJockn,  stretch- 

'ftlPM       do  of  the  river,  were 

K)ri  ilock,  the  former  con- 

of  basins.      I'o  these  have 

ill*"  warehouses  at  the  West 

^  CO  .uiiixlious.     'Die  Ijunilon 

I'he  tobacco  warehouse  be- 

le  world.    It  covers  a  space 

acres  in  extent,  and  have 


KtriK'ting  docks,  with  commodious  quays  and  war  'loii 

iiig  across  the  istlimus  tbnning  the  Isle  of  Dogn    o  i 

opened  in  1H()2.     They  consisted  originally  o(  lui  ini,yo 

taming  aiwut  30  and  the  latter  alioiit  *25  acres  of  w'er, 

ri'ceiitly  iMMtn  addi^l  the  south  dock,  tormerly  the  < 

India  l)o(3ks  are  of  vast  extent,  and  are,  in  all 

Docks,  also  of  very  great  extent,  are  situated  at        ,jj, 

longing  to  them  is  the  largest  and  finest  building  of  its  P 

of  near  5  acres!     The  vaults  underneath  the  ground  ui 

dtowage  for  t50,()(K)  pipeh  of  wine  !    There  aro  also  the  St.  Katharine's  Docks,  adjoining  the 

Tow(!r;  the  Ji^ast  India  Docks,  at  Bhickwell;  and  tlie  Commercial  Docks,  on  the  Surrey 

side  of  the  river. 

Southwark,  the  third  great  portion  of  the  metropolis,  (more  commonly  called  the  Borough, 
and  as  such  returning  two  memlx'rs  to  parliament,)  is  situated  on  the  bcmtli  bank  of  the 
Thames.  The  Borough  was  governed  by  its  own  bail.H's  until  Etlward  VI.  granted  Soulh- 
wurk  to  the  city  of  liondon  lor  a  wim  of  nionoy ;  alter  which  it  becamo  one  of  the  city 
wards  by  tin;  name  of  Bridge  Ward  Without.  It  is  much  fre(iueiited  by  agriculturists  from 
K(!nt,  Surrey,  and  Sussex ;  and  is  the  principal  hop-market  in  the  kingdom.  Numerous 
streets  in  every  direction  connect  it  with  the  surrounding  villages;  and  by  the  five  magnifi- 
cent bridges  it  communicates  with  every  ([uarter  of  Ix)ndon  and  Westminster. 

Jiondon,  is  well  built,  well  paved,  well  lighted,  and  abundantly  supplied  with  water.  For- 
eigners who  visit  it  lor  the  first  time  soon  discover  that  utility,  not  ornament,  is  tlie  main 
clianu;teristic  of  the  town,  and  that  business,  not  amusement,  occupies  the  minds  of  its 
inhubitants.  The  main  streets  are  spacious ;  and  all  tlie  streets  have  the  advantage  of  flagged 
f(X)t-pavement8  on  each  side.  Th(!  houses  are  of  brick ;  and  though  in  the  most  populous 
streets  discoloured  by  smoke,  have  by  no  means  a  gloomy  appearance.  The  charm  of  London, 
as  a  groat  city,  is  its  variety.  Those  who  dislike  the  narrow  streets  of  the  city,  shady  in 
summer,  and  sheltered  from  cold  winds  in  winter,  may  delight  in  the  spacious  streets  and 
s(|u:ireH  of  the  west  end;  those  who  desire  to  contemplate  what  Dr.  Johnson  called  "the  full 
tide  of  human  existence,"  may  visit  Cheapside,  Fleet  Street,  or  the  Strand  :  Bond  Street  is 
the  resort  of  gaiety  and  fashion ;  and  Regent  Street,  for  architectural  effect,  is  one  nf  the 
grandest  streets  in  Europe.  Great  improvementa  have  been  made  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Strand  from  Charing  Cross  to  Burleigh  Street,  by  taking  down  an  immense  mass  i)f  small 
and  old  houses,  partly  in  narrow  streets  and  courts,  and  erecting  others  of  large  dimensions 
and  forming  wide  and  handsome  streets.  Here  also  has  been  erected  the  elegant  and  com- 
modious structure  of  Hungerfbrd 
Market.  Another  improvement  is 
that  of  opening  a  line  northward 
from  Bridge  Street,  Blackfriars, 
through  the  site  of  Fleet  Market 
and  across  Clerkenwell,  to  Isling- 
ton :  it  is  intended  that  a  parallel 
line  should  extend  from  Waterloo 
Bridge  across  the  Strand,  past  the 
portico  of  Covent  Garden  Theatre, 
and  into  the  northern  district  of 
the  metropolis. 

^^^^^^^^^ St.  Paul's  Cathedral  (.^^.  149.;^ 

jl'lO.L"DIIiMiff!l!IBf**'!P^'''*^^^^  the  masterpiece  of  Sir  Christopher 

Wren,  is  the  finest  specimen  of 

modern  architefture  in  the  kiiig- 

Si.  fauPi.  (^QJJ^^  and,  at'ter  Sl.Peler's  at  Rome, 

nay  rank  as  the  finest  ecclesiastical  structure  in  Christendom ;  but  it  is  so  surrounded  with 

Vol.  I.  32 


\i.:lr 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


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I.I 


11.25 


■tt  yj2  112.2 


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23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14SS0 

(716)872-4503 


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^ 


874 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PABTin. 


160 


WaitiniDiter  Abber- 


building!  that  the  beauty  of  its  exterior  cannot  be  appreciated.   The  style,  which  is  Grecian, 

unites  grandeur  of  design  with  just- 
\  LAtt^    ILAti      ness  of  proportion.   The  interior  of 

''■    ■*■*"    MLUi.ti      St  Paul's  is  too  bare  of  ornament ; 

but  the  defect  is  partly  supplied  by 
marble  monuments  of  various  de- 
*'•  ■HilK   ■QHI'Jl      grees  of  merit. 

Westminster  Abbey  (Jig.  1.50.) 
is  a  noble  specimen  of  Gothic  archi- 

^ tecture.    The  interior  is  grand  in 

V  ;i  LI9I      I   L    J^IHSHMMIi^HIHI^HNIil      design  and  rich  in  detail,  and  the 

interest  which  it  excites  is  en- 
hanced by  the  numerous  monuments 
of  kmgs,  warriors,  statesmen,  phi-i 
losophers,  and  poets,  which  it  en- 
closes. The  chapel  built  at  the 
western  extremity  by  Henry  VII. 
in  honour  of  the  blessed  Virgin,  is 
in  the  richest  style  of  the  later 
Gothic,  and  its  exterior  has  been  skilfully  renovated. 

Among  the  parish  churches  of  the  metropolis,  that  of  St.  Stephen's,  Walbrook,  is  distin- 
guished ror  tlie  fine  proportions  and  finished  elegance  of  its  interior.  The  stately  portico  of 
St  Martin's,  Charing  Cross,  excites  universal  admiration ;  next  to  which  may  rank  that  of 
the  new  church  of  St  Pancras ;  the  steeple  of  which  is  constructed  on  tlie  model  of  the  Temple 
of  the  Winds  at  Athens.  The  other  public  buildings  are  too  numerous  to  be  described,  and 
a  bare  mention  of  them  would  give  little  satisfaction.  The  principal  inns  of  court,  and  their 
rabsidiary  inns,  are  remarkable  rather  for  plainness  than  magnificence  of  architecture.  The 

pile  called  Somerset  House  (Jig. 
151.)  would  have  a  grand  efi'ect 
if  its  eastern  wing  were  com- 
pleted; and  this  desideratum  is 
partly  supplied  by  the  buildings 
assigned  to  "  K;  ig's  College,  Lon- 
don." The  Banqueting  House  at 
Whitehall  is  a  memonal  of  the 
fine  taste  of  Inigo  Jones ;  and  its 
ceiling  is  decorated  with  an  alle- 
gorical painting  from  the  pencil 
of  Rubens,  which  is  still  exposed 
to  view,  though  the  apartment  has 
been  converted  into  a  chapel. 
Westminster  Hall,  of  which  the  portal  has  been  rebuilt  in  the  original  style,  is  reputed  the 
longest  hall  in  Europe  unsupported  by  pillars.  It  is  276  feet  long  by  76  broad.  Witliin  it, 
on  coronation  festivals,  10,000  persons  have  dined.  On  its  south  side  are  entrances  to  the 
new  law  courts,  the  King's  Bench  Common  Pleas,  Exchequer  and  Chancery,  with  an  addi- 
tional court  for  the  vice-chancellor.  The  House  of  Peers  is  a  spacious  and  lofty  chamber, 
decorated  with  tapestry  representing  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  armada.    The  subordinate 

apartments  and  passages  are  of  recent  construction  and  of  a  dig- 
nified elegance.  The  House  of  Commons,  originally  a  chapel  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Stephen,  retains,  perhaps,  too  much  of  that  character 
in  its  fi-ont  and  side  galleries,  the  seats  rising  on  either  hand 
beneath  them,  and  the  speaker's  chair  exactly  in  the  place  where 
a  pulpit  might  have  stood.  The  house  was  altered  and  enlarfjed, 
to  admit  the  accession  of  members  consequent  on  the  union  with 
Ireland.*  The  Bank  of  England,  a  building  of  great  extent;  the 
Royal  Exchange ;  the  East  India  House,  in  Leadenhall  strpet ; 
the  Tower,  which  has  still  an  arsenal  and  a  garrison,  being  lite 
depository  of  the  regalia. of  the  United  Kingdom;  the  Trinity 
House,  and  the  New  Mint,  both  situated  on  Tower  Hill;  the 
new  Post  Office,  in  St  Martin  le  Grand ;  the  new  Palace  ui  St 
James's  Park,  &c.  deserve  mention. 

The  Monument  (fig.  152.)  is  one  of  Jhe  most  conspicuous  orna- 
ments of  the  metropolis.  The  pedestal  is  42  feet  the  shaft  of  the 
column  120  feet,  the  cone  at  the  lop  with  the  blazing  urn  of  gilt 
bran  40  feet  making  the  total  height  of  the  monument  202  feet.  It  '-•-'''-=  " 
Christopher  Wren,  to  commemorate  the  fire  of  London,  in  1666. 


Somenet  Houm. 


The  MonuoMBt. 


t»a  vacviiYTU   uy    Mil 


*  The  Parliament  Houses  were  burnt  down  in  1834. 


Book  L 


ENGLAND. 


975 


zing  urn  of  gilt 


The  bridges  of  London  attract  attention  by  their  beauty  and  utility.  Until  the  year  174U, 
ihe  only  one  existing  was  London  Bridge,  built  in  the  twelfth  century,  with  archee  so  nar* 
row,  unequal,  and  lU-placed,  as  to  form  a  sort  of  breakwater,  occasioning  a  rapid  or  fall  of 
the  strcahi,  highly  dangerous  to  boats  and  barges.  The  new  London  Bridge  (^g.  153.)  com- 


''„  I 


'.-.''fMli    !'1!. 


V'«-ri..+t' 


New  Loodun  Bridie. 


menced  in  1824,  and  opened  in  1831,  has  taken  its  place.  The  bridge  consists  of  five  semi- 
elliptical  arches;  the  centre  arch  152  feet  spui,  with  a  rise  above  high  water  mark  of  29  feet 
6  inches ;  the  two  next  the  centre  arch,  140  feet  span,  rise  27  feet  6  inches ;  the  two  abut- 
ment arches,  130  feet  span,  rise  24  feet  6  inches.  'Hie  length  of  the  bridge  from  the  extrenii- 
ties  of  the  abutment  is  928  feet ,  within  the  abutments,  782  feet  The  roadway  is  53  feet 
between  the  parapets ;  of  this  width,  the  footways  occupy  9  feet  each,  and  the  carriage-way 
35  feet.  Southwark  Bridge  leads  from  Queenhithe  to  Bankside,  Southwark.  Of  its  three 
arches  of  cast  iron,  the  central  one  is  240  feet  span ;  the  others  210  feet  each.  The  piers 
and  abutments  are  of  stone,  the  rest  of  the  work  iron  :  this  is  the  most  stupendous  bridge 
of  these  materials  in  the  world.  Blackfriars  Bridge,  built  between  the  years  1760  and  1769, 
has  8  piers  and  9  elliptical  arches ;  length  995  feet  Waterloo  Bridge  (jig.  154.),  of  granite, 


Waterloo  Bridce. 

has  nine  arches,  each  120  feet  span ;  the  piers  are  20  feet  thick.  Westminster  Bridge  has 
fourteen  piers  supporting  thirteen  large  and  two  small  arches.  The  width  of  the  middle 
arcii  is  76  feet ;  that  of  the  two  next,  72,  that  of  the  last,  52.  Waterloo  Bridge  is  the  finest 
piece  of  masonry  in  Europe :  the  expense  exceeded  l,000,000i.  These  immense  works, 
with  the  exception  of  London  Bridge,  have  all  been  accomplished  by  associations  of  private 
individuals. 

Tiie  municipal  institutions  of  London  have  received  from  time  such  modifications  as  were 
requisite  to  unprove  them.  The  city  is  divided  into  tvrenty-five  wards,  the  Borough,  as 
Bridjfc  Ward  Without,  making  the  twenty-sixth.  Each  has  for  its  magistrate  an  alderman 
chosen  for  life :  and  those  persons  collectively  form  the  Court  of  Aldermen.  The  chief 
masrjstrate,  styled  Lord  Mayor,  is  elected  annually,  from  the  Court  of  Aldermen,  by  the  great 
body  of  freemen  called  the  Livery.  The  Common  Council  is  an  elective  body  representing 
the  several  wards. — These  public  bodies  form  a  sort  of  parliament,  the  court  of  aldermen 
ranking  as  peers,  that  of  common  council  as  the  cbmmons.  The  military  force  of  the  city 
formerly  consisted  of  the  Train  Bands ;  but  under  an  act  passed  in  1794,  two  regiments  of 
militia  are  raised  by  ballot  each  consisting  of  2200  men.  No  troops  can  enter  the  city,  nor 
can  its  own  militia  de}»rt  from  it,  without  permission  of  the  lord  mayor.  His  power  is  verv 
great ;  and  though  his  office  be  elective,  his  authority  does  not  cease  on  the  demise  or  abdi* 
cation  of  the  king,  as  that  of  the  commission  officers  does :  and  in  such  cases  the  Lord  Mavur 


•m 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  UL 


of  London  is  said  to  be  the  principal  officer  of  the  kingdom.  There  are  two  sherifib,  one  for 
ix>ndon  and  one  for  Middlesex ;  but  they  make  but  one  officer ;  and  if  one  of  them  dies,  tlie 
office  is  at  an  end  until  a  successor  to  him  is  chosen.  The  next  officers  in  rank  are,  Uie 
Recorder,  the  Chamberlain,  and  the  Common  Serjeant  •  ' 

TJie  police  of  the  metropolis  has  not  been  brou^t  to  a  very  high  degree  of  efficiency,  but 
IS  continually  undergoing  improvements.  There  are  eleven  offices :  the  Mansion  Ilouse ; 
.he  Guildhall ;  Bow  Street ;  Queen  Square,  Westminster ;  Marlborough  Street ;  High 
Street,  Mary-le-bone ;  Hatton  Garden ;  Worship  Street ;  Lambeth  Street,  in  Whitechapel ; 
High  Street,  Shadwell ;  Union  Street,  Southwark ;  and  Wapping  New  Stairs,  for  offences 
connected  with  the  shipping  and  port.  The  Bow  Street  Police  Office  is  wholly  under  the 
direction  and  management  of  the  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Home  Department  All  the 
magistrates  belonging  to  it  are  in  the  commission  of  the  peace  for  the  counties  of  Middlesex, 
Surrey,  Kent,  and  Essex,  this  being  the  chief  police  office  of  England.  Subject  to  its 
authority  is  the  body  of  foot  and  horse  patr&e  by  which  the  roads  within  ten  miles  of  the 
metropolis  are  watched  and  guarded  during  a  considerable  part  of  the  night.  In  another 
department  of  police  a  most  important  change  has  been  enected  by  suratituting  for  the 
nightly  watch  appoint«d  by  different  parishes  without  concert  or  coKtperation,  a  oonstabu- 
LARY  POLICE  roROB,  regularly  organized,  and  subject  to  officers  appointed  by  the  Home 
Secretary  of  State.  The  men  are  maintained  by  rates  levied  on  the  different  parishes, 
and  are  on  duty  night  and  day,  in  successive  divisions,  relievintreach  other  like  gendarmes. 

The  gaols  and  prisons  cannot  be  passed  without  notice.  Tiie  King's  Bench  prison,  in 
Southwark,  is  under  the  particular  authority  of  the  Court  of  King's  Bench.  The  liberties, 
or  rules,  comprehend  an  area  three  miles  in  circumference,  within  any  part  of  which  debtors 
may  reside  on  paying  certain  fees.  The  Fleet  Prison,  chiefly  for  debtors,  is  situated  on  the 
east  side  of  Farringdon  Street  Whitecross-street  prison  was  erected  in  1817,  for  the , 
reception  of  such  debtors  as  were  liable  to  be  confined  in  the  city  gaols  of  Newgate  and  the 
Compter.  Newgate,  a  place  of  confinement  for  prisoners  before  and  after  trial,  has  been 
placed  under  new  regulations  through  the  efforts  of  benevolent  persons  anxious  to  render  it 
a  place  of  reform.  Bridewell,  Blackfi-iars,  though  a  prison,  is  usually  ranked  among  the 
hospitals.  The  Middlesex  House  of  Correction,  in  Coldbath  Fields,  has  long  been  the  terror 
of  delinquents,  through  the  double  punishment  of  incarceration  and  hard  labour.  The  Peni- 
tentiary «t  MUbank  is  destined  for  the  reception  of  convicts  selected  from  those  sentenced 
to  transportation  or  to  confinement  on  board  the  hulks  for  a  certain  term  of  years.  They  are 
confined  here  to  hard  labour  for  a  shorter  term,  part  of  which  is  remitted  if  they  behave  well. 
Tothill-fields  Bridewell  is  a  large  pile  of  building,  finished  in  1833.  A  new  House  of  Cor- 
rection has  been  erected  at  Brixton,  in  Surrey. 

The  charitable  institutions  of  London  would  require  a  volume  for  their  description. 
Chelsea  and  Greenwich  hospitals  are  asylums  pn>vided  by  national  gratituf'  *o  support  the 
aged  or  infirm  who  have  devoted  their  best  days  to  the  service  of  their  cc  by  land  and 

sea.     St  Bartholomew's  and  St.  Thomas's  hospitals  are  assigned  to  the  rna  liid  diseased. 

Bridewell  Hospital  to  the  correction  of  the  idle,  and  Christ's  hospital  to  tie  support  and 
education  of  the  young  and  helpless.  For  the  cure  of  diseases,  and  for  the  relief  of  acci- 
dental injuries,  there  are  variousk institutions;  such  are  the  London,  Middlesex,  St.  George's, 
and  Westminster  hospitals ;  St.  Bartholomew's,  St.  Thomas's,  and  Guy's,  are  also  celebrated 
as  schools  of  surgery  ;  the  hospitals  of  Bethlehem  and  St  Luke's  are  appropriated  to  insane 
patients :  there  are  sixteen  medical  charities  for  particukr  purposes,  as  the  Ophthalmic 
Institution,  the  Small-pox  Hospital,  the  Vaccine  Society,  &c. ;  fourteen  lying-in  hospitals 
and  charities ;  schools  for  the  indigent  blind,  and  for  the  deaf  and  dumb ;  the  Philanthropic 
and  Humane  Societies,  the  Refuge  for  the  Destitute,  tlie  Foundling  Hospital,  the  Magdalen 
Asylum,  the  Female  Penitentiary,  &c.  To  the  class  of  charitable  foundations  belong  also 
the  alms-houses  of  the  various  city  companies. 

The  most  distinguished  schools  of  the  metropolis  are,  Christ's  Hospital,  the  Charter-house, 
Westminster,  St  Paul's,  and  Merchant  Tailor's  schools.  For  the  acquisition  of  the  higher 
branches  of  knowledge,  an  important  provision  has  been  made  in  Ihe  establishment  of  the 
London  University,  and  in  that  of  the  institution  called  King's  College,  London. 

Of  the  scientific  and  literary  associations  of  the  metropolis,  the  most  considerable  are  the 
Royal  Society,  the  Society  of^^ Antiquaries,  the  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts  and 
Manufiictures,  the  Royal  Institution  for  facilitating  the  introduction  of  useful  Inventiotis  and 
Improvements,  the  London,  and  the  Russel  Institutions.  The  College  of  Physicians,  and  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  decide  on  the  admission  of  members  to  practise  in  each  of  those 
professions.  For  the  cultivation  of  sciences  connected  with  them,  fbjir  eminent  societies 
exist  and  lectures  are  established  at  various  theatres  of  anatomy  and  hospitals.  Of  institu- 
tions for  particular  branches  of  knowledge,  the  more  eminent  are  the  Linnean,  the  Geological, 
the  Horticultural,  the  Geographical,  and  the  Zoological  societies.  As  a  national  reiKwitory 
of  literature,  of  antiquities,  and  of  objecti»  holnnging  to  natural  hjatory,  the  British  Museum- 
elsewhere  described,  is  daily  rising  in  public  e^^titnation. 

London  is  the  orincipal  literary  emporium  of  tlie  kingdom.     Almost  all  books  of  import 


BookL 


ENGLAND.       i'^^^V. 


sen 


British  Musouji! 
xwks  of  import 


ance  are  there  printed  and  published;  and  thence  distributed  over  the  Kin^om;  fbrni4.g  a 
considerable  branch  of  commerce.  The  annual  value  sold  ia  estimated  at  from  1,000,000/. 
to  2,0(N),000/.  sterling.  Being  also  the  centre  of  intelligence  relative  to  public  afiairs,  the  , 
metropolis  gives  circulation  to  a  prodigious  number  of  newspapers  and  periodical  journals. 
Some  of  the  newspapers  circulate  upwards  of  8000  a  day ;  and  by  tlie  profit  derived  from 
such  extensive  sale,  and  from  advertisements,  they  are  enabled  to  maintain  complete  and 
costly  establishments  for  obtaining  early  political  intelligence,  and  for  reporting  trials  and 
parliamentary  proceedings.  The  number  of  single  papers,  published  annually  in  London, « 
as  Ailculated  from  the  stamp  returns,  exceeds  16,000,000. 

The  manu&ctures  of  the  metropolis  are  too  miscellaneous  to  be  particularised ;  indeed, 
London  may  be  called  a  commercial  rather  than  a  manu&cturing  city.  The  most  consider- 
able is  the  Spitalfields  silk  manufactiue,  which,  however,  has  for  years  remained  stationary, 
while  that  of  other  parts  of  the  kin^om  has  been  rapidly  extending.  In  household  furni- 
ture the  artisans  of  London  take  thtt  lead  both  in  the  design  or  fashion  of  the  articles,  and 
in  the  excellence  of  their  construction.  The  same  may  be  said  of  coaches,  carriages,  and 
harness,  of  watches,  of  gold  and  silver  plate,  and  of  jewellery.  Of  articles  of  consumption, 
the  peculiar  product  of  London  is  porter.  In  1823-4,  the  quantity  brewed  was  1,168,000 
barrels,  including  a  comparatively  small  quantity  of  ale ;  and  almost  the  whole  of  which 
was  produced  by  eleven  great  establishments.  The  distilleries  of  British  spirits  are  very 
extensive. 

The  foreign  trade  of  London  has,  since  the  peace,  continued  nearly  stationary.  The  vici- 
nity of  Liverpool  to  the  manufacturing  districts,  and  her  more  easy  and  frequent  intercourse 
with  Ireland,  give  her  considerable  advantages.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  vast  population 
of  liondon  and  of- the  basin  of  the  Thames,  her  proximity  to  the  Continent,  the  immense 
wealth  and  connexions  of  her  merchants,  will  most  probably  suffice  to  ensure  her  predomi- 
nance. The  charges  on  vessels  frequenting  the  Thames,  though  within  these  few  years 
very  heavy,  are  now  extremely  moderate. 

The  inland  trade  of  Loudon  is  very  extensive,  as  appears  from  the  number  of  arrivals  by 
all  the  gi;eat  roads  of  the  metropolis,  and  by  the  Regent's  Canal,  extending  from  the  Thames 
to  the  basin  at  Paddington,  a  sort  of  internal  port,  communicating  with  the  principal  canals 
of  the  kingdom.  Sixty-four  mail-coaches  and  a  great  n&mber  of  steam-packets  maintain  a 
constant  communication  between  the  London  General  Post-Office  and  the  cities  and  towns  , 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  regulated  speed  of  the  mails  is  eight  miles  an  hour, 
including  stoppages. 

London  is  the  great  money  market  of  the  empire.  The  Bank  of  England,  founded  i 
1694,  has  become  the  greatest  bank  of  circulation  and  deposit  in  Europe.  Its  usuai  issue 
amounts  to  about  20,000,000/.  sterling ;  it  advances  about  10,000,000/.  sterling  to  govern- 
ment, and  discounts  bills  to  the  value  of  about  3,000,000/.  Though  some  of  its  privileges 
are  curtailed  by  the  late  act,  this  is  compensated  by  the  reg'>ilation  which  makes  its  notes  a 
lesfal  tender.  The  Stock  Exchange  is  tiie  place  where  purchases  and  sales  are  effected  by 
brokers,  at  a  commission  of  one-eighth  per  cont.  on  the  amount  of  stock  purchased  or  sold. 
The  establishment  consists  of  a  certain  number  of  brokers,  about  thirteen  hundred,  elected 
annually  by  ballot,  and  bound  in  a  certain  sum  to  the  observance  of  certain  regulations, 
which  are  superintended  and  enforced  by  a  committee.  None  but  members  are  adhiitted  on 
the  stock  exchange ;  and  no  stock-broker  can,  by  the  regulations,  become  a  dealer,  and  sub- 
ject himself  to  the  operation  of  the  bankrupt  laws.  If  he  becomes  a  bankrupt,  he  is  desig- 
nated a  scrivener.  The  property  bought  and  sold  in  this  market,  between  the  hours  of  ten 
and  four,  is  sometimes  enormous.  The  Insurance  Companies  are  about  twenty  in  number, 
of  which  only  three  are  incorporated  by  charter.  Of  other  joint-stock  companies,  for  pur- 
poses immediately  connected  with  London,  the  principal  are  Uie  Watdlr  and  Gras  Light  Cc»n- 
panies. 

As  the  seat  of  legislation  and  jurisprudence,  London  is  tieccssarily  the  resort  of  the  prin- 
cipal persons  in  the  kingdom  during  the  session  of  parliament,  which  usually  continues  from 
Cliristmas  to  midsummer ;  and  as  that  period  includes  three  of  the  four  law  terms,  the  afHux 
of  strangers  is  increased  by  those  who  are  interested  in  any  proceedings  before  the  courts. 

The  town  mansions  of  the  nobility  and  gentry  are  not  so  remarkable  as  their  country  resi- 
dences for  architectural  beauty ;  but  some  of  them  are  celebrated  for  their  treasures  of  lite- 
rature or  art  The  grounds  of  St.  James's  Park,  Hyde  Park,  and  Kensington  Garden*, 
emphatically  called  the  lungs  of  London,  and  the  fine  enclosure  of  the  Regent's  Park,  are 
destined  for  the  recreation  of  the  public. 

Middlesex  may  be  regarded  as  the  dairy  and  garden  of  London.  Its  soil  is  mostly  a  poor 
gravel ;  but,  by  the  application  of  manure,  it  is  fitted  for  kitchen  gardens  to  the  extent  of 
nearly  three  thousand  acres ;  the  same  extent  of  fruit  gardens,  and  about  half  that  extent 
of  nurseries,  wlience  the  greater  pirt  of  England  is  supplied  with  choice  plants  and  exotics. 
But  the  largest  portion  of  Middlesex  is  in  grass,  partly  for  the  support  of  iO,0(»0  oows, 
which  supply  London  with  milk,  and  partly  for  furnishing  it  with  hay,  that  of  Middlesex 
being  said  tn  be  made  in  a  superior  manner  to  any  other  in  the  kingdom.     Great  profits  have. 

Vol.  I.  32*  2X 


879 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  ni. 


been  derived  ftoin  that  species  of  clay  which  is  convertible  into  brick.    Large  tracts  have 
yielded  40001.  an  acre ;  and  after  this  clayey  substance  has  been  pared  off,  the  soil  has  been 
easily  restored,  by  manure,  to  the  uses  of  affriculture. 
Ibunpton  Court  Qj^.  155.),  built  by  Cardinal  Wolsey,  and  enlarged  by  Sir  Christopher 

Wren,  fonns  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
Englirii  piUaces.  Here  are  many  fine  pic* 
tures,  among  which  are  seven  of  the  car* 
toons  of  Raphael,  regarded  as  the  masteN 
pieces  of  that  renowned  painter.  Buaily 
Park,  the  seat  of  William  IV.  while  Duke 
of  Clarence,  is  surrounded  with  magnifi* 
cent^woods.  Chiswick,  the  vflla  of  the 
Duke  of  Devonshire,  and  Osterley  Park^ 
both  ilk  this  vicinity,  contain  fine  pamtinga. 
Syon  House  is  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of 
NorUiumberland.  But  the  chief  ornaments 
of  Middlesex  are  the  villas  of  the  wealthy 
citisens  of  London.  At  Twickenham,  bar- 
barous hands  have  demolished  Pope's  villa.  Strawberry  Hill  is  a  light  fantastic  fiibric,  built 
by  Horace  Walpole.  The  villas  which  cover  the  hi\U  of  Hampetead  and  Hi^^igate  com- 
mand beautifiil  prospects. 

Hertford,  Bedford,  Buckingham,  Oxford,  Northampton,  Leicester,  consist  gfenerally  of  a 
vast  plain,  varied  by  gentle  undulations;  the  air  is  healthy  and  pure;  the  agriculturists  are 
careful  and  laborious.  The  horses  and  black  cattle  of  Leicestershire  are  famous  throughout 
the  kingdom.  Bedfbrd  and  Berks  have  some  fabrics  of  shawls,  straw  hats,  and  bone  lace. 
Silk  and  woollen  hosiery  have  found  their  way  into  Leicester  and  Oxford  shires,  and  Coven- 
try has  for  centuries  been  renowned  for  its  silk  manu&cture. 

Oxford  justlv  claims  the  first  rank  amoiur  the  midland  cities.  Its  university,  the  most 
richly  endowed  in  Europe,  and  the  nursery  of  so  many  great  men ;  the  numerous  and  exten- 
sive edifices  connected  with  it,  arrafigM  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  a  truly  noble  effect, 
render  it  one  of  the  most  interesting  placA  in  England.  The  visiter,  as  he  peaees  along 
etthier  of  the  two  main  streets  (fig.  166.),  beholds  at  every  step  some  antique  and  majestie 

structure;  even  the  booses uf  pri* 


HampUmCoait 


Hi(b  Straet,  Oxfoid. 


vate  individuals,  presenting  the 
aspect  of  ornamented  cottages  rising 
6ne  above  the  other,  have  a  better 
effect  than  the  usual  mechanical 
lines  of  street  This  beautiful  city 
is  supported  almost  entirely  by  the 
university,  which  is  of  great  anti- 
quity, and  the  principal  build  in^rs 
which  now  ornament  it  were  built 
between  the  times  of  Henry  VI.  and 
Elizabeth.  Oxford,  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.,  was  a  place  of  consider- 
able political  importance;  parlia- 
ments were  summoned  to  meet 
there,  and  the  king  maintained  it 
long  as  his  last  strong-hold.  It  has 
nineteen  colleges  andTfour  halls,  in  which  reside  above  three  thousand  persons,  of  whom 
about  a  third  are  maintained  out  of  the  funds  of  the  colleges;  and  many,  under  the  charac< 
ter  of  masters,  fellows,  and  other  functionaries,  enjoy  liberal  incomes. 

The  Bodleian  Library  is  the  most  extensive  in  EngUnd,  after  that  of  the  British  Museum. 
In  the  spacious  quadrangle  which  contains  this  library  are  also  the  public  schools ;  a  large 
gallery  of  portraits  having  reference  t6  the  university ;  the  Arundel  marbles,  and  the  Pom- 
tret  statues,  which,  though  much  mutilated,  present  some  fine  specimens  of  ancient  sculp- 
ture. The  Radcliffe  Librafy  is  the  finest  library  room  in  Oxford;  but  itL labours  under  a 
deficiency  of  books.  Christ-church  is  an  ample  and  venerable  edifice,  adonied  with  some 
fine  old  painted  glass.  In  an  adjoining  apartment  is  the  collection  of  pictures  bequeathed 
by  General  Guise,  which  contains  some  specimens  of  unquestioned  excellence.  New  Col- 
lege chapel  attracts  admiration  by  its  fine  series  of  paintings  on  glass,  executed  by  Jervis 
after  the  designs  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.  All-Souls  College,  Magdalen  College,  anu 
Qiif^en's  College,  display  architectural  beauties  of  no  common  order. 

Woodstock  has  a  gay  aspect ;  to  the  interesting  features  in  English  history  and  romance 
it  adds  the  solid  benefit  of  a  large  manufccture  of  leather  gloves.  Buckingham  and  Da- 
ventry  arc  small  antique  towns.  Newport  Pagnell,  in  Bucks,  forms  a  sort  of  centre  of  the 
lice  trade.    Bedford  carries  on  some  manufactures  of  this  description ;  and  being  situated  in 


Book  L 


(iNf    ENGLANa  'nn'>!?hl 


eing  situated  in 


A  rich  valley,  watered  by  the  Ouae,  haa  a  conaiderable  stir  in  traiMtnittindf  ita  produce.  The 
industry  of  Dunstable  is  attested  by  the  straw  hats  which  bear  its  name.  Hcrttbrd  is  a 
small  provincial  capital,  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  college  which  the  East  India  Company 
have  founded,  for  the  education  of  the  civil  servants  whom  they  send  abroad :  St.  Alban's 
is  venerable  for  its  antiqui^,  and  ita  cathedral.  Northampton,  a  place  of  considerable  name 
in  English  history,  a  well-built  town  on  the  Nen,  with  a  market-place  which  has  been 
recicimed  the  finest  in  the  kingdom,  has  a  manufactory  of  boots  •  and  shoes  tor  exportation, 
and  of  lace.  It  is  a  groat  centre  of  the  inland  travelling  between  London  and  the  north; 
and  the  trade  in  horses  has  always  been  carried  on  in  great  fairs  at  this  place.  Leicester 
is  a  still  more  important  provincial  capital.  It  is  a  place  of  note  in  Englidi  histoiy,  uaA 
attests  its  ancient  importance  by  some  fine  old  churches ;  but  it  had  fallen  into  considerable 
decay,  till  it  was  revived  by  the  prosperity  of  the  surrounding  country,  chiefly  in  conse- 
quence of  the  introduction  of  new  breeds  of  stock  into  fine  pastures.  Leicester  has  also  a 
large  fabric  of  woollen  stockings,  in  which  it  is  only  excelled  by  Nottingham,  and  which, 
under  fiivourable  circumstances,  employs  seven  or  eight  thousand  perrons.  Oakham,  the 
camtal  of  Rutlandshire,  is  a  very  small  town. 
The  aeata  of  this  extensive  dutrict,  though  not  ao  thickly  planted  as  in  the  southern,  are 
197  vet  numerous.    Foremost  stands  Blen- 

heim (^ff,  157.)  that  proud  monument 
of  a  nation's  gratitude  to  its  long  un- 
rivalled hero.  Its  exterior  displays  that 
minuteness  of  detail  and  general  hea- 
viness, which  characterise  the  design* 
of  Vanbrugh :  some  of  the  apartments, 
however,  are  of  almost  unequalled 
grandeur;  particularly  the  great  hall, 
fifly-three  feet  by  forty-four,  and  sixty 
high ;  and  the  library,  one  hundred  and 
eighty  feet  by  forty-three.  The  woods, 
also,  the  lake,  and  the  general  disposition  of  the  grounds,  are  greatly  admired.   The  gallery  of 

Eictures  is  one  of  the  very  finest  in  the  kin^om,  containing  some  of  the  best  works  of 
Lubens,  Vandyke,  and  Titian.  Stowe,  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  is  celebrated 
as  the  most  elaborate  and  splendid  example  of  the  species  of  gardening  called  classical,  in 
which  ah  attempt  is  made  to  present  nature  herself  in  an  ornamented  form.  Her  own  pro- 
per ornaments,  of  wood,  water,  hill  and  plain,  are  heightened  by  the  introduction  of  tem- 
ples, ruins,  statues,  inscriptions,  and  other  objeicts  calculated  to  excite  lofty  and  poetical 
ideas.  Modem  taste  rejects  many  of  these  accessories,  as  breaking  in  upon  the  idea  of 
simple  nature,  to  which  it  seeks  to  make  the  nearest  possible  approach ;  yet,  a  space  of  four 
hundred  acres,  filled  with  groves,  temples,  and  meandering  streams,  must  present  many 
beautiful  sites.  "  The  rich  landscapes,"  says  Walpole,  "  occasioned  by  the  multiplicity  of 
temples  and  obelisks,  and  various  pictures  that  present  themselves  as  we  shift  our  situation ; 
occasion  surprise  and  pleasure,  sometimes  recalling  Albano's  landscapes  to  our  mind,  and 
oflener  to  our  fancy  the  idolatrous  and  luxurious  vales  of  Daphne  and  Tempe."  The  house 
also  is  handsome  and  richly  ornamented,  imd  contains  some  fine  paintings.  Wobum  Abbey, 
where  the  house  of  Russel,  by  princely  shows  and  festivals,  have  thrown  a  new  lustre  on 
British  agriculture,  is  a  magnificent  edifice.  The.  stables,  experimental  farm,  and  other 
appendages  of  the  most  useful  of  arts,  excite  the  admiration  of  every  fiirmer  and  even  ama- 
teur ;  nor  is  this  residence  deficient  in  the  lighter  embellishments  of  painting  and  statuary. 
Althorp,  near  Northampton,  is  adorned  with  many  rare  and  valuable  works  of  art ;  but  it  is 
in  London  chiefly  that  Earl  Spencer  keeps  his  library,  the  first  in  the  kingdom.  Opposite 
to  Stamford  is  Burleigh,  a  noble  old  residence  of  Cecil,  Elizabeth's  minister.  It  contains  a 
fine  library  of  books  and  manuscripts ;  and  the  Exeter  &mily  have  enriched  it  with  a  col- 
lection of  paintings,  generally  supposed  to  be  the  most  extensive  in  England.  Near  Oak- 
ham, is  another  Burleigh  on  the  hill,  once  the  seat  of  the  gay  revels  of  Buckingham.  It 
has  a  noble  terrace  in  front,  and  contains  a  good  library,  with  some  curious  paintings.  On 
he  border  of  Leicestershire  and  Lincolnshire,  stands  the  Duke  of  Rutland's  proud  castel- 
lated edifice  of  Belvoir.  From  a  lofty  height  it  overlooks  a  vast  extent  of  country,  includ- 
ing the  vale  of  tlM  same  name,  one  of  the  richest  and  most  beautiful  in  England.  The  col- 
lection of  paintinA  is  of  great  value. 

Warwick  is  a  noble  county.  Its  woodlands,  the  remains  of  the  wide  ancient  forest  of 
Arden,  are  still  extensive,  and  a  great  part  lies  in  fine  natural  grass.  Pasturage  predomi- 
nates greatly  over  agriculture,  occupying  nearly  two-thirds. 

Warwick,  an  ancient  and  well-built  town,  still  preserves  a  portion  of  its  prosperity  by  the 
manufacture  of  woollens.  Coventry  is  a  large  old  town,  built  very  irregularly,  and  many  of 
the  houseB  exhibiting  the  uncouth  architecture  of  a  distant  period.  Its  ecclesiastical  monu- 
ments, however,  are  of  importance.  St  Michael's  is  a  very  light  and  elegant  structure, 
with  a  spire  rising  to  three  hundred  feet    The  fabric  of  silk,  introduced  more  than  a  cen* 


9B0 


DESCRIPTIVE  QEOORAPHY. 


pA»Tin 


tury  aco  b]»Uie  French  refugees,  turn  made  a  most  rapid  progrrem,  ao  that  in  1610  it  employed 
2819  ioom&  In  the  making  of  watches,  alao,  this  city  now  rivals  London.  Levnington, 
though  its  spa  is  mentioned  by  Camden,  never  became  a  scene  of  crowded  resort,  till  the 
tegimiing  of  this  century ;  yet  so  great  since  that  period  has  been  its  attraction,  ttiat  it  has 
risen  from  a  mere  village  to  bo  a  nourishing  place.  There  are  both  hot  and  cold  baths ;  and 
the  waters  are  used  either  for  drinking  or  bathing.  Leamington  now  possesses,  on  a  hand- 
some scale,  baths,  inns,  a  theatre,  an  assembly-room, — all  the  accommodation  for  the  sick 
•nd  the  gay.  Stratford,  a  considerable  town  on  the  Avon,  to  which  the  muse  has.  given  a 
deathless  name,  is  the  birth-place  of  Shakspeare ;  the  poetical  pil^im  here  beholds  the 
genuine  tomb  of  the  poet,  and  tlie  site  of  the  house  choeen  by  him  tor  his  final  residence ; 
though  the  house  itself  a  barbarous  hand  has  demolished.  Birmingham  is  in  Warwickshire, 
but  as  it  is  the  capital  of  the  iron  country,  which  is  almost  wholly  in  Stafibrdshire,  we  shall 
class  it  with  the  great  towns  devoted  to  the  working  of  that  material. 

There  are  two  castellated  seats  in  this  county,  Kenilworth  and  Warwick,  both  of  almost 
matchleas  grandeur ;  but  the  former  presents  only  the  picturesque  remains  of  its  pristine 

158  state  {M-  158.).    Founded  in  the 

reign  of  Henry  I.,  it  was  extended 
and  adorned  by  John  of  Gaunt ;  and 
remained  witli  the  princes  of  the 
houM  of  Lancaster  till  wrested  from 
them  by  the  triumph  of  Ihe  house  of 
York.  It  continued  thenceforth  a 
royal  appanage ;  and  was  bestowed 
by  Elizabeth  on  her  handsome  fa- 
vourite, Leicester,  whose  residence 
KeDUwortii  Cull*.  here,  and  the  splendid  ffites  and  ro- 

mantic incidents  connected  with  it,  have  been  ao  happily  worked  up  by  tne  greatest  romance 
writer  of  the  age.  At  the  close  of  the  civil  wars,  it  was  given  up  wholly  by  Cromwell  to 
his  soldiers  for  plunder,  and  was  reduced  to  the  totally  fallen  state  in  which  it  now  appears. 
The  walls  were  indeed  entire,  but  ooitipletely  naked  and  roofless ;  and  the  visiter  who  stands 
at  the  interior  foot  of  the  tower  can  trace  only  by  chimneys,  and  other  slight  marks,  the 
successive  apartments  rising  above  each  other  till  they  are  terminated  by  the  dome  of  the 
sky.  Kenilworth  exhibits  the  feudal  age  in  its  total  down&ll ;  but  the  traveller  has  only  to 
proceed  a  few  miles  in  order  to  see  it  entire  and  in  full  glory.  This  is  the  proud  mansion 
once  inhabited  by  the  king-making  Earl  of  Warwick  (Jig.  159.).     It  was  built  by  the  Earl 

of  Warwick,  who,  in  the  four- 
;.\m'Aismfi         fln  teenth  century,  distinguished  him- 

self at  the  battles  of  Cressy  and 
Poitiers.  Edward  IV.  seized  an 
opportunity  of  annexing  it  to  the 
crown.  It  was  aderwards  bestowed 
by  King  James  on  Lord  Brooke, 
who  spent  a  large  sum  in  restoring 
it  from  a  state  of  decay ;  and  the 
late  earl  repaired  it  so  judiciously, 
and  made  his  additions  in  such 
harmony  with  the  original  pile, 
that  he  may  be  considered  almost 
the  creator  of  the  edifice  in  its 
WBtwick  Ondo.  present  state.     The  entrance,  cut 

through  a  rock,  and  opening  at  once  on  three  of  the  loftiest  towers,  has  an  effect  truly 
striking.  The  interior  is  equally  grand  and  interesting.  First  is  a  passage  or  corridor  up- 
wards of  300  feet  in  extent,  seen  from  end  to  end,  and  along  which  the  state  apartments  are 
arranged.  The  grand  hall,  62  feet  long,  is  wainscoted  with  oak,  hung  with  armour,  and 
maintained  in  full  feudal  keeping. 

Staffordshire  has  a  somewhat  bleak  and  uninviting  aspect ;  the  forms  are  smaller,  and 
improvements  less  advanced  than  in  the  other  midland  counties,  but  its  mineral  stores  are 
immense.  The  region  of  coal  is  supposed  to  be  about  50,000  acres  in  ex|^nt,  and  cannot  be 
exhausted  for  ages.  Besides  its  economical  uses,  tliis  mineral  is  the  mainliasis  of  the  works 
and  manufactiires  of  the  county,  and  of  all  those  in  the  north-west  of  England,  which,  but 
for  this  ample  supply  of  fuel,  could  never  have  attained  their  present  astonishing  heijorht 
Iron,  the  most  useful  of  metals,  exists  in  equal  abundance;  and  since  the  discovery  that  it 
could  be  worked  with  coke,  iron  works  have  been  esUftlished  on  an  immense  scale.  Tiio 
whole  district  from  Wolverhampton  to  Birmingham  may  be  called  a  Cyclopean  land,  wli*'re 
furnaces  without  number  are  continirally  pouring  out  fire  and  smoke.  The  clays  afford  the 
material  of  the  pottery,  which  forms  the  other  great  Staffordshire  manufacture.  It  is  long 
since  some  coarse  vessels  were  made  at  Burslem ;  but  Mr.  Wedgwood  raised  this  fabric  to 


PaktIII 

1810  it  employed 
m.  Leiuninffton, 
jd  resort,  till  the 
ction,  that  it  hu 
d  cold  hatha;  and 
tesiies,  on  a  hand- 
ition  for  the  sick 
nuse  hast  gi\ea  a 
here  beholds  the 

final  residence; 
b  Warwickshire, 
irdshire,  we  shall 

k,  both  of  almost 
18  of  its  pristine 
Founded  in  the 
it  was  extended 
m  of  Gaunt;  and 
8  princes  of  the 
till  wrested  from 
h  of  Ihe  house  of 
sd  thenceibrth  a 
nd  was  bestowed 
ier  handsome  &- 
whose  residence 
idid  fStea  and  ro- 
[^'eatest  romance 
r  by  Cromwell  to 
t  it  now  appears, 
itiiter  who  stands 
light  marks,  the 
the  dome  of  the 
eller  has  only  to 
)  proud  mansion 
milt  by  the  Earl 
o,   in   the  four- 
Btinguished  him- 
3  of  Cressy  and 
t  IV.  seized  an 
lexine  it  to  the 
rwards  bestowed 
n  Lord  Brooke, 
sum  in  restoring 
decay;  and  the 
it  so  judiciously, 
ditions  in  such 
i  original   pile, 
msidered  almost 
3  edifice  in  its 
e  entrance,  cut 
an  effect  truly 
I  or  corridor  up- 
apartments  are 
ith  armour,  and 

re  smaller,  and 
eral  stores  are 
I  and  cannot  be 
is  of  the  works 
md,  which,  but 
lishing  heifrht 
iscovery  that  it 
ie  scale.  The 
an  land,  wlif-re 
'lays  afford  thtj 
■e.  It  is  long 
I  this  fabric  to 


Book  I. 


YH^A      ENGLAND.    H«ia 


861 


the  highest  pertWftion,  and  rendered  it  an  object  of  national  hnportan<ie.  Not  content  with 
the  native  materials,  he  imported  the  finest  while  clays  and  bewt  flints  Irmn  the  southnrn 
counties;  and  formed  that  variety  of  articles  called  Wedgwoud*s  Ware,  applicable  to  all 
purposes  of  use  and  ornament,  and  superior  in  some  respects  to  the  best  porcelain.  Hence 
has  sprung  up  a  range  of  villages  forming  a  district  called  the  Potteries,  of  which  Burslein 
is  the  centre,  and  which  contam  about  60,U0U  inhabitants. 

The  principal  cluster  of  large  towns  in  Staffordshire  consia^  of  thow  in  ttw  auuthern 
qunrter  whion  are  emplojred  in  making  iron,  and  manufkcturing  it.  into  various  fonns.  Of 
this  district  Birmingham  is  the  capital ;  and  at  the  remotest  periods  iron  ia  mentioned  as  its 
staple,  but  the  grai^  impulse  given  was  early  in  the  last  century,  when  Jdm  Taylor,  the 
founder  of  the  wealthy  family  of  that  name,  Matthew  Boulton,  EJsq.,  and  other  individuals, 
by  the  spirit  of  their  undertakings,  and  by  their  liberal  patronage  of  sl^ijl  wid  ingenuity  in 
every  line,  contributed  greatly  to  the  establishment  of  the  manufacturing  fame  of  tlie  town. 
Mr.  Boulton,  having  secured  the  celebrated  Mr.  Watt,  eatablidied,  in  conjunction  with  lum, 
at  Soho,  near  Birmmgham,  their  immense  manufkotory,  in  which  talent,  scieijee,  capital,  ex- 
perience, united  every  thing  which  could  raise  hardware  articles  to  perfection.  Pre-eminent 
above  all  ia  the  steam-engine,  which  Mr.  Watt,  its  great  improver,  not  only  applied  to  the 
use  of  his  works  here,  but  constructed  for  the  rest  of  England.  The  copper  coinage  exe- 
cuted at  Soho  by  steam-power  for  the  use  of  government  has  been  greatly  admired.  Under 
the  impulse  of  such  aii  example*  the  citizens  of  Birmingham  soon  produced  their  standard 
articles  of  a  cheapness  and  excellence  which  defied  all  competition.  The  articles  manu- 
factured in  Birmingham  consist,  in  a  great  measure,  of  such  as,  individually,  appear  un- 
worthy of  being  named,  y^t  astonish  and  dazzle  by  their  magnitude,  when  half  the  world  is 
to  be  supplied  with  them ;  such  as  pins,  buttons,  nails,  paper  trays,  filigree,  and  toys.  There 
are  not  wanting,  however,  fabrics  of  greater  magnitude,  taken  even  singly,  such  as  that  of 
fire-arms,  &c.  During  the  last  war,  the  gunsmiths  of  Birmingham  met  the  demand  with 
such  energy,  that,  on  one  occasion,  they  delivered  to  government  14,()00  muskets  in  a  week. 
Of  ponderous  machinery,  none,  perhaps,  is  more  interesting  than  that  of  the  metal  rolling- 
mills.  Birminpfham  is  commodiously  built,  with  suitable  churches  and  other  edifices,  but 
without  any  thmg  prominent  in  architecture,  or  any  antique  monuments.  The  town  can 
boast  of  enlightened  citiznns,  under  whose  auspices  letters  and  tlie  arts  have  been  cultivated 
with  ardour.  The  institutions  for  the  educaticm  of  the  poor  are  not,  perhaps,  surpassed  by 
any  in  the  kingdom  for  extent  and  efficacy. 

The  other  great  manufacturing  towns,  almost  all  in  'StaflR>rdshire,  are  Wolverhampton,  a 
very  populous  place,  of  considerable  antiquity,  with  a  fine  old  church ;  but  indebted  for  itfl 
present  greatness  to  the  making  of  locks  and  keys  in  a  manner  superior  to  any  town  in  the 
world.  Wednegbiiry  has  a  fine  old  6o.hic  church ;  but  its  main  boast  at  present  is,  the 
making  of  all  the  hard  materials  of  coach  harness  in  an  unrivalled  manner.  Wahall  flour- 
ishes by  the  making  of  every  thing  connected  with  saddlery ;  Dudley  by  its  nails :  but  it 
has  also  a  castle  of  some  note  in  history,  commanding  a  view  of  seven  counties. 

The  nominal  capital,  Staflbrd,  is  yet  to  be  notic^ ;  an  ancient  but  small  iiown,  of  neat 
appearance,  ornamented  with  the  usual  county  buildings.  The  Grand  Trr  ':  Canal,  how- 
ever, passing  by  it,  has  given  an  impulse  to  its  industry ;  and  it  carries  on  u  -jiisiderable 
manumcture  of  boots  and  shoes.  Newcastle-under-Line,  and  Tamworth,  are  boh  consider- 
able towns  on  one  of  the  great  London  roads. 

Lichfield  is  a  more  elegant  and  interesting  place.  Its  most  prominent  object  is  the  cathe- 
dral, of  high  antiquity,  the  finest  part  of  which  was  built  in  1140;  some  particular  portions 
are  equal  to  any  thing  of  the  kind  in  Britain :  such  are  the  portico,  richly  adorned  with 
sculpture;  the  choir;  and  St  Mary's  chapel.  The  society  fixed  there  by  this  richly  endowed 
ecitablishment,  together  with  the  neatness  of  the  town,  and  its  pleasant  situation,  have 
induced  many  of  the  gentry  in  this  quarter  to  make  it  their  residence.  These  circumstances 
have  contributed  to  give  to  Lichfield  that  intellectual  character  which  is  so  conspicuous, 
and  has  made  it  almost  the  literary  metropolis  of  south-western  England.  The  birth  and 
early  education  of  Johnson  and  Garrick  are  alone  sufficient  to  immortalise  it.  Lichfield 
enjoys  high  privileges  as  a  city,  having  a  district  of  some  extent  round  it  considered  a  county 
of  itself. 

Derbyshire,  in  its  natural  features,  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of  any  county  of  Eng- 
land. Except  in  the  lower  and  southern  districts  on  the  Trent,  the  whole  county  is  traversed 
by  ranges  of  rugged  and  rocky  hills,  penetrated  by  vast  excavations,  «uid  separated  by 
narrow  valleys.  Lead  is  abundant,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  galena.  Iron  is  also  worked  very 
plentifully.  This  county  is  alao  celebrated  for  the  variety  and  beauty  of  its  calcareous  sub- 
stances, particularly  the  kind  called  Blue  John  (fluor  spar),  which,  by  the  skilfiil  application 
of  a  gentle  heat,  is  made  to  exhibit  the-  most  brilliant  colours.  Lastly,  there  are  numerous 
hM  springs  vai"iously  impregnated ;  and  the  county  contains  two  of  the  most  remarkable 
waiefing-jjlaces  in  the  kingdom,  Matlock  and  Buxton. 

In  proceeding  to  Castleton,  the  traveller  passes  through  the  Winyats,  or  gates  of  the 


888 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


PabtUI. 


winds,  a  nairow  nwid  of  about  a  mile  in  Ungth, 

lao 


1,1    X   ,•    f.f  t 


trnk  CkfMo,  DtriqriklM. 


between  precipices  a  thouaand  foet  high, 
darlc,  ruraed,  and  perpendicular.  At  tnc 
end  of  thu  road  opens  on  one  aide  Mam 
Tor,  or  the  Shivering  Mountain,  1300  fo«t 
hipfh ;  on  the  other  the  High  Peak  crowned 
with  the  ruins  of  a  Baxon  fortress ;  and 
at  its  foot,  the  wonder  of  wonders,  "  the 
Peak  Cavern."  (Jg.  160.)  This  is  a  huge 
gulf,  42  feet  high  and  120  long,  at  the  foot 
of  perpendicular  cliffik  The  visitor  is 
thence  guided  through  a  succession  of 
dark  cavernous  apartments,  and  is  ferried 
along  a  subterranooua  river ;  above  which 
the  rocks  rise  so  close,  that  he  must  lie 
flat  on  his  fiice.  At  the  end  of  somewhat 
above  2000  feet  the  cavern  terminates,  or, 
at  least,  becomes  no  longer  passable. 
Elden  Hole  is  a  fissure  near  Buxton,  which 
ilescends  perpendicularly  to  an  unknown  depth.  A  line  of  2652  feet  has  been  let  down 
without  finding  a  bottom.  Poole's  Hole,  near  Buxton,  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  petri- 
ftctions  with  which  it  is  flUed. 

On  descending  into  the  Low  Peak,  a  milder  grandeur  presents  itself.  The  most  rugged  chains 

•f  Derbyshire  are  interspersed  with  beautifiil  valleys ;  but  none  equals  that  of  Matlock,  where 

.  „  the  banks  of  the  Derwent  are  bordered 

*•*  -  by  extensive  woods,  interspersed  with 

the  boldest  and  most  varied  forms  of 
rock.  Dovedale  {fif.  161.)  is  a  wilder 
scene,  where  the  river  Dove  is  hem- 
med  in  by  perpendicular  rocks,  of  forms 
so  bold,  and  covered  with  such  variety 
of  trees  and  shrubs,  that  this  has  some- 
times been  deemed  the  moet  picturesque 
spot  in  England. 

Derby,  Uie  capital  of  this  county,  on 
the  Derwent,  is  handsome  and  wel. 
built,  and  has  extensive  manufactures. 
Silk,  introduced  at  the  commencement 
of  Uie  last  century,  has  continued  to 
flourish.  Porcelain  is  also  manufac- 
tured here;  and  what  is  called  its  white  ware  is  considered  almost  unrivalled.  A  consider- 
able number  of  workmen  are  employed  in  cutting  and  polishing  marble ;  and  Uie  Derbyshire 
spar  is  fiishioned  into  a  variety  of  beautifiil  forms. 

The  watering-places  in  pierbyshire  have  the  next  claim  to  notice.  Matlock  contains 
mineral  springs,  efficacious  in-consumptive  and  rheumatic  complaints.  Buxton,  in  the  High 
l*eak,  surrounded  by  naked  mountains,  attracts  a  much  greater  multitude ;  and  its  waters 
•le  considered  very  powerful  in  rheumatism,  gout,  and  other  diseases.  The  Duke  of  Devon- 
shire has  hero  constructed  a  superb  crescent,  occupied  by  inns,  shops,  ball-rooms,  and  every 
thing  that  can  contribute  to  the  accommodation  and  gaiety  of  the  visitants. 

Of  seats,  Chatsworth  has  sometimes  been  considered  the  finest  in  England.  It  was  built 
by  William  first  duke  of  Devonshire,  in  1702 ;  md  is  191  feet  square,  of  the  Ionic  order, 
richly  ornamented  both  within  and  without.  Keddlestone  House  has  a  fine  Doric  firont,  360 
feet  long,  considered  one  of  tlie  finest  architectural  features  in  England.  Hardwicke  Hall 
was  long  the  residence  of  the  unfortunate  Mary ;  the  furniture  and  the  portraits  remain,  in 
many  respects,  in  the  same  state  as  during  her  residence. 

Nottingham  is  watered  by  the  broad  stream  of  the  Trent,  its  tributaries,  and  numerous 
canals.  The  Vale  of  Belvoir,  to  the  south-east,  ranks  with  the  richest  tracts  in  the  island. 
The  north-western  part  contains  the  remnant  of  the  great  forest  of  Sherwood,  famed  for  the 
revelries  of  the  merry  outlaw  Robin  Hood.  Being  covered,  also,  in  a  great  measure,  with 
the  ornamented  grounds  of  noblemen  of  high  raiik,  it  is  called  the  "  dukories."  The  manu- 
factures of  hosiery  in  this  county,  Leicester  and  Derby,  employ  33,000  frames  and  73,000 
operatives,  producing  in  cotton  880,000{.,  worsted  870,000!.,  silk  241,0002.  The  lace  trade 
employs  150,000  embroiderers  in  this  county. 

Nottingham  is  a  large  town,  boldlv  and  picturesquely  situated  upon  the  Trent  Its  streets 
are  arranged  along  the  &ce  of  a  hill  so  steep,  that  the  ground  floors  of  tlie' street  behind,  in 
some  instances,  rise  hieher  tlian  the  roofs  of  those  in  front.  The  rocky  mfttprials  of  this  hill 
arp  80  soft  and  yielding,  thnt  thpy  are  cut  to  a  ercBt  extent  into  cellars  and  wareliouees. 
The  making  of  stockings  iios  always  been  the  staple  of  Nottingham.     They  are  worked  f4> 


Dovedale. 


PabtUL 

thouMnd  ftet  high, 
endiouliur.  Attho 
I  on  one  side  Mam 
MounUin,iaOOreet 
iigh  Peak  crowned 
itxon  fortreH ;  and 
'  of  wooden,  "  the 
0.)  Thiaiaahuge 
i20  long,  at  the  foot 
I.  The  visitor  is 
h  a  aucceMion  of 
Bnts,  and  ia  ferried 
■iver ;  above  which 
B,  that  he  muat  lie 
)  end  of  Bomewhat 
em  terminatea,  or, 
longer  paaaable. 
lear  Buxton,  which 
haa  been  let  down 
[able  for  the  petri- 

noat  rugged  chains 
of  Matlock,  where 
went  are  bordered 

interaperaed  with 
t  varied  forma  of 
-.  161.)  ia  a  wilder 
trer  Dove  ia  hen)< 
liar  rocka,  of  forms 

with  Buch  variety 
hat  this  haa  aonie- 
e  moat  picturesque 

of  this  county,  on 
lidsome  and  wel. 
ive  manufactures. 
le  commencement 
has  continued  to 
ia  also  manufac- 
led.  A  consider- 
id  the  Derbyahire 

Matlock  contains 
ixton,  in  the  High 
i ;  and  its  waters 
e  Duke  of  Devon- 
rooms,  and  every 

nd.  It  was  built 
'  the  Ionic  order, 
)  Doric  front,  360 
Hardwicke  Hall 
rtraits  remain,  in 

8,  and  numerous 
icts  in  thei  island. 
)od,  famed  for  the 
It  measure,  with 
es."  Themanu- 
imes  and  73,000 
The  lace  trade 

'rent   Its  streets 
street  behind,  in 

F^rinln  of  this  hi!! 

and  wareliouses. 
•y  are  worked  f>i> 


Boob  I. 


ENGLAND. 


fVamea,  which,  in  the  middle  of  laat  century,  acaroely  «xe«eded  1900,  and  at  preaMt  amount 
to  KMNH).  The  lace  trade  recently  added  la  of  very  groat  importance.  Th«re  are  atated  to 
be  1240  maehinea  in  the  town,  and  1070  in  the  neighbourhood ;  and  the  lace  aola  in  it«  mar* 
ki>l  iH  valued  at  130,00M.  Nottingham  haa  alao  a  great  inland  trade  by  the  Trent  and  canala 
coiint!cto(l  with  it 

Newark  is  noted  for  ita  oaatle,  and  for  a  parish  church,  aaid  to  be  the  flneat  in  the  king* 
dom. 

Nottinghamahire  may  boast  some  aplendid  aeata.  Workaop  Manor,  built  by  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  containa  fine  portraits  of  the  Howard  fkmily.  Clumber  Park  ia  fitted  up  in  a  mag 
niticent  Htyle  by  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  with  a  very  valuable  collectim  (^  pioturea.  Wel* 
beck  Abbey,  a  aeat  of  the  Duke  of  Portland,  is  noted  for  its  fine  atabloa.  Newatead  Abbey 
had  been  stripped  of  ita  fine  fUmituro  and  paintmga  before  it  came  to  the  late  Lord  ^ron. 

SinwMT  4. — TA«  Northern  CounHeM. 

The  northern  countiea  of  England  may  be  deacribed,  generally,  aa  reaching  flrom  the 
Humber  and  the  Meraey  to  the  Scottiah  border.  They  include  the  wide  extent  ofVorAraAira, 
divided  into  three  ridinga,  and  of  Lttncaihire,  Durham,  Northumberland,  Cundterland,  and 
Wetlmoreland.  The  eaatem  portion  ia  interaperaed  with  large  bleak  traota  of  mountain, 
moea,  and  moor.  Ita  porte  carry  on  a  thriving  trade  in  coarae,  bulkr,  and  uaefUl  commoditiea. 
The  aouth-weatem,  eompriaing  Lancaahire  and  the  weat  riding  of  Yorkahire,  bv  the  vaat  pro- 
duce of  ita  manufactoriea,  leaves  far  behind  it  every  other  dinriot  in  the  world.  The  north- 
western, or  the  country  of  the  liakes,  haa  a  higher  degree  of  picturesque  beauty  than  any 
other  part  of  England. 

The  counties  of  Northumberland  and  Durham  are  hilly  and  elevated ;  and  their  chief 
wealth  is  subterraneous.  A  species  of  coarse  coal,  mixed  with  lead,  everywhere  abounda ; 
and  the  lead  ia  exported  to  the  extent  of  flpom  five  to  ten  thouaand  tone.  But  within  thia 
mineral  region  there  is  enclosed  a  smaller  one,  reaching  flram  the  mouth  of  the  Coquet  to 
the  Tees,  a  leng^tli  of  about  fifty  milea,  and  having^  ita  greatest  breadth  of  about  twenty  milea 
upon  the  Tyne.  Within  this  tract  are  found  unmterrupted  beds  of  that  valuable  cnal  with 
which  London  ia  whoHy  aupplied,  and  of  which  great  quantitiea  are  either  aent  to  other  parte 
of  the  kingdom,  or  exported. 

Newcastle  was  famed  at  an  early  period  in  the  military  annala  of  England.  It  formed  a 
leading  point  in  the  wall  of  Hadrian  and  in  that  of  Severus.  Robert,  son  of  the  Conqueror, 
built  here  a  ciistle  of  immense  strength,  more  than  two  miles  in  circuit,  which  served  long 
as  the  main  bulwark  against  Scottish  invasion.  Scarcely  a  trace  of  it  now  remains ;  and 
the  occupations  of  Newcastle  are  entirely  changed.  Both  banks  of  the  river,  down  to  Tyne- 
Riouth,  form  an  immense  wharf,  to  which,  by  railways  and  steam  wagona,,coiils  are  conveyed 
fVom  the  contiguous  pits.  In  1830,  the  quantity  exported  was  867,613  chaldrons,  about 
2,300,000  tons.  Newcastle  carries  on  very  extensive  manufactories,  particularly  that  of 
glass.  There  are  thirty-one  works  on  the  Tyne,  which  in  some  years  have  produced  glass  to 
the  value  of  500,0001.  In  shipping  it  is  second  only  to  London,  having  belonging  to  it,  in  1832, 
1077  vessels,  of  Uie  burthen  of  220,784  tens.  Foundery,  pottery,  weaving,  are  not  on  a 
very  great  scale.  Newcastle  is  now,  on  the  whole,  a  well-built  town,  though  some  of  the 
streets  are  inconveniently  steep:  it  ia  hin^hly  ornamented  bythe  spire  of  St.  Nicholas,  con- 
sidered by  the  best  judges  as  one  of  tht*:  lin.'^st  specimens  of  the  Gothic.  It  possesses  a  lite- 
rary society,  which  has  published  valuable)  transactions ;  and  an  antiquarian  society,  destined 
particularly  to  receive  the  Roman  coins,  &c.  which  are  fi'equently  dug  up  on  this  line.  The 
large  town  of  Gateshead,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  though  placed  in  Durham,  is  really 
part  of  Newcastle,  and  raises  its  population  to  57,000. 

A  continued  range  of  great  commercial  towns  cluster  thick  around  Newcastle.  Near  the 
mouth  of  the  Tyne  are  North  Shielda  and  South  Shields,  on  opposite  sides  of  the  river ;  the 
latter  being  in  the  county  of  Durham.  They  carry  on  with  activity  the  coal  trade,  and  the 
others  proper  to  Newcastle ;  particularly  ship-building  and  the  making  of  ropes  and  sails. 
Tynemouth,  at  the  immediate  opening  of"^  the  river  into  the  ocean,  displays,  on  a  bold  prom- 
ontory, a  castle,  a  light-house,  and  a  fine  old  abbey ;  they  form  a  striking  and  romantic  scene, 
wiiich  contrants  with  those  immediately  above.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Wear,  are  Sunderland 
and  Wearmouth, — the  one  a  very  great,  and  the  other  a  considerable  port  Their  prosperity 
is  supported  by  tlie  same  great  trade  of  coals,  of  which  in  1832  they  sent  600,0(X)  tons  to 
the  port  of  London,  two-thirds  of  that  which  comes  down  the  Tyne.  They  carry  on  also 
the  same  manufactures,  particularly  ship-building,  in  which  Sunderland  is  supposed  to  exer 
a  greater  activity  than  any  other  plfice  in  the  kingdom.  The  bridge  there  has  long  beeta 
celebrated :  it  consists  of  one  arch  of  iron  framework  thrown  across  the  river,  200  feet  span, 
and  100  feet  high,  allowing  very  large  vessels  to  pass  under  without  lowering  their  sails. 
"  Nothing,"  says  M.  Dupin,  "  can  be  more  striking  than  this  view  of  the  two  cities,  and  the 

.wiHcro  that  iinitpa  thorn  •  fhnt  mniaatin  aroh  Amwn  ncminot  tho  alrv.  urhich  allnura  lurrro  voaaoia 
ct- «.*-..-,   ...».  .....J — ..^  «. ......^ — ..^,- „jf   .. ... —  — .. — -j^"  • — 

to  pass  under  its  vault  with  tlieir  siils  fly'n?."  Hf  a*lerwirds  adds,  in  reffard  to  thoso  ports 
jeiierally:  "It  is  an  admirable  thing,  within  an  extent  of  coast  which  a  man  may  walk  over 


DEHCRIPTIVE  OROGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  ni. 


on  foot  in  thrna  or  four  houn,  U>  Me  two  K^mt  rivnn  motive  t6,n()0  vomvIh,  aiul  ii'tMl 
them  ttwtiy  lo«dc<i  with  \iw  pnxlucn  of  thnir  iNtukM.  On  tlie  Mnin  narrow  H|Nice  nn  nix 
flouriMhinf  town*,  containinK  a  population  of  KV,i)!i7  poraona,  ail  devoted  lo  coinnien^u  nihI 
uuluHtry." 

Diirlinin  ia  handaonioly  built,  thuiiKli  on  vory  iinovon  ground ;  ita  gnnA  onia"innt  in  tho 
catlu'dml,  rented  in  the  ehwenlh  century,  which  ia  pernapa  unrivalleii  aa  to  ita  •ituntioti,  . 
mii^'inif  ulon^  thn  aummitof  a  prcomitoua  rock  oi|{lity  feet  hi^h  above  tlin  VVimr,  which 
winda  alons  ita  baao.  The  aee  of  Durham  ia  the  richeat  in  England ;  and  tiio  cathixlrul, 
beaidea  a  aetM,  twelve  prebendarioa,  and  two  arohdeaoona,  haa  attached  tu  it  about  aixty 
•pirit'ial  aervanta  of  varioua  ranka. 

Tho  number  of  amaller  towna  in  thow  countiea  ia  atill  conaiderable.  In  Durham,  Htook- 
toit  near  the  mouth  of  the  Teoa  carriea  on  the  trade  of  that  river ;  in  1882  it  carried  1TJ,(NX) 
tona  of  coal  to  London,  and  haa  alao  tho  Baltic  trade,  and  the  inanutacture  of  Hailclotli  and 
other  naval  materiala.  Hexham,  on  the  Upper  Tvno,  ia  the  capitiil  of  interior  Northcrnlior- 
land,  and  of  the  grand  ancient  acent  of  border  debate.  Morpeth  tuw  a  weekly  market  for 
the  cattle  brought  up  from  Scotland. 

IfjH  The  aeata  are  chiefly  great  baronial 

caatlea,  at  the  head  of  which  atanda  Aln- 
wick (Jif.  163.).  Thia  proud  koopof  the 
Perciea  covera  Ave  acres,  and  ia  dnfund- 
ed  by  aixtoon  towers.  An  expense  of 
200,000/.  haa  been  incured  in  converting 
tho  interior  from  a  foudal  caatio  into  thn 
moetaplendidofmodRrn  munaions.  Wark- 
worth  Caatle,  another  Hoat  of  the  I'ercies, 
retains  ita  antique  character.     Lumloy, 

the  feudal  castle  of  the  Earla  of  8car- 

Alnwiek  CtiUa.  borough,  prcsonta  entire  ita  auguat  and 

formidable  front  Rahy  Caatle,  Howick,  Lambton  Hall,  and  Bishop  Auckland,  are  Hne  aoata. 
Yorkahire  ia  next  in  order :  ita  aoatem  diviaion  resemblca  the  two  counties  just  doHcribed ; 
while  the  western  forma  part  of  the  great  central  sent  of  English  manufacture.  The  York- 
ahireman  haa  a  character  of  hia  own,  marked  by  shrewdness,  simplicity,  good  humour,  and  a 
species  of  drollery ;  so  that  the  London  comic  stage  is  considered  incomplete  without  one  of 
his  rcpreaentatives.  The  North  Riding  consists,  to  a  great  extent,  of  moorlands;  the  hills 
of  which  rise  often  to  a  considerable  height  These  dreary  tracts  spread  over  the  whole 
Riding,  so  that  culture  can  exist  only  in  the  valleys.  The  E^ast  Riding,  which  extends  to  tho 
Humber,  is  traversed  also  by  a  range  of  high  wolds,  which,  though  rugged,  have  not  been 
able  to  resist  the  enerj^ies  of  British  industry.  Those  Ridings  present  to  the  German  Ocean 
higii  and  often  precipitoua  rocks,  of  which  Flainb«)rough  lieau,  nearly  5(X)  feet  high,  forms 
one  of  the  boldest  features  in  English  landscape.  The  West  Riding  is  composed  chiefly  of 
a  wide,  flat  fertile  plain,  traverseid  by  the  Aire,  the  Caldcr,  and  other  navigable  rivera,  which 
convey  ita  produce  to  the  eastern,  and,  by  means  of  canals,  to  the  western  sea.  In  this  tract 
ia  placed  the  immense  manu&cturing  district  of  Yorkshire ;  in  ita  extreme  west  is  the  dis- 
trict of  Craven,  the  meet  rugged  and  mountainous  of  all  England ;  for  here  rise  Ingleboron^h, 
Wharuside,  Pennigont  each  to  the  height  of  nearly  three  thousand  feet.  There  is  scarcely 
a  county  in  which  the  spirit  of  agricultural  improvement  has  been  so  active  as  in  Yorkshire ; 
and  vast  tracts  of  waste  and  common  land  have  been  reclaimed  and  rendered  productive. 

Hull,  the  principal  port  is  the  fourth  commercial  city  in  England,  only  surpassed  by  I>on- 
don,  Liverpool,  and  Bristol.  It  carries  on  a  moat  extensive  export  of  goods  brought  by  Uio 
interior  system  of  rivera  and  canala.  It  is  ihe  principal  of  the  whale-flshery  porta;  though 
this  branch  haa  lately  declined.  During  the  nine  years  ending  with  1818,  the  average 
number  of  vessels  fitted  out  from  Hull  for  the  whale  fishery  amounted  to  53} ;  while  in  18<'K), 
it  sent  out  only  33.  In  1832,  it  owned  557  ships,  carrying  68,892  tons,  and  there  entorc(i 
ita  port  1279  vessels,  of  the  burden  of  192,661  tons.  The  Old  Dock,  completed  in  1778,  tlio 
Humber  Dock  in  1809,  and  tlie  Junction  Dock  in  1829,  contain  a  space  of  twenty-three 
acres.  Ooole,  on  the  Ouse,  a  little  above  ita  junction  with  the  Humber,  la  beginning  to  share 
with  Hull  in  the  exportation  of  woollens.  Though  a  few  years  ago  a  mere  village,  and  still 
in  1831,  containing  only  1670  inhabitants,  it  has  two  spacious  docks,  and  in  1829  tho  custonia 
exceeded  40,000/.,  and  the  declared  value  of  exports  amounted  to  625,000/.  Goods  xcnl 
from  Leeds  or  Wakefield  by  rivers  or  canals  can  be  embarked  at  Creole  in  the  course  ol' 
•twelve  hours. 

Whit^  is  a  very  ancient  town,  with  the  remains  of  a  fine  abbey  built  soon  after  the  Con- 
quest   Its  modern  importance  is  derived  from  large  mines  of  alum.  .  The  export  of  their 
t>roduce  forms  a  considerable  trade,  to  which  Whitby  soon  added  the  other  branches  preva- 
ent  on  this  coast  and  became  second  only  to  Hull. 

Scarborough,  romantically  situated  on  a  promontory  between  two  recks  cverlcckirag  *iis 
■ea,  is  the  chief  watering-place  of  the  north  of  England.     .,.^    .,,,,      ,  .,.  ,,.-.■  ri, 


Pa«t  ni 

vfiwelB,  aiMl  iiimI 
ow  M|Nicff  (in  »ix 
to  cuiiinieKu  nimI 

orn«"ioiH  iri  tlm 
I  tu  ita  •ituiitioti, 
the  W«ar,  which 
nd  the  oathodrul, 

tu  it  About  lixty 

I  Durham,  Htook- 
t  carried  irj,0()0 
e  of  Niilcloth  and 
rior  Northr.nilMjf. 
'eekly  raarlcnt  for 

y  great  baronial 
vlmh  atandi  Aln- 
proud  keep  of  the 
^B,  and  ia  dutund- 
An  expense  of 
red  in  coovorting 
a  I  caHtle  into  the 
iiiiiniiiona.  Wark- 
lat  of  the  I'ercioa, 
racter.     Lumloy, 
s  £arlB  of  Hear- 
0  its  auguat  and 
id,  are  fine  aoats. 
BH  just  deHcribed ; 
lire.     The  York- 
xl  humour,  and  a 
:e  without  one  of 
rlands;  the  hills 
d  over  tlio  wliole 
ch  extends  to  the 
?d,  have  not  been 
o  German  Ocean 
feet  high,  forms 
nposed  chieflv  of 
ible  rivers,  which 
ea.    In  this  tract 
3  west  is  the  dis- 
iso  Ingleborongh, 
rhero  is  scarcely 
as  in  YorkHliire ; 
id  productive, 
jrpassed  by  Ix)n- 
8  brought  by  Uie 
ry  ports ;  thouffh 
18,  the  average 
;  while  in  1830, 
nd  there  entcrcfl 
5ted  in  1778,  the 
of  twenty-three 
ginning  to  share 
'illage,  and  still 
829  the  customs 
KW.     Goods  8cnl 
in  the  course  of 

n  after  the  Con- 
export  of  their 
branches  preva* 


Bftoii  I.  •« 


n^'tfi  ENGLAND.    IW  «<M 


wait 


Jl     'if 


:  *'>ip'. 


tf^*-^  ••-; 


.".  "fit', 


A^nirr'^97■■'^ 


gay  town,  visited  by  many  of  the 
It  carriea  on  some  inland  trade  by 


York,  the  capital,  la  the  flnit  object  thai  atrikifii  ua  as  we  proceed  into  the  intnrbr  of  Utu 
Nnrtli  and  VVniit  Kidinga.  'I'tiui  celohrattHJ  city,  though  ho  ni>ich  uclipMd  l>y  *H)vural  Ihultirw 
unly  of  tiMlay,  still  booata  a  dignity  Nuperinr  to  them,  aiid  tu  kIiiiumI  any  othiT  iit  Kiigluitd, 
KUirnciim  was  a  distinguiahed  Itimun  stiitiun ;  tiir  nuine  tune  York  disputed  witli  I/oiuloii  the 
liistmction  of  being  the  capital  of  Kngland;  and  when  obliged  to  give  up  this  claim,  cuntiiiu- 
m\  the  iinqueationed  metropolis  of  the  north,  till  the  creative  powers  ot  trade  raiMNi  up  rivals 
to  it  in  the  north-west.  The  houses  are  high,  and  the  Htreets  imrrow  ;  yet,  altoguther,  York 
in  a  handaome,  reapectable-looking  old  city,  it  boaala  one  feature  of  alinoiit  unrivalled 
beauty, — ita  cathedral.  (Jif(.  108.)  Ua  th«  exterior  all  Uie  richness  and  elegance  of  (iotliic 
168      ^  uu      ^H  ^'  ^'  '         ornament  baa  been   lavished,  particularly 

"^  ^^  upon  the  weatoni  tVont  and  the  large  win- 

'**^''  ^L^^mjMM    liil  ■        i  »..,v,<  dovtr  in  the  eastern.     Out  the  interior  ia 

without  a  rival  in  the  empire;  ita,ut)i>ct  is 
altogether  sublime:  its  numerous  windows 
of  painted  glass  shed  a  dim,  solemn,  ruli- 
gioufl  light,  in  accordunce  witli  thu  cliarac- 
ter  of  the  edifice.  The  chapler-house  is  of 
singular  elegance  and  mugniticeiico ;  and, 
though  of  great  extent,  haa  its  roof  support- 
_  ,  .^  ed  by  a  single  pin.     Thu  choir  of  this  splen- 

'.j^^      did  editico  suttereil  severe  injury  from  a  lire 
kindled  by  the  hands  of  a  maniac ;  but  by 
Yurk  CatiMdr*!.  -'     -^  great  exertions  lioM  lieen  fully  lopairod.   The 

remains  of  the  ruined  abbey  of  Ht.  Mary,  and  those  of  several  of  Uie  twuiity-thruo  churches 
of  York,  are  also  deaerving  notice.  There  are  likewise  some  elegant  iiu^dorii  udifices,  par- 
ticularly the  assembly  room,  the  county  hall,  guildhall,  thi  mansion-hoiine,  and  the  museum 
of  the  Yorkshire  Philosophical  Hocioty.  York  is  still  a  g 
nnrthnm  gentry,  particularly  at  thn  time  of  ita  races, 
the  Ouse,  which  pasHes  through  it. 

Doncaster  is  much  tVcipioiited  during  the  time  of  its  races,  Pontefract  is  surrounded  by 
a  great  extent  of  garden  and  nursery  ground,  the  pnMltice  of  which  is  sunt  to  a  conMiderable 
(iintance,  Hnircely  a  vestige  rornnins  of  that  inimeiiHO  ami  powerful  keep,  covering  seven 
acres,  in  which  Thomas  of  l<ancastur,  Richard  11.,  and  many  other  fallen  chiefs  and  statrs- 
mnn,  were  immured.  The  parliament,  during  the  civil  wars,  having  taken  it  after  three 
sucRnssive  and  arduous  sieges,  caused  it  tn  be  completely  demolished. 

I<eeils  ia  the  capital  of  western  Yorkshire,  and,  in  a  commercial  sense,  of  the  whole 
county.  Although  it  was  of  some  note  even  in  early  times,  its  present  greatness  is  inodorii, 
mill  of  the  most  rapid  growth.  The  population,  which  in  1775  viis  only  17,117,  amuuntud 
in  IHJJl  to  128,;)9t');  being  thus  nearly  quintupled.  A  peculiar  activity  and  spirit  of  enter- 
prine  has  been  observed  among  the  miinutiicturers  of  Leeds :  it  was,  doubtloHS,  greatly 
i'avoured  by  the  vast  extent  of  inland  navigation,  which  seemed  tn  centre  hero,  connecting 
it  with  the  capital,  with  both  seas,  and  with  the  counties  to  the  south,  from  which  il  derives 
inexhaustible  supplies  of  fine  coal.  The  woollen  manufacture  is  nut  carried  on  wholly  in 
large  towns;  the  cloth  is  wrought  to  a  certain  state  of  fbrwardneas  in  the  numerous  villages, 
thenci!  sent  into  Ijee<ls,  where  it  is  purchase*!  and  worked  up  into  a  saleable  state.  The 
cloth.s  are  sold  in  weekly  markets,  held  in  the  cloth  balk,  the  most  remarkable  feature  in 
Iieoils.  That  for  mixed  cloths  was  built  in  17r>H,  that  for  white  cloth  in  1776.  They  tiirm 
qiiiiilrangiilar  edifices  round  an  open  area,  and  are  divided  into  stands,  of  which  in  tlie  first 
hull  lire  18(N),  and  in  the  second  1210.  These  are  let  at  a  mo<terate  rent  to  the  owners  of 
the  cloth,  who,  on  the  ringing  of  a  bell,  occupy  their  stands,  am  though  the  market  remaina 
open  only  an  hour,  goods  to  an  immense  value  are  oflen  disposed  of.  Altliough  the  staple 
of  Leeds  and  of  Yorkshire  be  common  cloth,  yet  other  branches  are  in  some  degree  included, 
as  siiil-cloth,  cotton,  carpets,  and  superfine  cloths.  Mr.  Urinkwater  states  the  persons  em- 
ploynd  in  the  mills  for  wool  at  .'J2JK)',  worsted,  702;  flax,  2434 ;  cotton,  80;  silk,  1.58;  in 
all,  8(164 ;  of  whom  .5318  are  males,  p.nd  3346  females ;  to  which  may  be  added  1614  in  the 
suburb  of  Holbeck.  The  town  of  I^eeds  is  mostly  well  built,  with  several  broad  and  spo^ 
riniiH  streets;  and  the  theatre,  the  new  court-house,  and  the  commercial  buildin|fB,  finished 
in  1820,  are  elegant  structures.  Kirkstall  Abbey,  three  miles  distant,  presents,  in  a  beauti« 
fill  situation,  the  most  complete  specimen  of  the  architecture  of  the  12th  century  that  is 
extiint.  The  people  of  lieeds  have  formed  a  literary  and  philosophical  society,  and  an  instil 
tution  for  the  promotion  of  the  fine  arts ;  for  the  purpose  of  which  a  very  handsome  and 
commodious  edifice  has  been  erected:  meritorious  exertions  have  also  been  made  for  the 
education  of  the  poor. 

Of  the  other  towns  of  the  clothing  district,  which  cluster  round  Leeds,  Wakefield,  beauti* 

AiUy  situated  on  the  Calder,  has  a  cloth  market,  on  a  smaller  scale,  resembling  that  of  Leeds, 

and  also  great  grain  and  cattle  markets.    Halifax,  and  the  whole  district  about  twenty  milaa 

round  it,  has  been  converted  firom  a  desert  into  a  populous  and  prosperous  scene,  containing 

Vol..  L  33  2Y 


986 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paiit  in. 


altogether  110,000  inhabitants.  Its  staples  are  what  are  properly  called  stuffii ;  shalloous, 
serges,  baize,  moreens,  kerseys ;  and  it  has  lately  embraced  a  considerable  share  of  the  cot* 
ton  manufacture.  Huddersiield  is  also  a  very  thriving  town,  employed  nearly  in  the  same 
branches ;  and  its  market  hall  is  supposed,  next  to  that  of  Leeds,  to  present  the  greatest 
show  of  woollens  in  the  kingdom.  Bradford  and  Keighley  are  large  towns,  which  carry  on 
to  a  great  extent  the  manufacture  of  worsted :  besides  which,  Bradford  has  great  iron  found- 
nee  HI  its  neighbourhood. 

In  the  southern  part  of  this  riding,  the  manufkctures  of  iron  and  cutlery  take  the  place  of 
those  of  woollen ;  and  flourish  to  such  an  extent,  that  they  are  second  only  to  the  great  iron 
district  around  Birmingham.  Sheffield  is  the  capital  of  this  district.  It  early  derived  im- 
portance from  the  fabrication  of  arms,  but  it  has  reached  a  much  higher  degree  of  greatness 
since  it  betook  itself  to  the  more  useful  fabrics  of  knives,  forks,  razors,  snuflers,  scissors, 
combs,  biittons,  saws,  sickles,  and  various  instruments  of  husbandry.  The  art  of  plating 
goods  with  silver  is  carried  to  a  vast  extent  The  silver  is  soldered  upon  the  copper ;  and 
Ihe  articles  are  wrought  by  the  hand  or  stamped.  The  cutlers  of  Sheffield  keep  many  hun- 
dred patterns  of  knives,  of  which  some  are  of  the  value  of  seven  or  eight  guineas,  contain- 
ing twenty-eight  blades  within  the  handle ;  while  others,  afler  passing  through  a  multitude 
of  different  hands,  are  sold  for  a  penny  each.  The  rapid  growth  of  Sheffield  commenced 
ahout  the  year  1750,  when  the  river  Don  was  rendered  navigable  to  within  a  few  miles  of 
the  town.  Since  that  time  its  advance  has  been  steady ;  new  branches  having  been  con- 
stantly adding,  and  tlie  former  ones  extending.  The  houses  are  chiefly  modem,  and  well 
built ;  and  the  town  makes  a  tolerablr  appearance,  notwithstanding  the  smoke  of  the  forges 
in  which  it  is  involved.  The  military  barracks  erected  here  form  an  extensive  pile  of  build- 
ing. The  infirmary  is  considered  equa'  to  any  in  the  kingdom ;  and  great  credit  is  due  to 
Stieffield  for  the  excellence  of  the  schools  winch  it  maintains  for  the  education  of  the  lower 
orders.  It  supports  also  many  public  charities ;  has  a  literary  society,  a  mechanics'  insti- 
tute, and  a  library. 

Bamsley  produces  wire,  nails,  and  other  articles,  but  derives  its  chief  importance  from  the 
linen  manufacture.  Rotherham  has  a  great  foundery  tor  cannon.  The  first  iron  bridge  was 
constructed  here  at  the  works  of  Messrs.  Walker ;  and  they  have  since  executed  those  of 
Sunderland,  Staines,  and  Yarm.  Rotherham,  being  in  a  fine  country,  has  also  a  ^eat  corn 
and  cattle  market 

The  superb  seats  which  adorn  Yorkshire  are  so  many,  that  to  enumerate  even  the  most 
distinguished  can  with  difficulty  suit  our  limits.  Castle  Howard  is  a  magnificent  pile,  noted 
lor  its  classical  collection  of  sculpture  and  painting.  Duncombe  Park  is  admired  for  the 
noble  view  obtained  from  the  terrace  in  firont,  and  for  the  ruins  of  Rivaulx  Abbey,  situated 
in  a  beautifiil  vale  at  a  little  distance ;  Studley  Royal,  an  almost  unrivalled  specimen  of  an 
ornamental  park,  encloses  within  its  precincts,  Fountain's  Abbey,  one  of  the  grandest  of 
monastic  remains,  covering  several  acres.  Wentworth  House  is  generally  considered  the 
noblest  mansion  in  the  north.  The  principal  front  extends  upwards  of  600  feet,  forming  a 
centre  and  two  wings,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  a  fine  Corinthian  portico. 

Lancashire,  situated  beyond  the  hilly  border  of  York  West  Ridmg,  forms  the  capital  or 
central  seat  of  manufacture  for  Britain,  and  even  for  the  world.  Its  soil  and  climate  are 
unfavourable;  the  upland  tracts  being  rocky  and  barren,  and  the  coast  too  low  and  flat,  while 
the  moisture  from  the  Atlantic  is  injurious  to  the , growth  of  the  finer  kinds  of  grain.  But 
coal  traverses  in  large  beds  the  south  and  south-eastern  parts  of  the  county ;  and  being  con- 
veyed by  short  canal  lines  to  all  the  great  towns,  affords  cheap  and  abundant  fuel  for  the 
8team-engincs  and  other  grand  manufacturing  apparatus.  Canal  navigation,  which  origi- 
nated in  Lancashire,  has  been  carried  to  a  greater  extent  there  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
kingdom.  Besides  those  smaller  canals  which  connect  all  the  great  thriving  towns,  it  has 
tlie  Lancaster  Canal  running  north  and  south  through  nearly  its  whole  extent,  and  into 
Westmoreland  as  &r  as  Kendal ;  and  the  still  more  important  line  of  the  Leeds  and  Liver- 
pool Canal ;  while,  in  the  southern  boitler,  the  Grand  Trunk  connects  it  with  London  and 
the  whole  centre  of  England.  A  most  important  additional  communication  has  recently 
been  opeiiC-'  by  the  railway,  elsewhere  described,  by  which  Liverpool  and  Manchester,  so 
far  as  respects  personal  conveyance,  are  brought  almost  into  contact 

Manchester,  the  centre  of  British  industry,  and  the  manufacturing  capital  of  the  empire, 
is  favourably  situated  on  the  Irwell ;  though  this  stream,  navigable  for  barges,  scarcely  makes 
any  figure  beside  the  vast  artificial  lines  formed  from  its  waters.  Although  the  cotton  manu- 
facture is  now  widely  difHised  throughout  England,  Manchester  continues  the  centre  of  the 
trade ;  receiving  and  distributing  the  raw  material,  collecting  the  produce  worked  up  h- 
numerotis  towns  and  villages,  and  transmitting  it  to  the  various  markets.  From  the  middle 
of  the  last  century  she  has  advanced  with  amazing  and  accelerated  rapidity  ;and  the  system  of 
inland  navigation  having  afforded  copious  channels  by  which  the  material  can  be  introduced 
and  the  manufactured  article  exported,  every  obstacle  to  the  absorption  of  the  whole  into 
this  centre  was  removed.  Its  manufacture  embraces  the  finer  muslins  and  other  delicate 
fhbrtos,  with  the  plain  and  useful  forms  of  dimities,  fustians,  velveteens,  checks,  shirtingh 


pa«t  in. 

1  atuflb;  ahalloons, 
le  share  of  tho  cot* 
learly  in  the  same 
esent  the  greatest 
ne,  which  carry  on 
B  great  iron  found- 

Y  take  the  place  of 
ly  to  the  great  iron 
early  derived  im- 
legree  of  greatneiM 
9,  snuilers,  scissors, 
!'he  art  of  plating 
1  tl^e  copper;  and 
Id  keep  many  hun- 
t  guineas,  contain- 
rough  a  multitude 
effield  commenced 
in  a  few  miles  of 
having  been  con- 
modem,  and  well 
noke  of  the  forges 
insive  pile  of  build- 
it  credit  is  due  to 
mtion  of  the  lower 
I  mechanics'  insti- 

[iportance  from  the 

rst  iron  bridge  was 

Bxecuted  those  of 

also  a  ^eat  corn 

te  even  the  most 
niiicent  pile,  noted 
a  admired  for  the 
X  Abbey,  situated 
!d  specimen  of  an 
f  the  grandest  of 
lly  considered  the 
K)  feet,  forming  a 

ms  the  capital  or 
'  and  climate  are 
ow  and  flat,  while 
ds  of  grain.    But 

;  and  being  con- 
ndant  fuel  for  the 
tion,  which  origi- 

other  part  of  the 
ving  towns,  it  has 
)  extent,  and  into 
Leeds  and  Liver- 
with  London  and 
lion  has  recently 
id  Manchester,  so 

tal  of  the  empire, 
•B,  scarcely  makes 

the  cotton  manu- 
the  centre  of  the 
ce  worked  up  u- 

From  the  middle 
ind  the  system  of 
:an  be  introduced 
)f  llie  whole  into 
nd  otlior  delicate 
ciieoks,  HJiirtnigfi 


Book  L 


ENGLAND. 


887 


ginirhams,  diapers,  cambric  muslins,  figured  muslins,  calicoes  for  printing,  and  various  fiuocy 
goods.  The  diflerent  cotton  fabrics  generally  denominated  Manchester  goods,  are  not  au 
manufactured  within  tho  town  itself,  but  in  the  neighbouring  towns  and  districts ;  and,  ailer 
being  bleached,  and  some  of  them  printed,  are  sent  in  a  finished  state  to  Manchester  to  be 
wld ;  the  chief  market  days  being  Tuesdays  and  Saturdays.  Thus  Marseilles  (juiltings, 
cambric  muslins,  calicoes  for  printing,  bed  quilts  and  counterpanes,  checks,  fiistians,  wA 
shirtings,  are  brought  in  from  mt  surrounding  towns  and  villages.  A  vast  deal  of  yam  is 
also  spun  for  exportation.  Manchester  has  extensive  establishments  for  printing  and  dyeing; 
also,  for  constructing  and  keeping  in  repair  steam-engines,  as  well  as  oUier  machines 
employed  in  manufacture.  Even  uron  founderies  are  necessary  to  supply  the  materials. 
Other  important  branches  have  recently  been  added.  Manchester  now  rivals  Macclesfield 
and  Norwich  in  the  manufacture  of  silks,  and  Nottingham  in  that  of  laoe.  In  1832,  there 
were  at  work  in  the  townships  of  Manchester  and  Salrord,  06  cotton  mills,  16  silk,  4  woollen 
and  worsted,  and  2  flax  mills.  The  number  employed  in  cotton  factories  amounted  to 
20,585;  of  whom,  5361  were  male  and  7035  female  adults;  4286  male  and  3003  female 
children.  The  wages  paid  to  them  per  month  were  40,333/.,  making  about  0«.  9d.  of  ave- 
rage weekly  earnings  to  each  individual.  There  were  7174  mule  spinners,  earning  15,1062. 
per  month,  averaging  10«.  6d.  each  per  week ;  1497  spinners  of  a  higher  class,  earning 
6491/.  per  month,  or  1/.  85.  id.  each  per  week.  Pieccrs'  scavengers  2944,  earning  3287/. 
per  month,  each  weekly  5s.  6d.  In  the  power  looms,  women  receive  8«.  to  12s. ;  men,  13«. 
to  168.  lOd. ;  dressers,  28«.  to  30s.  per  week.  Manchester  is  not  on  elegit  town ;  some 
parts  of  its  interior  are  narrow,  crowded,  fliU  of  warehouses  and  factories  in  huge  masses. 
The  entrances,  however,  have  been  madt  handsome;  and,  in  the  extremities  of  the  town, 
streets  of  elegant  houses  have  been  built  for  thn  accommodation  of  the  opulent  merchants. 
It  has  one  handsome  Gothic  collegiate  church  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  several  more 
modern,  that  are  creditable  to  the  taste  of  the  town,  as  the  Exchange,  which  includes  a 
news-room  and  a  good  library ;  the  Infirmary-  (which  in  one  year  received  above  12,000 
patients) ;  the  Town  Hall,  which  contains  one  of  the  most  splendid  public  rooms  in  Europe ; 
and  the  Royal  Institution  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Fine  Arts.  The  prison  called  the  New 
Bailey  is  an  immense  structure, — ^the  inmates  of  which  are  classed  and  provided  with 
employment  to  a  considerable  extent  Manchester  is  remarkable  tor  its  charitable  institu- 
tions ;  hospitals  of  diflerent  kinds ;  and  schools  for  the  education  of  the  poor.  Cheetham's 
Hospital,  maintaining  eighty  poor  children,  has  a  library  of  18,000  or  20,000  volumes,  con- 
taining rare  and  valuable  works.  In  1781-  a  literary  and  philosophical  society  was  formed 
at  Manchester,  and  produced  several  valuable  volumes  of  Transactions,  enriched  by  the  con- 
tributions of  Percival,  Ferriar,  Dalton,  Henry,  and  other  eminent  genUemen  there  resident. 
In  1774,  tlxe  population  of  the  whole  parish  was  41,000;  the  amount  of  142,000  for  1831  bv 
no  means  comprehends  all  that  may  be  considered  Manchester.  The  large  towns  and  vil- 
lages which  have  sprung  up  within  its  parish  form  really  its  suburbs,  and  raise  the  entire 
population  to  270,000>  Of  these,  the  most  important  are  Salford,  immediately  contiguous, 
and  now  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  borough ;  and  Chorlton  Row,  which  in  1801  contains  675 
inhabitants;  in  1831, 20,565. 

Hu^e  towns,  resembling  cities,  devoted  to  the  cotton  manu&cture,  are  found  in  every 
direction  round  Manchester.  To  the  north  are  Blackburn  and  Bolton ;  the  former  chiefly 
employed  in  the  branch  of  printed  calicoes,  which  are  supposed  to  be  produced  to  the  annual 
value  of  2,000,000/.  A  great  advantage  is  derived  firom  the  Leeds  and  Liverpool  Canal 
passing  close  by  it.  Bolton  is  a  town  anciently  of  some  strength,  but  now  supported  entirely 
by  industry.  Some  of  the  greatest  improvements  in  the  cotton  manufacture,  have  been 
made  by  Arkwright  and  Crompton,  residents  in  this  place.  Preston,  a  flourishing  seat  of 
manufacture,  elects  two  members  on  a  basis  of  almost  universal  suffiage.  Wigan  is  a  large 
town,  which  adds  to  those  of  cotton  and  linen  some  manufactures  of  brass  and  pewter. 
Bury,  very  near  Manchester,  besides  extensive  cotton  works,  has  pome  of  woollen.  Oldham 
was  early  a  place  of  some  consequence,  carrying  on  a  large  fabric  of  hats ;  but  the  intro- 
duction of  the  cotton  manufacture  has  caused  it  to  make  an  astonishing  progress,  so  that  in 
thirty  years  it  has  nearly  trebled  its  population,  and  the  parish,  including  Pilkington,  CromfH 
ton,  and  other  towns,  contains  67,500  inhabitants.  There  are  here  now  65  cotton  mills  and 
140  steam-engines,  almost  all  erected  during  the  present  century. 

Some  large  towns  employed  in  other  manufactures  than  those  of  cotton  lie  on  the  borders 
of  Lancasiiire.  Rochdale,  near  the  western  point  of  Yorkshire,  and  in  character  a  York- 
shire town,  has  for  its  staple  woollen  stuffs  and  flannels,  of  which  8000  pieces  are  made 
weekly;  fifty -seven  steam-engines  are  employed  here,  and  about  84,000  lbs.  of  cotton  yam 
spun  in  the  week.  Warrington,  on  the  Mersey,  which  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  eightv 
tons  from  Liverpool,  in  Henry  Vtll.'s  time  was  superior  to  Manchester ;  but  it  is  now  left 
far  behind.  Its  staples  of  sailcloth  and  coarse  linens  have  been  exchanged  for  cotton,  to 
wiiich  it  adds  glass  and  pins.  Proscot  is  noted  for  the  making  of  watch-wheels,  springs 
•'-hains,  &c.  several  of  which  have  been  invented  and  improved  by  its  workmen.  Near  it, 
at  dt  Helen's,  is  a  great  manufactory  of  plate  glass,  employing  300  persons. 


388 


DESCRIPTTVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  in 


Liverpool,  the  commercial  capital  of  LancaHhire,  is,  if  possible,  a  atill  fpTinder  object,  and 
far  surpassing  indeed  every  other  seaport,  with  tho  exception  of  the  metropolis.  Nothing 
can  b<t  more  remarkable  than  the  contrast  of  its  present  state  with  its  humble  origin.  In 
the  sixteenth  century,  it  is  dpscrib<>d  as  a  small  place  with  only  a  chapel,  having  no  parish 
church  within  tour  miles.  It  had  then  138  inhabitants,  and  two  or  three  ships,  whoso  agjjre- 
gate  tonnage  was  223  tons;  and  in  a  petition  to  Elizabeth,  about  tho  year  1578,  it  is  styled, 
"  her  majesty's  poor  decayed  town ;"  it  continued  gradually  to  increase  during  Uie  seven- 
teenth century,  till,  in  171K),  it  was  constituted  a  parish,  and  hml  r)(X)0  inhahitniils. 
Since  that  time  it  has  advanced  with  rapid  and  accelerated  steps ;  in  1730,  it  had  12,(M)0 ; 
in  1760,  26,000 ;  in  18'M\  .'MijOOO  inhabitants ;  but  the  most  rapid  growth  has  been  between 
1811  and  1821,  when  it  rose  from  94,376  to  141,487.  The  increase  to  165,000  in  1831 
appears  less  rapid ;  but  in  fact,  the  population  during  this  period  has  overflowed  into  the 
adjacent  villages,  and  swelled  them  into  large  towns ;  Toxtcth-park  increased  from  2060  in 
1801,  to  24,067  in  1831 ;  West  Derby,  Kirkdale,  Everton,  form  in  fact  the  suburbs  of  Liver- 
pool, and,"  added  to  it,  make  an  amount  of  203,000.  There  must  always  have  been  a  consi- 
derable port  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mersey ;  but  this  estuary,  in  its  natural  navi^tion,  could 
never  come  in  competition  with  the  Humber  or  the  Severn.  When,  however,  its  disadvan- 
tages as  a  seaport  were  partly  removed,  by  the  formation  of  docks, — and,  much  more,  when 
it  became  the  basis  of  a  canal  system  reaching  eastward  to  the  German  Ocean,  and  south- 
ward to  the  Thames, — Liverpool  could  communicate  with  an  immense  interior  circle.  It 
derived  benefit,  above  all,  from  the  cotton  manufacture  established,  on  such  an  extensive 
scale,  in  the  country  immediately  behind ;  the  materials  of  which  were  brought  to  Liverpool 
from  the  opposite  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the  finished  fabric  thence  exported,  partly  to  the 
same  quarter.  At  the  same  time  Liverpool  imported,  for  a  great  part  of  England  at  least, 
articles  of  consumption  from  America  and  the  West  Indies.  It  found  also  a  most  extensive 
■mployment  in  bringing  grain  and  provisions  from  Ireland,  and  returning  salt,  coals,  and  pot- 
tery. The  merchants  of  Liverpool,  meanwhile,  were  most  active  in  improving  these  cir- 
cumstances, particularly  by  the  construction  of  that  immense  line  of  docks,  which  M.  Dupin 
has  described  with  such  admiration.  A  dock,  or  space  enclosed  all  round,  and  fed  with 
sluices,  in  which  the  vessels  while  they  receive  or  discharge  their  cargoes  are  kept  regu- 
larly afloat,  without  being  exposed  to  swell,  tide,  or  current,  is  an  obvious  improvement  upon 
the  best  natural  harbour.  The  expense,  however,  is  great ;  and  it  was  not  till  1710  that 
Liverpool  began  the  first  dock  in  Britain,  called  the  Old  Dock,  which  has  recently  been  filled 
up.  Twenty  years  were  employed  in  its  completion ;  and  a  still  longer  time  in  that  of  the 
next(  or  the  Salthouse  Dock.  The  others  were,  however,  constructed  on  a  more  extensive 
Bcnle,  and  with  greater  rapidity : — George's  (II.)  Dock ;  the  King's  Dock,  for  Greenland 
ghijM  and  tobacco ;  the  Queen's  Dock,  directly  for  the  Baltic  and  North  American  trade. 
On  a  still  larger  scale  have  been  constructed  the  Prince  Regent  Dock,  opened  in  1821,  and 
the  Clarence  Dock,  in  1830.  The  Brunswick  Dock,  for  the  accommodation  of  vessels  with 
cargoes  of  timber,  nearly  completes  the  present  plan,  when  the  whole  area  of  water  in  the 
docks  will  exceed  90  acres.  In  1632,  there  belonged  to  this  port  853  registered  vessels,  of 
the  burthen  of  166,028  tons.  The  customs  paid  at  the  port  amounted,  in  1765,  to  269,000?. ; 
in  1810,  to  2,675,000?. ;  and  in  1832  they  had  risen  to  8,925,062?,  The  following  are  the 
leading  articles  of  import  in  the  year  1830 :— 792,350  bags  of  cotton,  510,000  hides,  42,000 
hogsheads  of  sugar,  8000  hogsheads  of  tobacco,  300,500  barrels  of  flour,  7800  casks  and 
7300  barrels  and  Imgs  of  coffee,  27,000  casks  of  palm  oil,  900  seroons  and  1430  chests  of 
indigo,  12,000  puncheons  of  rum,  31,200  bags  of  rice,  22,500  barrels  of  American  ashes, 
42,fW0  barrels  of  tar,  51,000  barrels  of  turpentine,  6200  tons  of  logwood,  5650  logs  of  maho- 
gany. The  dock  duties,  which  in  1800  were  only  23,379?.,  amounted,  in  1832,  to  170,000?. 
In  1832,  the  ships  ,  i  tered  inwards  were  10,266,  tonnage  1,361,000;  outwards,  8717  ships, 
tonnage  1,218,645.  Of  this,  610,000  tons  were  from  foreign  parts,  chiefly  the  United  States 
and  British  America,  the  rest  coasters,  of  which  386,000  were  from  Ireland.  The  value  of 
agricultural  produce  from  that  country  amounted  to  4,444,000?. 

Liverpool  has  numerous  lines  of  packets  to  all  the  principal  foreign  ports.  Every  mnnth 
four  sail  to  New- York,  two  to  Philadelphia,  one  to  Boston,  two  respectively  to  Rio  Janeiro, 
Genoa  and  Leghorn,  and  to  Lisbon ;  one  every  three  weeks  to  Oporto.  The  New- York 
packets  are  first-rate  vessels  containing  splendid  accommodations  for  passengers,  and  the 
value  of  goods  conveyed  in  one  of  them  has  been  known  to  exceed  140,000?.  Trading  ves- 
sels also  are  continually  sailing  to  the  above  and  to  all  other  commercial  places  throughout 
tho  world.  An  almost  daily  communication  is  maintained  by  steam  packets  with  Dublin, 
Belfast,  Glasgow,  Whitehaven,  and  all  ports  of  any  consequence  in  Ireland,  and  on  the 
western  coast  of  England.  The  solid  construction  of  its  docks;  the  powerful  iron  gates  by 
which  they  are  enclosed  ;  the  iong  covered  ways  where  the  goods  may  be  landed  without, 
injury  from  the  inclemency  of  the  weather ;  tlie  immense  magazines,  some  rising  to  the 
height  of  12  or  13  stories, — all  denote  a  gigantic  industry  and  a  magnificence  which  spares 
no  sacrifice  to  attain  objects  of  public  utility.  The  inhabitants  of  Liverpool  have  generally 
dhown  the  same  spirit  in  their  other  arrangements  as  in  those  connected  with  trade.    The 


Part  III 

under  object,  and 
npolis.  Nettling 
nible  origin.  In 
having  no  parish 
ips,  whose  ag£rre- 
1578,  it  ia  stylod, 
luring  the  Bovon- 
)(HM)  inhuhitiiiits. 
10,  it  had  l'J,(HH) ; 
las  been  between 
<  165,000  in  1831 
erflowed  into  the 
ised  from  2060  in 
suburbs  of  Liver- 
ave  been  a  consi- 
navigation,  could 
ver,  its  disadvan- 
nuch  more,  when 
)cean,  and  south- 
iterior  circle.  It 
ich  an  extensive 
light  to  Liverpool 
•tod,  partly  to  the 
England  at  least, 
a  most  extensive 
tit,  coals,  and  pot- 
roving  these  cir- 
,  which  M.  Dupin 
nd,  and  fed  with 
es  are  kept  regu- 
nprovenicnt  upon 
not  till  1710  that 
;ently  been  filled 
me  in  that  of  the 
i  more  extensive 
k,  for  Greenland 
American  trade, 
ned  in  1821,  and 
1  of  vessels  with 
I  of  water  in  the 
itornd  vessels,  of 
r65,  to  269,000/.; 
following  are  the 
W  hides,  42,000 
7800  casks  and 
I  1430  chests  of 
American  ashes, 
I.50  logs  of  maho- 
^32,  to  170,000/. 
ards,  8717  ships, 
lie  United  States 
The  value  of 

Every  month 
r  to  Rio  Janeiro, 
The  New- York 
engers,  and  the 
Trading  ves- 
aces  throughout 
;t8  with  Dublin, 
tnd,  and  on  the 
ul  iron  gates  by 
landed  without, 
le  rising  to  the 
ce  which  spares 
'  have  generally 
ith  trade.    The 


BooE  L 

town  if  well  lighted  with  gu 


■M- VI  ENGLAND.    *<  >'-'' 


Town  Hall,  Liveipooi 


The  public  building  have  an  elegant  and  cloaeical  character, 
,  .^.  .,^.  ,.  almost  peculiar  to  Liverpool.  The  Town- 
Hall  (Jiff.  104),  is  a  fine  Grecian  (xliflce, 
ornamented  with  a  superb  cupola  and  ap. 
propriato  statues.  The  Exchange  tbrina 
behind  it  an  elegant  mpiare,  in  the  midst  of 
which  is  a  sculptural  cornpnaition  by  West- 
macott,  roprcsenting  Nelson  and  his  victo- 
ries. The  now  edirtco  erected  for  a  market 
is,  perhaps,  the  most  spacious  and  commo- 
dious of  any  employed  in  the  kingdom  for 
that  purpose.  There  are  also  several  ele- 
gant modern  churches,  one  formed  of  cast- 
iron.  The  finest  view  of  Liverpool  is 
obtained  from  the  sea,  where  tlie  vast  height 
and  extent  of  the  exterior  dock  wall,  the  forest  of  masts  above,  and  tlie  town  behind,  make 
a  most  imposing  appearance.  The  charitjiblo  institutions  are  administered  on  a  gr'^at  scale, 
and  with  activity.  Foremost  stands  the  Itiind  Asylum,  the  first  established  in  England,  which 
receives  inmates  from  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  infirmary  is  in  a  very  spacious  and 
airy  situation;  and,  among  the  other  institutions  common  to  great  towns,  the  Strangers' 
Friends*  Society  distingumhes  itself  by  its  generous  exertions.  The  English  mercantile 
towns  generally  show  a  zeul  to  combine  intellectual  pursuits  with  tlioso  of  wealth ;  but 
none,  perhaps  so  successfully  as  Liverpool,— one  of  whose  merchants,  while  carrying  on  an 
extensive  business,  produced  works  which  rank  him  among  the  most  classical  English 
writers.  Although  this  example  be  single,  it  is  connected  with  a  general  spirit,  wliich 
d splays  itself  in  the  liberal  procedure  of  several  individuals;  in  tlio  liyccum  and  the 
Atlienffium;  two  public  libraries  and  literary  institutions,  supported  by  subscription;  and  in 
a  botanic  garden,  which  ranks  as  the  first  that  was  formed,  and  at  least  the  third  as  to 
eminence,  in  the  kingdom.  Both  the  Athontnuin  and  the  Iwtanic  garden  owe  their  founda- 
tion to  the  public  spirit  and  the  miiiiificont  cxuinplc  of  Mr.  lU)8coe,  who  had  also  the 
magnanimity  to  exert  his  powerful  talents  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  in  a  town  long 
devoted  to  that  trnflic. 
Ijancaster,  the  county  town,  is  handaomelji  built  of  a  beautiful  froe-stone ;  the  Town-hall 

and  some  other  buildings  are  handsome; 
but  the  castle  (Jiff,  165.)  forms  one  of 
the  grandest  monuments  of  the  feudal 
age.  Its  vast  extent;  its  commanding 
site;  the  greatness  of  all  its  features, 
even  now,  wiien  three  of  its  seven  towere 
arc  fallen  into  ruin;  prcHliico  the  most 
powerful  impression.  It  has  been  con- 
verted into  a  well-arranged  prison  for 
the  county.  Lancaster,  though  its  river, 
the  Lune,  is  not  luivigable  for  vessels  of 
more  than  250  tons,  possesses  7.3  soil. 
It  builds  some  ships,  makes  sailcloth, 
and  manuiucturcs,  upon  a  small  scale, 
some  cotton  fabrics.  About  a  mile  from 
it,  the  Jjancaster  Conal  is  carried  over  the  liUne  by  a  very  noble  acjueduct  bridge. 

The  counties  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland,  or  the  country  of  the  Ijakos,  form  a  bold 
and  peculiar  region,  presenting  a  striking  contrast  to  those  recently  surveyed;  being  enriched 
neither  by  natural  wealth,  nor  by  human  industry.  Wide  ranges  of  high  and  rocky  moun- 
tains, enclosing  long  lakes  and  narrow  vales,  afford  scanty  space  for  tlie  plough.  A  great 
proportion  of  these  fells  and  moors  is  absolutely  barren ;  in  the  more  favoured  spots  the  her- 
bage is  often  scanty ;  and  even  the  arable  tracts  are,  in  general,  fit  only  for  the  coarser 
grain  of  oats.  But  the  multitude  of  mountains  crowded  together,  their  bold,  perpendicular, 
and  often  projecting  forms;  the  pleasing  though  not  extensive  lakes,  and  soft  pastoral 
vallpys,  which  they  enclose,  render  this  the  most  beautiful  country  of  England,  and  the 
ftivcHirite  resort  of  all  the  admirers  of  the  picturesque  and  sublime. 

Tliroo  divisions  are  distinctly  seen  in  these  counties,  rejinliing  from  nortli  to  south.  \.  A 
plnin  eastward  of  the  mountains,  througii  which  tiio  high  roiul  runs  by  Kondal  and  Carlisle 
to  Ijoudon.  II.  The  mountains  and  lakes,  occupying  the  larger  portion  of  their  surface. 
Ul.  A  sea-cottst,  containing  some  harbours  of  importance. 

1'he  first  part  consists  of  a  plain,  which,  though  narrow,  is  in  many  places  fertile ;  and 
contains  some  large  towns.  In  the  noitiiern  part  is  "merry  Carlisle,"  long  distinguished  in 
tlie  Iforder  annals,  and  the  scene  of  interesting  events  in  the  contest  of  1745.  Carlisle  being 
a  military  post  of  the  first  consequence,  itH  castle  and  walls  were  considered  a  model  or 

33* 


Lanouter  Castle. 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  III 


■trengftli,  according  to  the  ideas  of  the  middle  ages ;  the  cathedral  w  an  ancient  edifice,  atiii 
nearly  entire,  in  the  heavy  Saxon  style.  Carlisle  has  of  late  begun  to  carry  on  some  manu- 
&cture,  chiefly  cotton ;  also  woollen,  linen,  and  a  few  minor  articles.  A  canal  connects  it 
with  the  Solway,  and  enables  it  to  employ  some  shipping.     Eastward  from  Carlisle  is  thn 

freat  debateable  line ;  and  near  Brampton  is  Naworth  Castle,  that  powerful  station  whem 
lord  William  Howard  undertook  to  bridle  the  license  of  the  border.  Yet,  however  strong, 
it  forms  rather  a  dark  border  keep,  than  a  display  of  feudal  grandeur.  lionl  Howard  s 
apartments,  which,  with  their  books,  furniture,  and  armour,  remain  almost  undisturbed,  an; 
separated  by  four  strong  doors  from  the  rest  of  the  castle ;  and  secret  passages  lead  to  every 
part,  and  to  the  dungeons  beneatli.  Farther  south  is  Kendal,  the  chief  town  of  WcstmorO' 
land;  a  considerable  place,  with  an  old  manufactory  of  woollens  bearing  its  name,  and 
■ome  of  cotton  and  leather.  Burton  and  Kirby  Lonsdale  are  small  neat  towns  on  tiie  border 
of  Lancashire. 
The  second  division  comprises  the  country  of  the  Lakes,  forming  the  peculiar  chnracter- 

btic  of  the  country,  and  chiefly  distin- 
guished by  its  scenery.  UUawater,  (ff(. 
166.)  divided  into  three  reaches.  The 
mountains  are  numerous,  steep  and  lotlv, 
not  broken  or  impending,  but  of  a  bold 
and  swelling  form.  The  two  highest  in 
the  region  are  Helvellyn,  and  the  square 
rocky  mass  of  Stone  Cross  Pike,  rearing 
their  almost  perpendicular  forms  to  an 
amazing  height  above  the  wooded  hills 
which  cluster  ronnd  them.  Opposite 
rises  the  immense  precipitous  steep  of 
Place  Fell ;  and  the  whole  produces  a 
■cene  of^lemn  and  simple  grandeur.  At  Patterdale,  though  the  features  be  grand,  the 
"^  167  beautiful    predominates.      Prom    the 

meadows  bordering  the  lake,  the  nu- 
merous glens  branching  otT,  with  tlie 
scattered  abodes  of  the  shepherds  and 
d^esmen,  present  one  of  the  sweetest 
of  alpine  pastoral  scenes.  Keswick  or 
Derwentwater  (Jig.  167.)  is  of  equal 
grandeur,  but  a  quite  different  aspect. 
The  mountains  preserve  no  regular 
form,  but  are  broken,  shattered,  im- 
pending, shooting  into  a  thousand  fan- 
tastic shapes ;  and  though  they  do  not 
produce  the  same  grand  unity  of  effect,  astonish  by  a  continual  change  of  scenery.    In 

the  wooded  cliffi  and  waterfeU  of  Lodore  (jfig.  168.), 
and  on  the  rocks  of  Borrowdale,  nature  seems  to  have 
sported  her  wildest  fancies.  Yet  exquisite  beauty  is 
here  mingled  with  horrors,  particularly  in  the  views  of 
the  lake  from  the  south,  with  Skiddaw  behind ;  and  in 
a  lovely  rural  vale,  which  nms  along  its  northern  bor- 
der, and  is  seen  to  peculiar  advantage  from  the  road  to 


UlUwater. 


Ktiwiok  Lako 


Lodote  Waterfitll. 


Windermere  Lake. 


Ambleside.  Windermere  (fig.  169.),  is  of  much  wider  extent ;  not  shut  in  by  mountainous 
cliffs,  but  bordered  by  wooded  and  ornamented  hills.  Around  its  northern  banks,  however 
is  ranged  an  amphitheatre  of  very  high  mountains,  which,  with  their  varied  summits,  fonri 
a  sublime  background  to  all  its  landscapes.  These  are  generally  grand,  open,  diffusive,  and 
extended.    The  other  lakes,  Coniston,  Grasmere,  Buttermere,  Cromack,  Wastdale,  Enner 


Pakt  in 

ncient  edifice,  atili 
rry  on  eome  manu- 
canal  connects  it 
tni  Carlisle  is  the 
rful  station  whero 
I,  however  strong, 
Lord  Howard's 
t  undisturbed,  uro 
oj^es  lead  to  every 
iwn  of  Westmorc- 
ing  its  name,  and 
wns  on  tlie  border 

eculiar  chnracter- 
nd  chiefly  distin- 
UUswater,  (Jiff. 
eo  reaches.  The 
18,  steep  and  lofty, 
ing,  but  of  a  bold 
he  two  highest  in 
'n,  and  tlie  s<|uare 
roes  Pike,  rearing 
ular  forms  to  an 
the  wooded  iiills 
them.  Opposite 
icipitous  steep  of 
vhole  produces  a 
res  be  grand,  the 
Ltes.  Prom  llie 
the  lake,  the  nu- 
ling  off,  with  tiie 
he  shepherds  and 
e  of  the  sweetest 
;nes.  Keswick  or 
167.)  is  of  equal 
5  different  aspect, 
serve  no  regular 
in,  shattered,  im- 
to'  a  thousand  fon- 
lough  they  do  not 
!  of  scenery.  In 
odore  (Jg.  168.), 
re  seems  to  have 
cquisite  beauty  iH 
y  in  the  views  of 
w  behind ;  and  in 
its  northern  bor- 
irom  the  road  to 


I  by  mountainous 
banks,  however 
d  summits,  fbnr. 
sn,  diflusive,  and 
Vastdale,  Enner 


Book  L 


Yf.M.A    ENGLAND     fUl 


891 


dale,  have  attraetiuna  for  the  admirers  of  natiure.  In  this  district,  the  only  places  to  which 
the  name  of  towns  could  be  given  are  Keswick  on  Derwentwater,  and  Amulesiile  on  Win- 
dermere ;  and  even  these  are  only  large  villages,  supported  by  the  resort  of  travellers,  and 
by  some  persona  of  distinction  who  are  inducra  to  reside  ttieri  by  the  beauty  of  the  neigh* 
bourhood. 

The  third  division  consists  of  the  sea-coast  The  most  considerable  port  is  Whitehaven, 
whicii  has  become  flourishing  in  consequence  of  the  immense  coal  mines  found  and  worked 
in  its  immediate  vicinity.  »)me  of  them  have  a  depth  of  320  yards,  supposed  to  be  grent»>r 
Uian  any  other  in  the  world ;  and  some  extend  several  miles  beneatli  the  sea.  Ttie  total 
quantity  worked  is  estimated  at  100,000  chaldrons,  chiefly  exported  to  Ireland :  besides  whinti, 
Whitehaven  has  pushed  its  trade  to  Africa,  America,  and  the  West  Indies ;  and  carries  on 
much  ship-building. 


SuBREOT.  6. — Western  CountieB. 

The  western  counties  form  the  last  division  of  England  Proper,  comprising  the  counties 
south  of  the  Mersey,  which  form  the  western  boundary  of  England.  This  extensive  line 
has  scarcely  any  character  which  can  be  said  generally  to  apply  to  it  We  mention  Cheshire, 
Shropshire,  Hereford,  and  Monmouth,  as  bordering  on  Wales,  and  the  last  three  partaking 
somewhat  of  its  rude  and  romantic  character ;  Worcester,  Oloucester,  and  Somerset,  occu- 
pying the  fine  valley  of  the  Severn, — a  region  filled  with  commerce  and  cultivation,  and 
containing  several  ^eat  cities ;  lastly,  Cornwall  and  Devon,  the  extreme  comer  of  England, 
but  marked  bv  a  mild  climate,  rich  mines,  and  a  surface  agreeably  diversified. 

The  soil  Of  Cheshire  is  generally  fit  for  all  the  purposes  of  agriculture,  particularly  in  the 
valley  of  the  Dee :  but  the  dairy  is  the  branch  pursued  with  peculiar  success ;  and  it  pro- 
duces the  cheese  which,  bearing  the  name  of  the  country,  equals  in  richness,  though  not  in 
delicacy,  any  other  in  Britain.  There  are  valuable  mines  of  coal,  and  some  of  iron ;  but 
the  mineral  substance  of  which  Cheshire  chiefly  boasts  is  salt  The  pits  were  discovered 
about  a  century  and  a  half  ago,  at  Northwich,  Middlewich,  and  Nantwich,  and  have  proved 
of  the  highest  importance  to  the  nation,  at  once  for  internal  consumption,  for  the  curing  of 
fish,  and  for  exportation. 

Chester  is,  perhaps,  the  city  in  Britain  which  bears  the  most  venerable  character  of 
antiquity.  The  very  name  implies  a  Roman  camp,  the  form  of  which  is  still  preserved  in 
the  direction  of  its  principal  streets.  The  eflTect  is  heightened  by  the  mouldering  red  stone, 
of  which  its  most  ancient  edifices  are  built  The  principal  streets  have  a  very  peculiar 
structure.  The  lower  story,  which  has  been  hollowed  out  of  the  rock,  consists  of  shops, 
above  which  is  a  paved  way  covered  by  tlie  projecting  upper  story ;  but  the  middle  part  of 
the  house  appears  thus  retired  from  the  open  street  behind  this  species  of  arcade.  The 
arrangement  is  neither  very  elegant  nor  very  convenient  The  castle  of  Chester  presents 
a  very  complete  specimen  of  early  military  architecture ;  connected  with  it  is  a  range  of 
handsome  Grecian  buildings,  containing  the  barracks,  county  hall,  and  county  gaol.  The 
cathedral  displays  considerable  grandeur,  and  has  a  very  elegant  chapter-house.  The  im- 
provements on  the  Dec  enable  vessels  of  300  tons  to  come  up  to  Chester,  which  has  62 
vessels,  of  above  4000  tons ;  yet  its  trade  with  Ireland  has  been  transferred  to  liiverpool. 

Of  the  other  towns,  the  most  remarkable  are  those  near  which  the  salt  mines  are  situated, 
particularly  Northwich.  There  are  fourteen  pits  of  rock  salt,  and  between  thirty  and  forty  of 
brine  salt  The  rock  salt  is  hard  and  brown ;  the  pits,  after  being  dug  to  a  certain  depth, 
are  excavated  horizontally,  leaving  a  portion  of  the  salt  for  a  roof.  They  thus  form  apart- 
ments, often  of  more  than  an  acre  in  extent ;  and'  the  reflection  of  lights  fi-om  the  mineral, 
like  that  of  numberless  precious  stones,  produces  a  magical  efiect  Stockport  and  Maccles- 
field have  flourished  greatly  in  consequence  of  the  introduction  from  Lancashire  of  the 
cotton  manufacture,  to  which  Macclesfield  adds  some  branches  of  that  of  silk. 

Among  the  seats  are  Eaton  Hall,  a  magnificent  Gothic  edifice,  which  Earl  Groevenor  has 
erected  at  an  expence,  it  is  said,  of  400,000?. 

Sliropshire,  or  Salop,  consists  chiefly  of  a  wide  plain  watered  by  the  Severn.  On  its 
eastern  border  it  shares  to  a  great  extent  in  the  mineral  wealth  of  Staffordshire,  coal  and 
iron.  These  are  carried  on  in  a  remarkable  manner  at  Colebrook ;  a  deep-wooded  vale  on 
the  Severn,  here  traversed  by  the  first  iron  bridge  erected  in  the  kingdom.  This  county  is 
also  interesting  to  the  student  of  English  history ;  many  spots  having  been  the  scenes  of 
remarkable  events,  on  which  the  destinies  of  the  kingdom  have  depended. 

Slirewsbury,  the  capital,  is  particularly  rich  in  memorable  recollections.  Being  the  strong- 
est fortress  on  the  western  marches,  it  became  a  rendezvous  of  the  royal  army,  both  for 
overawing  the  Welsh,  and  for  northern  expeditions;  many  of  the  streets  are  narrow,  wind- 
ing, and  irregular,  and  the  old  and  new  buildings  too  closely  intermingled ;  only  a  small 
part  of  the  castle  remains ;  St  Mary's  church  is  elegant  and  entire.  The  free  school, 
founded  by  Edward  VI.  and  Queen  Elizabeth,  has  produced  several  eminent  teachers  and 
pupils.  Shrewsbury  is  praised  for  its  house  of  industry,  and  for  the  arrangement  of  its 
county  gaol. 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PAtT  III. 


Ludlow,  an  ancient  town,  was  frequontly  t^  residence  of  royalty,  and  the  rej^lar  station 
of  those  powerful  officers  the  Lords  PrcHidents  of  the  Marches.  The  castle,  placed  on  a 
wooded  rock  overliangin^;  tlie  Terne,  was  considered  one  of  the  strongest  places  in  the  kin||[. 
dom.  In  its  vicinity  occurred  many  of  the  most  distinf^iahed  events  in  the  contest  between 
tJiH  liotises  of  York  and  Iiuncaeter.  It  was  atlcrwurda  dismantled ;  yet  remained  a  splendid 
private  mansion,  in  which  Milton's  "Comus"  was  tirst  performed,  and  whero  Butler  wroto  a 
part  of  his  "  Hudibras."  It  is  now  entirely  nrnfless  and  covered  with  ivy,  but  still  adorns 
the  town,  wiiich  is  well  built  and  pleasantly  situated. 

Hereford  and  Monmouth,  two  demi- Welsh  counties.  All  the  interval  fVom  Shropshire  south- 
wards to  the  Bristol  Chaimel.  Being  traversed  by  the  Wye,  the  most  picture8(|ue  of  the 
En<<;li8h  rivers,  they  vie  in  beauty  with  almost  any  part  of  the  kinf^dom.  The  chief  industry 
is  in  the  rearing  of  fruit,  and  the  whole  country  is  as  it  were  covered  with  orchards:  hence 
Hereford  draws  its  staple  production  of  cider  and  perry,  in  peculiar  abundance  and  perfection. 
The  crop  is  precarious ;  but  in  a  good  year  the  produce  of  an  acre  will  be  from  eighteen  to 

twenty-four  hogsheads,  sometimes  of  such  fine  quality,  that  it  will 
sell  from  tlie  press  at  2()/.  a  hogshead.  The  western  district  of 
Hereford  produces  also  a  large  quantity  of  hops,  and  has  one  of 
the  finest  breeds  of  cattle  in  the  kingdom,  both  tor  draught  and  feed- 
ing. The  breed  of  sheep,  called  Ryeland  (fiff.  170.),  besides  the 
excellence  of  their  flesh,  bear  the  very  finest  wool  in  the  kingdom. 
Monmoutli  is  not  so  fertile:  its  chief  wealth  is  mineral,  coul  neing 
most  abundant ;  and  iron  works  are  established  to  such  an  extent, 
Ryaiand  Shoap.  that  they  have  been  known  to  produce  a  thousand  tonsin  the  week. 

Of  the  to\vn8,  Hereford  bears  venerable  marks  of  antiquity,  particularly  its  cathedral,  iiot- 

J7J  withstanding  the  fiill  of  its  principal 

■"  tower.     Ross,  once  the  residence  of 

Mr.  Kyrle,  celebrated  by  Pope  as 
"the  Man  of  Ross,"  is  a  beautiful 
village,  considered  as  a  sort  of  centre 
of  the  picturesque  scenes  of  the  Wye. 
The  towns  of  Monmouthshire  are 
small.  The  capital  has  a  limited 
trade  along  the  Wye;  but  its  situa- 
tion, in  a  delightfiil  country,  has 
attracted  the  neighbouring  gentry. 
There  are  still  remains  of  its  once 
powerful  castle,  and  of  a  Benedictine 
priory.  A  few  miles  from  Monmouth 
IS  Tintern  Abbey  (Jg.  17L),  the  most 
Tininm  Abbey.  picturesque,  perhaps,  of  all  the  English 

monastic  remaina    This  arises,  not  merely  from  its  extent  and  beauty,  although  these  be 
gieat:  but  from  its  roofless  and  ruined  state,  whence  the  walls,  both  within  and  without, 

are  overgrown  with  luxuriant  ivy,  and  de- 
caying art  and  nature  are  blended  together. 
In  another  direction  is  Ragland  castle,  the 
seat  of  the  dukes  of  Beaufort  (fig.  172.), 
and  considered  one  of  the  strongest  of  the 
ancient  fortresses ;  but,  afler  the  gallant  do- 
ffence  made  by  the  marquess  of  Worcester 
for  Charles  I.,  "Cromwell,"  says  Gilpin, 
"laid  his  iron  hand  upon  it,  and  shattered  it 
to  ruins;  to  which  it  owes  its  present  pic- 
turesque form."  Chepstow,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Wye,  is  a  neat  town,  and  carries  on 
some  trade.  It  is  chiefly  interesting,  how- 
»k    _    *  *  -I  •       /.    1,  .,.       .  .      -  ^v^*"'  from  the  remains  of  its  castle,  one  of 

the  most  strikmg  of  all  the  mighty  fortresses  of  Wales.    Five  or  six  large  towers  still  re- 
main, with  the  outer  walls  of  a  magnificent  chapel. 

Worcester  and  Gloucester  occupy  the  lower  valley  of  the  Severn,  which  there  becomes  a 
river  of  the  first  magnitude.  This  valley  is  broad,  smooth,  and  fertile,  yet  nowhere  degene- 
rates into  a  dead  unvaried  level.  Worcester  has,  on  the  west,  the  Malvern  Hills,  some  of 
whose  summits  rise  to  the  height  of  nearly  l.-MM)  feet.  Gloucestershire,  again,  has  to  the 
east  the  Lotswold  Hills,  more  rugged,  though  not  so  elevated ;  while  to  the  west  ore  the 
nigged  remaiRg  of  the  Forert  of  Dean.  Worcestershire  hns,  besides,  the  valley  of  the  Iv)\ver 
Avon  and  of  hvesham,  famed  for  their  bfjauly  and  fertility.  The  vnlcs  of  these  fine  counties 
are  fitted  for  produce  of  every  description,— grain,  fruits,  pasturage,  with  some  preference  of 
the  two  latter.    Gloucester  is  particularly  distinguished  tor  its  dairies,  which  oroduce  thai 


Bacland  CaMle. 


Boor  I. 


u.M    ENGLAND,   'i"' 


«» 


9,  and  has  one  of 


'K»Wl-  .J'-.itT'/i'M 


Worcaitor  Catliodrtl 


rich  cheeM  well  known  under  ito  name.  The  beet,  ur  double  Olouoester,  if  produced  in  ihe 
vale  of  Berkeley,  situated  alonff  tlie  lowoHt  part  of  tlie  coume  of  the  Hevem.  Both  coiintiea 
linve  flourishing  manufiictumH,  though  not  on  the  vatit  Hcale  of  tlie  northern  districts. 
Glouceater,  in  particular,  has  a  verv  extensive  fabric  of  tine  woollens,  carried  on  tlirough 
numberless  villages,  in  what  are  called  "  the  Bottoms,"  a  range  of  territory  along  the  kower 
part  (if  the  Cotswold  Hills.     Ito  scarlet  and  blue  woollens  are  in  particular  Mpute. 

Worcester  is  a  considerable  and  very  handsome  city,  tlie  princi|)al  streets  being  spacious 
and  regular,  with  many  good  houses,  and  proHonting  a  general  air  of  neatness  mid  cointort. 
It  is  of  high  antiquity,  uie  cathedral  (Jig.  173.)  having  been  founded  in  the  7tli  century, 

though  the  proseiit  Htructuro  wu8ahnoHten> 
173       ..,  T.:".!.      iiii      »«.«    >^i»«i,   tiroly  erecteil  in  t)ie  13tli  and  14th  centuries. 

It  is  of  great  extent,  simple  and  august, 
without  the  rich  ornament  which  distin- 
guishes some  others.  It  contains  tiie  tomb 
of  King  John,  one  of  tlie  moHt  ancient  in 
England ;  aldo  that  of  Prince  Arthur.  Wor- 
cester is  chiefly  noted  in  history  for  the 
great  buttle  in  which  Cromwell  totally  routed 
the  Scots  army,  and  compelled  Charles  II. 
to  quit  England  as  a  fugitive.  The  city  has 
lost  its  woollen  manufacture;  but  has  still 
one  of  porcelain,  the  finest  in  the  king- 
dom. Fitlcon  different  materials  are  iisod, 
chiefly  white  granite,  and  steatite  from  Corn- 
wall ;  and  every  piece  passes  through  twenty-three  hands  before  it  is  brought  to  perfection. 
Gloves  are  also  made ;  and  there  is  a  considerable  tra<le  up  and  down  the  Severn. 

Kidderminster  is  lar|^  and  flourishing,  in  consetiuence  of  a  very  extensive  manutiictory 
of  carpets.  Droitwich  is  noted  for  its  salt  springs.  They  are  covered  with  a  deep  stratum 
of  gypsum :  and  for  a  long  time  the  salt  was  mado  only  from  the  brine  which  penotmted  this 
bed;  but,  about  a  century  ago,  it  was  bored  tlirough,  when  the  brine  rushed  up  in  vast  quan- 
tities, and  a  large  salt  river  was  found  to  flow  bcneatli.  Thus  the  salt  can  now  be  procured 
in  any  quantity,  and  supplies  a  great  part  of  England. 

Gloucester  is  also  an  ancient  and  fine  city,  liiough  not  quite  so  large  us  Worcester.  It 
bears,  in  the  arrangement  of  its  streets,  the  marks  of  having  been  a  Roman  station.  It  was 
forinorly  also,  a  place  of  great  strength.  The  manner  in  which  it  frequently  bafilcd  the 
utmost  efibrts  of  Charles  I.  was  one  of  the  circumHtanccs  whicii  contributed  most  to  the 
downfall  of  the  royal  cause.  The  most  conspicuous  feature  at  present  is  the  cathedral, 
built  in  the  Saxon  and  Norman  styles,  between  the  11th  and  13th  centuries.  The  beautiful 
li^rhtneHs  of  its  tower;  its  east  window,  said  to  be  the  largest  in  the  kingdom ;  and  its  whis- 
pering gallery ;  attract  peculiar  notice.  The  gaol,  built  at  an  expense  of  40,000/.,  aflbrded 
one  of  the  first  applications  of  the  beneficent  principles  of  Howard.  Pins  are  the  chief 
manufacture  of  Gloucester ;  and,  small  ob  the  article  is,  the  sale  is  so  great  as  to  render  the 
amount  it  returns  considerable.  Its  trade  has  been  much  obstructed  by  the  bad  navigation 
of  tiie  Severn;  but  since  the  parallel  line  of  the  Berkeley  Canal  has  just  been  completed,  by 
wliich  large  ships  can  come  up  from  the  Channel,  Gloucester  is  placed  almost  on  a  footing 
with  Bristol. 

Cheltenham,  by  the  fame  of  its  waters,  and  its  attractions  as  a  place  of  fashionable  resort^ 
has  become  a  greater  and  more  crowded  place  than  Gloucester.  The  waters  are  at  oncp 
saline  and  chalybeate;  and,  being  thus  both  tonic  and  aperient,  are  efi!icacious  in  indiges- 
tion, biliary  aflfections,  and  similar  disorders.  Cheltenham  now  ranks  second  only  to  Bath. 
both  as  a  resort  for  invalids  and  a  gay  rendezvous  of  the  fashionable  world. 

There  are  other  interesting  towns  in  Gloucestershire.  Tewkesbury  has  in  close  vicinity 
the  "  Bloody  Meadow,"  on  which  was  fought  the  great  battle  which  finally  crushed  the  for- 
tunes of  the  house  of  Lancaster.  Placed  at  the  junction  of  the  Severn  and  Avon,  it  is  a 
venerable  old  town,  containing  the  Abbey  church  a  remnant  of  that  ^rand  monastery,  of 
wliich  the  superior,  being  a  mitred  abbot,  sat  in  the  House  of  Peers.  Cirencester,  a  town  of 
great  historical  name,  covers  only  part  of  its  ancient  site,  but  contains  one  of  the  finest  parochial 
churches  in  the  kingdom.  Stroud  is  the  centre  of  the  woollen  manufacture  carried  on,  not 
in  itself,  but  in  the  surrounding  valleys,  and  raising  the  population  of  the  parish  to  42,000. 
Bristol  we  shall  consider  as  belonging  to  Somerset. 

Of  the  seats  the  most  interesting  is  Hagley,  the  grounds  of  which  Lord  Lvttelton  adorned 
with  classic  taste.  Near  it  is  the  interesting  spot  of  the  Leasowes,  embellished  by  Sheii- 
stone  With  all  the  taste  of  a  poet.  Berkeley  v/astio  is  a  granci  easteiiatod  cdincc,  airriOBt  sm 
old  as  the  Conquest,  and  the  scene  of  Edward  II. *b  deatn ;  retaining  still  its  antique  clia* 
racter. 

Somerset  has  vales  almost  as  extensive  as  those  of  Gloucester,  yet  it  is  crossed  by  'ong 
rang-es  of  those  rugged  hills  whicli  pervade  all  the  extreme  west  of  England.     Tiie  most 
VrtL.  I.  2  Z 


aoi 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PaMtIII 


euterly  are  the  Mcndip  Hills,  rich  in  mineral  stores ;  fkrther  west  are  the  Quantock  Hillt, 
while  on  the  borders  of  Devon  lies  Exmoor  Forest,  the  most  elevated  of  all  these  tracts — its 
highest  point  Dunkerry  Beacon,  being  1668  feet  high.  The  prevailing  husbandry  is  pas- 
turage, chiefly  of  rich  natural  grass ;  and,  besides  a  number  of  cattle  sent  to  the  London 
markets,  the  dairy  is  a  great  branch  of  industry.  Chedder  clieese  is  considered  e<|ual  to  any 
in  England ;  wai  a  great  quantity  of  what  is  called  Gloucester  is  produced  in  Somemet. 
The  orchards  are  extensive,  and  cider  and  perry  nearly  as  abundant  as  in  the  counties  on 
the  Severn.  The  Mendip  Hills  yield  excellent  coal,  lead  of  fine  quality,  and  calamine.  The 
manufactures  are  considerable,  both  wrx>llen  and  linen ;  the  former  chiefly  of  the  finer  sorts ; 
the  latter,  mostly  dowlas,  tickens,  and  sail-cloth. 

Bristol,  since  we  have  attached  it  to  Somerset,  must  hold  the  first  place.  This  city 
ranked  long  as  second  to  the  metropolis  in  commercial  importance ;  but  in  the  course  of  tlie 
last  century,  it  has  remained  nearly  stationary  in  extent  and  population,  though  not  in  wealth. 
In  1736,  it  had  80,000  inhabitants;  in  1821,  87,771 ;  but  in  1881,  with  its  suburbs,  104,886. 
It  has  still  a  very  extensive  trade,  chiefly  with  Wales,  Ireland,  and  the  West  Indies.  Nor 
does  its  spirit  seem  abated ;  since,  in  1800,  it  ciHnpleted,  at  an  expense  of  60,000/.,  a  series 
of  extensive  improvements,  by  which  the  rivers  Avon  and  Frome  were  spread  out  into  vast 
basins,  for  the  commodious  reception  of  vessels.  The  manulkctures  of  Bristol  are  very  con- 
siderable ;  its  glass-works  are  twenty  in  number ;  its  brass  founderies  the  most  extensive 
in  the  kingdom ;  to  which  it  adds  shot,  pottery,  &c.  In  18S2  there  belonged  to  it  296  ships, 
of  the  burthen  of  46,567  tons.  The  amount  of  customs,  in  1831,  was  1,168,978/.,  chiefly 
from  duties  on  West  India  produce ;  and  there  entered  its  port  2547  vessels,  of  the  bur- 
then of  625,000  tons.  It  has  still  Uie  remains  of  a  magnificent  cathedral,  and  the  beau- 
tiful church  of  St  Maxy  Redcliffe,  with  many  interesting  monuments.  The  old  interior  of 
Bristol  is  ill-built  and  inconvenient ;  but  the  merchants  in  the  new  quarters  of  the  city  have 
reared  some  handsome  streets  and  squares.  Bristol  has  wells,  considered  very  efiicacious, 
especially  in  consumptive  complaints.  Visiters  chiefly  resort  to  the  beautiful  village  of  Clif- 
ton, about  a  mile  distant,  amid  the  romantic  rocks  of  St  Vincent  Bristol  stands  conspicu- 
ous for  its  beneficent  institutions,  in  which  those  for  education  stand  prominent  Chat* 
terion,  Southey,  and  Coleridge  were  natives  of  Bristol. 

The  name  of  Bath  (^g.  174.)  implies  the  circumstance  to  which  from  the  earliest  ages  it 
has  owed  its  importance.    The  Romans  made  it  one  of  their  principal  stations,  and  built 


Bath. 


splendid  baths,  of  which  the  remains  have  been  discovered.  Near  the  middle  of  the  las; 
century,  it  became  very  distinguished  as  a  scene  of  fashionable  residence,  and  continued 
to  increase  till  recently,  when  its  attraction  was  shared  by  Cheltenham  and  some  newer 
places  of  resort  It  became  the  most  beautiful,  we  may  nearly  say  the  only  beautiml,  city 
in  England.  The  houses,  built  of  a  fine  freestone,  while  those  of  almost  all  the  other  great 
towns  are  of  brick,  have  a  decidedly  superior  aspect ;  and  several  of  the  streets,  -s  Great 
Pulteney  Street  the  Crescent  the  Panides,  &c.,  being  not  only  composed  of  fine  houi*es,  but 
formed  on  a  regular  plan,  may  vie  with  the  finest  in  Europe.  The  city,  moreover,  rising  by 
a  gentle  ascent  from  the  Avon,  large  portions  of  it  may  often  be  seen  at  once  in  the  most 
advantageous  points  of  view.  The  pump-room,  the  assembly-room,  and  every  structure 
raised  for  the  sick  or  the  gay,  are  unequalled  in  splendour.  Bath  has  a  Crothic  cathedral 
one  of  the  latest  built  <uid  on  a  small  scale,  but  the  most  highly  ornamented  in  the  king- 
dom ;  the  chief  beauty  is  in  the  west  front 


Book  I. 


7U')/>    ENGLAND.        'r-".W 


^^^SSSSBBiSi^SSi 


Welh  Catlwdral. 


Other  venemble  and  interaiting  citiM  are  found  in  Someraetohire.  Wella  i«  chiefly 
diatinguiahed  \xy  a  cathedral  (Jg.  175.),  which  ranks  with  the  flnflst  in  Eniriand.    The 

weatern  fVont,  built  in  the  i.Sth  conttiry, 
ia  one  of  the  most  splendid  sppcimena 
existing  of  the  li^ht  and  hinrhly  oma- 
mentea  Gothic.  In  the  Interior,  a  chapel 
dedicated  to  the  Virgin  is  much  admired ; 
the  rest  ia  Saxon,  and  heavy.  About  two 
miles  distant  is  Wookey  Hole,  a  natural 
cavern ;  the  aperture,  at  first,  merely  al- 
lows one  man  to  pass ;  but  it  soon  opena 
into  a  succession  of  large  apartments, 
filled  with  spars,  concretions,  petrifko- 
tions  of  the  most  fkntastic  forms.  A  sub> 
terraneous  river  prevents  fkrther  advance.  Glastonbury  contains  the  small  remains  of  the 
most  extensive  monastery  in  the  kingdom ;  which,  with  its  various  gardens  and  offices, 
covered  sixty  acres,  supported  500  monks,  and  enjoyed  a  revenue  of  25,0002.  Even  the 
church  attached  to  it  rivalled  the  greatest  of  the  English  cathedrals.  Bridgewater  and 
Taunton  are  towns  of  note  in  history,  which  carry  on  some  trade  and  manufkctures.  Wcl« 
lington  gives  a  title  to  the  grebtest  commander  of  the  age,  in  whose  honour  a  pillar  is  tliere 
erected.    Frome  is  a  large  and  flourishing  town,  employed  in  the  woollen  manufacture. 

Devonshire  is  traversed  by  ridges  of  hills,  low,  broad  and  flat,  which,  seen  fi'om  a  height, 
appear  often  as  one  uninterrupted  plain ;  but  on  minuter  inspection  are  found  separated  by 
deep  valleys  called  coombs,  walled  in  by  the  steep  sides  of  the  hills.  This  structure  pro- 
duces many  sequestered  and  romantic  sites ;  it  renders,  however,  many  of  the  roads  steep  and 
circuitfius,  and  in  some  places  scarcely  passable.  The  forest  of  Dartmoor,  an  extensive  dis- 
trict on  tlie  west  of  the  county,  is  of'^a  character  peculiarly  rugged,  broken  into  fantastic 
summits,  and  the  valleys  chiefly  under  wood  or  lying  waste.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Vale 
of  Exeter,  and  what  are  called  the  Hams,  in  the  southern  districts,  are  distinguished  tor 
fbrtility,  which  is  rather  heightened  than  injured  by  the  moderate  inequalities  of  the  surface. 
Grain,  cattle,  sheep,  potatoes,  excellent  cider,  are  raised  according  to  the  situation,  and  are 
all  generally  good.  The  cattle  are  of  a  very  superior  breed,  both  for  feeding  and  dmnght 
Devonshire  does  not  rank  high  as  a  manufacturing  county ;  yet  woollens  are  made  to  some 
extent  in  Exeter  and  several  other  places.  Fishing  is  carried  on  with  spirit  and  success, 
both  in  the  sea  and  in  the  rivers ;  of  which  last,  the  Exe  and  the  Tamar  are  the  principal. 
The  Western  Canal,  joining  the  two  channels,  passes  chiefly  through  Devonshire. 

Exeter,  the  capital,  is  an  ancient  and  pleasantly  situated  town,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Exe.  In  consequence  of  its  advantages  for  education  and  society,  many  of  the  gentry  from 
different  parts  of  the  county  have  made  it  their  residence.  Its  manufacture  and  export  of 
serges  and  kerseys  have  declined,  but  are  still  considerable ;  the  East  India  Company  taking 
them  to  the  annual  value  of  400,0001.  The  cathedral  holds  a  high  rank  among  ecclesiasti- 
cal antiquities.  Some  part  of  it  is  traced  to  the  ninth  century ;  but  the  greater  propf)rtion 
belongs  to  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth.  The  painted  east  window,  and  the  bell  of 
12,.500  lbs.  weight,  the  gift  of  Bishop  Courtenay,  are  particularly  noticed.  Some  motlorn 
embellishments  have  been  added. 

Plymouth  is  the  most  important  of  the  towns  of  Devonshire,  and  one  of  the  great  naval 
orsenals  of  Britain.  The  main  and  central  depdts  lie  at  Portsmouth  and  on  the  Thames; 
but  it  is  important  that  the  fleets  should  have  this  exterior  station,  where  they  may  rendez- 
vous, and  receive  their  final  equipment  and  supplies  before  leaving  the  Channel ;  where 
also,  when  exhausted,  they  may  put  in  and  refit.  The  Plym  and  the  Tamar,  at  their  Junc- 
tion, form  an  estuary  of  nearly  two  miles  broad,  composing  a  harbour,  or  rather  a  series  of 
harbours,  capable  of'^  containing  2000  vessels  in  a  state  of  perfect  security.  In  that  of  Ha- 
moaze,  on  the  Tamar,  100  sail  of  the  line  may  be  safely  moored.  Catwater,  the  port  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Plym ;  and  Sutton  Pool,  immediately  adjoining  the  town ;  are  both  excellent  and 
extensive.  Plymouth  Bay  forms  also  an  excellent  roadstead,  though  exposed  to  the  heavy 
swell  which  came  in  firom  the  Atlantic.    To  remedy  this,  government  undertook  that  stu- 

176 


Plymouth  Breakwater. 

prndous  work  the  Breakwater,  a  mole  formed  by  immense  stones  heaped  upon  each  othe 
Rtretching  across  the  entrance,  ai'.d  at  a  certain  distance  firom  either  shore  (Jig.  176.).   Tht 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa>t  in 


MtinMted  expenie  wm  1,170,0001. ;  and  the  quantity  of  atone,  3,000,000  tona.  It  haa  com* 
pletely  anawored  expectation ;  and,  in  proportion  aa  it  haa  ailvancod,  haa  rendered  the 
roadatead  more  aocure.  Aa  the  approach  waa  also  rendered  dangorouH  by  the  EddyHtone 
rocica,  a  liffhuhouae  liaa,  after  much  ditficitlty  and  several  unitucceaaAil  trials,  been  erected 
there  by  Mr.  Smeuton,  Biitiiciently  tirm  to  witlistand  the  furioua  aaiaulta  of  tlie  Atlantic 
wavea  to  which  "it  ia  expoaed.  Plymouth  ia  now  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  parts — 
Plymouth  and  Plymouth  dock,  at  tite  mouth  of  the  Tamar,  recently  called  Devonport,  and 
raised  *o  the  dignity  of  a  separate  borouffh.  The  dock-yard  ia  most  superb ;  80U0  yards  in 
length  ud  from  lUOO  to  1600  in  breadth.  All  the  establiahmenta  connected  with  it,  the 
ropery  smithv,  saw-pita,  mast-houaes,  aa  also  the  victualling  departmenta,  are  on  the  most 
extensive  scale,  yet  conducted  in  the  most  regular  order.  Plymouth  ia  not,  on  the  whole, 
a  well-built  town:  but  it  contains  some  handsome  edifices ;  aa  the  government-house;  the 
theatre,  chiefly  of  cast-iron;  the  public  library,  &c.  The  charitable  institutiona  are  nu* 
meroua. 

Bamataple  is  a  sort  of  capital  of  North  Devon,  situated  on  a  rich  plain,  and  retaining  a 
few  manufactures,  Dartmouth  carries  on  some  foreign  trade ;  while  between  it  and  Teign- 
mouth  ia  Torbay,  where,  sheltered  from  the  heavy  gales  that  blow  up  the  Channel,  the 
British  fleet  can  ride  safely  at  anchor. 

Cornwall  is  a  peninsula  of  a  triangular  fonn,  bounded  by  Devon,  and  the  sea.  The  hills 
form  a  bleak  central  ritlge,  terminating  in  the  rugged  and  obtuse  point  called  the  Land's 
End.  But  some  of  the  narrow  valleys  wear  the  aspect  of  smiling  fertility.  In  some  se- 
cluded spots  the  climate  is  so  genial,  that  the  myrtle  and  other  shrubs  |)cculiar  to  the  south 
of  Europe  flourish  in  the  open  air.  Cornwall  has  from  the  earliest  ages  l)eon  renowned  for  ita 
mineral  products.  These  are  principally  tin  and  copper ;  it  also  yields  some  lead.  These 
motala  occur  in  the  granite  chain,  extending  eastwaj:d  as  far  aa  Dartmoor  in  Devon ;  but  at 
present  the  principal  mining  district  is  that  between  the  Land's  End  and  St  Austel. 
The  nioet  celebrated  are  the  tin  mines  of  Palgooth,*  about  two  miles  west  of  that  town  :  in 
these  there  are  no  fewer  than  fifly  shafls,  of  which  twenty  or  thirty  are  constantly  in  use. 
The  principal  vein  of  ore,  which  is  about  six  feet  thick,  runs  from  east  to  west,  and  dips  to 
the  north  witii  an  inclination  of  about  six  feet  in  a  fathom.  The  ore  is  of  the  vitreous 
kind,  but  rarely  found  in  crystals;  the  colour  for  the  most  part  grayish-brown;  the  country 
of  the  ore  is  a  gray  killoa.  The  water  is  carried  away.  Steam  power  has  been  substituted 
for  that  of  horses  in  moving  the  machinery  employed  for  raising,  washing,  and  stamping  the 
ore ;  afler  which  lost  operation  it  is  carried  to  the  smelting-house.  Tin  cannot  be  sold  until 
it  ia  assayed  and  stamped  with  the  duchy  seal;  for  which  purpose  meetings  are  usiiuilly  held 
four  times  a  year.  The  annual  produce  is  estimated  at  20,000  or  25,000  blocks,  each  block 
weighing  from  2f  to  3|  cwt,  and  valued  on  the  average  at  ten  guineas.  Grain  tin,  which 
is  obtained  from  stream  ore,  is  deemed  superior  in  value  to  the  common  metal,  and  has  been 
procured  to  the  amount  of  2000  or  2400  blocks  annually.  The  annual  produce  of  copper 
IB  about  13,000  tons,  estimated  at  1,300,0002.  The  lead  mines  are  not  much  worked.  The 
tinners  are  in  many  respects  a  distinct  body  of  men ;  they  have  a  court  and  parliament  of 
their  own.  The  stannary  laws,  by  which  the  mines  and  the  operations  connected  with 
them  are  regulated,  do  not  appear  to  have  undergone  any  change  since  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.     The  mines  give  employment  to  about  16,000  men. 

The  pilchard  fishery  affords  another  source  of  wealth  to  Cornwall.  The  pilchards  appear 
annually  in  vast  shoals  about  the  middle  of  July ;  and  are  taken  in  large  nets  of  a  peculiar 
form,  colled  scans,  each  sean  managed  by  three  boats,  containing  eighteen  men.  After  lying 
salted  in  store  for  six  weeks,  the  fish  are  packed  in  hogsheads,  so  closely  that  the  whole 
contents,  when  turned  out,  appear  in  a  compact  state.  The  oil  expressed  from  them  is  so 
considerable  in  quantity  as  to  have  become  an  article  of  trade.  The  quantity  annually 
exported  from  the  Cornish  coast  may  be  worth  50,000/.  including  the  receipts  for  oil.  The 
number  of  persons  employed  in  this  fishery  is  about  5000. 

The  towns  of  Cornwall  are  small.  Launceston,  situated  on  the  Tamar,  extends  up  the 
side  of  a  hill,  on  the  summit  of  which  are  the  remains  of  a  small  fortress  called  Castle  Ter- 
rible, where  a  vigorous  stand  was  made  to  sustain  the  sinking  fortunes  of  Charles  I.  Truro 
ifi  a  neat  thrivuig  town,  the  trade  of  which  consists  in  a  considerable  export  of  tin.  Penzance, 
near  the  I^and's  End,  firom  the  mild  salubrity  of  its  air,  has  been  found  highly  beneficial  to 
persons  of  delicate  constitutions,  particularly  of  a  consumptive  tendency ;  and  those  who 
take  up  their  residence  at  Penzance,  are  agreeably  surprised  by  the  lovely  scenery  in  its 
neijrlibourhood.  Falmouth,  the  westernmost  of  the  fine  harbours  on  the  Channel,  is  the  prin- 
cipal packet  station  ;or  Lisbon,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  West  Indies. 

SvBSECT  5.-  Wales. 

Wales  is  a  territory  which,  thoujrh  united  to  England  by  early  conquest,  still  retains  the 
title  of  a  separate  principality,  and  possesses  a  national  aspect     The  verdant  and  extensive 


*  Dr.  Maton'i  Observation!  on  the  Weatern  Countiei. 


Boos  L  4 


7U1A!   ENGLAND,  hm  v-m 


9BV 


pltini  of  wefltern  England  h«re  give  place  to  the  lotly  mountain,  the  deep  valley,  the  mu* 
init  torrent,  and  thu  friKhtt'ul  precinicn.  Waleti  hits  rivcra  and  torrenu  without  nuiiibc 
which  roll  through  ita  mountain  valleyH,  and  whoHO  banko,  odornud  with  vorduro  anti  ciilli- 
vation,  combine  lu  the  mimt  Htriking  mannnr  with  tho  lotly  and  varied  siminiitH  which  tovsot 
above  them.  Tho  lotlioit  mountains  aru  in  North  WbIph;  its  vulloyH  are  deoptir  and 
narrower;  and  it  preaentM  more  atrikinglv  all  the  charavtoriatic  feuturea  of  Weltih  acenory. 
In  Mouth  Walea,  on  tho  contrary,  tlie  valleya  are  broader,  more  fertile,  and  ftiUor  of  towns 
and  villugea;  they  often  even  expand  into  wide  plains,  still  encircled  by  a  mountain  bound- 
ary. Agriculture,  in  such  a  country,  labours  under  many  disadvantages,  and  is  carried  on 
too  often  upon  the  old  system  of  intield  and  outfield.  Manufkctures  are  nearly  confined  to 
ttie  article  of  flannel,  which  has  always  been  a  Ikbric  of  the  Welsh,  in  which  thev  still  excel 
their  Yorkshire  rivals.  It  is  to  mining,  however,  that  tlie  industry  of  Wales  has  been  chiefly 
attracted,  by  the  profbaion  of  mineral  wealth  which  nature  itas  lodged  in  the  bowels  of  its 
mountains.  The  lead  of  Flint,  Caernarvon,  and  other  counties  of  North  Wales,  tlie  copper 
of  Anglesey,  and  above  all,  the  iron  of  Glamorgan  and  other  counties  in  the  British  Channel, 
are  objects  of  extensive  importance.  Coal  is  found  almost  ewry  where,  and  is  employed 
either  for  domestic  purposes,  or  in  fUsing  and  refining  the  metallic  ores. 

The  Welsh  are  a  Celtic  race,  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Britons,  who,  in  these  moun- 
tain  recesses,  sought  refuge  from  the  destroying  sword  of  tlie  Saxons,  which  so  completely 
disiKwsessed  them  of  the  low  country  of  England.  They  could  not  resist  the  ovorwhelming 
power  of  Edward  I.,  who  annexed  Wales  to  the  English  crown.  In  order  to  hold  it  in  sul)- 
jection,  hewever,  he  was  obliged  to  construct,  not  only  on  its  fVontier,  but  in  its  interior, 
castles  of  immense  extent  and  strength.  Yet  they  did  not  prevent  formidable  insurrections, 
in  one  of  which  Owen  Glendower  maintained  himself  for  years  as  an  independent  prince. 
Within  the  last  300  years,  the  Welsh  have  been  as  peaceable  as  any  other  subjects  of  the 
empire.  They  have  retained,  of  their  feudal  habits,  only  venial  fkilings.  Among  these  is 
national  pride,  through  which  the  genuine  Cambrian  holds  his  country  and  his  nation  su|)e- 
rior  to  all  otliers ;  and  regards  the  Haiina  or  Saxon  as  a  lower  race  of  yesterday.  With  this 
is  connected,  in  a  high  degree,  the  pride  of  pedigree ;  even  the  humblest  Welshman  tracing 
his  origin  far  above  any  lowland  genealogy.  Strong  ties  of  friendship  subsist  between  the 
landowners  and  their  tenants :  nianifeateo,  on  one  side,  by  indulgence  and  protecting  kind* 
ness ;  on  the  other,  by  a  profound  veneration  for  the  representatives  of  the  ancient  chiefs  of 
tiieir  race.  The  Welsh  tiave  many  superstitions,  mixed  with  much  genuine  religious  feeling. 
They  are  hardy,  active,  lively,  hospitable,  kind-hearted ;  only  a  little  hot  and  quarrelsome. 
Their  English  neighbours  complain  that  they  have  not  yet  attained  that  pitch  of  industry 
and  cleanliness  in  which  the  former  place  their  pride. 

North  Wales  comprises  the  counties  of  Caernarvon,  Merioneth,  Montgomery,  Denbigh, 
and  Flint,  with  the  island  of  Anglesey,  The  characteristic  feature  of  this  division  consists 
in  the  very  elevated  cfiains  of  mountains  which  cross  it  from  north  to  south,  feeing  the  Irish 
_  Channel.      The  chief  is  Snowdon  (Jig. 

^'*  177,)  which  raises  its  head  to  the  height 

of  3700  feet ;  yet  it  is  only  the  most  ele- 
vated of  a  crowd  of  summits,  many  of 
which  rear  their  peaks  almost  as  high. 
They  cover  a  great  part  of  the  county  of 
Caernarvon,  at  the  northern  part  of  which 
they  present  to  the  Bay  of  Beaumaris  the 
lofty  steep  of  Penmanmawr,  whose  broken 
fragments  threaten  to  bury  him  who 
travels  the  difficult  path  which  has  been 
formed  along  its  almost  perpendicular 
sides.  Merioneth  is  chiefly  covered  with 
inferior,  but  lofty  and  rugged  mountains, 
till  towards  the  southern  esitremity,  they  tower  into  Coder  Idris,  the  second  summit  of 
Wales.  It  is  everywhere  steep,  craggy,  and  precipitous.  Lastly,  in  the  heart  of  Montgomery, 
towers  the  huge  moss  of  Plinlimmon,  with  a  crowd  of  attendant  mountains. 

The  vales  which  intervene  between  these  heights  diversify  bleak  and  barren  regions, 
otherwise  calculated  to  inspire  only  impressions  of  dreary  sublimity.  The  most  extensive 
is  that  of  Clwyd,  in  the  county  of  Denbigh,  where  the  mountain  chains  gradually  sink.  It 
is  about  twenty  miles  in  length,  and  four  or  five  in  average  breadth ;  and  presents  a  more 
brilliant  picture  of  fertility,  heightened,  doubtless,  by  contrast,  than  almost  any  other  spot 
in  the  island.  The  narrower  vales,  however,  present  more  of  picturesque  beauty,  particu- 
larly that  of  Llangolen,  where  the  Dee,  winding  through  cultivated  and  pastoral  scenes, 
overhung  by  high  rocks  and  clifts,  presents  at  every  step  a  varying  landscape.  The  island 
of  Anglesey  is  generally  level,  and  its  scenery  presents  few  striking  features,  except  the 
rocks  of  its  western  shore.  It  has  happened,  fortunately  for  the  improvement  of  this  formi- 
dable range  of  territor-',  that  it  lies  on  the  highway  from  London  towards  Dublin ;  and  with 
Vol.  I.  34 


Snowdiin. 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


pAKTin. 


th«  V 
expenae 


K  w  nf  faciliuting  i^  aHmooana  between  the  kinKdanu,  iroveminent,  at  the  mtiom) 
Me,  i  rmed  une  <m  lit*  Hnent  raedi  in  the  world;  unon((  Die  principal  feetnrei  ot 

which  ie  the  iron  luapeniion^bridffe, 
formed  acroM  the  arm  or  the  lea,  called 
tlie  Menai  Channel.  The  chief  centre 
of  the  flannel  manufkcture  ia  in  Mctit. 
,;(imery  and  Merioneth.  The  lead  vmtt 
of  Holywell  and  the  copper  min  n  of 
An^leaey  poaaeaa  an  importance  ncaiLtJ' 
\j  inferior  to  those  of  Houth  Walee. 

Caernarvon  ia  a  handaome,  welUbuilt 
town.  Ita  chief  ornament  ia  the  coatle, 
a  stately  edifice  (Ji/(.  178.),  built  by  FaI- 
ward  I.  to  curb  thn  spirit  of  the  nnwiy 
subdued  WoUh.  It  oncloHfls  an  aroa  of 
two  acres  and  a  half;  the  towftrs  are  of  stupendous  magnitude,  and  crownod  by  livht  and 
beautiful  turrets.  To  the  south  of  Caernarvon  ia  the  ateep  ascent  of  Hnowdon,  whence  a 
view  of  astonishing  extent  is  commanded ;  though  only  to  be  seen  in  those  fortunate  days 


(..'■•rnarviia  Cwtl*. 


179 


,    '.  «>'        >.i  i'  Coawty  CuU*. 

castellated  structure  in  the  kingdom  can  rivnl 

■ites  is  Bangor,  a  pleasant  little  town,  on  the  lii^h  rotid  to  Holyhead  and  Dublin. 


when  the  veil  of  mist,  which  usually 
wraps  it,  has  been  dissipated.  ()n 
its  declivity  is  the  wild  and  rocky 
lake  of  Llanbieris,  with  tho  ruinml 
castle  of  Dolbadern  overhanging  its 
banks.  Nearly  at  the  opposite  ux- 
tremity  of  the  county  is  Conway; 
a  poor  town,  but  contaming  tlie  walls 
of  a  still  more  mapniflcent  castle 
{.fig.  179.),  also  erected  by  BIdward 
I.  The  interior  is  in  a  stato  of  total 
ruin;  but  the  view,  from  a  little  dis- 
tance, of  its  eight  mighty  towers, 
ranging  along  the  summit  of  a  lofty 
rocK,  which  overlooks  the  Bay  of 
Beaumaris,  presents  an  image  of 
grandeur  which  scarcely  any  other 
About  midway  between  those  two  castled 
" Here,  and 


Ctdar  Idrii. 


at  Penryn,  is  a  great  shipment  of  slates,  brought 
flrom  the  steen  sides  of  the  neighbouring  mountains. 
Merioneth  has  a  few  large  villages,  each  enclosed 
by  a  circuit  of  lofty  and  almost  inaccessible  mountains. 
Alia  is  supported  by  a  small  manufacture  of  knit 
gloves  and  stockings,  and  by  the  vicinity  of  the  largest 
of  the  little  lakes  of  Wales,  which  has  clear  water 
and  abounds  in  fish.  Dolgelly,  about  midway  between 
Snowdon  and  Cader  Idris  (fig.  180.),  is  seated  in  the 
very  heart  of  all  the  grandest  scenery  of  Wales.  On 
the  coast,  the  castle  of  Harlech,  bui^'  Isr  ly  Ekiward, 
bears  mark*'  of  great  stren^h. 
Montgomery,  though  its  centre  is  occupied  by  ,!  h  "hu^  Plinlimmon.''  MliOi  v  ■  zhea 
•hoot  out  in  every  direction,  is  yet,  on  the  whole,  of  a  milder  aspect  ''!'  '<  vu  i*  Qilont- 
gomery  is  small,  pleasantly  situated  on  the  declivity  of  a  hill,  crowned  witn  the  ruins  of  a 
once  noble  castle.  Welshpool  is  an  ill-built  straggling  town,  but  has  a  great  market  for  flan- 
nels ;  and  conununicates  by  a  canal  with  Chester  and  Ellesmere.  Near  Montgomery  is  Powis 
CastiC,  whi'h  da^es  from  the  twelfth  century,  and  was  long  one  of  the  proudest  fortresses  in 
Wales :  it  is  g^     a  superb  modem  seat. 

In  proceedinj'/  ^"•enbisrh  and  Flint,  we  come  to  broader  valleys,  and  hills  gradually  dimin- 
ishing down  to  ti.  ■•5^  J  plaivi  of  western  England.  Denbigh,  a  pleasant,  ancient  little 
town,  is  crown'^u  bj  cap*lp,  ef;ated  on  a  high  rock,  looking  down  to  the  vale  of  Clwyd,  pro- 
verbial for  its  (-liiii.-ni  jrlil.'jy.  In  the  v-.lley  of  the  Dee,  is  Wrexham,  noted  fbr  its  fairs,  in 
which  Welsh  flc.insl  i  tht^  staple  conin/xiity.  But  the  chief  ornament  of  Denbigh  is  Llan- 
gollen Vale,  on  the  upper  Dee,  where  the  mixture  of  culture  and  wildness  producP"  'he  most 
striking  variety  of  scenery.  Among  its  leading  features  are  the  ruined  castle  of  Dinas  Biam 
crowning  the  Bleep  summit  of  one  of  the  principal  hills;  and  the  remains  of  the  Abbey  of 
Valle  Cnicis.  This  last  is  situated  in  a  valley  connected  with  that  of  lilanffollnn,  enclosed 
by  lofty  mountains  verdant  to  the  summit,  and  sprinkled  with  trees.  The  edifice  has  been 
in  tlie  simplest  style  of  Saxon  architecture;  but  the  situation  renders  it  one  of  the  mort 


pA»Tin. 

t,  ftt  th«  mtioiife) 
ncipal  fetturei  ot 
iunienaion<bridffe, 
of  the  MM,  called 
The  chief  centre 
ctura  ii  In  Mont* 
I.  The  lead  inin«-i 
copper  min  n  of 
nporUnco  Deuce- 
Houth  Walei. 
daome,  well-built 
lent  ie  the  coittle, 
78.),  built  by  Ed- 
irit  of  the  newljr 
icloiiea  an  area  of 
mod  by  liifht  and 
owdon,  whence  a 
«e  fortunate  days 
«t,  which  uaually 

disflipated.    On 

wild  and  rocky 
with  the  ruined 
I  overhanginff  ita 
the  oppoHito  ex- 
nty  is  Conway; 
taming  the  walla 
&i;niflcent  caitle 
Bcted  by  Edward 
n  a  Btato  of  total 
iVom  a  little  dia- 

mighty  towera, 
ummit  of  a  lofty 
oka  the  Bay  of 
'M  an  image  of 
rcely  any  other 
hose  two  caatled 
iblin.  Here,  and 
'  slates,  brought 
ring  mountains. 
8,  each  enclosed 
wible  mountains, 
jfacture  of  knit 
ity  of  the  largest 
has  clear  water 
nidwny  between 
,  is  seated  in  the 
>- of  Wales.   On 

Iso  by  Edward, 

\lvM  v.  '  jhes 
''  .  Ui  ftlont- 
n  the  ruins  of  a 
market  for  flan- 
Bfomery  is  Powis 
lest  fortresses  in 

gradually  dimin- 
t,  ancjent  little 
eofClwyd,  pro- 
i  for  its  fairs,  in 
►enbigh  is  I<lan- 
oducp"  'he  most 
;of  Dinas  Bian. 
)f  the  Abbey  of 
rollnn,  eiiclosed 
edifice  has  been 
jne  of  the  mof  t 


Dooi  I. 


ii'i/'Jia WALES,  'ii- 


■t-r 


Hulyhi 


picturesque  spots  in  England.  Chirk  i)B>^  near  it  a  castle,  one  of  the  most  perfect  of  tha 
many  with  which  Waloa  is  adorned.  Near  it  also  is  the  Ane  a«|uuduct  uf  l'oiil-y-Cy«ille,  by 
.vhich  Mr.  Telford  has  conducted  the  Elli  smero  Caiml  over  tlie  Dee,  resting  on  lb  piers, 
1(N)7  ItH'l  in  length,  and  VM  feet  above  the  level  ot  ">u  river. 

Flint  M  rich  in  leail  and  other  mineral  ni  '^t.  The  cuiiiily  town  of  Flint,  and  its  castle, 
have  entirely  lost  the  importance  they  posh  mkou  when  they  w«re  the  prison  of  Riciiard  II. ; 
and  the  glury  of  Caerwys,  the  ancieiii  m  uae  of  rminii'nl  and  puetical  contest,  has  tintiroty 
passed  awav.  Holywell,  besides  its  exl<  "ive  load  imu*.',  carriua  on  works  in  Iwass  u^id 
coptMtr,  and  even  some  cotton  fkbrics.  Here  tlni  sacred  well  of  Hf  WintVcde,  from  which 
it  derives  its  name,  is  bonoHcially  applied  to  thn  (MirpuMes  of  industry.  The  i«ad  mine  of 
Llan-y-1'ander  is  the  moat  extensive  in  the  kingdom,  iid  employi  ib-ir  vast  sieo  'h  'mgines  in 
clearing  otf  tiie  water.  Mold  is  a  pretty  largo  town,  in  the  cenlru  of  a  rich  plam  of  the 
same  name.     Ht  Asaph  attracts  notice  by  its  noat  cathedral. 

The  Island  of  Anglesey  is  f^enerally  a  naked  and  gloomy  flat.     It  was  anciently  tlie  cen- 
tral sea'  I'f  (iuidical  superstition,  still  attested  by  the  cromlecht,  or  large,  flat,  aUnu   tables 
Bun^x  r'Ni  hf  cude  pillars,  which  are  more  numerous  her^  than  in  any  other  part  ot  ftritain. 
'N  I  npji  Uiiie'  I  Hs  rested  almost  entirely  upon  its  copper  mines,  but  ot  late  they  have  become 
jg|  unproductive,  and  the  annual  anutunt  is  oiiiv 

flrom  760  to  000  tons.  BoaumariH,  tiie  capital, 
is  a  neat  little  town.  Much  mort;  im|H)rtance 
attaches  to  Holvhead,  now  the  main  pomt  of 
communication  botweon  England  and  Ireland. 
To  render  it  such,  government  has  constructed 
a  noble  road  from  London  across  tho  <no8t  nigged 
part  of  North  Wales,  and  also  macU  an  tulniira- 
bio  harbour.  The  neighbouring  o  '^t,  is  very 
bold,  and  the  promontory,  called  thr  lead  (^ff. 
18L),  consists  of  immense  masses  ol  irecipitoui 
rocks,  hollowed  into  deep  caverns.  The  town  itself  has  been  rapidly  extemled  and  improved, 
fckinth  Wales  comprises  the  counties  of  Radnor,  Cardigan,  Brecknock,  Cuerinartl  "ii,  Pem- 
broke,  and  Glamorgan.  It  presents  scenery  equally  romantic  with  that  of  NortI  Wales, 
mingled  with  a  greater  degree  of  softness  and  cultivation ;  and  its  agricultural  ami  mining 
products  are  of  considerably  greater  value. 

Radnor  is  composed  of  bleak  ranges  of  mountains,  in  some  parts  almost  impassabie;  the 
greater  part  is  only  fitted  to  afford  pasture  for  sheep,  the  wool  of  which  is  valuable.  New 
Radnor,  once  a  fortified  city,  is  dwindled  into  a  village. 

Cardigan  includes  some  of  the  boldest  features  of  Welsh  scenery.  The  donain  of  Hafod, 
in  particular,  has  been  covered  with  extensive  plantations,  so  happily  disposed  as  to  r^-nder 
it  almost  a  scene  of  enchantment  At  a  few  miles'  distance  is  ''the  Devil's  Bridge  ''  an 
arch  thrown  over  a  deep  and  narrow  rocky  chasm,  overgrown  with  wood,  at  tlie  bettor  i  of 
which  rolls  the  Mynach,  after  rushing  down  three  loft}[  cascades;  forming  altogether  the 
grandest  scene  of  the  kind  in  the  kingdom.  The  lead  mines  of  Cardiganshire  arc  extennive, 
though  the  want  of  fuel  has  caused  the  working  of  many  of  them  to  be  discontinued.  (  ir- 
digaii  is  a  small  old  town,  which  carries  on  a  considerable  coasting  trade,  having  nearly  ;3*J0 
small  vessels  belonging  to  it.  There  is  great  resort  to  Aberystwith,  an  agreeable  bathing 
place ;  its  trade  also  is  considerable. 

Brecon,  or  Brecknoc  h,  is  mountainous  and  rugged,  but  has  some  fertile  lands  in  the  valle  's 
of  the  Uske  and  the  Wye.  Brecon,  an  ancient  town  on  the  Uske,  amid  lofty  mountains,  \\.ji 
tlie  jmains  of  a  costlf,  which  was  once  strong,  and  held  by  Buckingham,  the  favourite  and 
atlerwards  the  victim  of  Richard  III. 

Caermattlien  includes  an  ample  proportion  of  bleak  and  barren  hills,  intermixed  with 
large  fertile  valleys.  There  are  abundance  of  coal,  and  some  iron  works  on  the  Glamorgan 
border.  The  capital,  situated  on  the  Towey,  which  admits  to  it  vessels  of  300  tons,  is  one 
of  the  most  flourishing  and  best  built  towns  in  Wales. 

Pembroke  consists  of  a  peninsula  branching  out  between  the  Irish  and  British  channels , 
it  presents  merely  an  undulating  surface,  rising  at  most  to  elevations  of  200  or  300  feet 
Its  breed  of  cattle  is  in  higli  repute,  and  its  indented  coasts  contain  some  of  the  finest  har- 
bours in  Britain.  Tw  v>  Roman  roads  cross  this  county,  which  is  also  rich  in  druidical  and 
feudal  monumf"  ^.  The  ancient  city  of  Pembroke  is  strikingly  situated  on  an  almost  in- 
sulated neck  of  .and  on  the  b?iy  of  Miltbrd  Haven,  the  highest  part  of  which  presents  the 
vast  remains  of  its  castle,  one  of  the  most  magiificent  structures  of  Wales  or  England. 
The  town  contains  some  ancient  churches.  The  large  bay  composing  Milford  Haven 
forms  the  most  capacious  and  serum  harlwur  in  Britain.  Hence  government  have  neen 
induced,  at  the  new  towns  of  Milfurd  and  Haberstono,  on  its  northern  shore,  to  form  dock- 
yards and  establish  packets  for  the  south  of  Ireland.  St.  David's,  the  ecclesiastical  capital 
of  South  Wales,  is  now  only  a  large  dirty  village,  adorned,  however  with  venerable  ancient  • 
structures. 


400 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paet  in. 


Glamorgan  is  the  finest  county  in  South  Wales,  and,  as  to  wealth,  superior  to  any  other 
in  the  principality.  Its  coast,  alon{;  the  Bristol  Channel,  and  for  some  miles  inland,  is  level, 
and  fertile  in  the  extreme.  Thence  the  ground  rises  into  hills  of  continually  increusing 
elevation,  till,  on  the  frontier,  they  rise  to  the  height  of  upwards  of  2000  feet,  and  unite 
with  tlie  Brecon  chains.  From  these  heights  descend  numerous  streams,  which,  in  thuir 
progress  to  the  sea,  produce  all  the  varieties  of  ravines,  wooded  vales,  tails,  and  catarucUi ; 
which,  with  the  beauty  of  the  plains  below,  and  the  fine  "iews  over  the  Bristol  Channel, 
render  Glamorgan  equal  in  picturesque  beauty  to  any  other  county  in  Wales.  The  crops 
of  every  description  of  grain  are  ample ;  and  there  are  good  breeds  both  of  cattle  and  sheep. 
But  these  objects  are  trifling,  when  compared  with  the  mineral  treasures  of  Glamorgan. 
It  forms  the  centre  of  a  vast  field  of  coal  and  iron,  firom  which  branches  extend  into  the 
neighbouring  counties.  Since  it  was  found  that  iron  could  be  smelted  with  coke,  the  work 
ing  of  this  metal  has  prodigiously  increased,  and  the  town  of  Mertliyr  Tydvil,  near  which 
it  is  most  abundant,  has  grown  from  a  mere  village  to  be  the  most  populous  place  in  Wales. 
In  consequence  also  of  the  abundance  of  fuel,  the  copper  ore  dug  out  in  Anglesey,  Cornwall, 
and  Ireland,  is  brought  hither  to  be  smelted  and  refined.  The  plating  of  iron  with  tin  is 
also  an  extensive  occupation.  The  iron  is  reduced  by  rollers  to  the  requisite  thinness,  and 
is  then  cut  by  scissors  into  plates,  which  afterwards  require  little  more  than  simple  immer- 
sion into  the  smelted  tin.  The  coal,  besides  its  essential  use  in  these  various  works,  is  in 
itself  a  most  extensive  object  of  exportation,  amounting  in  some  years  to  300,000  tons.  The 
rivers  of  Glamorgan  are  very  imperfectly  navigable ;  but  this  defect  has  been  supplied  by 
indust  y.  From  Neath,  Cardiff,  and  Swansea,  canals  reach  far  into  the  interior ;  and  their 
benefiio  being  extended  by  railways,  a  channel  has  been  opened  for  conveying  to  the  sea  the 
produce  even  of  the  most  interior  mines.  Cardiff  ranks  as  the  county  town,  but  is  now  much 
surpassed  by  others.  Yet  it  carries  on  a  considerable  trade ;  having  a  commodious  harbour, 
and  being  connected  by  a  canal  with  the  interior  works  at  Merthyr  Tydvil.  It  is  now  much 
surpassed  by  Swansea,  which  has  riden  to  its  present  importance  by  immense  works  in  iron 
and  copper,  and  by  the  exportation  of  coal ;  which  is  furnished  in  such  abundance,  that  a 
large  vessel  may  enter  at  one  tide  and  go  out  loaded  at  the  next.    Its  pleasant  situation  on 

a  fine  bay  has  also  made  it  an  extensive  re- 
sort for  sea-bathing,  and  led  to  the  erection 
of  many  elegant  buildings.  Swansea  has 
thus  risen  into  a  sort  of  capital  of  South 
Wales ;  yet  it  is  net  so  large  as'  Merthyr 
Tydvil  has  been  rendered  by  the  extensive 
iron  works  in  and  round  it  Tliere  are  near 
it  seventeen  furnaces,  in  one  of  which  11,000 
tons  of  pig  iron  and  12,(M)0  tons  of  bar  iron 
are  produced  annually.  Caerphilly,  a  thriv- 
ing little  town,  with  some  manuiuctureB, 
deserves  notice  chiefly  from  the  remains  of 
its  immense  castle  (jig.  182.),  which  pre- 
sent a  most  stupendous  scene  of  ruins.  It 
is  stated  to  have  been  a  mile  and  a  quarter 
in  circumference,  and  capable  of  contain- 
ing a  garrison  of  20,000  men.  LlandafT,  the  only  nominal  city  in  the  county,  is  only  a  vil- 
lage, the  seat  of  the  least  richly  endowed  bishopric  in  Wales.  The  cathedral,  however,  is 
a  fine  ruin. 

The  small  islands  attached  to  England  are  unimportant  Man,  thirty  miles  in  length  by 
twelve  in  breadth,  is  nearly  equidistant  from  each  of  the  three  kingdoms.  It  comprises  a 
considerable  extent  of  level  territory ;  but  rises  in  the  interior  into  high  mountains,  among 
which  Snowfell,  nearly  2000  feet  high,  stands  conspicuous.  Man  ranked  long  as  an  inde- 
pen(ient  sovereignty,  held  by  the  Earls  of  Derby,  and  it  celebrated  for  tlie  gallant  defence 
made  by  the  countess  of  that  name  for  Charles  I.  It  descended  afterwards  to  the  Duke  of 
Athol,  from  whom  the  sovereignty  was  purchased,  in  1765,  by  the  British  government,  with 
a  view  to  the  prevention  of  smuggling,  and  to  the  establishment  of  a  free  trade.  The  natives 
are  a  Celtic  race.  Castletown,  the  capital,  is  the  neatest  town  in  the  island ;  and  in  its 
centre.  Castle  Rushen,  the  ancient  palace  of  the  kings  of  Man,  rears  its  gloomy  and  majestic 
brow.  Douglas,  however,  as  being  the  spot  in  which  the  whole  trade  circulates,  is  now  of 
superior  importance,  and  has  attracted  a  great  number  of  English  settlers. 

The  Scilly  isles,  situated  at  some  distance  from  the  western  extremity  of  Cornwall,  art, 
tenanted  by  2000  poor  inhabitants,  who  raise  a  little  grain,  but  depend  chiefly  upon  fishing, 
pilotage,  and  the  making  of  kelp. 

Jersey,  Guernsey,  and  Aldemey,  with  Sark,  form  a  group  naturally  French,  and  originally 
part  of  the  patrimony  of  the  Norman  kings,  which  the  naval  superiority  of  England  has 
enabled  her  to  retain.  They  enjoy  certain  privileges  and  immunities,  founded  on  this  dis- 
tinction, OS  laid  down  by  Coke,  that,  "  though  parcel  of  the  dominion  of  the  crown  of  Eng- 


Cterphtllr  Cutle. 


Part  lU. 

erior  to  aiiy  olher 

ss  inland,  is  level, 
nually  increasing' 
I)  teet,  and  unite 
i,  which,  in  tluur 
Is,  and  cataracts ; 
Bristol  Channel, 
'ales.  The  crops 
cattle  and  sheep. 
Bs  of  Glamorgan, 
extend  into  the 
1  coke,  the  work 
^dvil,  near  which 
)  place  in  Wales, 
^lesey,  Cornwall, 
iron  with  tin  is 
lite  thinness,  and 
n  simple  immer* 
rious  works,  is  in 
K),000tons.  The 
)een  supplied  by 
terior;  and  their 
ing  to  the  sea  the 
but  is  now  much 
modious  harbour. 

It  is  now  much 
ae  works  in  iron 
ibundance,  that  a 
sant  situation  on 
,  an  extensive  re- 
id  to  the  erection 
ti.  Swansea  has 
capital  of  South 
urge  as'  Merthyr 
by  the  extensive 

There  are  near 
B  of  which  11,(K)0 
I  tons  of  bar  iron 
lerphilly,  a  thriv- 
le  manufacture?, 
n  the  remains  of 
82.),  which  pre- 
Bne  of  ruins.  It 
ile  and  a  quarter 
)able  of  contain- 
ity,  is  only  a  vil- 
dral,  however,  is 

les  in  length  by 
It  comprises  a 
ountains,  among 
long  as  an  inde- 
gallant  defence 
i  to  the  Duke  of 
Dvernment,  with 
ide.  The  natives 
land ;  and  in  its 
my  and  majestic 
ilates,  is  now  of 

jf  Cornwall,  arc 
fly  upon  fishing, 

1,  and  originally 
of  England  has 
ded  on  this  dis- 
!  crown  of  Eng- 


Rook  I. 


SCOTLAND 


)-i 


401 


Innd,  they  are  not,  nor  ever  were,  parcel  of  the  realm  of  England."  The  climate  is  mild 
ami  agreeable,  and  the  soil  generally  fertile.  Jemey,  the  finest  of  the  group,  is  so  abundant 
in  orciiards,  that  cider  forms  the  chief  object  a(  exiwrtation.  St.  Holier,  the  capital  of  Jenny, 
in  a  handsome  town.  t 


Mull  of  Galluway. 


CHAPTER  III.  ; 

SCOTLAND 

The  place  which  Scotland  holds  as  part  of  Great  Britain,  has  already  been  exhibited  in 
the  introduction  to  the  chapter  on  England.  We  shall  now  describe  in  detail  this  import- 
ant, though  secondary,  member  of  the  empire. 

Sect.  I. — Geographical  Outline. 
Scotland  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  England,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  line  drawn 
along  the  Tweed,  the  Cheviot  Hills,  and  thence  to  the  Solway  Frith.    On  every  other  side. 

it  is  bounded  by  the  Atlantic,  the  Northern 
and  the  German  oceans.  The  ength  of 
Scdtland,  from  the  Mull  of  Galloway 
i^g.  183.),  in  about  54°  40'  to  Dunnet 
Head,  Caithness,  in  58°  40',  is  280  miles. 
The  greatest  breadth,  from  Buchan-Ness  to 
a  point  on  the  opposite  shore  of  Inverness  is 
130  miles.  This  breadth  varies  little  in  the 
interval  between  the  friths  of  Forth  and 
Moray ;  but  to  the  south  of  the  former,  the 
average  breadth  scarcely  exceeds  100,  and 
to  the  north  of  the  Moray  Frith,  40  or  50 
miles.  The  entire  extent  of  Scotland  is 
29,600  square  miles. 
Scotland,  in  its  general  outline,  consists  of 
i,wo  great  and  perfectly  distinct  parts :  the  Lowlands  and  the  Highlands.  The  former  com- 
prehends all  Scotland  south  of  the  friths  of  Forth  and  Clyde ;  for  the  pastoral  hills  of  the 
southern  and  western  borders,  less  elevated  than  the  northern  mountains,  and  inhabited  by 
a  different  race,  are  not  considered  as  forming  any  tie  between  these  and  the  Highlands 
properly  so  called.  Immediately  north  of  the  Clyde,  the  highland  ranges  betrin  to  tower  in 
endless  succession ;  but  on  the  east  coast,  the  Lowlands  extend  beyond  the  Forth  and  north- 
ward through  the  counties  of  Fife,  Forfar,  Kincardine,  and  Aberdeen ;  though  these  last  are 
closely  encroached  upon  by  the  mountain  territory.  The  lowland  district  also  extends 
round  the  northern  promontory  of  Aberdeen,  and  along  the  borders  of  the  Murray  or  Moray 
Frith,  which  contain  as  level  tracts  of  territory,  and  enjoy  as  mild  a  climate,  as  any  part 
of  Scotland.  This  level  tract  does  not  comprehend  quite  the  half  of  the  country ;  even  the 
Lothians,  and  still  more  the  western  provinces,  are  hemmed  in  by  low  ridges  of  bleak  table- 
lands, covered,  in  a  great  measure,  with  heath  and  moss.  The  arable  lands  are  almost 
solely  comprised  in  broad  flat  valleys,  chiefly  along  the'  friths,  called  straths  or  corses. 
Several  of  these  are  much  famed  for  fertility,  a  blessing  but  partially  bestowed  even  on  th" 
best  districts  of  Scotland. 

The  Highlands,  which  comprise  the  whole  west  and  centre  of  northern  Scotland,  form  a 
region  of  very  bleak  and  rugged  aspect.  A  chain  of  long  and  lofty  ridges  extends  from 
south-west  to  north-east,  not  reaching,  however,  the  German  Ocean  or  the  Moray  Frith,  but 
leii  ving  between  them  the  level  interval  of  the  northern  lowland.  These  mountains  usually 
dip,  almost  perpendicularly,  into  the  lakes  and  seas  on  which  they  border ;  and  even  the  in- 
terior valleys  are  on  so  high  a  level,  that  in  this  climate  they  admit  only  in  scattered  patches 
the  culture  of  the  coarser  kinds  of  grain,  particularly  oats  and  bigg.  "These  mountains,  par- 
licularly  the  great  Grampian  barrier,  which  extends  across  from  Ben  Lomond  to  Blair-Athol, 
lock  in  closely  with  each  other,  and  can  be  entered  only  by  formidable  and  easily  defended 
passes.  The  consequence  has  been,  that  they  have  preserved  within  their  recesses  a  primi- 
tive people,  who,  in  dress,  language,  and  the  whole  train  of  their  social  ideas,  differ  essen- 
tially froip  the  Lowlanders,  and  have  retained  antique  and  striking  characteristics,  both 
physical  and  moral,  that  are  obliterated  in  almost  every  other  part  of  Great  Britain. 

The  Isles  comprise  the  third  part  of  Scotland.  On  the  east,  indeed,  and  even  on  great 
part  of  the  south-west  coast,  only  a  few  bold  and  naked  rocks  rise  perpendicularly  from  tlie 
ocean.  But  the  western  highlands  aro  bordered  by  the  Hebrides,  an  extensive  range  of 
large  islands,  some  of  which  are  separated  from  the  continent  by  such  narrow  channels,  that 
they  may  almost  bo  considered  as  forming  part  of  it.  Again,  the  northern  extremity  of 
Scotland  is  pro.onged  by  the  two  ranges  of  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  islands,  in  a  continu- 
ous line  with  eac":  other,  but  at  some  distance.  These  islands  are  rocky  and  bare,  exposed 
Vor,.  I.  .^*  3  A 


108 


MAP  OP  SCOTLAND. 


Fio.  184 


1..'    tv 


lifflcraP 

|9m|i  11: 


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*> 


Hoy  M*«a«  -X  ,^^   ,.    -r—       „       , ,  L 


Fio.  184 


t 


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ft,,  KI-nmnl-IM, 


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noainoa. 


•  B<ll  Rock 


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rib 


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lib  MUes 


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'56 


Book  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


4(W 


to  excetnive  moisture  and  the  perpetual  etorniB  of  the  Atlantic.  The  population  oeaiB,  in 
language  and  features,  the  marks  of  a  Scandinavian  origin ;  dating  from  the  perioa  when 
the  piratical  rovers  of  the  north  made  extensive  inroads  on  the  we^m  states  of  Europe. 

Among  the  Scottish  mountains,  the  most  considerable  are  the  Grampians,  a  name  which 
is  given  very  generally  to  all  those  which  cover  the  surface  of  the  Highlands,  but  applied 
more  particularly  to  the  chain  running  across  the  counties  of  Perth  and  Argyle,  and  com- 
prising Ikn  Lomond,  Ben  Ledi,  Ben  More,  Ben  Lawers,  and  otiiers  of  that  elevated  ridge 
which  directly  fece  the  low  country  of  Stirling  and  Perth.  Several  of  these  mountains 
exceed  the  altitude  of  4000  feet.  Ben  Nevis  rises  to  the  height  of  4315  feet  On 
the  borders  of  Inverness  and  Ross-shire,  Ben  Wyvis,  and  some  others,  are  of  nearly  equal 
elevation.  The  south  of  Scotland  is  also  very  hilly  ;  but  its  heights  are  seldom  more  than 
2000  feet,  ^een  and  pastoral.  The  most  remarkable  are  the  boundary  chain  of  the  Cheviot, 
celebrated  m  the  annals  of  early  feud,  hunting,  and  border  warfare.  The  Lowthers,  a  steep 
high  ridge,  including  valuable  lead  mines ;  the  pastoral  hills  of  Ettrick  and  Yarrow ;  and 
Critfel  and  Cairnsmuir,  in  Galloway,  form  important  objects :  the  lower  ranges  of  the  Pent- 
land  and  Lammermuor  border  the  Lothians. 

The  rivers  of  Scotland  are  not  so  much  distinguished  for  their  length  or  magnitude,  as 
for  the  pastoral  scenery  through  which  they  wind  their  early  course,  and  for  the  magnificent 
estuaries  which  they  form  at  their  junction  with  the  sea. 

The  Forth  rises  near  the  foot  of  Ben  Lomond,  flows  east  towards  Stirling,  near  which  it 
is  swelled  by  the  larger  stream  of  the  Teith ;  whence,  after  many  windings  through  the 
beautiful  plain  overlooked  by  Stirling  castle,  it  opens  into  the  great  frith  on  which  the  capi- 
tal of  Scotland  is  situated. 


References  to  the  Map  of  Scotland. 


NORTH  PART. 

1.  Dunnet 
3.  (^nnne«hy 

3.  Fruawick 

4.  Wick 

5.  Ulbsler 

6.  Eiiskny 

7.  Thurio 

8.  Brachrjr 

9.  Stralhy 

10.  Farr  Kirk 

11.  Riviegill 
13.  Tongue 

1:1.  Incli  Keanloch 
M.  Loch  Eriboll 

15.  nradejr 

16.  Drumacrajr 

17.  Scnurie 

18.  Coleareme 

19.  Invcr  BaitaBly 
90.  Loch  Naver 
31.  Locli  Budcn 
33.  Achnahoe 

33.  Latheron 

34.  Berrrilale 
as.  Helmsdale 
26.  Clyne 

37.  Achlntran 

38.  Dalmor 

39.  Lairg 

30.  Tullnch 

31.  Loch  Slim 
33.  Anrnt 

33.  Sloir 

34.  Dnmey 

:<5.  Cannahouliab 
36.  Ulliipool 
.37.  Porlinlick 

38.  Bra 

39.  Golspie 

40.  Dornoch 
4I.Tarhat 

42.  ('roiiiarty 

43.  Tain 

44.  Invergnrdon 
4.'>.  Kincardine 

46.  Kildrimnro 

47.  Hen  Wyvia 

48.  Luchbruoin 

49.  Loch  Puir 

50.  Tinnfidine 

51.  Melveg 

53.  Krridale 
.'VI.  Gairliich 

54.  Loch  Mnrce 

55.  Loch  Fnnnich 

56.  Loch  Luichard 
.17.  Killenm 

58.  Forlrnse 
50.  Fort  Georgt 

^n^,  ivtlirn 

61.  Forres 

62.  Fl.in 
ai  Rothes 
61.  Pnc.linbBri 
6')  ("ollen 

•'•(i   Mtirtioch 
67.  Forliuy 


68.  Banff 

69.  Turreff 

70.  Aberdonr 

71.  FraMraburgh 
73.  Strichen 

73.  Peterhead 

?4.  Crudea 
5.  Ellon 

76.  Rolhie 

77.  Meldrum 

78.  Cuaalmond 

79.  Klnncthniont 

80.  Achindore 

81.  Huntley 
83.  Kinnacoll 

83.  Aberlour 

84.  Grantnwn 

85.  Gdenakille 

86.  Oymer 

87.  Calrmichyle 

88.  Inveroen 

89.  Dares 

90.  Obriaohan 
91.-Kilfnaii 
93.  Beauly 

93.  Mucrich 

94.  Kdnacrow 

95.  Atladale 

96.  Toriidon 

97.  Vonebane 

98.  Applecrosi 

99.  Killilan 

100.  Glen  Shiel 

101.  Affarie 
103.  Dundmian 

103.  Loch  Neu 

104.  Bellaloln 

105.  Aberarder 

106.  Aviemore 
167.  Kincardine 

108.  Abemothy 

109.  Achenruw 

1 10.  Siralhdon 
in.Towio 
lis.  Cluny 

113.  Kinlore 

114.  Inverury 

115.  Foveran 

116.  Fintrny 

117.  Old  Aberdeen 
IIH.  New  Aberdeen 
ll!l  Stonehaven 
120.  Ternan 

I'il.  Kirse 

132.  Riilmoral 

133.  Braeinar 
124.  IncK 

13,5.  Iiivcrnnhaven 
136.  Laggan 

127.  Fori  Augnstui 

128.  Loch  Garry 
121*.  Loch  Loc.liy 
I'M),  t-hinen 

1:11    l.och  ,\rl<eg 
l.ftj  R.i«arv 
i:t:).  Rii.lilrnih 

134.  Luch  Morrey 


135.  Araiaig 

136.  Bminasary 

137.  Loch  SheU 

138.  Cromer 

139.  Sirane 

140.  Ben  Nevii 
MI.  Fort  William 
143.  Aberarder 

143.  Loch  Lagjgao 

144.  Dalwhinnie 

145.  Etrish 

146.  Clachay 

147.  Clova 

148.  Mennuir 

149.  Craigour 

150.  Glenliervia 

151.  Bervie 
1.53.  Montrose 
ISA  Brechin 

154.  Lunan 

155.  Oathlaw 
l.VI.  Glenisla 

157.  Moulin 

158.  Blair-Athol 
1.59.  Dalnacardoch 

160.  Shechallion 

161.  Loch  Rnnnoch 
163.  Loch  Ericht 

163.  Loch  Treag 

164.  Kinlochmore 

165.  Corriherich 

166.  Aryhoulao 

167.  Scarnadale 

168.  Langall 

169.  Liddeadale 

170.  Kinlochaline 

171.  Morven 

173.  Ardnamurchan 

SOUTH  PART, 
1.  Appin 
3,  Ardchattan 

3.  Glencoe 

4.  Loch  Gtive 

5.  King's  House 

6.  Fingar 

7.  Ben  Lawers 

8.  Killin 

9.  Loch  Tay 

10.  Kenmore 

11,  Aberfi'ldy 
13.  Amiihrio 

13,  Dunkcld 

14.  niairirnwrie 
1.5.  Connr-Angus 

16,  Meivlo 

17,  Arhronlh 

18,  Muirdriim 

19,  Dundee 

20,  Kilmeny 
Qi.  l/iipar 
22.  NiHvliurgh 
3:1.  Verlh 

31.  t'rieir 

25.  t'uinrie 

26.  Loeh  Ram 
37,  Croggun 


38,  Loch  Veil 
SU,  Loch  Locfaart 
:10,  Glenurcbay 
31,  Clndick 
33,  Kilmore 

33,  Ardmaddy 

34,  Craignish 

35,  Kilmartin 

36,  Inverary 

37,  Sirachur 

38,  Kilmorish 

39,  Ben  Lomond 

40,  Lock  Katrine 

41,  Loch  Lubnaig 
43.  Doune 

43,  Williamatown 

44,  Muchart 

45,  Fortevlot 
46, Kinross 

47.  Falkland 

48.  St,  Andrew's 

49.  Anslrulher 

50.  licvcn 

51.  Kinghorn 

52.  Dunrermline 

53.  Clackmannaa 
.54.  Airth 

55.  Stirling 

56.  Dumblane 

57.  Milton 

58.  Campsie 

SO.  Loch  Iiomond 

60.  Tarbat 

61.  Kilmodan 
63.  Gilphead 

63.  Aubahoish 

64.  Cnrnmore 
6.5.  Killnrraw 

66.  Kiichenzie 

67.  Southend 

68.  Campbellton 
60,  Suddale 

70,  Gorton 

71,  Skipnesi 
73,  Ruban 

73.  Gn'enock 

74.  Kilbimie 

75.  Dumbarton 

76.  Paisley 

77.  Renfrew 

78.  Glasitow 

79.  Bothwcll 

80.  Aiidtie 

81.  Whitburn 
83.  Falkirk 

83.  LinliihKow 

84.  BorrowHtown- 

nesa 

85.  Edinburgh 

86.  Dalkeith 

H7.  Miis»ell>urgh 
P?..  IliicUliiieliin 
Sit.  North  Berwick 
IIU.  Dnnbiir 

91.  Srntpraw 

92.  Rimkle 

93.  Duuae 


94.  Paxton 

95.  Eccles 

96.  Gordon 

97.  <;hannelkirk 
06,  Lauder 

99,  MiddletoD 

100,  Linton 

101.  Peebles 
103.  Carnwath 

103,  Lanark 

104,  Hamilton 
10.5,  Eaglcsham 

106,  StewartoD 

107.  Dairy 

108,  Irvino 

109.  Ayr 

110,  Meuchline 

111.  Kilmarnock 
113,  Strathaven 

113.  Douglas 

114,  Crawrordiohn 
lis,  Crawford 
IIU,  Culter  Fell 

117.  Galashiels 

118.  Melrose 

119.  Selkirk 

130.  Kelso 

131.  Yetholme 
123,  Hownam 

133.  Southdean 

134.  Jedburgh 

135.  Hawick 

136.  Bedfonl  Green 

137.  Kirkpatrick 

138.  Sanquhar 

129.  Kirkconnel 

130.  Ochiltree 

131.  Dalrymple 
1:0.  Girvan 

133,  Ballintrae 

134,  Halloch 

135,  Garry 
1.16.  Minihive 

137.  Dunscore 

138.  Penpont 
1.39,  Lochmaben 

140.  Wcsterkirk 

141.  Langholm 
143.  Gretna  Green 

143.  Annan 

144.  Dumfries 
ll.T.  rnerlavcrock 

146.  Douglas 

147.  Utr 

148. 1.Kioh  Ken 

149.  Newton  Stew- 

art 

150.  Craighach 

151.  New  Luce 
153.  Stranraer 
i;A  rortiiutrjck 
l.'Vt.  Mtiidenkir 
LIS.  Ardwell 
l.W.  HIcoImcc 
1.57.  Moi'liruin 
138.  Wliiiehorn 
150.  Wigtun 


160,  Launeaton 

161.  Kirkcudbright 
103.  Colvend 

„  Rivers. 
a  Naver  Water 
b  Thurso  WaWf 
e  Oikel 
d  Orrin 
e  Nairn 
f  Findbom 
f  Spey 
n  Doverad 
i  Don 
J  Dee 
k  Eak 
J   Tay 
mEarn 
n  Forth 
o  Tweed 
p  Anniu 
q  Nilh 
r  Ken 
a  Ayr 
t  Clyde 

,  8KYE  ISLE. 

s,  u4 

3,  Totnacraeh 

4,  Snizoit 

5,  Stein 

6,  Roai 

7,  Bracadale 

8,  Drumah 

9,  Oillan 

10,  Broadford 

11.  Kyle 

MULL  ISLE. 
1.  Kilninian 
3.  Tobermorie 

3.  Keallan 

4.  AroB 

5.  Achnacraigf 

6.  Cambus 

7.  Moy 

8.  Fidden 

JURA  ISLE. 
1.  Leaghall 
3.  Lagg 

ISLAY  ISLE. 
1.  Snnaig 
3.  Kilchoman 

3.  Bnlaha 

4.  Askaig 

5.  Bowmote 

6.  Kildalton 

7.  Kintra 

ARRAN  ISLE 
1.  O.iin 
3. t'otrio 

3.  Kilbride 

4.  Kilinurv 


4M 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


pA«Tin 


iThe  Clyde  rises  on  the  borders  of  Dumfries-ahire ;  flows  for  a  considerable  space  througb 
a.  wild  pastoral  valley ;  and  descends,  by  a  succession  of  most  picturesque  cascades,  into  the 
lower  region  of  Lonarl^shire.  Atler  passing  througli  a  tract  which  inay  be  denominated  the 
j;arden  of  Scotland,  it  enters  Glasgow,  becomes  a  broad  stream,  and  expands  into  a  windiof 
ftith,  not  so  broad  as  the  Fortli,  but  the  scene  of  a  mucli  more  active  trade. 

The  Tweed  rises  from  the  same  chain  as  the  Clyde,  and  running  eastward,  waters  the 
most  beautiful  and  classic  of  the  pastoral  districts  of  Scotland,  in  whose  verse  Tweed  is  the 
favourite  name.  Of  similar  tame  are  its  tributaries,  the  Varrow,  the  Gala,  the  Teviot; 
swelled  by  whone  waters  it  forms,  on  reaching  Berwick,  a  capacious  harbour. 

Tlie  Tay  rises  in  the  central  Highlands,  descends  into  the  lowlands  of  Perthshire,  and 
after  winding  beautifully  round  the  city  of  Perth,  expands  into  the  Frith  of  Tay,  and  forms 
the  harbour  of  Dundee. 

The  Spey  has  a  longer  course  than  any  other ;  but,  rising  in  the  midst  of  the  Perthshire 
highlands,  and  rolling  northward  through  the  wild  recesses  of  Athol  and  Braemar,  its  line  is 
comparatively  obscure.  The  other  rivers  of  Scotland  are  of  subordinate  rank ;  the  Dee  of 
Aberdeen,  the  Esk  of  Montrose,  the  Nith  and  Annan  of  Dumfries,  the  Ayr  and  Irvine 
of  Ayr. 

Lochs  form  a  characteristic  feature  of  Scotland ;  many  of  them  are  long  arms  of  the  sea, 
running  up  into  the  heart  of  the  mountains.  Among  these.  Loch  Lomond  is  pre-eminent 
The  traveller  admires  its  vast  expanse,  its  gay  and  numerous  islands,  its  wooded  promon- 
tories and  bays,  aftd  the  high  mountain  barrier  at  its  head.  Loch  Katt-ine,  in  a  smaller 
compass,  presents  a  singular  combination  of  romantic  beauty.  Loch  Tay,  enclosed  by  the 
lofliest  of  the  Grampians,  presents  alpine  scenery  on  the  grandest  scale ;  while  at  Inveniry, 
Loch  Fyne  unites  the  pomp  of  art  with  that  of  nature.  The  long  chain  of  Lochs  Linnhe, 
Lochy,  and  Ness,  stretching  diagonally  across  Scotland,  comprises  much  fine  scenery, 
and  has  afforded  facilities  for  making  a  navigable  communication  between  the  German  and 
Atlantic  oceans. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Geography. 

This  section  will  contain  Geology  only,  as  the  Botany  and  Zoology  of  Scotland  were  de> 
scribed  along  with  that  of  Great  Britain  in  general,  under  the  head  of  England. 

SuBHECT.  1. — Qeology  of  Scotland. 

Scotland  may  be  divided  geologically  into  the  following  great  districts : — 1.  Southern ;  2. 
Middle;  3.  Northern;  4.  Insular. 

(1.)  Southern  division.  This  division  includes  that  part  of  the  country  bounded  on  the 
Boutii  by  the  northern  frontier  of  England ;  and  on  the  north  and  west,  by  the  comparatively 
flat  country  between  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde.  It  is  traversed  fi*om  St.  Abb's  Head  on  the 
east  coast  to  Portpatrick  on  the  west  coast  by  a  high  land,  named  the  great  southern  high 
land  of  Scotland,  in  which  are  situated  the  highest  mountains  in  this  division  of  Scotland. 
This  lofty  range  sends  out  branches  in  different  directions,  many  of  which  reach  the  sea- 
coast,  while  others  terminate  m  the  lower  and  flatter  parts  of  the  country  that  lies  around 
them.  Although  abundantly  supplied  with  rivers,  the  southern  division  contains  but  few 
lakes,  in  this  respect  forming  a  striking  contrast  with  the  middle  and  northern  divisions. 
The  mountainous  regions  are  composed  of  transition  rocks,  while  the  lower  and  flatter  con- 
sist principally  of  secondary  and  alluvial  formations. 

I.  Transition  rocks.  The  predominating  rocks  of  the  Neptunian  class  are  greywacke, 
with  subordmate  beds  of  clay  slate,  flinty  slate, 'and  transition  limestone;  the  Plutonian 
species  are  granite,  syenite,  porphyry,  serpentine,  and  trap;  by  fer  the  most  abundant  rock 
i@  tiie  greywacke,  in  which  the  principal  lead-mines  in  Scotland,  those  of  Leadhills  and 
Wanlockhead,  are  situated.  They  have  been  worked  from  an  early  period,  and  during  a 
long  course  of  years  have  yielded  to  the  proprietors  a  very  rich  return.  Of  late  years, 
owing  to  the  disturbed  state  of  the  world,  their  prosperity  has  been  interrupted.  Copper 
ores  have  been  raised  in  Galloway,  but  not  in  considerable  quantity ;  and  the  same  may  be 
said  of  the  sulphuret  of  antimony,  formerly  mined  at  Glendinning  in  Dumfries-shire. 

II.  Secondary  rocks.  Scotland  is  distinguished  from  England  by  the  smaller  number  of 
its  secondary  formations,  and  their  more  limited  distribution ;  the  southern  division  contains 
a  greater  proportion  than  the  midule  or  northern ;  and  hence  approaches  more  nearly  to 
England  in  a  general  geognostic  point  of  view.  The  following  secondary  formations  havt 
been  observed : — 1.  Old  red  sandstone.  2.  Mountain  limestone.  3.  Coal  formation.  4.  New 
red  sandstone.    5.  Various  trap  and  porphyry  rocks. 

1.  Old  red  sandstone.  This  formation  skirts  the  transition  chains  of  moui^tains  lying 
immediately  upon  the  greywacke,  &c.  It  is  well  exposed  in  the  Pentlands,  the  upper  part 
of  the  river  district  of  the  river  Clyde,  in  the  course  of  the  river  Tweed,  in  various  points 
m  Dumfries-shire,  &'  In  the  districts  where  it  occurs,  it  is  frequently  quarried  as  a 
building-stone. 

2.  Mountain  limestone.    The  beds  of  limestone  in  the  lower  part  of  the  coal  formntioo 


BooeL 


SCOTLAND. 


4M 


— 1.  Southern;  2. 


mouixtains  lying 


le  coal  fonnatioD 


in  the  neighbourhood  of  Edinburgh,  and  the  beds  of  limestone  upon  which  the  coal  formation 
t-ests  in  oUier  quarters,  as  in  Dumfries-shire,  belong  to  the  mountain  limestone. 

3.  Co^  formation.  This  important  deposit  occi-pies  considerable  portions  of  En«t,  Mid, 
and  West  Lothian,  and  extends  westward  to  Glasgow.  It  forms  extensive  tracts  in  Ayi^ 
shire ;  in  Dumfriesshire ;  and  in  Berwickshire.  The  coal  mines  in  the  Lothians  and  around 
Glasgow  are  the  most  productive  in  Scotland.  The  annual  quantity  of  coal  brought  into 
Glasgow  is  561,010  tons ;  of  which  124,000  are  exported.  It  may  also  be  noticed,  as  con- 
nected with  coal,  that  in  Glasgow,  during  twenty-four  hours  in  the  winter  months,  tlie  gaa 
company  make  upwards  of  500,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  from  coal ;  and  during  the  same  period 
JM  the  summer  months,  about  120,000.  The  pipes  extend  to  more  than  100  miles  through 
streets.  The  great  iron-works  at  Carron  are  supplied  with  the  ore  from  which  the  iron  is 
obtained,  from  the  coalhelds  of  this  and  the  middle  division  of  Scotland.  The  ore  or  stone, 
which  is  an  argillaceous  carbonate  of  iron,  occurs  in  beds  and  embedded  masses,  and  princi- 
pally in  the  slate  of  tlie  coal  deposit  The  admirable  building-stone  around  Edinburgh  and 
Glasgow  is  a  sandstone  which  occurs  in  beds  in  the  coal  formation. 

4.  New  red  sandstone.  This  formation  in  the  regular  succession  rests  upon  the  coal 
formation,  in  which  position  it  is  to  be  seen  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cannoby  in  Dumfrie*- 
shire. 

5.  Drop  and  porphyry  rocks.  These  ignigenous  masses  occur  in  many  parts:  they 
abound,  for  uistance,  all  around  Edinburgh ;  forming  part  of  the  Calton  Hill,  Castle  Hill, 
Salisbury  Craigs,  Arthur  Scat,  the  Pentlands,  &c. :  the  beautiful  conical  hill  named  North 
Berwick  Law,  the  Bass  Rock,  the  Isle  of  May,  Traprain  Law,  are  also  formed  of  trap  and 
porpliyry  rocks.  Renfrewshire  and  Ayrshire  also  abound  in  splendid  and  interesting  displays 
of  trap  and  porphyry.  In  many  parts  of  the  country  these  rocks  are  used  as  building-stones, 
and  Uie  greenstone  of  the  trap  series  affords  an  admirable  material  for  road-making.  The 
splendid  causeways  and  roads  around  Edinburgh  are  of  greenstone. 

III.  Alluvial  rocks.  In  various  parts  of  the  country  there  occur  deposits  of  old  alluvium, 
or  what  is  called  diluvium ;  and  everywhere  the  modem  alluvium,  or  that  daily  fbrming 
meets  the  eye. 

(2.)  Middle  division.  This  division  of  Scotland  is  bounded  to  the  south  by  the  southern 
division ;  on  the  north  by  the  Moray  Frith  and  the  great  chain  of  lakes  extending  from 
Inverness  to  Fort  William  and  the  Linnhe  Loch.  It  is  traversed  in  a  north  and  south- 
westerly direction  by  the  Grampian  range  of  mountains,  which  extends  from*  the  Mull  of 
Cantyre  to  Stonehaven  in  Kincardineshire,  and  to  the  rocky  northern  coasts  of  Aberdeen- 
shire and  Banffshire.  The  country  in  general  falls  rapidly  to  the  west  of  this  great  moun- 
tain range,  and  comparatively  gently  to  the  eastward  of  it :  hence  the  western  acclivity  is 
steep  and  short,  the  eastern  gentle  and  long.  On  the  eastern  acclivity  and  the  low  landa 
coimected  with  it  are  situated  the  Sidlay,  Ochil,  and  Campsie  hills,  forming  a  pretty  conti- 
nuous range ;  and  Kellie  Law,  Largo  Law,  the  Lomonds,  and  the  Saline  Hills  in  Fifeshire, 
forming  a  less  continuous  and  lower  range  of  hills.  Water  is  abundantly  distributed  over 
tills  district,  in  the  form  of  rivers,  lakes,  and  springs.  Lakes,  which  are  so  rare  in  the 
southern  division,  are  here  abundantly  distributed,  and  exhibit  many  beautiful  and  splendid 
scenes.  Of  these  lakes  the  most  considerable  are  the  following :  Loch  Lomond,  Loch  Tay, 
Loch  Ness,  and  Loch  Awe.  The  rocks  are  more  varied  in  this  than  in  the  southern  divi- 
sion ;  magnificent  displays  of  primitive,  transition,  and  secondary  formations  present  them- 
selves to  our  attention. 

I.  Primitive  and  transition  rocks.  The  Neptunian  kinds  are  granite,  gneiss,  mica  slate, 
clay  slate,  talc  slate,  chlorite  slate,  quartz  rock,  greywacke,  limestone:  the  Plutonian  rocks 
are  granite,  syenite,  porphyry,  trap,  and  serpentine.  The  Neptunian  rocks  generally  range 
from  north-east  to  south-west ;  most  frequently  dip  under  an  angle  of  about  45° ;  and  are 
variously  upheaved,  broken,  and  disturbed  by  the  Plutonian  rocks.  They  are  principally 
confinedf  to  the  Grampian  high  land  and  its  branches.  The  most  remarkable  granite  anil 
syenite  districts  are  Cairngorm,  Benachie,  Aberdeen,  Peterhead,  Ben  Cruachan ;  and  Ben 
Nevis  conjoins  along  with  its  slaty  Neptunian  strata,  granite,  syenite,  and  porphyry.  In 
some  quarters  the  limestone  is  raised  as  marble,  as  in  Glen  Tilt;  but  more  frequently  it  is 
burnt  into  quicklime.  The  clay  slate  quarries  of  Luss,  on  the  banks  of  Loch  Lomond ;  those 
of  Halachulish,  in  Argyleshire ;  and  the  slate  quarries  in  the  interior  of  Aberdeenshire,  are 
of  considerable  extent,  and  employ  many  workmen.  There  were  formerly  lead-mines  in  tlie 
neighbourhood  of  Tyndrum,  where  the  lead  glance,  or  sulphuret  of  lead,  was  disposed  in 
veins  in  quartz  rock  and  mica  slate. 

II.  Seconilary  rocks.  These  are,  old  red  sandstone,  mountain  limestone,  coal  formation, 
and  new  red  sandstone,  and  probably  the  lias  formation :  these  strata  are  variously  inter- 
iiiino^ied  with  trap  and  porphyry  rocks. 

1.  Old  red  sandstone.  This  rock,  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  as  in  the  vicinity  of 
Stonehaven  and  near  Blair-Gowrie,  exhibits  magnificent  clifts  of  conglomerate.  It  forms 
the  principal  rock  in  the  great  tract  of  country  included  between  lines  drawn  from  Stone- 
laveii  by  Blair-Gowrie,  Comrie,  Callcnder,  Dumbarton,  Stirling,  Kinross,  Dundee,  Arbroath, 


M6 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III 


Montroee,  and  Bervie.  It  appears  a^irain  near  Inverness,  and  on  the  banks  of  Loch  Ness. 
In  many  localities  there  are  extensive:  quarries,  the  sandstone  being  used  as  a  building-stone, 
and  as  a  pavement-stone.  The  Kinf^uddie  sandstone  and  the  Arbroath  pavement-stone,  from 
old  red  sandstone  localities,  are  well  known. 

2.  Coal  formation.  The  coal  formation  in  the  middle  division  of  Scotland  has  not  been  met 
witli  farther  north  than  Fifeshire.  The  counties  of  Fife,  Clackmannan,  and  Stirling,  abound 
m  coal ;  of  these  counties,  Fife  is  that  wluch  contains  the  greatest  fields  of  this  valuable 
mineral. 

3.  New  red  sandstone  occurs  apparently  in  some  points  on  the  east  coast,  and  also  on  the 
north  coast  between  Cullen  and  the  Cromarty  Frith. 

4.  Lias  formation.  Near  to  BanflT  there  are  beds  of  clay,  which,  from  the  organic  re- 
mains contained  in  them,  may  turn  out  to  belong  to  this  formation. 

5.  Plutonian  rocks.  These  are  various  traps,  as  greenstone,  amygdaloid,  trap  tufla,  and 
basalt;  and  porphyries,  having  a  basis  of  claystone  or  clinkstone.  The  famous  headland  the 
Red  Head,  on  the  east  coast,  exhibits  a  fine  display  of  Plutonian  rocks,  connected  with  tlie 
red  sandstone.  Bervie  Head  and  the  vicinity  are  interesting  from  their  porphyry  rocks. 
The  trap  rocks  of  Montrose  are  famous  on  account  of  the  agates  they  afford.  Kinnoul  Hill, 
at  Perth,  is  composed  of  amygdaloid,  tufKi,  and  other  rocks  of  the  trap  series,  and  abounds 
in  agates.  The  Ochil  Hills  are  principally  composed  of  trap  and  porphyry ;  and  trap  rocka 
abound  in  the  Campeie  range.  The  Fifeshire  hills,  viz.  Kellie  Law,  Largo  Law,  the  cones 
of  the  Lomond,  and  the  Stiline  Hills,  are  of  trap.  These  various  traps  and  porphyries  have, 
as  is  generally  the  case,  broken  and  changed  more  or  less  the  Neptunian  strata  with  which 
they  are  intermingled. 

III.  Alluvial  rocks.  These  have  the  same  general  characters  as  those  met  with  in  the 
southern  division.  In  a  few  districts,  however,  as  near  to  Peterhead,  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
Banff,  there  are  numerous  chalk  flints.  These,  by  some,  are  considered  as  alluvial,  and 
foreign  to  Scotland ;  while  others  are  of  opinion  that  they  are  remains  of  the  chalk  forma- 
tion, formerly  distributed  in  some  of  the  tracts  where  the  flints  are  found. 

(.3.)  Northern  division.  This  division  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  chain  of  lakes 
which  forms  the  northern  limit  df  the  middle  division,  and  on  the  north,  the  east,  and  tiie 
west,  by  the  ocean.  The  high  land  ranges  throughout  its  whole  length,  from  south-weist  to 
north-east  Tije  western  acclivity  is  steep  and  short ;  the  eastern  comparatively  gently 
inclined  and  long.  Rivers,  springs,  and  lakes  are  numerous.  The  whole  of  this,  division, 
nearly,  is  composed  of  primitive  and  transition  rocks,  the  secondary  occurring  principally 
along  the  east  coast  and  a  small  extent  of  the  north-west  coast. 

I.  Primitive  and  transition  rocks.  The  Neptunian  species  are  disposed  in  strata  that 
oHen  range  from  south-west  to  nortli-east,  are  of  gneiss,  mica  slate,  clay  slate,  quartz  rock, 
talc  slate,  limestone,  and  greywacke.  The  Plutonian  rocks  are  less  abundant  than  in  the 
middle  and  southern  divisions  of  Scotland ;  and  are  granite,  syenite,  porphyry,  and  trap. 
The  only  mines  are  those  at  Strontian,  where  the  ore  is  lead  glance,  or  sulphuret  of  lead, 
in  veins  traversing  gneiss.  The  mineral  in  which  the  Strontian  earth  was  first  found 
occurs  in  these  mines,  along  with  other  curious  minerals,  of  which  the  cross-stone  is  the 
most  interestJng. 

II.  ISecoj^dary  rocks.  The  formations  of  this  class  are  both  Neptunian  and  Plutonian. 
The  Neptunian  are  old  red  sandstone,  new  red  sandstone,  lias,  and  oolite ;  the  Plutonian,  trap 
and  porphyry. 

1.  Old  red  sandstone.  Much  of  the  cour\,ty  of  Caithness,  and  some  tracts  on  the  east 
coast,  and  a  few  points  on  the  west,  are  composed  of  this  formation. 

2.  New  red  sandstone.  The  county  of  Caithness  affords  examples  of  this  deposit,  which 
is  remarkable  on  account  of  the  beds  oi  fossil  fishes  it  contains. 

3.  Lias  and  oolite.  This  formation  occurs  on  the  east  coast  of  Sutherland.  The  coal 
mines  at  Brora  are  situated  in  this  deposit;  the  coal  is,  however,  of  indifferent  quality. 

4.  The  Plutonian  rocks  are  not  frequent,  and  consist  principally  of  trap  and  porphyry. 

III.  Alluvial  rocks.  These  exhibit  the  same  characters  as  in  the  middle  and  southern 
divisions. 

(4.)  Insular  division.  This  may  be  subdivided  in  the  following  manner: — 1.  Forth 
Islands ;  2.  Clyde  Islands ;  3.  Hebrides ;  4.  Orkneys ;  5.  Shellands. 

(1.)  Forth  Islands.  The  Bell  Rock  is  of  a  red  sandstone,  having  the  same  characters  as 
that  on  the  neighbouring  coast  at  Arbroath.  The  other  islands  are  principally  composed  of 
trap  rocks,  occasionally  associated  with  clinkstone  porphyry,  and  rocks  of  the  coal  formation, 
(2.)  Clyde  Islands  and  the  Cumbrays  are  composed  of  secondary  rocks ;  the  Neptunian  rocks 
are  chiefly  old  red  sandstone,  which  is  traversed  and  overlaid  by  different  kinds  of  trap  rocks, 
ofwliich  there  are  magnificent  displays  in  these  islands.  The  southern  part  of  Bute  is 
almost  entirely  composed  of  rocks  of  igneous  origin,  belonging  to  the  trap  series;  the  mid- 
dle, of  old  red  sandstone ;  the  northern  of  clay  slate,  mica  slate,  quartz  rock,  and  trap.  Arran 
affords  highly  illustrative  examples  of  Neptunian  and  Plutonian  rocks  of  the  primitive  and 


pabt  in 


unks 


-  of  Loch  N088. 
as  a  building-stone, 
Lvement'Stone,  from 

nd  has  not  been  met 
nd  Stirling,  abound 
Ids  of  this  valuable 

Etst,  and  also  on  the 

om  the  organic  re- 

iloid,  trap  tufia,  and 
imous  headland  tlie 
connected  with  the 
3ir  porphyry  rocks. 
)rd.  Kinnoul  Hill, 
eries,  and  abounds 
ry ;  and  trap  rocks 
■go  Law,  the  cones 
id  porphyries  have, 
1  strata  with  which 

ise  met  with  in  the 
1  in  the  vicinity  of 
ed  as  alluvial,  and 
f  the  chalk  forma- 

he  chain  of  lakes 
,  the  east,  and  tiie 
from  south-webt  to 
iparatively  gently 
lie  of  this>  division, 
urring  principally 

osed  in  strata  that 
slate,  quartz  rock, 
undant  than  in  the 
orphyry,  and  trap, 
sulphuret  of  lead, 
h  was  first  found 
cross-stone  is  the 

m  and  Plutonian, 
he  Plutonian,  trap 

tracts  on  the  east 

his  deposit,  which 

jrland.     The  coal 
rent  quality, 
and  porphyry, 
ddle  and  6r)uthem 

anner: — 1.  Forth 

ame  characters  as 
pally  composed  of 
he  coal  formation. 
3  Neptunian  rocks 
nndsoftrap  rocks, 
1  part  of  Bute  is 
)  series ;  the  mid- 
k,  and  trap.  Arran 
the  primitive  and 


Boor  L 


SCOTLAND. 


407 


transition  classes,  viz.  clay  slate,  mica  slate,  grey  wacke,  as  Neptunian  deposits ;  and  granite, 
as  a  Plutonian  rock.  The  junctions  of  the  granite,  of  which  there  are  two  formations,  with 
each  other  and  with  the  Neptunian  slates,  are  most  instructive.  Reposing  on  these  rocks  is 
a  deposit  of  the  old  red  sandstone,  on  which  rests  tlie  coal  formation ;  and  the  whole  are 
covered,  more  or  less  completely,  witli  new  red  sandstone.  These  Neptunian  secondary 
rocks  are  traversed  in  all  directions  by  Plutonian  rocks  of  the  porphyrv  and  trap  series, 
attbrding  an  admirable  study  to  the  geologist.  Alluvial  deposits  occur  all  round  the  coast, 
and  covering,  more  or  less  deeply,  the  bottom  and  sides  of  valleys.  Both  old  and  new  allu* 
vium  are  met  with  in  Arran.  The  Craig  of  Ailsa,  which  is  0<K)  tcet  high,  is  composed  of 
secondary  syenite,  in  several  clilTs  dispowd  m  magnificent  columns,  uid  traversed  by  veins 
of  secondary  greenstone,  &c. 

(3.)  The  Hebrides  or  Western  Islands  form  two  groups ;  the  one,  ranging  immediately 
along  the  coast,  the  Inner  Hebrides ;  the  other,  lying  beyond,  to  the  westward,  the  Outer 
Hebrides. 

Inner  Hebrides.  Gigha,  Isla,  Jura,  Colonsay,  Oronsay,  Scarba,  and  the  Slate  Isles,  are 
principally  composed  of  Neptunian  primitive  and  transition  strata,  having  frequently  a  north- 
east and  south-west  direction;  and  variously  disposed,  from  the  slightly  inclined  to  the  ver- 
tical position.  The  rocks  are  mica  slate,  quartz  rock,  talc  slate,  chlorite  slate,  hornblende 
slate,  clay  slate,  limestone,  and  grey  wacke.  These  are  traversed  by,  and  intermingled  with, 
Plutonian  rocks  of  the  trap  and  porphyry  series.  The  clay  slate  is  extensively  quarried  in 
the  isle  of  Eisdale,  one  of  the  Slate  Islands.  In  Isla  there  is  a  great  deposit  of  limestone, 
in  which  formerly  lead-mines  were  worked.  lona,  Tiree,  and  Coll  are  principally  composed 
of  gneiss,  mica  slate,  quartz  rock,  hornblende  rock,  with  occasional  intermixtures  of  granite 
and  syenite,  and  all  traversed,  more  or  less  frequently,  by  veins  of  trap  rock.  Mull,  with 
the  exception  of  two  or  three  points,  which  are  composed  of  granite,  gneiss,  and  mica  slate, 
is  composed  of  secondary  trap  and  porphyry  rocks,  with  occasional  intermixtures  of  lias  lime- 
stones, and  lias  coals.  The  usual  alluvial  deposits  appear  in  different  parts  of  the  island. 
Staffa,  which  is  composed  of  basalt,  amygdaloid,  and  trap  tuffa,  has  been  long  celebrated  on 
account  of  its  splendid  columnar  basaltic  cave,  the  Final's  Cave  of  travellers.  Eigg  is 
principally  composed  of  trap  rocks,  occasionally  intermingled  with  lias  limestones.  The 
Scure  Egg  is  a  remarkable  columnar  ridge  of  pitchstone  porphyry,  presenting  the  most 
splendid  display  of  the  natural  columnar  structure  to  be  met  with  anywhere  in  the  British 
islands.  Canna  is  entirely  composed  of  secondary  trap  rocks;  axid  Rum,  a  wild,  rugged, 
and  hilly  island,  besides  red  sandstone,  which  forms  a  prominent  constituent  part,  also  con- 
tains many  varieties  of  trap,  some  of  which  are  remarkable  from  their  containing  agates, 
bloodstone,  opal,  &c.  Skye,  the  largest  of  the  Inner  Hebrides,  exhibits  great  variety  of 
scenery  and  of  geological  arrangement.  The  southern  part  of  the  island  is  composed  of 
primitive  and  transition  rocks,  principally  of  the  Neptunian  scries ;  namely,  mica  slate,  clay 
slate,  chlorite  slate,  hornblende  rock,  quartz  rock,  grey  wacke,  and  limestone.  The  middle 
part  aflbrds  magnificent  displays  of  Plutonian  rocks,  as  syenite,  porphyry  and  trap,  which 
are  frequently  observed  intermixed  with  lias  limestone,  which  in  many  places  is  seen  con- 
verted into  marble  through  the  agency  of  those  ignigenous  rocks :  the  northern  division  of 
the  island  is  principally  composed  of  various  trap  rocks,  often  abounding  in  zeolite  and  other 
curious  minerals,  and  intermingled  with  lias  limestone  and  coal.  The  alluvium  here  exhibits 
its  usual  characters.  Rasay.  The  southern  and  middle  parts  of  this  island  are  of  secondary 
formation,  principally  of  old  red  sandstone  and  lias  sandstone ;  the  northern  extremity  is  of 
primitive  rocks,  prmcipally  gneiss.  Rona.  This  island,  which  appears  formerly  to  have 
been  a  part  of  Rasay,  is  entirely  of  primitive  formation,  the  prevailing  rock  being  gneiss, 
with  subordinate  mica  slate,  quartz  rock,  hornblende  rock,  &c.,  traversed  by  splendid  veins 
of  granite. 

Outer  Hebrides.  This  group,  which  lies  in  a  north-east  and  south-west  direction,  con- 
sists of  the  following  islands ;  viz.  Lewis,  Harris,  North  Uist,  South  Uist,  and  Barra.  Tiie 
whole  range  of  islands  is  nearly  of  primitive  formation,  and  the  predominating  rocks,  which 
are  gneiss  and  mica  slate,  range  generally  from  north-east  to  soutli-west.  The  following 
rocks,  which  are  generally  subordinate  to  those  just  mentioned,  viz.  quartz  rock,  clay  slate, 
chlorite  slate,  hornblende  rock  of  various  kinds,  limestone  (?),  serpentine,  with  masses  and 
veins  of  granite,  syenite,  and  porphyry,  present  many  interesting  phenomena. 

'A.)  Orkney  Islands.  This  group  of  islands  is  distinguished  from  all  others  that  lie  around 
tiie  coasts  of  Scotland,  by  the  uniformity  of  its  structure  and  composition.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  a  small  extent  of  transition  rocks  near  Stromness  in  the  island  of  Pomona,  the  largest 
of  the  Orkneys,  that  island  and  all  the  others  are  composed  of  the  old  red  sandstone,  with 
some  rare  appearance  of  secondary  trap. 

(5.)  Shetland  Islands.  This  very  interesting  group  of  islands  exhibits  great  variety  in 
its  geognostical  structure  and  composition.  Mainland.  With  the  exception  of  a  band  of 
old  red  sandstone  extending  from  the  line  of  Sumburgh  Head  to  Rovey  Head,  on  the  east 
coast  the  whole  of  this  island  is  formed  of  primitive  rocks.    The  Neptunian  strata  are 


4oe 


DESCRIPTIVE  QEOORAPHY. 


PastIIL 


i;^ 


ffneits,  with  subordinate  mica  slate,  clay  slate,  quartz  rock,  limestone,  and  hornblende  rocks ; 
the  Plutonian  rocks,  wliich  fV«quently  alter  and  upraise  tlie  Neptunian  strata,  are  granite, 
syenite,  porphyry,  greenstone,  and  epidotic  syenite.  YeU  is  annost  entirely  composed  of 
gneiss,  variously  intersected  by  veins  of  granite.  Vnat  is  composed  of  gneiss,  mica  sluto, 
talc  slate,  chlorite  slate,  and  limestone,  which  are  variously  intermixed  with  serpentine  and 
jiallago  rockH.  Hermancss,  the  most  northern  point  of  tlie  British  dominions  in  Europe,  is 
ooinpoBod  of  prnoiss ;  while  the  land's  End  of  Cornwall,  the  most  south-westerly  cape  of 
Britain,  is  formed  of  granite.  Unst  and  the  neighbouring  island  of  Fotlar  abound  in  chro- 
mato  of  iron.  Hydrate  of  magnesia,  grenatite,  precious  garnot,  and  otiier  beautiful  minoralH, 
occur  in  this  island.  Fetlar  is  composed  of  serpentine  as  tiio  predominating  rock,  witli 
(liallage  rock,  gneiss,  mica  slate,  chlorite  slate,  and  ouartz  rock,  Whaltey  is  composed  of 
gneiss.  Breagay,  Nosa,  and  Mouaa  are  composed  ot  old  red  sandstone.  Batra  and  Houae 
are  composed  of  gneiss  and  mica  slate,  with  subordinate  limestone ;  Papa  Slour  is  a  mass  of 
)orphyry.  In  Foula  the  predominating  rock  is  old  red  sandstone ;  at  one  point  tliere  is  a 
imited  display  of  primitive  rocks  of  granite,  gneiss,  mica  slate,  and  clay  slate. 

Sect.  III. — Iliatorical  Survey. 

To  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  Scotland  was  not  known  as  a  distinct  country.  Albion, 
or  Britain,  was  viewed  aa  one  region,  parcelled  out  among  a  multitude  of  different  tribes, 
Agricola  first  penetrated  into  that  part  of  Britain,  which  we  now  call  Scotland.  He  easily 
over-ran  the  low  country,  but  encountered  the  most  obstinate  resistance  when  he  approached 
the  Caledonians,  who  appear  then  to  have  held  all  the  nortliorn  districts.  An  obstinate 
battle,  tlie  precise  place  ot  which  has  never  been  ascertained,  was  fought  at  the  foot  of  the 
Grampians.  All  the  rude  valour  of  Caledonia  could  not  matcli  tlie  skill  of  Agricola  and  the 
discipline  of  the  Roman  legions.  The  whole  open  country  was  abandoned  tu  the  invaders, 
whose  progress,  however,  was  stayed  by  what  they  tenned  the  Caledonian  forest,  under 
which  they  stem  to  have  vaguely  comprehended  the  vast  pine  woods  of  Glcnmore,  and  the 
steep  barrier  of  the  Grampians.  Their  military  occupation,  however,  is  attested  by  the  form- 
ation of  numerous  camps,  of  which  that  of 
Ardoch,  (fig.  185),  ten  miles  north  of  Stir- 
ling, is  the  most  extensive  and  complete. 
The  Romans  endeavoured  to  resist  the  in- 
cursions of  the  natives,  by  rearing  at  difTcrent 
periods,  two  walls,  one  between  tlie  Forth 
and  Clyde,  and  the  other  south  of  the  low 
country  of  Scotland,  between  the  Solway 
and  the  Tyne.  The  northern  tribes,  how- 
ever, continued  tlieir  inroads,  now  chiefly 
under  the  name  of  Picts,  who  seem  clearly 
to  have  been  the  same  people  with  the 
Caledonians.  In  the  fifth  century  Britain 
was  abandoned  by  the  Romans,  and  over-run 
by  the  Saxons,  who  occupied  the  eastern 
wrt  of  the  south  of  Scotland,  as  far  as  the 
Forth. 

The  western  part  was  formed  into  the 
kingdom  of  Strathcluyd      It  flourished  for 
about  300  years,  and  was  rendered  illuatrious 
by  the  name  and  exploits  of  Arthur  and  his 
knights,  whose  power  from  508  to  542,  is 
represented  by  tradition  as  having  been  predominant  over  the  south  of  Scotland  and  the  north 
of  England.    The  capital  and  bulwark  of  this  kingdom  was  Alcluyd,  called  afterwards  Dun 
Briton  and  Dumbarton,  seated  on  an  insulated  precipitous  rock  at  the  mouth  of  the  Clyri' 
The  Strathcluyd  Britons,  closely  pressed  by  their  Saxon  neighbours,  endeavoured  to  deti 
themselves  by  a  lengthened /ossc,  of  which  the  traces  have  been  supposed  to  remain  in  • 
Catrail  or  Picts'-work  Ditch,  drawn  across  the  counties  of  Selkirk  and  Roxburgh.     Si 
feeble  defences  could  not  support  a  sinking  monarchy ;  in  757,  Alcluyd  was  taken  by 
Saxons,  and  the  kingdom  subverted. 

The  Scots,  before  this  time,  had  come  from  Ireland,  their  original  seat,  which,  in  the  fourth 
century,  was  often  called  Scotland.  Even  before  the  departure  of  the  Romans,  the  Scots, 
joined  with  the  Picts,  are  mentioned  as  the  ravagere  of  defenceless  Britain.  They  appear  at 
one  lime  to  have  been  driven  back  into  Ireland ;  but  in  503  they  again  landed  in  Cantyre, 
and  during  the  next  four  centuries,  spread  gradually  over  the  kingdom.  At  length  under  tiie 
vict<)riou8  reign  of  Kenneth,  which  commenced  in  8:i6,  th«y  wrested  the  sceptre  from  Wrou 
tlie  Fictish  king,  and  established  supreme  sway  over  tlie  whole  of  that  country,  which,  from 
them,  was  ever  afterwards  called  Scotland. 


Camp  at  Amlocb. 


Book  I. 


SCOTIiAND. 


try,  wliich,  from 


The  Souto-Saxon  era,  u  Mr.  Ckalmora  oalls  it,  in  mnmorable  retlior  fbf  an  mMnaiblo 
^Imiiiro,  than  tor  any  Hiiddon  revolution.  Allur  the  Mubvomion  of  the  kinf^loni  of  Btnth- 
cliiyil,  by  the  Saxunn,  that  people  Itod  colonized  and  filled  the  whole  Mtuth;  and  the  V  '  ttivh 
kinftn,  though  of  Celtic  origin,  having  OHtabliiihed  theinHclvoii  in  thiu  morn  fertile  part  sir 
lorntorictH,  hoou  began  to  imbibe  tlie  spirit  of  itn  occupuntM.  From  tliiii  or  other  oaufH>.  the 
wlioh^  lowlundH  of  Scotland  ia  hi  language  and  manneni  Teutonic,  and  the  Gael  or  Celt* 
were  uguin  uonHned  within  their  mountain  boundary. 

An  era  of  diHputed  tiuccemion  arone  out  of  the  contending  claimH  of  Bruce  and  Baliol, 
itllor  the  death  of  Margaret  of  Norway,  f^lward  I.,  availing  liimBelf  of  thin  dittMetiHiim, 
HUi'cncded  in  int('(MhK'iiig  himself  under  the  ciiaractor  of  an  arbiter,  and  having  0HtabliHlie<l 
Itiiliol  on  the  throne  by  an  armed  interference,  nought  to  rule  Hcotland  as  a  vaiwal  kingdom. 
The  rctjiilt  was  a  struggle,  calamitous  to  Hcotland,  but  which,  however,  placed  in  a  con- 
spicuous light  tlio  energy  and  heroism  of  the  nation,  and  brought  forward  the  names  of 
Wallace  and  Bruce,  ever  atlcrwards  the  foremost  in  her  annuls.  The  result  was  glorious; 
tliu  concontratud  farce  of  the  Knglish  was  finally  defeated  in  a  pitched  battle  at  Bannock- 
Imrii ;  thoy  were  compelled  to  renounce  their  ambitious  pretensions,  and  allow  the  kingdom 
to  Im  governed  by  its  native  princes. 

Utulvr  the  turbulent  and  unfortunate  sway  of  the  Stuartfl,  Hcotland  continued  for  several 
coiiluries  without  any  prominent  rnvolution,  though  with  n  continual  tendency  to  internal 
coiniiiotion.  This  dynasty,  from  their  connexion  w'ith  the  French  and  English  courts,  hiul 
ari|iiirc(l  the  idea  of  more  iKtlished  matmers,  and  habits  of  greater  subordination  as  duo  from 
tlie  nobles.  Such  views  were  ill  suited  to  tlie  |X)Wor  and  temi^r  of  a  Douglas,  and  many 
other  powerful  chieftains,  through  whose  resistance  the  attempts  of  the  monarchs  were 
f()llowe<l  with  disaster,  and  oflen  with  violent  death.  The  introduction  of  the  reformed 
religion  especially,  in  open  opposition  to  the  court,  which  granted  only  a  reluctant  and  pre- 
ctirious  toleration,  was  unfavourable  to  the  crown,  and  fatal  to  a  princess  whose  lieauty  and 
misfijrtunes  have  rendered  her  an  object  of  enthusiasm  to  the  gay  and  chivalric  part  of  the 
Scottish  nation. 

The  union  of  the  crowns,  by  the  accession  of  James  VI.  in  lOOJi,  to  the  English  throne, 
produced  a  great  change,  in  itself  flattering  to  Scotland,  whose  race  of  princes  now  held 
Bway  over  all  the  three  kingdoms.  The  struggle  between  presbytery  and  prelacy  gave  rise 
to  a  conflict  which  still  powerfully  influences  the  temper  and  character  of  the  Scots.  The 
efforts  of  the  presbyterians,  acting  under  the  bond  of  their  League  and  Covenant,  first 
enabled  the  English  parliament  to  rear  its  head,  and  hod  a  great  effect  in  turning  the  scale 
of  contest  against  the  crown.  The  Scots  revolted,  however,  at  the  excesses  of  the  inde- 
pendents, and  endeavoured  to  rear  again,  on  a  covenanted  liosis,  the  fallen  crown  of  the 
Stuarts,  These  brave  but  unsuccessful  efTorLs  were  ill  requited  by  an  embittered  persecu- 
tion against  all  the  adherents  of  presbytery,  till  the  Revolution  finally  fixed  that  system  as 
the  established  religion  of  Scotland. 

The  union  of  the  kingdoms,  in  1707,  placed  Scotland  ii^  that  political  position  which  she 
has  ever  since  maintained;  and,  by  allaying  internal  contest,  and  opening  a  free  trade  with 
tlic  sister  kingdom,  this  union  has  produced  results  highly  bcncHcial,  although  the  devoted 
attachment  of  her  mountain  tribes  to  the  exiled  Stuarts  repeatedly  impelled  them  to  attempt 
to  replace  that  house  on  the  throne ;  attempts  which,  at  one  critical  moment,  spread  alam: 
into  the  heart  of  England. 

&:oT.  IV. — Political  Oanstitutinn. 

The  political  syptem  of  Scotland  being  now  almost  completely  incorporated  with  that  of 
England,  little  is  to  be  added  to  the  statements  given  under  the  head  of  the  sister  kingdom. 
A  few  peculiarities,  however,  may  be  deserving  of  notice. 

The  representation  allowed  to  Scotland  at  the  union  was  somewhat  scanty.  It  consisted, 
for  the  House  of  Commons,  of  forty-five  members,  fiflcon  from  the  boroughs,  and  thirty  from 
the  counties.  The  members  were  elected,  not  by  the  burgesses,  but  by  the  magistrates, 
who  themselves  were  appointed  chiefly  by  their  predecessors  in  office ;  thus  constituting 
close  boroughs,  in  which  a  party  having  once  obtained  a  majority  might  keep  it  in  wrpetuum. 
In  county  elections,  the  right  of  voting  was  attached  to  the  possession  of  lunns  held  im- 
m«vlittt.ely  of  the  crown,  and  of  the  valued  rent  of  400^  Scots.  But  the  feudal  superiority 
which  entitled  to  vote  wos  separable  from  the  actual  possession  of  the  property.  The  original 
proprietor,  who,  perhaps,  had  a  number  of  these  volen  on  his  estate,  might  either  sell  or 
distribute  them  among  his  friends,  so  as  to  multiply  his  own  elective  influence.  The  free- 
holders of  Scotland  amounted  to  not  quite  3000,  of  whom  a  certain  number,  for  the  reason 
stated,  had  no  actual  property  in  land.  The  peers  of  Scotland  are  represented  by  sixteen 
of  their  number,  elected  at  the  commencement  of  each  parliament.  There  are,  bcsiuea, 
upwards  of  twenty  who  are  British  peers,  and  sit  in  their  personal  right. 

Vol.  L  85  8B 


410 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  ni. 


By  the  Reform  Mill  of  18:^2,  the  power  of  roturning  members  to  the  Houio  of  Co..jmuni 
ifl  vested  in  the  following  cities  and  burghs  :— 

Mrinban, 

K(tinbiir|h ' V 

OlaiVDW •.• 9 

AtM'cdeen • ,,•,,, ] 


Palil«y 


1 


Dundee  .   •,,.., ...•.•,.. , , 1 

Greenock 1 

Perth 1 

I<eUh,  Pnrtobclln,  MuMi'lbiirc 1 

Kirkwall,  Wick,  Dornnch,  Dlnjrwall,  Tain,  Cromarty 1 

Fortrnffl,  IfiverneM,  Nairn,  Forrei , 1 

Elgin,  Ciillen,  DanlT,  Invurary,  Kinlore,  Pelnrhead,  ••• 1 

Inverlxirvli',  Mnntroso,  Arhrnntli,  Drecliln,  Porflir 1 

Cupar,  St.  Anilrew'i,  Anatruthor  Kntiur  and  Weetur,  Orall,  Kilrenny,  PitttnwMn 1 

Dynart,  Kirknidy,  KiiiRhorn,  Hurntialand 1 

Invnrkeithlnn,  DiinfiTmlini!,  Klnrnn,  Queensfiirry,  CulroM,  Stirling  .• 1 

Renfrew,  RiithorRlcn,  Dumbarton,  Kilmarnock,  Port  Oloigow / 1 

Haddington,  Uunbnr,  Norili  Her  wick,  Laudor,  Jedburgh 1 

Linlithgow.  Lannrk.  Falkirk,  Airdrie,  Kamilton 1 

Ayr,  Irvine,  (Tamplx-llton,  Inverary,  Oban 1 

Diimflriet,  Sannuahar,  Annan,  Lochmaben,  Kirkcudbright  ...•.^ 1 

Wlgton,  New  Oalloway,  Stranraer,  Whithorn 1 

Th^se  members  are  returned  by  the  inhabitants  paying  rent  to  the  value  of  lOZ.  and  upwards. 
The  counties  continue  each  to  elect  a  member,  except  that  onlv  one  in  conjunct)  tn  in  re- 
turned by  Elgin  and  Nairn,  one  by  Ross  and  Cromarty,  and  one  bv  Clackmannan  nml  Kin- 
ross.  The  power  of  voting,  too,  is  attached  to  the  possession  oi  actual  property  ^itldiug 
10/.  of  yearly  rent. 

The  judicial  administration  of  Scotland  has  always  continued  distinct  from  that  of  the 
sister  kinj^dom.  The  supreme  court,  or  Court  of  Session,  consisted  until  lately,  of  fifteen 
members,  sitting  together,  and  deciding  in  all  civil  causes,  while  six  of  these  constituted  a 
Justiciary  Court  for  the  trial  of  criminal  cases.  The  trial  by  jury  was  employed  only  m  the 
Justiciary  Court,  and  in  revenue  questions,  which  are  tried  before  the  Court  of  Exchequer. 
But  the  supreme  court  is  now  divided  into  two  chambers,  one  of  six  and  the  other  of  seven 
members.  Trials  by  jury,  in  civil  cases,  have  been  introduced,  and  are  now  carried  on,  like 
others,  under  the  direction  of  the  Court  of  Session.  The  Court  of  Exchequer,  which  con- 
sisted of  five  barons,  the  Consistory  and  the  Admiralty  Courts  have  h  .-n  abolished,  and  their 
jurisdiction  transferred  to  the  Court  of  Session. 

The  revenue  of  Scotland  ha.s  been  hitherto  collected  separately  from  that  of  England, 
and  by  separate  boards  for  each  branch ;  but,  under  recent  regulations,  the  whole  has  been 
placed  under  the  direction  of  boards  resident  in  London,  and  the  systems  have  been  in  a  great 
measure  incorporated  together.    In  the  year  ending  6th  January,  1831 — 


The  Scottish  excise  was 
Customs  -        -        - 
Stamps         ... 
Assessed  taxes 
Post  office    -       -       - 


Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry. 


£ 

2,395,490 

l,a'>7,000 

526,000 

292,000 

201,000 

4,771,490 


Scotland  has  always  ranked  as  a  poor  country ;  and,  for  a  long  time,  natural  obstacle.^  were 
enhanced  by  moral  impediments.  The  Scots  showed  an  aptitude  to  embark  in  all  schemes 
of  turbulence ;  bpt  indolence,  and  dislike  of  plain  hard  work,  might  be  recognized  as  a 
national  characteristic.  Since  the  age  arrived,  however,  when  industry  came  into  honour, 
and  when  improved  processes  were  studiously  applied  to  all  the  useful  arts,  the  Scots  have 
entered  with  peculiar  spirit  and  intelligence  into  this  new  career;  and  in  its  prosecution 
have  been  more  successral,  in  some  respects,  than  their  southern  neighbours. 

The  agriculture  of  Scotland  has  to  contend  with  obstacles  which  must  be  manifest,  when 
we  look  at  its  rugged  aspect,  and  its  vast  hills  and  morasses.  Forty  years  ago,  moreover, 
the  progress  of  Scotland  in  this  primary  art  was  generally  behind  that  of  the  rest  of  the 
empire.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  great  system  of  agricultural  improvement  was  adopted 
throughout  the  kingdom,  the  Scottish  farmers  not  only  shared  in  it,  but  carried  it  farther 
than  those  of  England.  The  farmers  of  the  Lothians,  of  the  Carse  of  Gowrie,  and  even  of 
the  district  on  the  Moray  Frith,  made  a  complete  reform  in  the  whole  train  of  agricultural 
operations.  They  brought  extensive  tracts  of  common  and  waste  under  cultivation,  reduced 
the  number  of  cattle  and  improved  the  breed,  cultivated  the  artificial  grasses,  dismissed 


Book  L 


I  ,'«.i 


SCOTLAND. 


luperfluoui  handi,  and  adopted  the  uie  of  machinery,  of  which  the  moat  import-int,  the 
thrusliingr  machine,  waa  of  l:kottiah  invontiun.  Tho  coniio«]U6nce  wbh,  tliat  conHidcrahlo 
tbrtunea  were  miule  by  Huccoiu)ful  farmcn,  and  that  rentH  wero  in  almoAt  ovory  matance 
trublod,  and  in  aome  caaea  raiaed  to  eight  or  ton  times  their  tbrmor  amount.  In  ttiu  moun- 
tuimmH  diatricta,  alao,  a  now  Hystom  waa  introduced,  which  proved  more  profituhle  to  the 
landlord.  The  numeroua  little  farmn  hitherto  held  by  tonanta  or  vuwtula,  were  thrown  into 
oxtonHive  aheep-walks.  Considerable  depopulation,  in  the  agricullurol  diNtrictt<,  waa  the 
coime(|uence  ;  a  great  proportion  of  thia  brave  and  warm-hearted  race  were  forcod  to  quit 
tbuir  native  (rlonfl,  to  which  they  were  fondly  attached,  and  to  aeek  aupport,  oithor  in  tlie 
great  manufacturing  towns,  or  in  aettlementa  formed  on  the  other  aide  of  tho  Atlantic. 

The  cultivated  landH  of  Scotland,  and  the  amount  of  ita  produce,  aller  all  those  improve- 
ments, are  still  limited.  Of  tho  18,944,000  acres,  ita  computed  extent  of  land,  only  5,()43,(M)0 
are  under  regular  cultivation,  and  not  more  tlian  1,80(),(XM)  under  grain.  Of  these  only 
140,000  produce  wheat,  though  this  is  conaidered  the  most  profitable  crop,  and  is  raised  of 
good  quality,  where  the  soil  and  climate  admit.  Oats,  a  hardy  plant,  ia  the  staple  produce 
of  Scotland,  and  the  food  of  ita  rural  population :  it  covers  1,260,000  acres.  Barley  occupies 
280,(M)0  acres,  being  raised  chiefly  for  distillation;  but  in  the  higher  districts  it  is  the  ruder 
species  called  bear  or  big.  The  chief  exportable  produce  consists  in  cattle  and  sheop,  which 
are  sent  in  numbers  to  the  English  markets.  The  sheep  are  not  equal  to  tho  hne  English 
breeds,  but  the  mutton  of  the  Grampians  and  Cheviots  is  of  exquisite  flavour.  , 

The  manufacturing  industry  of  Scotland  has,  within  the  last  century,  advanced  with  pro* 
digious  rapidity,  being  quite  equal,  cotnnarcd  with  the  extent  and  population  of  the  country, 
to  that  of  England.  Woollen,  the  grand  original  staple  of  England,  has  never  obtained  more 
than  a  very  partial  footing  in  Scotland.  Linen,  with  other  products  of  flax,  is  the  original 
staple  of  Scotland.  It  was  throughout  the  country  a  household  manufacture,  and  for  house- 
hold use.  Flax,  in  almost  every  family,  waa  diligently  spun  into  yarn,  which  was  then  snit 
out  to  be  woven  and  bleached.  The  coarser  kinds  of  linen  still  form  the  staple  of  the  eastorn 
counties,  though  Dunfermline  excels  in  fine  sheeting  and  diaper.  The  linen  made  in  Scot- 
land was  estimated,  in  1810,  at  26,457,000  yards,  value  1,265,0002.  The  increase  in  the 
manufhcture  has  since  been  so  great,  that  in  1831,  Dundee  alone  exported  more  than 
67,000,000  yards!  By  far  tho  greater  proportion  of  the  raw  material  is  imported,  very,  little 
hemp  or  flax  being  grown  either  in  Scotland  or  England ;  almost  all  the  former,  and  more 
than  half  the  latter,  is  brought  from  Russia,  the  rest  of  the  flax  Utom  Holland,  Flandcis,  and 
Germany. 

The  cotton  manufacture,  though  of  comparatively  recent  introduction,  has,  in  Scotland, 
no  less  than  in  England,  risen  to  be  the  first  in  point  of  magnitude.  Glasgow  and  PaiHiny 
produce  fabrics  carried  to  an  extreme  degree  of  fineness.  The  muslin  of  Paisley  is  one  of 
the  most  delicate  fabrics  existing.  The  prmting  of  cottons,  particularly  shawls,  is  also  curried 
on  to  a  greater  proportional  extent  in  Scotland  than  in  England.  The  total  quantity  of  cotton 
wool  spun  in  Scotland  in  1832,  amounted  to  24,500,000  lbs.  of  the  value  of  about  4,01M),(M)()/. 

Distillation  of  spirits  fVom  grain  has  been  long  a  characteristic  branch  of  Scottish  industry ; 
and  in  the  highland  districts,  the  quality  of  the  article  has  been  carried  to  very  great  per- 
fection. It  has  been  much  cramped  by  fiscal  restrictions,  which  have,  of  late,  been  ahiKist 
entirely  abolished.  In  tho  first  seven  years  of  the  present  century,  the  quantity  paying  duty 
averaged  2,000,000  gallons;  it  then  gradually  approached  to  4,000,000;  but  in  1824,  upon 
the  reduction  of  the  duty,  it  suddenly  increased  to  above  5,000,000,  and  in  1830  it  rose  to 
6,070,000. 

Scotland  has  various  other  ordinary  manufactures,  and  generally  supplies  itself  with  all 
the  common  necessaries  of  life.  The  ale  of  Edinburgh  and  of  some  Scottish  towns  enjoys 
reputation  even  out  of  Scotland.  In  1829,  there  were  brewed  in  Scotland  110,000  gallons 
of  strong  beer,  and  229,000  of  table  beer.  Glass  is' made  to  the  extent  of  nearly  double  tlie 
consumption  of  the  country ;  the  surplus  being  exported,  chiefly  to  Ireland.  Salt,  wliich 
does  not  exist  in  a  mineral  form,  is  largely  extracted  from  sea-water  by  boiling ;  and  thoujrh 
not  equal  in  quality  to  English  rock  salt,  nor  fit  for  use  in  the  fisheries,  its  cheapness  recom- 
mends it  for  common  culinary  purposes.  Candles,  soap,  starch,  leather,  paper,  are  produced 
in  quantity  sufficient  for  tho  supply  of  the  inhabitants.  In  1829,  the  produce  was  5,731,000 
lbs.  tallow  candles;  12,721,000  lbs.  hard  soap,  and  2,332,000  lbs.  soft  soap;  812,000  lbs 
starch  ;  6,002,000  lbs.  hides;  7,162,000  lbs.  paper. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Scotland  is  chiefly  of  an  humble  and  usefiil  description.  Its  moun- 
tains are  not  metalliferous.  In  I,anark  and  Dumfries  is  a  large  deposit  of  lead  mixed  with 
silver,  which,  together  with  some  smaller  mines  in  the  Hebrides,  is  supposed  to  yield  136,000iJ. 
in  the  former  metal,  and  10,000/.  in  the  latter.     Ironstone  occurs  extensively  in  the  upper 

j«<-\n1     rlin4'M!y«4-ci  Tn    1 QO''^     iVtrk     nniniiol     nv^^flimt irtn     rkF  rkifv    ifrim     in     SSpntlnnn     urnB    Oa  OfU\    tnna 

\j\jt»,t       VtlOtl  iX't/O*  Alt       LV^-'W^^y     VltV       lAmtUlbA       ^«^muuviuia       «->*       f'^        «••-'»»       «•-       -»^^- w  ^.— ..»-         >•  »»      'Wf.wuv'       «»f-.^j 

which  is  not,  however,  sufficient  to  supply  the  founderies  at  Carron  and  elsewhere.  Those 
at  Carron  are  considerable,  the  casting  being  chiefly  of  ordnance,  grates,  and  culinary  ves- 
sels. Coal,  lime,  and  stone,  compose  the  solid  mineral  wealth  of  Scotland.  The  great  coal- 
field extends  in  a  diagonal  line  of  100  miles  along  the  friths  of  Clyde  and  Forth;  bcgmning 


419 


DEHCRIPTIVE  OEOORAPHY. 


Pabt  III 


■mith  of  thn  formnr,  and  (iniiinif  north  of  the  latter.  It  ia  iinmanaely  rich  in  ooal  of  prett\ 
ffood  (quality,  though  not  equal  to  tho  beat  Kngiiah.  A  larffe  quantity  ia  oxport«d  to  IrolanJ, 
Lime  la  fiirniahoti  abundantly,  both  for  buildinif  and  manuru.  Freoatone,  chiefly  on  both 
aides  of  thn  Forth ;  ffranitn,  in  Abnrdeenahiro ;  alate,  in  thu  Hebridea  and  Ar^yloahire,  aD'urd 
excellent  inateriala  (or  buildiriff. 

The  fiahnriea  fiirm  a  conaidt'nibln  branch  of  induatry  in  Scotland ;  tho  horrin/f,  cod,  and 
haddock  abound  on  variouH  pnrtH  of  itti  ahorca.  Tho  Dutch  lonff  nionoiKiiiacd  tho  gunX 
northern  herring  bank;  and,  by  a  au()«^rior  mode  of  cure,  obtainuifa  protoronco  in  all  iiiar> 
keta.  Tho  Britiah  Kovemmont,  however,  haa  for  aome  time  made  |(rnat  oxortiona  tor  tlin 
promotion  of  the  Bcottiah  (iaherioa ;  and  there  haa  been  a  wonderlUl  increase  in  the  quantity 
caught,  and  a  corrcapondinff  improvement  in  the  proceaaes  of  cure.  Tho  Conner,  which  in 
1815  waa  only  160,(N)0  Iwrrels,  hod  risen  in  1880  to  329,000,  of  which  XiT.OOO  wero  exported. 
In  tho  aamo  year,  fl:),r)(N)cwt  of  cod  wore  cured  in  a  driod  state,  and  54(N)cwt.  in  picklii; 
of  tho  former,  '2:),(K)()  wore  exported.  Salmon,  taken  in  all  the  cousidorablo  rivera,  and  kept 
froHh  by  boinir  piicknd  in  ice,  chiefly  supplioa  tho  liondon  market.  Tho  whale  lUhery  in 
Greenland  and  DuvIh'h  Straita  haa  for  aome  time  been  proaecuted  by  Scotland  with  incruiim>d 
activity.  In  the  nine  yeara  ending  in  1818,  she  sent  at  an  averat^e  only  40  ahipe:  in  1N:H), 
aho  sent  47;  the  produce  of  which  waa  5613  tuna  of  oil.  Kelp  waa  in  extensive  demand 
durin;;  the  late  war ;  but  the  repeal  of  the  duty  on  aalt,  and  tho  reduction  of  tho  duty  on 
barilla,  have  ruined  thin  branch  of  industry. 

The  relative  foreign  commerce  of  the  principal  porta  of  Scotland  ia  exhibited  in  the  fol- 
lowing Table : — 


Aberdeen.... 

Ro'nnn 

Dundee 

Olasnow 

aran(nmouth 
Oreenock .... 


Tonniia 
in  vm. 


40,900 
0.100 
itU,000 
IIJOO 
34,:«0 
30,9DO 


PriHl lice  111' 
CuxDinn 
in  \»ta. 

£ 

33.400 

.V400 

00,000 

33.000 
^1,000 


InverneH. . . . 

Irvine 

I,vilh 

MnntroM.. . . 

Perlli 

Port  OUlgow 


Tiinnnue 
in  18)0. 


7,300 
13,300 
I4,H00 
90,300 
10,100 

(l,M)0 


Priiiluoo  of 
<.'u>iiimi 
_in  l»M. 

£ 

3.000 
4.4(N) 
U,HIIO 
44,400 
11,000 
348,000 


Commerce,  till  the  union  of  the  crowns,  and  even  of  the  kingdoms,  could  scarcely  bo  con- 
sidered as  existing  in  Scotland ;  but  it  haa  since  been  cultivatod  with  great  ardour  and  enter- 
priac.  One  branch  of  commercial  intercourse  is  that  witli  her  opulent  sister  kingdom.  In 
England  she  finds  a  market  for  cattle,  her  chief  agricultural  surplus;  for  her  wool,  such  as 
it  is ;  for  her  sail-cloth  and  other  coarse  fiibrics  fi-om  flax  and  hemp ;  for  part  of  her  tine 
calicoes  and  muslins,  &c.     In  return,  she  receives  almost  all  the  woollen  cloth,  and  a  great 

fart  of  the  silk  consumed  by  her;  hardware  and  cutlery  of  every  kind  ;  tea  and  other  East 
ndia  goods;  and  through  tiiis  channel  a  part  of  all  the  foreign  luxuries  which  she  reqiiircg. 
The  trade  with  Ireland  is  chiofly  supported  by  the  exchange  of  coal  and  iron  for  oats  and 
cattle.  That  with  the  Baltic,  particularly  Russia,  is  very  active ;  the  eastern  part  of  tho 
kingdom  deriving  thence  tho  hemp  and  flax,  which  form  the  material  of  her  staple  manu- 
fkctiire ;  also  timber,  iron,  and  the  other  bulky  and  useful  staples  of  that  trade.  Having 
few  articles  of  her  own  with  which  this  market  ia  not  already  stocked,  the  payment  is  made 
chiefly  in  bullion  and  colonial  produce.  The  flourishing  trade  carried  on  from  the  west  amat 
with  America  and  the  West  Indies,  is  supported  by  the  export  of  cottons,  linen,  wearing 
apparel,  and  other  commodities ;  and  by  the  import  of  cotton,  sugar,  rum,  and  tlie  various 
luxuries  of  those  fertile  regions.  The  Mediterranean  trade  is  not  neglected ;  and  since  the 
opening  of  that  to  India,  Greenock  has  adventured  into  it  with  considerable  success. 

The  roads,  which  half  a  century  a^  were  almost  impas.sable,  are  now,  through  ull  the 
Lowlands,  little  inferior  to  those  of  England.  After  the  rebellion  of  1745,  government  con- 
structed excellent  roads  into  the  heart  of  the  Highlands  as  far  as  Inverness;  and  in  1803,  a 
body  of  commissioners  was  appointed  by  government,  for  improving  the  roads  of  the  north 
of  Scotland.  They  proceeded  upon  the  principle,  that  half  the  expense  must  ia  every  case 
be  defrayed  by  the  county  proprietors,  and  in  eighteen  years  good  roads  were  formed  into 
the  remotest  tracts  of  Inverness,  Skye,  Ross,  and  even  to  the  farthest  point  of  Caithness. 

Artificial  navigation  meets  with  peculiar  obstructions  from  the  ruggednesa  of  the  surfiice, 
and  hence  canals  have  never  become  very  numerous.  The  "Great  Can.nl,"  admits  vossols 
of  considerable  size  to  pass  from  the  Frith  of  Forth  to  that  of  Clyde,  and  thus  unite  the  (jfor- 
man  and  Atlantic  oceans.  Branches  to  Glasgow  and  to  the  fine  coal-field  at  Monkland  huve 
been  advantajreously  opened.  The  Union  Canal,  completed  at  an  expense  of  nearly  4(M),(MK(/., 
connects  tho  Great  Canal,  near  its  eastern  point,  with  Edinburgh,  hyaline  of  thirty  niilns 
through  a  country  very  rich  in  coal  and  lime.  The  Caledonian  Canal,  uniting  the  chain  of 
lakes  which  crosses  Scotland  diag'onally  through  t!je  counties  of  Inverness  and  Argyie, 
allows  even  ships  of  war  to  pass,  from  the  east  coast,  into  the  Atlantic,  without  encounter- 
ing the  perils  of  the  Pentland  Frith  and  Cape  Wrath.  It  was  finished  in  1822,  at  an 
expense  of  nearly  1,000,000/.  sterling,  entirely  defrayed  by  government.    The  fixates  of  the 


-^^^^^ 


PaItHI 

in  ooal  of  protti 
ported  til  IroUnif. 
I  chiefly  on  both 
^rgylothire,  aftbrd 

herring,  cod,  and 
Niliaed  the  jfroat 
»ronce  in  all  niur. 

oxortioiii  for  tlio 
Iw  ill  the  quantity 

fonnor,  which  in 
[X)  woro  exported. 
H)cwt  in  pickiu; 
0  rivera,  and  kopi 
»  whole  fishery  m 
id  with  increiiHfd 
I)  Hhipa :  in  18.'H), 
xteniiivo  domand 
>n  of  the  duty  on 

libitod  in  the  fol- 


Boor  I.   < 


.V' 


SCOTlJVND.   I 


•••!" 


418 


nnnuK 
181(1. 


I'riMtiiui  iif 
<.'u»iiimi  I 
in  IH'JtI.    { 

£ 

3,ono 

U,H(W 

44.400 

0,000 

348,000 


scarcely  bo  con- 
ardour  and  entor- 
or  kinffdom.  In 
er  wool,  Buch  as 

part  of  her  fine 
oth,  and  a  jjreat 
1  and  other  East 
ch  she  requires, 
iron  for  oata  and 
tern  part  of  the 
or  staple  monu- 
trade.  Ilavinjf 
ayment  is  made 
1  the  west  coast 

linen,  woarinjj 
and  the  various 
;  and  since  the 
uccess. 

tirough  all  the 
)vemment  con- 
and  in  1803,  a 
Is  of  the  north 

in  every  cnse 
re  formed  into 
'  Caithnesa. 
)f  the  surfiice, 
admits  voaseis 
unite  the  (Jor- 
bnkland  huva 
irly4()(MK»(»/., 
f  Ihirtv  miles 

the  elm  id  of 

and  Ariryie, 
it  encounter- 

1822,  at  an 

Kates  of  Uie 


Incks  arn  of  imn;  thfl  «xfwn"«'  of  each  l«H;k  wan  (NNMM.  The  liinks  are  twenty-three  m  all 
eijfht  nf  which,  Inokinir  down  ih)m  l/ich  Kil,  whrnt  it  o|M>im  into  the  wmti'rn  Mm,  Hnii-ullod 
l>y  milors  tlin  "mtair  ot  .\r-ptun<t."  The  canal  im  fitly  tent  bruud;  length  twuuty-two  iiiiltta, 
with  forty  niiloH  of  lake  imvi^ation.  »• 

Hect.  VI.— rii)i7  and  SoHtil  Slate. 

Of  the  population  of  HcoUaiid  air  eHtimatu  wan  first  attuniptod  in  the  year  17M,  when  it 
wnn  computed  to  bo  1 ,2*Vi,iW0.  The  roporta  of  the  clcrsy  for  the  "  Htatistical  Account," 
hi'twftnn  1792  and  17t>h,  ive  1,&20,4U2;  which  was  raisetVoy  the  ffovcnunent  enumeration 
of  M\l  to  1,A99,(N)0.  .  ic  census  of  IHU  gave  1,805,000;  which  was  raised  by  that  of 
1H21  to  2,008,456.     In  1881,  it  waa  2,868,842. 

In  point  of  dispositiun,  the  Scots  are  a  grave,  sorious,  and  reflecting  people;  but  bold, 
enterprising,  ambitious,  and  imbued  with  a  doop-rootnd  determination  to  pursue  the  objects 
of  their  desire,  and  repel  ihose  of  their  aversion.  Under  these  impulses,  they  quit,  without 
much  regret,  a  land  Which  aflbrds  few  opportunities  «)f  distinction,  and  seek,  either  in  the 
metropolis  and  commercial  towns  of  England,  or  in  the  most  distant  transmarine  regions,  that 
wealth  and  fkme  which  they  eagerly  covet;  yet,  amid  this  distance  and  these  eager  purHuits, 
their  hopes  and  aflectiona  reinam  fixed  on  the  land  of  their  nativity;  and  they  usually  seek 
to  H|)eno  tho  evening  of  their  days  in  Scotland.  The  Scots  appear  naturally  breve ;  a  quality 
which  is  particularly  observable  amonj;  the  hiffhlund  tribes,  and  by  which  they  rendered 
theinsolves  formidable,  tirnt  under  Mtmtrme,  and  allerwards  in  the  rebellion  againf*t  the  houso 
of  Hanover.  Since  they  were  conciliated  by  the  wise  inoaMiireH  of  Pitt,  they  have  crowded 
into  the  British  army,  and  formed  some  of  its  bravest  regiments.  Among  the  lower  chtsHes, 
crimes  against  the  order  of  society  are  of  comparatively  rare  occurrence,  and  there  is  leas 
necessity  for  capital  punishment ;  there  is  ulso  less  of  extreme  dissoluteness  among  tho  higher 
ranks.  Among  the  Scottish  females,  in  particular,  tho  obligations  of  the  marriage  tie  are 
much  more  seldom  disrcgnrded ;  and  if  the  other  sex  too  often  abuse  the  license  which  public 
manners  are  supposed  to  allow,  they  are  at  least  obliged  to  observe  some  outward  appear- 
ances. The  pride  of  birth  is  ntiil  prevalent,  particnlarly  among  the  highland  clans;  and  it 
is  accompanied  with  a  general  ambition  to  rise  above  their  original  station,  and  a  propensity, 
with  that  view,  to  spend  their  moderate  wealth  rather  in  outward  show  than  in  solid  com- 
fort. The  sister  nations  accuse  the  Scots  aa  selfiwh,  yet  Scotsmen  raised  to  power  hove  not 
shown  any  backwardness,  either  in  the  general  offices  of  humanity,  or  to  pmmote  the  proi»- 
perity  of  their  country  and  countrymen. 

To  their  religious  duties  the  Scots  people  hove  always  shown  an  exemplary  attention.  In 
catholic  times,  the  Romish  church  in  Scotland  enjoyed  more  influence,  ond  hiul  acquired  a 
much  greater  proportion  of  the  notionol  wealth,  than  in  England.  But  tlicy  entered  upon 
the  cause  of  reform  with  an  ardent  zeal,  which  left  beliind  it  that  of  all  their  neighbours. 
After  a  desperate  struggle,  on  which,  for  nearly  a  century,  the  political  destinies  of  the  king- 
dom depended,  they  obtained  their  favourite  form  of  presbytery,  the  most  remote  from  that 
pompous  ritual,  for  which  they  have  entertained  the  most  rooted  abhorrence.  The  principle 
of  presbytery  consists  in  the  complete  equality  of  all  its  clerical  membera,  who  have  each  a 
separate  parish,  of  which  they  perform  all  the  ecclesiastical  functions.  The  title  of  bishop, 
so  long  connected  with  wealth  and  power,  has  been  rejected,  and  that  of  minister  substi- 
tuted. In  the  manan;ement  of  the  poor,  and  some  church  functions,  the  minister  is  assisted 
by  a  body  of  lay  members  called  elders,  who  constitute  the  kirk  session.  Tho  government 
of  the  church  consists  in  presbyteries  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the  ministers  df  a  certain 
district,  with  lay  members  from  each  session,  the  last  of  whom,  however,  attend  only  occa- 
sionally. A  synod  is  formed  by  the  union  of  several  presbyteries;  and  the  General  Assevt' 
hly  ia  composed  of  deputies,  partly  clerical  and  partly  lay,  from  each  presbytery  and  borough. 
They  meet  every  year,  and  an  appeal  lies  to  them  upon  every  subject;  but  the  lows  9f  the 
church,  though  prriposed  in  the  Assembly,  can  be  passed  only  by  a  majority  of  presbyteries, 
after  being  debated  in  each.  The  king  sends  a  Commissioner,  who  is  present  at  tlie  debates 
of  the  Assembly,  and  seems  even  to  claim  a  right  of  constituting  and  dissolving  it;  but  thia 
is  denied  by  the  church  itself,  which  acknowledges  no  human  head,  and  accounts  itself  and 
the  state  as  powers  entirely  independent. 

The  nobles  availed  themselves  of  the  downfall  of  the  catholic  establishment,  to  appro* 
priote  nearly  the  whole  of  the  immense  income  with  which  it  had  been  endowed.  They 
took  at  first  not  only  the  lands,  but  the  tithes;  and  even  when  obliged  to  make  a  provision 
for  the  presbyterian  clergy  out  of  the  latter,  they  retained  part,  valued  often  at  a  very  low 
rate,  but  subject  to  be  called  upon  if  needed.  Thus  the  Scots  clergy  have  enjoyed  only 
such  incomes  as  enabled  them,  with  strict  economy,  to  maintain  their  place  in  the  middle 
nink  of  society.  When  even  this  became  impossible  under  the  increased  expense  of  livuig 
ttufrmenialioiis  were  granted  out  of  the  tiends^  or  valued  tithes :  and  where  these  were 
exhausted,  the  legislature  have  come  forward,  and  raised  the  lowest  stipend  to  150/.  a  year. 
No  body  of  clergy  have  maintained  a  fairer  character,  or  more  efficiently  performed  their 
important  duties,  than  those  of  the  Scottish  church. 

35* 


414 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  IIL 


The  dissenters  from  the  Scottish  church  consist  chiefly  of  persons  zealously  attached  to 
presbytery,  and  who  have  seceded  because  they  considered  its  principles  as  not  maintained 
m  sufficient  purity  within  the  establishment.  Their  chief  complaint  is  against  the  system 
of  patronage  exercised  by  the  landed  interest,  who  present  generally  to  the  vacant  parishes. 
Two  great  bodies,  into  which  they  were  formerly  divided  on  the  subject  of  the  burgher  oath, 
have,  since  the  abolition  of  that  test,  been  united  into  what  is  called  ti  e  Associate  Synod, 
A  considerable  proportion,  especially  of  the  higher  ranks,  is  attached  to  episcopacy,  either 
as  it  was  established  in  Scotland  under  the  Stuarts,  or  as  it  now  exists  in  England ;  indeed, 
an  union  has  been  recently  formed  between  these  once  separate  branches.  None  of  the 
other  sects,  independents,  baptists,  methodists,  &c.  are  numerous ;  and  the  Roman  catholics 
consist  chiefly  of  emigrants  from  Ireland,  though  their  form  of  religion  still  prevails  in  some 
of  the  remote  highland  districts. 

Literature,  soon  after  its  revival  in  Europe,  was  cultivated  in  Scotland  with  peculiar 
ardour.  Even  in  the  age  of  scholastic  pursuits,  Duns  Scotus  and  Crichton  were  preemi- 
nently famed  throughout  the  Continent.  When  the  sounder  taste  for  classical  knowledge 
followed,  Buchanan  acquired  the  reputation  of  writing  J^atin  with  groat  purity.  Letters 
were  almost  entirely  suppressed  during  the  subsequent  period,  marked  by  a  conflict  between 
a  licentious  tyranny  and  an  austere  religious  party,  who  condemned  or  despised  the  exer- 
tions of  intellect  and  the  creations  of  fancy ;  and  literature  lay  dormant  till  the  middle  of  the 
last  century,  when  Scotland,  with  a  church  and  universities  alike  poorly  endowed,  produced 
as  illustrious  a  constellation  of  writers  as  had  been  called  forth  by  the  most  lavish  patronage 
in  the  great  European  capitals.  We  shall  only  mention,  in  history,  Robertson  and  Hume ; 
in  moral  and  political  philosophy,  Hume,  Reid,  Smith,  Ferguson,  Karnes,  Stewart,  Brown ; 
divinity,  Blair,  Campbell,  Macknight;  poetry,  Hoine,  Thomson,  Beattie,  Burns;  physical 
science,  Gregory,  Black,  Playfair,  Leslie.  In  the  present  generation,  the  most  popular  of 
fictitious  writings,  and  one  of  the  most  able  periodical  works  known  in  modern  tunes,  have 
issued  from  the  Edinburgh  press. 

The  universities  of  Scotland  have  been  a  powerful  instrument  in  suppoi  iing  her  literary 
fame.  Though  not  richly  endowed,  the  fees  of  well-attended  classes  oflord  a  liberal  income, 
and  have  enabled  them  to  attract  the  most  learned  among  the  clergy ;  while,  in  England,  a 
wealthy  church  draws  eminent  scholars  from  the  universities.  The  students  live  generally 
in  the  towns,  without  any  check  on  their  private  conduct,  or  even  any  obligation  to  attend- 
ance, except  what  arises  from  the  dread  of  the  refusal  of  a  certiflcate  at  the  close.  The 
chief  exertion  of  the  professors  is  bestowed  on  their  lectures,  by  which  they  hope  to  attract 
students  to  tht^'r  class  and  seminary.  The  more  diligent  combine  with  them  examinations 
and  exercises,  but  not  on  the  same  systematic  and  searching  plan  as  in  England ;  and  the 
degrees  are  conferred,  in  many  instances,  with  culpable  laxity.  A  much  greater  proportion 
of  the  people  receive  a  college  education  than  in  England.  The  church  exacts  an  attend- 
ance of'  eight  years;  four  for  languages  and  philosophy,  and  four  for  divinity:  the  fiiculty 
of  medicine  requires  also  several  years;  and  the  gentry  and  higher  grades  of  the  middle 
ranks  in  general  consider  an  attendance  on  the  elementary  classes  as  an  essential  part  ot 
education. 

The  public  libraries  are  not  rich.  That  belonging  to  the  advocates  or  barristers  of  BMin- 
burgh  contains  upwards  of  10(,',000  volumes,  among  which  there  are  ample  materials,  both 
printed  and  in  manuscript,  for  elucidating  the  national  history.  The  university  library  is 
half  as  large ;  and  those  of  Glasgow,  King's  College  Aberdeen,  and  St.  Andrew's,  are  highly 
respectable.     Each  of  these  universities  can  claim  a  copy  of  every  new  work. 

Scotland  has  a  native  music,  simp^?  end  pathetic,  expressive  of  rural  feelings  and  emotions, 
to  which  she  is  fondly  attached.  Golf  and  foot-ball  are  the  only  amusements  that  can  be 
deemgd  strictly  national.  Skating,  and  curling,  or  the  rolling  of  smooth  stones  upon  the 
ice,  are  also  pursued  with  great  ardour  during  the  season  that  admits  of  those  amusements. 
The  recreations  of  the  higher  ranks  are  nearly  the  same  as  in  England.  Dancing  is  prac- 
tised with  peculiar  ardour,  especially  by  the  Highlanders,  who  have  favourite  national  steps 
and  movements. 

The  Highlanders  retain  the  remnants  of  a  national  costume  peculiar  to  themselves ;  the 
tartan,  a  mixture  of  woollen  and  linen  cloth,  adorned  with  brilliant  stripes  variously  crossing 
each  other,  and  marking  the  distinctions  of  the  clans ;  the  kilt,  or  short  petticoat,  worn  by 
the  men,  the  hose  fastened  below  the  knee,  which  is  left  bare ;  and  the  bonnet,  which  in 
another  shape  is  also  still  worn  by  the  shepherds  of  the  border. 

In  regard  to  food,  the  Scots,  in  general,  are  temperate.  Even  the  rich  attach  less  import 
ance  than  their  sonthem  neighbours  to  tlie  gratifications  of  the  palate.  The  peasantry,  pre- 
viously to  the  rise  of  wages,  which  took  place  about  thirty  years  ago,  were  content  with  the 
hardest  fare.  Neither  wheaten  bread  nor  animal  food  form.ed  part  of  tlieir  ordinary  diet 
tJntmeal,  not  accounted  in  the  south  of  England  an  article  of  food  for  human  beings,  was 
prepared  here  under  the  forms  of  cnkea  or  porridge,  and  constituted  the  chief  means  of  sub 
sisfonco.  To  this  wa.s  oocasinnnlly  adde<l  barley  broth,  with  greens  or  kail,  the-  chief  pro- 
duce of  their  little  gardens.     The  Scots  have  some  dislies  which  they  clierish  with  national 


Book  T. 


SCOTLAND. 


Mr 


lously  attached  to 
as  not  maintained 
gfainst  the  systero 
e  vacant  parishes. 

the  burgiier  oath, 
Associale  Synod. 
episcopacy,  either 
Elngland;  bdoed, 
les.    None  of  the 

Roman  catholics 
1  prevails  in  some 

nd  with  peculiar 

)n  were  pre-emi- 

ssical  knowledge 

purity.     Letters 

I  conflict  between 

espised  the  exer- 

the  middle  of  the 

idowed,  produced 

:  lavish  patronage 

rtson  and  Hume ; 

Stewart,  Brown ; 

Burns;  physical 

most  popular  of 

odern  times,  have 


hope  to  attract 
em  examinations 
!ngland ;  and  the 
reater  proportion 
exacts  an  attend- 
lity:  the  faculty 
les  of  the  middle 
essential  partot 

irristers  of  Edin- 
e  materials,  boUi 
rersity  library  is 
rew's,  are  highly 
rk. 

igs  and  emotions, 
ents  that  can  be 
stones  upon  the 
ose  amusements. 
Dancing  is  prac- 
te  national  steps 

themselves;  the 
iriously  crossing 
itticoat,  worn  by 
wnnet,  which  in 

:ach  less  import 
B  peasantry,  pre- 
content  with  the 

.A    uiujiiaaj   uicu 

lan  beinjQfs,  was 
if  moans  of  nub- 
I,  tlie  cliief  pro- 
sh  with  nationaJ 


enthusiasm,  and  among  which  the  haggia  holds  the  foremost  place.  This  is  a  naxtore  of 
oatmeal,  fat,  liver,  ana  onion,  boiled  up  in  the  bag  which  composed  the  stomach  of  the  ani- 
mal.  Thoy  have,  moreover,  hotch-potch,  and  other  soups,  the  merit  of  which  has  been 
acknowledged  by  English  palates. 

Sect.  VH. — Local  Geography, 

The  following  is  a  table  of  the  extent,  population,  and  rental  in  the  different  counties  of 
Scotland,  derived  from  Pgricultural  reports  and  parliamentary  returns : — 


Count  Im. 


Aberdeon 

Argylo 

Ayr 

Banff 

Burwick 

Bute 

CaithneiM 

Clackmannan. 
Dumbarton  . . . 
DumfViei 

Edinburgh .... 

Elgin 

Fife 


Fnrfbr 

Haddington... 

InvcrncM 

Kincardine  ... 

Kinroii 

Kirkcudbright. 

Lanark 


Linlithgow 

Nairn 

Orkney  and  Bbetland 

Peebles 

Perth  

RenfVow 


quira 
mm. 


Ross  and  Cromarty. 


Roxburgh . . 

Selkirk  .... 
Stirling.... 
Sutherland. 

Wigton . . . . 


1,000 
8,130 

1,030 

Mi 
443 
101 

087 

48 

338 

1,353 

354 

473 

467 


378 
^'"^ 

73 
e3U 

043 

180 

105 

1,880 

310 

3,588 

335 
3,883 

715 

363 

480 

1,754 

4511 


Acm 

under  Cul- 

UvatloD. 


451,000 
370,000 

335,000 

133,000 
137,000 
30,000 
03,000 
3.1,000 
54,000 
338,000 

145,000 

131,000 

300,000 

360,000 

130,000 

344,000 

03,000 

37,000 

168,000 

371,000 

57,000 
37,000 
46,000 
34,000 
580,000 

73,000 
1705)00 

306,000 

10,000 

105,000 

63,000 

101,000 


ReuliIiD 
IBia. 


£ 
301,000 
807,000 

360,000 

85,000 
886,000 
30.000 
33,000 
39,000 
03,000 
864,000 

713,000 

66,000 

378,000 

336,000 

813,000 
178,000 
88,000 
34,000 
103,000 

016,000 

01.000 
13,000 
80.000 
60,000 
513,000 

334.000 
111,000 

343,000 

41,000 

807,000 

38,000 

131,000 


HoutM 
)a  lUI. 


87,579 
10,050 

17,843 

8,971 
5,803 
3,305 
5,319 
3,145 
3,536 
13,348 

19,077 

0,068 

18,044 

16,813 

6,330 

17,055 

5,804 


6,441 

47,010 

3,303 

0,176 

1,750 

36,718 

10,490 
13,638 

6,587 

1,081 

8,084 
4,654 

5,810 


Pd|iii1*. 
UoqId 
1831, 


177,051 
101,435 

145,055 

48,604 
34.048 
14,151 
34,539 
14,729 
33,811 
73,770 

310,593 

34,331 

138,830 

130,606 

36,145 
04,797 
31,431 
0,078 
40,599 

316,810 

33,391 

0,354 

58,839 

10,578 

143,894 

133,443 
74,830 

43,663 

6,883 
73,081 
35,518 

30,318 


Tdwm,  with  Fopnlallim  In  IKI. 


Aberdeen  . . .  58,010 

Campbellton  0,473 

Ayr 7,006 

Irvine 5,300 

ianir 3,711 

Dump 3,460 

Rntheiay  . . .  4,810 

Thiirw) 4,670 

Clackmannan    4,306 

Dumbarton  .  3,633 

Dumfl-iea  . . .  11,606 

{  Edinburgh  .  136,303 

j  Dalkeith...  5,586 

Elgin 6,130 

I  Cupar 6,403 

JKirkaldy...  5,034 

(  Dundee ....  45,355 

I  Forfar 7,049 

Haddington .  5,883 

InvcrnetiB . . .  15,334 

Bervie 1,137 

Kinrois 3,917 

Kirkcudbright!  3,511 

(  Glasgow  . . .  303,436 

{Lanark ....  7,673 

Linlithgow  .  4,874 

Nairn 3,366 

Kirkwall  . . .  3,065 

Feeblei 3,750 

Perth 80,016 

Paisley  —  57,466 
Port  Glasgow  5,193 

Dingwall  . .  3,134 

Cromarty . .  3,001 

Kelso A,\ 

Hawick....  4,070 

Selkirk 3,KU 

Stirling 8,340 

Dnrnnch  ....  50i 

I  Wigton ....  2,337 

j  Fortputrick  3,339 


Peterhead . . .  6,608 
Inverary ....  3,133 
Kilmarnock  .  18,093 

Cullen 1,503 

Lauder 3,063 

Wick B.8S0 

Alloa 0,370 

Sanquhar  . . .    3,868 

Leith S5,8,'S3 

Musselburgh     8,961 

Forres 3,895 

St.  Andrew's  5,631 
Dunfermline  17,068 
Montrose  . . .  18,055 
Arbroath. . . .  6,660 
Dunbar 4,735 


Hamilton 


Lerwick  •  • 

Dumblane . 
Greenock.. 
Renflrew  . . 
Tain 


,039  Jedburgh. 


Falkirk..! 
Stranraer  . 


0,503 


2,730 

3,338 

87,571 

8,133 

3,078 

5,647 


13,743 
3,331 


In  treating  of  Scotland  in  detail,  we  shall  divide  it  into  three  constituent  parts : — 1.  The 
Lowland  counties;  2.  The  Highland  counties;  3.  The  Islands. 

SuBSEOT.  1. — The  Lowland  Countiet. 

The  whole  of  the  south  of  Scotland,  though  diversified  by  elevated  ranges  of  hills,  is 
always  considered  as  belonging  to  the  Lowlands.  It  presents,  however,  three  districts  of 
opposite  character : — 1.  The  agricultural  counties  along  the  German  Ocean  and  the  Frith 
of  Forth ;  2.  The  southern  pastoral  counties ;  3.  The  manufacturing  counties  of  the  west. 

The  agricultural  district  of  southern  Scotland  consists  of  the  counties  of  Berwick  (for- 
merly the  Merse),  of  Haddington,  Edinburgh,  and  Linlithgow  (fully  as  familiar  under  the 
appellations  of  East,  Mid,  and  West  Lothian),  and  of  Stirling,  which  touches  westward  on 
the  highland  baindary.  Even  of  this  range,  the  cultivated  part  is  closely  hemmed  in  by 
Lammermoor,  a  low,  broad,  moorish  ridge,  which  fills  all  the  eastern  interior,  and  has  even 
a  considerable  extent  along  the  shore  of  the  German  Ocean. 

The  cultivated  part  of  Berwickshire  consists  of  the  Merse,  extending  chiefly  along  the 
Tweed,  and  reaching  to  the  sea.  Above  it  is  J/iuderdalc,  or  the  Valley  of  the  Lauder, 
which  is  fitted  chiefly  for  grazing,  and  touches  closely  on  the  heaths  of  Ijammermoor.  Ber- 
wick-upon-Tweed, though  its  harbour  be  indifferent,  is  the  chief  channel  for  exporting  the 
valuable  produce  of  the  Merse,  to  the  annual  amount,  it  is  said,  of  80,000  bolls  of  grain. 
T.he  strong  wall  and  deep  ditch,  which  once  defended  Berwick,  still  remain,  though  neglected; 
•lud  large  barracks  have  been  erected.  Greenlaw,  the  seat  of  county  business,  and  I/audei, 
Uie  only  borough,  are  but  small  places  in  the  upper  district  Dunse,  in  the  agricultural  tract, 


4ie 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


\s  the  most  thriving.  Coldstream,  a  large  village  on  tlie  Tweed,  is  noted  as  the  scene  of 
Monk's  retirement  In  the  western  part  of  Berwickshire  is  Dryburgh  Abbey,  a  fine  old 
Gothic  edifice,  in  which  rest  the  remains  of  Scott, 

Hiuldingtonshire,  or  East  Lothian,  runs  along  the  Frith  of  Forth,  between  which  and  the 
range  ot"  Lammermoor  extends  a  plain  about  twenty  miles  in  length  and  twelve  in  breadth, 
perhaps  the  largest  in  Scotland,  and  all  under  high  cultivation.  Edinburgh  is  chiefly  supplied 
witl)  wheat  from  the  market  at  Haddington,  which  is  considered  one  of  the  first  in  the 
coiuilry.  The  towns  are  of  secondary  importance.  Haddington  is  supported  only  by  the 
market  and  by  its  court  for  legal  proceedings,  Dunbar  has  a  little  trade  and  fishery.  Its 
castle,  the  ruins  of  which  extend  over  a  promontory  of  broken  rocks,  stretching  out  into  the 
sea,  forms  a  truly  grand  object  The  Bass, "  that  sea  rock  immense,"  which  rises  to  the  height 
of  40()  feet,  forms  a  perpendicular  precipice,  on  which  build  crowds  of  that  rare  species  of  sea- 
fowl  called  Solan  goose.  Their  young,  whose  down  is  of  some  value,  are  taken  by  the 
perilous  exertions  of  fishermen,  suspended  by  ropes  from  the  top  of  the  clifF.  There  are  still 
some  remains  of  the  fortified  prison  which  was  m  ancient  times  rese  ved  for  state  offenders, 
and  in  which  some  of  the  most  eminent  covenanters  were  confineu  for  several  years.  On 
the  shore  immediately  opposite,  crowning  a  perpendicular  cliff,  appears  Tantallon,  a  strong 
castle  of  ihe  Douglases,  now  in  a  ruinous  state.  Prestonpans,  a  long  dirty  village,  has  some 
manufactures  of  salt  and  vitriol. 

Mid  I/otliian,  or  Edinburghshire,  is  penetrated  by  a  branch  of  the  Lammermoor,  and  by 
the  long  range  of  the  Pentlands :  and,  at  the  distance  of  a  few  miles  south  from  Edinburgh, 
a  general  high  level  begins,  which  is  fiivourablc  only  to  the  production  of  oats  and  bailey. 
There  are  no  manufactures  of  any  consequence,  tlie  county  being  entirely  supported  by  the 
metropolis  and  its  appendages. 

Edinburgh,  the  capital  of  Scotland  (Jig.  188.),  is  a  city  of  no  very  high  antiquity.  TKe 
Castle  Hill,  indeed,  whose  rocky  and  precipitous  sides  support  on  the  summit  a  level  spr  '^ 

188 


Edinburgh. 

of  some  extent,  accessible  only  by  a  narrow  ridge  at  one  point,  must  al\^ays  have  been  of 
importance  in  a  military  age.  It  is  named  in  the  Pictish  annals  under  the  title  of  Castrum 
Puellarum,  which  is  supposed  to  have  originated  from  the  custom  of  placing  the  princesses 
and  ladies  of  rank  to  be  educated  there,  as  in  a  place  of  security.  In  the  tenth  century, 
mention  is  first  made  of  the  town  of  Edin ;  but  David  I.,  in  the  twelfth  century,  founded 
the  abbey  and  palace  of  Holyrood ;  and,  under  the  sway  of  the  Stuarts,  Edinburgh  became 
the  capital  of  Scotland,  Edinburgh  is  built  upon  three  ridges,  running  from  east  to  west, 
and  separated  from  each  other  by  deep  ravines.  The  Old  Town,  which,  till  the  last  half 
century,  formed  the  whole  of  Edinburgh,  is  situated  on  the  middle  ridge,  extending  nearly 
a  mile  of  gradual  descent  from  the  Castle  to  the  palace  of  Holyrood,  To  L.ecure  the  protec- 
tion afforded  by  this  site,  the  houses  were  crowded  into  the  very  smallest  possible  space , 
they  are  raised  six  or  seven  stories  on  the  side  facing  the  street,  which  from  the  acclivity 
of  the  ground,  gives  to  that  facing  the  ravine  a  height  of  ten  or  even  fourteen  stories.  From 
this  central  street,  there  descend  on  each  side  closes  or  lanes  about  six  feet  broad,  and 
sloping  very  abruptly.  The  Cowgate,  a  poor  street,  inhabited  by  small  tradesmen,  extends 
along  the  bottom  of  the  ravine,  and  terminates  in  a  spacious  Grass-market,  completing  old 
Edinburgh.  Although  it  contains  many  excellent  houses,  it  is  now  occupied  only  by  the  infe- 
.•ior  orders  of  tradesmen,  who  occupy  spacious  apartments  at  very  low  rents.  The  wealthy 
citizens  have  migrated  to  two  towns,  built  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  Old  Town;  one  on 
the  south  side,  or  St  Leonard's  Hill,  occupied  by  citizens  of  the  middle  class,  those  con- 
nected with  the  university,  or  such  as  are  fond  of  retirement ;  the  other,  called  properly  the 
New  Town,  is  on  the  north;  and  comprises  the  residence  of  almost  all  the  opulent  and 
ftishionable  classes.  Being  built  on  a  regular  plan,  and  of  fine  freestone,  it  forms  one  of  the 
iucst  elegant  towns  in  uriiaiii. 

The  beauty  of  Fidinburgh  is  enhanced  by  its  situation ;  being  overlooked  on  one  side  by  the 
eminence  of  the  Castle,  and  its  ancient  towers,  and  on  the  other  byn  range  of  bold  hills,  the 
higlie'  t  of  which  is  called  Arthur's  Seat  The  lowest,  the  Calton  Hill,  round  which  walks 
of  easy  access  have  been  formed,  commands  a  fine  view  of  Edinburgh,  the  Fr;th  of  Forth, 


Part  III. 

as  the  scene  of 
Abbey,  a  fine  old 

sen  which  and  tin; 
twelve  in  breadth, 

is  chiefly  sup|jlii)d 
>f  the  first  in  the 
wrted  only  by  the 

and  fishery.  Its 
ching  out  into  the 
rises  to  the  height 
'are  species  of  sea- 
are  taken  by  tiie 
ff.  There  are  still 
or  state  offenders, 
sveral  years.  On 
'antallon,  a  strong 

village,  has  some 

imermoor,  and  by 
1  from  Edinburgh, 
'  oats  and  bailey. 
'  supported  by  the 

1  antiquity.  T^ie 
imit  a  level  spT'^e 


ys  have  been  of 

title  of  Castrum 
ig  the  princesses 
le  tenth  century, 
century,  founded 
iinburgh  became 
oin  east  to  west, 
ill  the  last  half 
ixtending  nearly 

cure  the  protec- 
:  possible  space , 
)m  the  acclivity 
in  stories.    From 

feet  broad,  and 
desmen,  extends 

completing  old 
only  by  the  infe- 
The  wealthy 
d  Town ;  one  on 
class,  those  con- 
led  properly  the 
he  opulent  and 
forms  one  of  the 

ti  one  side  by  the 

of  bold  hills,  the 

nd  which  walks 

Fr;th  of  Forth, 


Book  I, 


SCO  1  LAND 


417 


and  its  surrounding  shores.  The  general  effect,  rather  than  that  of  any  particular  edifices, 
constitutes  the  merit  of  Edinburgh.  Of  antique  structures,  there  is  nothing  very  fine,  except 
the  large  hospital  for  boys,  erected  from  the  fiinds  bequeathed  by  George  Ileriot,  the  cele- 
rated  goldsmith.  The  great  cathedral  of  St.  Giles  has  been  admired  almost  solely  for  its 
spire,  and  Holyrood  Palace,  a  comparatively  modern  stiBcture,  for  its  little  ancient  chapel. 
Tlic  former  has  been  now  externally  rebcilt  on  a  very  handsome  plan,  and  the  latter  has 
undergone  a  thorough  repair.  Four  miles  south,  in  a  very  commanding  situation,  are  the 
remains  of  Queen  Mary's  pleasant  country  palace  of  Craigmillar.  The  Register  Office,  the 
new  College,  and  new  High  School  are  elegant  structures;  but  the  National  Monument, on 
the  Calton  Hill,  begun  on  the  model  of  the  Parthenon,  is  stopped  for  want  of  funds. 

The  inhabitants  in  1801,  including  Leith,  were  82,560;  in  1831,  they  had  increased  to 
162,1.56.  The  principal  support  is  derived  from  the  law ;  the  professors  of  the  university, 
and  private  lecturers,  &c.  constitute  a  consideral^Ie  number;  and  genteel  families  are 
attracted  from  every  part  of  Scotland  by  the  opportunities  of  education  and  agreeable 
society.  Edinburgh  is  a  city  eminently  scientific  and  literary,  and  has  even  become  known 
under  the  appellation  of  the  "  modern  Athens."  Connected  with  these  pursuits,  an  extensive 
trade  in  printing  and  publishing  books  is  carried  on  by  some  enterprising  individuals.  There 
are  few  manufactures,  with  the  above  exception.  A  great  quantity  of  ale  is  brewed,  which 
has  attained  to  a  high  reputation;  and  there  are  in  the  neighbourhood  some  considerable 
distilleries.  Shawls  arc  manufactured  equal  to  any  in  the  empire.  There  are  extensive 
lianking  establishments,  both  public  and  private,  and  considerable  fortunes  have  been  made 
in  that  branch  of  commerce. 

The  University  of  Edinburgh,  founded  in  1581,  has  risen  to  great  fame,  both  as  an  institu- 
tion for  teaching,  and  a  nursery  for  eminent  men.  The  medical  school,  in  particular,  attracts 
students  from  all  the  three  kingdoms.  The  annual  number  of  students  at  the  University 
exceeds  2000.  They  are  lodged  in  the  town,  and  are  not  subject  to  any  personal  discipline, 
except  that  of  attendance  on  the  lectures.  Edinburgh  has  its  Royal  Society  for  physical  and 
literary  research'^s,  its  Antiquarian  and  Horticultural  Societies,  an  Institution  for  the  promo- 
tion of  the  Fine  Aria,  and  an  Academy  for  Painting. 

Ijcith  is  the  port  of  Edinburgh,  and  carries  on  a  considerable  import  trade  for  the  supply  of 
tliat  capital  and  all  the  interior  country,  for  which  purpose  she  carries  on  a  constant  inter- 
course with  London  and  other  ports  on  the  eastern  coast.  Her  intercourse  with  the  Baltic 
is  very  extensive ;  and  that  with  the  West  Indies  considerable.  The  harbour  of  Leith  is 
not  good ;  but  large  sums  have  been  expended  in  the  construction  of  an  extensive  range  of 
docks  for  the  accommodation  of  its  shipping ;  and  of  a  pier  stretching  far  into  the  sea,  so  as 
to  enable  vessels  to  enter  at  all  times  of  the  tide,  wich  a  breakwater  opposite.  The  roads, 
at  the  distance  of  about  a  mile,  afford  excellent  anchorage.  Leith,  originally  a  collection  of 
dirty  lanes,  is  now  everywhere  skirted  by  excellent  streets,  and  ranges  of  villas,  erected  by 
the  opulent  inhabitants  for  their  private  residence.  In  1832  there  entered  its  port  334 
vessels,  tonnage  46,200. 

Besides  these  great  towns.  Mid  Lothian  contains  only  some  large  pleasant  villages.  Porto- 
bello  is  the  principal  bathing  place  of  Edinburgh.  Musselburgh  has  a  good  turf,  which  has 
supplanted  Leith  sands  for  the  annual  Edinburgh  races.  The  valley  of  the  Esk  contains 
the  finest  scenery  in  the  Lothians.  Roslin  chapel,  though  not  on  an  extensive  scale,  exhi- 
bits some  exquisite  specimens  of  Gothic  sculpture;  and  the  ruins  of  the  castle  bear  marks 
of  groat  strength.  All  the  south  and  west  of  this  county  consists  of  wild,  hilly,  and  pastoral 
scenery,  in  the  heart  of  which  is  a  pleasingly  retired  spot,  chosen  by  Ramsay  as  the  scene 
of  liis  Gentle  Shepherd. 

Linlithgow  or  West  Lothiai  consists,  in  its  upper  part,  of  a  hJeak  table-land;  in  its 
lower,  of  an  extensive,  fertile,  and  highly  cultivated  plain.  It  abounds  with  coal,  freestone, 
lime,  and  marl.     The  Union  Canal  passes  through  this  county.     The  towns  are  small; 

^QQ  but  Linlithgow  still  retains  somewhat 


189 


of  the  aspect  of  grandeur  suited  to  a 
once  royal  residence.  The  palace,. 
(Jig.  189.)  situated  on  a  hill  behind 
the  town,  and  overlooking  a,  beautiful 
little  lake,  forms  one  of  the  grandest 
ancient  edifices  in  the  kingdom.  There 
is  also  a  Gothic  church  of  some  beauty. 
Stirling,  an  extensive  and  beautiful 
county,  the  link  between  the  High- 
lands and  Lowlands,  extends  for  thirty- 
five  miles  along  the  Forth.  It  encloses  several  of  the  richest  cartes  in  Scotland ;  but  t&a 
greater  part  is  hilly  and  pastoral,  while  many  of  the  lower  grounds  consist  of  fine  meadow% 
ailorned  by  the  beautifiil  meanderings  of  the  Forth.  It  even  encroaches  on  the  Highlands. 
since  its  western  extremity  includes  Ben  Lomond.  This  county  is  traversed  by  the  cele 
bruted  Roman  wall  between  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  usually  ascribed  to  Antoninus,  thougl^ 
Vol.  L  3C; 


Linlllhiow  Palace. 


418 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pam  IIL 


from  the  account  of  Tacitus,  it  would  appear  to  have  been  first  ibrmed  by  Agricola.  It 
seems  to  have  reached  from  near  Dumbarton  to  Carridcn,  rather  more  than  thirty-six  miles. 
Stirling  is  also  crossed  by  the  great  canal  between  tiie  Forth  and  Clyde. 

The  town  of  Stirling  can  bc^st  a  situation  as  noble  and  commanding  as  any  in  Scotland. 
The  view  from  its  castle,  which  includes  entire  the  principal  range  of  the  Grampians,  the 
meatlows  or  links  through  which  tiie  Forth  winds,  and  a  part  of  thirteen  counties,  is  gener- 
ally considered  the  finest  in  the  country.  The  main  street,  likethat  of  Edinburgh,  descends 
gradually  down  the  ridge  of  the  hill  on  which  the  castle  stands  {fig.  190.).  This  'brtress, 
190  in  feudal  times,  was  accounted  one  of  the  bulwarks 

,/---2__/'" '  1         of  the  kingdom;  and  Stirling  was  the  frequent 

--^  Z^       .  ii^dJlai         I         seat  of  royalty,  and  the  scene  of  many  of  the 

most  memorable  and  tragic  events  in  Scottish  his- 
tory.   The  town  owes  its  present  limited  pros- 
_^  '  '  WB§ -■i'^^^^i^^  perity  chiefly  to  its  carpet  manufacture  and  other 
^^^    ^■^SaBW'*    branches  of  industry.     Falkirk  is  a  larger  town, 
situated  in  a  brood  and  beautiful  carse,  through 
which  the  Forth  flows.    The  three  great  annual 
trysts  exhibit  an  immense  show  of  highland  cattle 
and  sheep  brought  up  tor  the  supply  of  tlie  south- 
em  districts.    Near  Falkirk  is  Carron,  accounted 
only  a  village,  but  the  seat  of  the  greatest  iron- 
stiriing  Castle.  works  in  Scotland,  in  which,  during  war,  2000  men 

were  employed.  It  particularly  excels  in  grates,  and  in  that  species  of  artillery  first  cast 
here,  and  hence  denominated  carronades.  Grangemouth,  at  the  connecting  point  of  the 
great  canal  with  the  Frith  of  Forth,  derives  from  this  situation  a  considerable  trade. 

The  next  district,  including  the  counties  of  Roxburgh,  Selkirk,  Peebles,  Dumfries,  and 
part  of  Lanark,  may  most  properly  bear  the  appellation  of  pastoral  Scotland.  It  is  covered 
with  long  ranges  of  hills,  from  one  to  two  thousand  feet  high,  clothed  with  pasturage  to  tiieir 
summits.  This  is  the  region  of  Scottish  poetry.  It  was  amid  these  scenes  that  Thomson 
and  Scott  caught  that  inspiration  which  has  rendered  then:  poetry  the  delight  of  then-  country. 
The  chief  occupation  in  this  tract  is  sheep-farming. 

The  towns  in  this  tract  ore  generally  small  and  agreeable.  Kelso  is  one  of  the  most 
beautifiil  in  Scotland,  being  surrounded  by  ornamented  villas  and  extensive  woods.  Tiie 
abbey  is  not  without  grandeur ;  and  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Roxburgh  are  striking.  The 
village  of  Melrose  is  only  distinguished  by  its  abbey  (Jig.  191.),  founded  by  David  L,  in  the 

twelfth  century,  and  the  finest  edifice 
ever  erected  in  the  south  of  Scotland. 
The  profusion  of  the  ornaments,  and 
the  beauty  of  the  sculptures,  which 
remain  nearly  entire,  have  rendered 
it  the  study  of  the  painter  and  the 
theme  of  the  poet.  Selkirk  and  Pee- 
bles, capitals  of  their  respective  little 
counties,  are  only  pleasant  villages, 
bordering  on  the  great  pastoral  vales 
of  Ettrick  and  Yarrow.  Dumfries,  a 
well-built,  gay-looking  city,  is  a  sort 
Melroie  Abbey.  of  southem  Scottish  capital,  and  it 

has  been  so  distmguished  from  an  early  period ;  but  no  traces  remain  either  of  the  castle, 
or  of  the  monastery  in  which  Cumming  fell  by  the  hand  of  Bruce.  The  town  carries  on 
some  trade  by  the  Nith,  which  admits  vessels  of  one  hundred  -and  twenty  tons,  and  it  has 
two  great  annual  markets  for  the  cattle  from  the  west ;  but  it  is  chiefly  supported  by  the 
gontrv  who  make  it  their  residence.  Annan  is  agreeably  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
of  that  name.  A  small  spot,  famed  in  the  annals  of  gallantry,  is  Gretna  Green,  close  on 
the  English  border;  whither  fly  many  a  fond  matrimonial 'pair,  to  escape  the  jealousy  of 
parents  and  guardians.  On  tlie  bleak  northern  boundary  is  Wanlockhead ;  and  nearly  con- 
tiguous td  it  Leadhills,  in  Lanarkshire.  Wanlockhead  yields  annually  lead  to  the  amount 
of  about  15,000  Imrs,  of  nine  stones  each ;  and  Leadhills  about  18,000. 

192  «ja-:^  Seats.    The  Duke  of  Buccleugh  has 

numerous  seats  in  the  district,  of  which 

the  chief  is  Drumlanrig  Castle  {fi,<r.  102.), 

tf-^^W^T         IPiB^iaggi^gl  :^^KtU^  ^  miigni^cent  edifice,  on  the  Nith,  and 

Y l^i'.VrtSgf ilCp^C^ I  7|.il|lW!jlfiri  WB^Itiili kMPS'^    surrounded  by  extensive  parks  and  |/Ianta- 

fc.!ls»SSk_., — II-  !.,=,jj;i^»ai'ai*!^SL__.i™™— ~4-      tions.  Among  miny  others  round  Kelso,  is 

Flenrs,  the  splendid  seat  of  the  Roxhnrirh 
family.    Abbotsfbnl,  from  the  mnny  addi- 
tions madf<  by  its  illuKtrious  proprietor,  has 
Drumlanrig  Cnrtie.  becomc  R  striking  and  picturesque  ooject 


Part  III. 

i  by  Agricola.  It 
Ein  thirty-aix  miles. 

IS  any  in  Scotland, 
he  Grampians,  the 
counties,  is  gener- 
Idinbumh,  dpscends 
0.).  This  *brtre88, 
)ne  of  the  bulwarks 

was  the  frequent 
e  of  many  of  the 
ints  in  Scottish  his- 
^sent  limited  pros- 
lufacture  and  other 

is  a  larger  town, 
ifiil  carse,  through 
three  great  annual 
f  of  highland  cattle 
upply  of  the  south- 

Carron,  accounted 
'  the  greatest  iron- 
ring  war,  2000  men 
f  artillery  first  cast 
acting  point  of  the 
rable  trade, 
bles,  Dumfries,  and 
land.  It  is  covered 
h  pasturage  to  their 
jnes  that  Thomson 
jht  of  their  country. 

is  one  of  the  most 
snsive  woods.  The 
are  striking.  The 
by  David  I.,  in  the 
id  the  finest  edifice 

south  of  Scotland. 
;he  ornaments,  and 

sculptures,  which 
ire,  have  rendered 
le  painter  and  the 

Selkirk  and  Pee- 
eir  respective  little 

pleasant  villages, 
reat  pastoral  vales 
row.  Dumfries,  a 
ting  city,  is  a  sort 
ish  capital,  and  it 
ther  of  the  castle, 
le  town  carries  on 
ty  tons,  and  it  has 
y  supported  by  the 
mouth  of  the  river 
la  Green,  close  on 
je  the  jealousy  of 
d ;  and  nearly  con- 
sad  to  the  amount 

of  Buccleugh  has 
district,  of  whiih 
:Cnst]cC/j;r.l92.), 
on  the  Nith,  and 
e  parks  and  |/lantii- 
lers  round  Kelso,  is 
it  of  the  Roxbury:h 
nni  the  mnny  addi- 
•iotis  proprietor,  has 
picturesque  oojoct. 


Book  L 


SCOTLAND. 


41t 


The  three  counties  of  Ayr,  Wigton,  and  Galloway  compose  what  is  called  the  West  of 
Scotland.  They  are  chiefly  under  pasture,  and  the  cultivators  are  mainly  occupied  in  the 
rearing  of  cattle.  The  range  of  mountains  which  separates  Ayr  and  Galloway  is  almost 
as  elevated  as  any  in  Scotland ;  but  the  upland  country  of  the  latter  is,  in  general,  diversi- 
fied only  with  steep  rockv  eminences  of  two  or  three  hundred  feet  high.  In  Ayr,  too,  though 
the  southern  district  of  Carrick  be  very  mountainous,  the  middle  one  of  Kyle  has  a  level 
coast ;  while  Cunningham,  the  most  northerly,  consists  almost  entirely  of  a  fertile  plain. 
Both  counties,  from  the  boundaiy  line  of  mountains,  are  watered  by  fine  rivers ;  in  one,  the 
Ayr,  the  Dcxm,  and  the  Irvine ;  m  the  other,  the  Dee  and  the  Cree.  The  Ayrshire  breed  of 
horses,  called  also  the  Clydesdale,  is  highly  esteemed ;  and  generally  supplies  the  markets 
in  the  east  of  Scotland ;  but  the  little  active  breed  called  galloways  are  now  become  scarce. 
Tlio  kine  of  Ayrshire  are  valued  chiefly  for  the  dairy.  The  Galloway  bullock  produces 
beef  of  a  peculiar  excellence.  The  northern  division  of  Ayr  participates  to  a  certain  extent 
in  the  flourishing  manufactures  of  Lanarkshire.  It  has  immense  beds  of  valuable  coal,  which 
not  only  serve  for  the  supply  of  the  inhabitants,  but  are  exported  to  Ireland  in  such  quanti- 
ties as  to  form  the  chief  trade  of  this  county.  To  facilitate  the  transport,  the  Duke  of  Port-' 
land  has  formed  a  fine  harbour  at  Troon,  and  has  connected  it  by  a  rail-road  with  Kilmar- 
nock. 

Ayr,  at  the  pouit  where  the  fivers  Doon  and  Ayr  fall  united  into  the  sea,  forms  a  sort  of 
capital  for  the  gentry  of  a  considerable  part  of  Scotland.  It  was  the  principal  scene  of  some 
great  historical  events  in  the  time  of  Wallace  and  Bruce ;  and  was  carefiilly  fortified  by 
Oliver  Crbmwell ;  but  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  harbour  has  been  unfavourable  to  ita 
progress.  It  exports,  however,  chiefly  to  Ireland,  a  considerable  quantity  of  coal,  brought 
by  railways.  The  town  is  irregularly  built,  but  has  one  handsome  principal  street.  Its 
theatre,  its  academy,  and  some  charitable  institutions,  are  on  a  greater  scale  than  the  size 
of  the  town  might  lead  us  to  expect.  The  ports  of  Troon,  Saltcoats,  and  Ardrossan  send 
large  quantities  of  coal  to  Ireland ;  whence  they  receive  grain  for  the  supply  of  the  great 
interior  towns.  Saltcoats,  which  has  sprung  up  within  the  last  century,  is  also  noted  for 
the  manufacture  of  salt ;  and  Ardrossan  is  now  a  watering-place  of  increasing  resort 
Largs,  the  celebrated  scene  of  the  defeat  of  Haco,  the  last  Danish  invader,  attracts  many 
visiters  by  the  extreme  beauty  of  its  situation.  In  the  interior  of  Ayrshire  is  Kilmarnock, 
its  largest  and  most  thriving  town.  The  manufacture  of  various  woollen  stuflTs,  and  fabrics 
of  leather ;  and  latterly  branches  of  the  cotton  weaving  from  Glasgow,  place  it  high  in  the 
list  of  Scottish  manufacturing  towns. 

Galloway  is  almost  entirely  a  rural  district.  Its  capitals,  Wigton  and  Kirkcudbright,  are 
pleasant  country  towns,  and  the  latter,  having  a  good  harbour,  has,  of  late,  considerably 
increased.  Portpatrick,  the  nearest  point  of  Great  Britain  to  the  Irish  coast,  is  the  main 
channel  of  communication  between  Scotland  and  Ireland ;  for  which  purpose  an  improved 
harbour  has  lately  been  constructed,  and  regular  packet-boats  are  established. 

The  counties  of  Lanark  and  Renfrew  constitute  the  valley  of  the  Clyde,  the  grand  thea- 
tre of  Scottish  commerce  and  industry.  Lanarkshire,  or  Clydesdale,  is  divided  into  three 
regions,  of  widely  different  character;  the  upper  valley  is  altogether  a  rude  pastoral  region, 
Below  Tinto,  the  banks  of  the  Clyde  assume  a  softer  and  gayer  character,  exhibiting  a  suc- 
cession of  gardens  and  orchards.  Below  Hamilton  comes  the  flat  district  around  Glasgow, 
which  supplies  that  city  witli  inexhaustible  stores  of  excellent  coal. 

Glasgow  is  the  commercial  capital  of  Scotland,  and  in  population  ranks  as  the  third 
town  in  the  island.  Tradition  ascribes  its  origin  and  erection  into  a  bishopric  to  SL 
Mungo,  in  the  year  560.  Its  rapid  rise  commenced  with  the  union,  which  opened  to  it  the 
trade  with  America  and  the  West  Indies,  hitherto  monopolised  by  the  English  ports.  In  1718, 
for  the  first  time,  a  vessel  from  the  Clyde  sailed  across  the  Atlantic.  By  the  middle  of  the 
century,  the  merchants  of  Glasgow  imported  more  than  half  the  entire  amount  of  tobacco 
which  came  into  Great  Britain ;  and  to  them  the  French  farmers-general  chiefly  looked  for 
their  supply  of  this  important  article. 

Their  intercourse  also  with  the  West  Indies,  which  had  hitherto  been  very  limited,  was 
now  carried  on  to  a  vast  extent  A  still  greater  source  of  wealth  was  opened  at  home. 
Glasgow  had,  in  the  course  of  the  century,  become  a  great  manufacturing  city,  employing 
her  induBfry  on  the  old  staple  of  linen  of  the  finer  descriptions,  as  cambrics,  lawns,  gauzes ; 
also  in  the  making  of  stockings  and  of  shoes  for  exportation ;  but  its  product  in  these 
branches  never  exceeded  400,000Z.  But  when  cotton  was  extensively  introduced  into 
Britain,  Glasgow  devoted  herself  entirely  to  this  new  manufacture.  She  became  the  rival 
of  Manchester ;  and,  if  circumstances  did  not  allow  her  to  obtain  so  great  a  share  of  the 
manufacture,  she  produced  some  finer  fabrics,  and  was  as  prompt  in  availing-  herself  of 
(pvery  improved  pTuccss;  ini~iense  fortuneo  were  realized,  and  an  nnnual  viiiut;  of  ii"iirly 
4.000,000/.  sterling  produce''..  Giasgo'v  was  one  of'the  first  places  which  atlopt.o'l  tlii>  in- 
vrntion  of  power  looms,  and  she  has  nov  10,(I(K)  of  these,  and  ;)2,000  worked  Iv  the  hiiiid. 
In  1830,  the  number  of  persons  receiving  parochial  aid  was  only  ItOOO,  not  quite  one-fortieth 
l>art  of  the  inhabitants,  and  the  sum  expended  on  the  poor  was  only  17,287/.,  although 


«ao 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  HI. 


Glasgow  is  now  the  lar^fest  town  in  Great  Britain,  Ix)n(lon  and  Mannheater  excepted.  The 
harbour  ia  at  the  Brooinickw,  wiiere  tiiere  is  an  extensive  quay  aloujj  the  Clyde ;  but  so 
ffreat  are  the  obstructions  to  its  navi(|fation,  that  Glus^fow  depends  cluefly  tor  imports  on 
Greenock  and  Liverpool.  In  18:)2  there  entered  its  port  only  79  vessels,  of  8154  tons.  Glus- 
ffow  is  a  handsome  and  well-built  town.  Its  original  streets  of  Ar^yle  and  Tron;arate  are 
Broad  and  spacious ;  and  several  handsome  squares  have  been  built  within  the  limits  of  tlie 
city ;  but  the  fashionable  residences  are  now  alniost  e.xclu.sivcly  in  the  west,  where,  along  a 
range  of  somewhat  elevated  ground,  a  number  of  elegant  and  spacious  streetn  have  been 
erected.    Gorbals,  Calton,  Bridgeton,  Hutchesontown,  Tradeston,  and  Anderston,  arc  the 

principal  suburbs,  and  form  the'  manufacturing  part 
of  the  city.  The  public  edifices  deserve  admiration. 
The  cathedral  (Jig.  193.),  one  of  the  finest  in  Scot- 
land, is  a  massive  structure,  with  a  wooded  hill  ad- 
joining, on  the  top  of  which  a  monument  has  been 
fcrect^  to  the  memory  of  John  Knox.  The  modem 
edifices  are  also  handsome ;  the  Lunatic  Asylum,  the 
Assembly-rooms,  the  Infirmary,  the  Roman  Catholic 
chapel,  the  new  Exchange  Ileading-rooms,  &c.  de- 
serve mention.  The  bridewell  is  esteemed  the  most 
perfect  in  Scotland,  both  in  point  of  construction  and 
Giawow  Cathedral.  management    Glasgow  is  not  a  mere  commercial 

town ;  its  university,  founded  in  1450  by  Bishop  Tumbull,  has  been  adorned  by  a  long  suc- 
cession of  illustrious  teachers,  of  whom  Simson,  Hutcheson,  Reid,  Smith,  Millar,  ore  suffi- 
cient to  ensure  its  celebrity.  It  is  at  present  attended  by  1400  students,  and  its  name  stands 
as  high  as  at  any  former  period.  The  library  contains  30,000  volumes.  The  Museum  be- 
queathed by  the  late  Dr.  Hunter,  is  rich  in  anatomical  preparations,  shells,  insccto,  fossils,  as 
well  as  in  coins  and  medals.  An  elegant  Grecian  edifice  has  been  erected  for  its  reception. 
Auxiliary  to  the  University  is  the  Andersonian  Institution,  founded'  with  the  view  of  com- 
municating to  the  commercial  classes  a  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  physical  science ; 
for  which  purpose  it  has  been  found  highly  efficacious.  The  intellectual  spirit  of  the  citi- 
zens is  also  proved  by  three  libraries,  and  a  botanic  garden,  all  supported  by  public  sub- 
ecription. 

Paisley,  though  in  Renfrewshire,  may  be  considered  next,  in  order  to  connect  together  the 
great  seats  of  manufacture.  This  town  anciently  derived  its  distinction  from  its  ecclesia»- 
tical  character.  The  abbey  founded  in  1160,  was  in  a  great  measure  demolished  at  the 
p«ariod  of  the  Reformation.  Several  of  the  windows,  however,  still  afibrd  fine  specimens  oi 
the  ornamented  Gothic ;  and  the  nave  was  left  so  far  entire,  that  it  has  since  served  as  a  place 
of  worship.  Paisley  was  a  small  town  until  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  when  it  con- 
tained little  more  than  4000  inhabitants.  Soon  after,  its  manufactures,  which  were  already 
begun,  made  most  rapid  advances.  Down  to  the  year  1783,  they  consisted  chiefly  of  linen, 
fine  thread,  gauzes,  both  of  linen  and  silk,  and  other  delicate  and  elegant  fabrics.  On  the 
introduction  of  cotton,  the  manufacturers  of  Paisley,  like  those  of  Glasgow,  cultivated  this 
branch  almost  exclusively,  preferring  its  most  elegant  species.  Muslin,  the  finest  of  all  the 
productions  of  the  loom,  became  the  staple  of  Paisley.  In  1805,  there  were  20,500  persons 
employed  in  weaving  muslin,  the  entire  produce  of  whose  labours  was  rated  at  1,250,0002. 
Since  that  time,  the  population  having  increased  one-half,  the  productive  industry  has  not, 
probably,  advanced  in  a  less  proportion.  By  the  improved  navigation  of  the  Cart  and  a  canal, 
this  town  has  communication  with  the  Clyde,  and  the  canal  from  Glasgow  likewise,  destuied 
for  Ardrossan,  has  been  carried  as  fiir  as  Paisley.  The  county  gaol  and  bridewell  form  one 
of  the  finest  structures  of  the  kind  in  the  kingdom ;  the  town-hall  and  several  of  the  churches 
are  very  handsome.  The  operative  weavers  of  Paisley  are  equal  in  intelligence  to  any  class 
of  the  same  rank  elsewhere ;  and  this  spirit  has  led  to  the  formation  among  them  of  a  num- 
ber of  book  societies,  reading  rooms,  and  subscription  libraries. 

Greenock  is  entirely  a  commercial  and  maritime  station ;  it  is  the  only  great  western  port 
of  Scotland,  but  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  the  vessels  belong  to  Glasgow.  The  prin- 
cipal trade  consists  in  importing  the  produce  of  the  West  Indies,  to  which  is  added  a  very 
extensive  herring  fishery,  and  a  share  of  the  cod  fisheries  of  Newfoundland  and  Cape  Breton. 
Tiie  sum  of  90,000i.  has  been  lately  expended  in  the  improvement  of  the  harbour,  which 
can  novy  contain  500  sail,  and  a  handsome  custom-house  has  been  built  by  government.  In 
1832  there  entered  this  port  282  vessels,  tonnage  78,131.  Greenock  is  not  an  elegant  town ; 
but  the  hills  behind  it  command  a  noble  view  of  the  river,  and  of  the  mountains  of  Argyle 
on  the  opposite  coast 

Port  Glasgow,  about  three  miles  higher  than  Greenock,  and  a  much  smaller  port,  continues 
subservient  to  Glasgow,  receiving  sucu  vesseis  uelonging  to  that  city  as  are  too  uUiKy  to 
ascend  the  Clyde ;  in  this  capacity,  its  trade  is  very  considerable,  riere  was  built  the  first 
dock  in  Scotland,  in  front  of  which  a  spacious  quay  extends  along  the  Clyde,  for  the  accom- 
tnodation  of  those  vessels  which  do  not  require  to  enter  the  basin.    Redrew,  the  capital  of 


Book  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


«n 


Bolhwell  C'aille. 


the  county,  is  an  old  town,  which  has  not  shared  in  the  prosperi^  of  ita  neiffhbourb.    The 
jihabitunts,  however,  receive  a  little  employment  from  the  manulacturors  of  GlaRgow. 

The  banks  of  the  Clyde  above  Glasgow,  whose  vicinity  forms  only  a  small  part,  however 
important,  of  the  extensive  county  of  Ijinark,  are  still  to  be  surveyed.  First  occurs  Both- 
well  (Jig.  194.),  one  of  the  principal  seats  of  the  Dongluscs.     Here  Edward  I.  placed  the 

chief  garrison,  which  was  intended  to  hold  Scot- 
land in  subjection.  It  is  now  a  bold  and  striking 
ruin,  rising  above  the  river  banks.  A  litllo  above 
is  Bothwell  Bridge,  so  noted  as  the  disastrous 
scene  of  the  rout  of  the  covenanting  army.  Far- 
ther up  is  Hamilton,  a  pleasant  handsome  town  in 
a  flne  country :  it  is  supported  by  the  residence  nf 
the  family  of  Hamilton,  and  by  a  branch  of  the 
cotton  manufacture.  From  Hamilton  the  rood 
leads  through  a  range  of  orchards,  and  tlie  most 
beautiful  scenery,  to  I^anark.  This  town,  though 
bearing  the  name  of  the  county,  is  only  a  large 
stragglmg  village;  but  about  a  mile  distant  ia 
New  lianark,  noted  for  the  extensive  cotton  manu- 
factory  established  by  the  late  Mr.  Dale,  and  lately  conducted  by  Mr.  Owen.  Whatever 
may  be  thought  of  the  speculative  tetints  of  the  latter  gentleman,  the  attention  paid  to  the 
behaviour  and  comforts  of  those  employed  presented,  certainly,  in  many  respects,  a  model 
wortliy  of  imitation.  But  Lanark  has  a  still  greater  attraction  in  the  falls  of  the  Clyde, 
Boniton,  Corra,  Stonebyres,  situated  above  and  below  it,  at  about  two  miles'  distance  from 
each  other.  Their  height  does  not  exceed  eighty  or  ninety  feet ;  but  the  mass  of  water, 
with  the  grandeur  of  tne  ruckv  walls  and  hanging  woods,  render  them  one  of  tlie  finest 
examples  of  this  description  of  scenery. 

The  northern  Lowlands,  bevond  the  Forth,  form  a  belt  of  al)ont  twenty  miles  in  breadth, 
reaching  the  shores  of  the  Moray  Frith.  The  coast  is  generally  level  ond  fertile ;  but  a 
groat  part  of  the  interior  is  bleak  and  moorish.  This  district  contains,  however,  several 
cities  and  seoports  of  considerable  magnitude  and  importance. 

Fife  was  formerly  distinguished  as  the  centre  of  Scottish  industry ;  and  one  of  its  cities 
forms  the  ecclesiastical  capital  of  Scotland.  AD  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  country  was 
carried  on  in  its  ports ;  and  less  than  two  centuries  ago  its  rental  amounted  to  a  tenth  part 
of  that  of  the  whole  kingdom.  Since  Scotland  has  ceased  to  be  agitated  by  war,  Edinburgh 
and  the  opposite  side  of  the  Forth  have  attracted  all  these  advantages ;  and  the  numerous 
seaports  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  Forth,  have  dwindled  into  fishing  villages.  Fife  is,  in 
pener|il,  a  level  country,  yet  diversified  lay  a  few  hills  of  considerable  elevation,  as  the 
Lomond  Hills,  and  Ijargo  Law.  A  great  part  of  the  interior  is  bleak  and  unproductive ;  and 
fiirming  is  less  advanced  than  in  the  Ijothians ;  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  Hax  is  carried 
on  chiefly  for  domestic  use,  unless  at  Dunfermline,  where  there  is  a  large  fabric  of  fine  sheet- 
ing and  diaper.  The  western  coast  abounds  in  coal,  and  in  fine  limestone,  which  is  exported 
to  a  very  great  extent.  The  county  town  is  Cupar,  a  place  of  moderate  size,  neat,  with 
some  stir  of  gaiety.    A  greater  interest  attaches  to  St.  Andrew's  from  its  former  greatness, 

from  the  remarkable  scenes  there  acted,  and 
from  its  splendid  edifices,  of  which  frag- 
ments still  remain.  It  is  seated  on  a  bold 
coast,  facing  a  wide  bay  of  the  German 
Ocean;  and  has  two  fine,  broad,  parallel 
streets,  of  which  one  is  now  almost  deserted. 
The  castle  and  cathedral  (Jig.  195.)  have 
been  demolished ;  but  a  high  square  tower, 
and  a  gable  of  the  chapel  of  St.  Rule,  still 
attest  the  elegance  of  the  latter  structure. 
The  university  contains  a  school  of  theology 
and  philosophy,  but  has  no  classes  in  law 
or  medicine.  Founded  under  the  auspices 
of  Buchanan,  it  can  boast  mnny  eminent 
professors  and  pupils;  though,  from  its  almost  insulated  situation,  it  does  not  attract  so  great 
a  concourKeas  Edinburgh.  Kirkaldy  has  some  foreign  trade,  and  a  considerable  linen  manu- 
facture. Dunfermline,  anciently  the  most  flourishing  town  in  Fife,  was  a  place  of  impcjr- 
tance,  and  the  frequent  residence  of  royalty.  Malcolm  Canmore  founded  here  an  abbey, 
which  became  one  of  the  richest  and  most  spacious  in  the  kingdom ;  it  has  been  nearly 
deinnlished,  yet  its  ruins  evince  its  former  splendour ;  and  part  of  them  has  been  appropri- 
ated OS  the  parish  church.  On  a  contiguous  spot,  the  tomb  of  Bruce  was  lately  discovered. 
Dunfermline  is  distinguished  by  an  extensive  manufactory  of  damask,  diaper,  and  other  fine 
linen  cambrics,  which  employ  1500  looms,  and  yield  an  estimated  annual  produce  of  120,000/. 
Kinross,  the  capital  of  the  county  of  the  same  name,  is  a  pleasant  little  town,  chiefly 
Voul.  86 


8t.  Anilrew'i  C^iiihHlrnl. 


432 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAniY. 


Past  III. 


noted  for  its  situation  on  the  ahoros  of  Lochleven.     This  is  a  little  lake,  of  conaiderable 

beauty,  imvinff,  on  an  iHland  in  ita  cen* 


m 


196 


■am 


[-^{^"l^ff^, 


LoehleTM  Cutis. 


tre,  a  castle,  {^g,  IW\.),  anciently  of 
groat  HlrengUi,  and  noted  in  hiMtory, 
even  before  it  ac(iuire<l  the  ronmntic 
interoHt  derived  iVoni  the  iinpriiionuit  iit 
of  rdary,  ond  hor  lulvunluronM  ohciiik'. 
Only  a  siiunro  tnrn>to<i  building'  iind 
one  of  the  walis  of  the  chapol  now  re- 
main. On  another  island  are  tiie  tmci>!) 
of  a  very  ancient  and  consiileruble  priory. 
Clackmannanshire  w  a  pleawint  little 
county,  with  a  considerable  extent  of 
fine  caree  land,  and  great  quautitioH  ot' 
coal  and  lime.  The  town  of  Clackmannan  is  distinguished  for  the  beauty  of  its  Hituntiun. 
Close  to  it  is  an  ancient  tower,  built  by  Robert  the  Bruce.  Alloa,  two  miles  farther  down, 
is  a  thriving  little  place,  in  whose  vicinity  are  mines  of  coal,  of  which  about  3i),000  tons  are 
annually  exported. 

Forfiir,  more  usually  termed  Angus,  is  of  somewhat  rough  aspect,  the  western  border 
being  encroached  upon  by  lower  branches  of  the  Grampians,  while  the  Sidlaw  Hills,  a  range 
of  considerable  height,  traverse  the  centre.  Between  those  is  a  ]>ortion  of  the  great  valley 
of  Strathmore,  which  is  here  fertile  and  beautiful,  as  is  also  tlie  plain  between  Hidlaw  and 
the  coast    Its  prosperity  depends  chiefly  upon  manufactures,  commerce,  and  fishery. 

Dundee,  the  largest  town  in  Forfarshire,  ranks  fourth  in  Scotland  as  to  population  and 
wealth.  It  was  of  early  importance  and  strength,  deriving  its  origin  from  Malcolm  Canniore, 
and  it  obtained  a  fatal  celebrity  through  the  sieges,  by  Edward  I. ;  by  the  Marquis  of  Mon- 
trose; and  by  Monk,  wiio  gave  it  up  to  indiscriminate  pillage.  Dundee,  however,  has  rflco- 
vered  from  these  disasters,  and  is  become  one  of  the  most  flourishing  commercial  towns  in 
Scotland.  Her  staple  employment  consists  in  the  importation  of  flax  and  hemp,  and  work- 
ing them  into  coarse  linens,  sailcloth,  &c.  There  have  been  exported  in  one  vear  10(),7I;< 
pieces  of  Osnaburg,  148,377  of  sheeting,  81,754  of  sailcloth,  witli  bagging,  sacking,  dowlus, 
and  other  fabrics,  of  tlie  entire  value  of  about  l,r>00,(K)0/. ;  four-fifVhs  of  which  were  made 
in  Dundee  itself.  Dundee  has  belonging  to  her,  270  vessels  of  83,000  tons ;  and  in  a  single 
year  a  tonnage  of  212,000  has  entereid  the  port.  The  harbour  has  been  greatly  enlarged  by 
wet  docks  and  other  additions ;  and  a  railway  opens  a  conununication  into  the  valley  of 
Strathmore.  The  population,  exceeding  45,000,  shows  a  remarkable  increase  since  1H21 
when  it  was  only  30,500.  Dundee  is  agreeably  situated  on  an  eminence  above  the  1'uy ; 
the  old  streets  are  narrow  and  steep,  but  new  and  handsome  ones  are  built  and  building  in 
every  direction ;  and  the  vicinity  is  adorned  with  elegant  villas.  There  is  on  academy, 
distinguished  by  the  scientiflc  attainments  of  some  of  its  teachers. 

Arbroath  carries  on  upon  a  smaller  scale,  the  same  branches  as  Dundee;  and  is  adorned 
with  the  ruins  of  a  magnificent  abbey.     Montrose  is  prettily  situated  at  the  mouth  of  a 

river,  bearing,  in  cqmmon  with  many 
197  others,  the  name  «>f  Esk.     Its  trade 

and  industry  are  considerable ;  ami  it 
has  a  safe  harbour.     A  number  of  the 
neighbouring  gentry  have  been  at- 
tracted  by    its   agreeable    situation, 
which  renders  it  the  most  fasiiionuble 
place   in  the  county.      Forfni,  tlie 
county  town,  situated  in  the  valley 
of  Strathmore,  is  chiefly  supported  by 
the  business  of  the  courts ;  there  is 
also  a  majiiifacture  of  brown  linens. 
The  village  of  Glammis  is  distinguished  by  the  ma^ificcnt  castle  (Jig,  197.)  in  its  vicinity. 
Kincardine  is  closely  hemmed  in  by  the  Grampians  on  the  west :  it  contains,  however,  in 
-Qg  its  southern  district,  the  termination  of 

^•^  tlie  great  valley  of  Strathmore,  whicli  is 

here  called  the  "  How  of  the  Mearns ;" 
and  forms  a  tract  equally  fertile  and  do- 
lightful.  The  northern  part  consists 
chiefly  of  mountains  and  moors  of  the 
most  bleak  and  drearv  aspect.  The  coast 
is  of  great  extent,  and  very  bold,  pre- 
senting in  many  parts  high  precipitous 
cliffs,  covered  with  innumerable  flocks 
of  sea-birds;  on  one  of  these  are  the 
DuDootiw  CuUe.  extensive  remains  of  tlie  castle  of  Dun 


Glaniinii  Castle. 


Past  III. 

ke,  of  considerable 
I  wland  in  its  ceii* 
l9U.)«  anciontly  of 

noted  in  history, 
liruil  tho   roniiintic 

tlio  iinpriiioiiini  lit 
ilvoiituruim  onciiim.'. 
t'tod  liuildin^r  imd 
lio  clmpol  now  rv 
iluiid  uro  tho  tracts 
considurable  priory. 

IH  a  pleuwmt  lit  tin 
iderablo  extent  of 
rretit  quautiliuH  of 
utv  of  its  Hitimtioii. 
iiilcH  farther  down, 
out  aU,000  tonH  are 

;hfi  western  border 
dlaw  Hill8,  a  mtiifv 
of  the  (^reat  valley 
tween  Hidlaw  and 
and  tiHliery. 
to  population  and 
Malcolm  Cannioru, 
9  MurquiH  of  Moii- 
however,  has  reco- 
nimcrcial  towns  in 
id  hemp,  and  work- 
1  one  year  10(),7l;< 
g,  sacKiniif,  dowlus, 
which  were  niuJi' 
ns ;  and  in  a  sin^rlc 
freatly  enlarjEretl  hy 
into  the  valley  of 
crease  since  IH'Jl 
ce  above  the  Tay ; 
ilt  and  buildiiijr  in 
re  is  on  academy, 

e;  and  is  adorned 
at  the  mouth  of  a 
iqmmon  with  many 
i)f  Esk.  Its  trade 
>nsiderable ;  ami  it 
A  number  of  the 
ry  have  been  nt- 
Teeablo  siiuafioii, 
e  most  iiisliioiiable 
tity.  Forfai,  tlie 
ited  in  the  valley 
liefly  supported  by 
B  courts;  tlicre  is 
3  of  brown  linens. 
.)  in  Its  vicinity, 
tains,  however,  in 
»e  termination  of 
athmore,  whicli  ia 
of  the  MearnK ;" 
lly  fertile  and  de- 
em part  consists 
ind  moors  of  the 

RBnpot      T'lio  nnnul 

d  very  bold,  pre- 
I  high  precipitous 
numerable  flocks 
of  these  are  the 
lie  castle  of  Dun 


Rook  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


{fiff,  108,)<  considered  formerly  as  imprefifiiablo,  whore  tho  re|(alia  of  the  kinufdoiii 
HhjneliHVon,  the  county-town,  carries  on  noine  trade,  and  hai«  a 


nottar, 

were  at  onn  tiinu  dc|KMitod. 

nmnufactiire  of  brown  linen. 

Aherdoen  i»  a  lar^^e  and  important  northern  county.  It  has  a  vory  considerabln  lino  of 
coiiNt,  uotli  to  tho  oust  and  to  tho  north,  and  extends,  with  increasing  breadth,  tiir  into  tin 
interior.  There  it  forms  Mar,  or  liraomar,  s.  hiffhland  di»,i.  ><*,  one  of  tiiu  nioMt  eUwated  in 
tlie  kinjirdoiii,  some  of  tho  mountains  risii  -  .  alxivo  4(iU()  feet,  and  contai.iiiiff  exlciiHivci 
t(>rest.s  of  ancient  pines,  with  luTga  Hocks  of  wild  deer,  in  tlie  deep  kIoiih  or  valleys.  Fnnii 
the  hei^iflilH  of  Kraemnr  descend  the  Deo  and  tho  Don,  tho  first  of  which  forms  some  very 
pi(Huri3S(iue  falls  in  its  early  course.  Even  tho  liowland  districts  are  in  ffoneral  bleiik  and 
moorish,  adantod  only  to  the  cultivation  of  inferior  species  of  t;rain,and  the  rearing  of  ciUtlo, 
The  ol(l  staple  fabric  of  knittinf^f  worsted  stocking  has  been  greatly  injured  by  tlie  clii)ii|>- 
nesri  witli  which  these  are  now  produced  elsewhere  by  tho  aid  of  machinery  ;  but  other 
W(X)llen  branches,  together  with  those  of  linen  and  cotton,  tlie  latter  to  a  coiisiderablo 
extent,  h.iva  been  intnMluced.  The  beautiflil  nick  crystals  called  cahnfforina,  and  iiIho  the 
topaz  and  tho  beryl,  are  found  in  the  mountains  of  Jiniomar ;  and  the  line  granite  which 
alK>undB  near  Aberdeen,  yields  r2,()UU  tons  to  be  annually  shipped  to  Ijoiidon  mid  elsewlioro. 
Tho  tishories  also  constitute  a  leading  occapation.  That  of  salmon  in  the  Don  and  Dee,  and 
the  whalu-tishery,  are  extensive  branches;  and  from  the  German  Ocean,  haddocks,  cod,  ling, 
turhot,  and  shell-fish,  are  taken  in  great  quantities. 

Aberdeen,  "  the  Queen  of  the  North,"  and  tho  largest  city  beyond  the  Forth,  is  situated 
between  the  Dee  and  the  Don.  Old  Aberdeen  is  situated  near  the  Don,  whose  entrance  is 
obstructed  by  a  natural  bar,  which  renders  this  harbour  inadequate  for  the  town,  'i'ho  muss 
of  population  has  settled  on  tho  banks  of  the  Dee,  the  narrow  entrance  of  which  o|)enh  into 
a  basin,  forming  an  excellent  harbour.  It  had,  however,  a  bar  at  its  mouth,  liable  to  con* 
tinual  increase  by  tho  sand  blown  from  tho  beach  which  extends  along  the  coast ;  a  mole  of 
ri(H)  feet  in  length  has  been  carried  out  into  the  sea,  and  a  channid  has  been  formed,  by 
which  vessels  of  700  tons  may  enter.     Now  Aberdeen  is  a  handsome  cit^,  esnecially  the 

{rincipul  street,  composed  of  a  long  range  of  new  and  good  houH(>s,  built  ol  its  ttiio  granito. 
ts  commornc,  manutactures,  and  fishery  are  those  of  the  county,  all  these  branches  center* 
ing  in  Aberdeen.  This  city  is  now  the  principal  ship-building  ))ort  in  ticotlund,  uossessing, 
in  1882,  nr>5  ships  of  41,671  tons  burden.  The  old  town  has  rather  the  aspect  of  a  village, 
if  we  except  the  detached  houses  of  the  professors  of  the  university,  and  a  range  oi'  villas, 
the  opulent  tenants  of  which  have  been  attracted  by  tho  agreeable  situation.  It  is  adorned 
by  the  fine  old  edifice  of  King's  College?,  from  which  rises  a  siiuare  tower,  with  a  light  and  ele- 
gant crown.  This  seminary  was  founded  in  1494;  tho  salaries  are  mixlerate,  but  tho  bur- 
saries for  poor  schools  are  very  extensive.  Attached  to  it  is  a  library  of  considnrablo  value. 
Marischal  College,  founded  by  the  Earl  Marischal,  nearly  a  century  later,  is  situated  in  the 
heort  of  New  Aberdeen.  It  is  not  so  well  endowed  as  King's  College ;  but  has  an  excellent 
cabinet  of  natural  philosophy,  and  a  well-tiirnished  observatory. 

Peterhead,  iin  improving  place,  much  fretiuented  for  sea-bathing  and  for  a  mineral  water 
in  its  vicinity,  has  two  natural  harbours.  It  sends  thirteen  ships  to  the  whale  fishery,  iiiid 
carries  on  that  of  herrings  with  considerable  spirit.  To  tho  south  is  a  range  of  precipitous 
cliffs,  called  the  Bullers  of  Buchan,  against  which  the  waves  dash  with  perpetual  fury. 

Three  counties,  Banff,  Moray  or  Elgin,  and  Nairn,  occupy  the  southern  shore  of  the  Moray 
Frith.  The  interior  districts  border  on  the  lofliest  highlands ;  but  tho  coast,  only  diversified 
by  gentle  hills,  constitutes  the  ancient  province  of  Moray,  which  the  early  Scottish  writers 
describe  with  admiration  as  the  most  tVuittlil  part  of  Scotland,  and  as  enjoying  fifleen  dnys 
more  of  summer  than  any  other  district  Its  rivers  afford  ample  fisheries  of  salmon,  which 
is  exported  to  the  computed  annual  value  of  25,000?.  The  herring  fishery  also  is  prose- 
ciitoi!  with  considerable  success. 

Klgin  is  an  ancient  town,  situated  on  tho  Lossie,  and  has  a  tolerable  harbour ;  but  its  'lief 
diHtinction  rests  on  its  cathedral,  which,  even  in  ruin,  may  dispute  with  Melrose  the  j^iory 
of  being  the  finest  Gothic  edifice  in  Scotland ;  in  1568  tho  privy  council  ordered  its  lead»!n 
roof  to  be  taken  off  for  the  payment  of  the  army,  and  from  that  time  it  gradually  decayed. 
In  a  neighbouring  valley  are  also  the  remains  of  the  fine  priory  of  Pluscordine.  Banfll"  is  a 
somewhat  larger  and  more  thriving  place,  situated  at  the  mouth  of  tho  Deveron;  carrying 
on  some  linen  manufactures,  and  a  considerable  herring  fishery.  Nairn  is  a  neat  little 
county  town,  possessing  tome  industry,  and  frequented  for  sea-bathing. 

SyBSEOT.  2. — The  Highland  Counties, 

The  Highlands  of  Scotland  comprise  somewhat  more  than  half  the  surfkce  of  the  king- 
dom. They  include  the  whole  region  north  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  except  the  belt  on  the 
eastern  coast,  between  the  fi-iths  of  Forth  and  Moray,  which  has  just  been  described.  This 
region  consists  altogether  of  continuous  ranges  of  lofly  mountains,  which  on  the  borders, 


494 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOORAPHY. 


Pa«t  hi. 


leave  between  them  some  of  the  fine  and  broad  valleys,  called  Mtralhn,  but  in  the  interior 
only  the  deep  and  often  rocky  intorvala  called  fflena.  They  are  |N>o|>lud  by  a  laco  totally 
dixtinct  ih)m  the  Iiowlanders.  TheHe  inountainourM  wear  a  cuotume,  alrcaily  det)cril>ed,  quite 
peculiar  to  themselves;  they  speak  a  Celtic  dialect,  deep,  stronff,  and  (futtural,  bvarinif  no 
resemblance  to  the  Teutonic  speech  of  the  Ixiwlands  and  of  Lnjfland.  They  have  cvur 
ninintainod  that  valour,  which,  under  Galffacus,  M*t  bounds  to  the  career  of  Roman  cotuiufHt, 
and  preserved  their  mountains  untouched  by  the  invader ;  and  they  have  since  been  con. 
verted  from  formidable  foes  into  ifallant  defenders  of  the  rest  of  the  empire.  Down  to  tlio 
ycHr  1746,  they  acted  in  clans,  leilby  hereditary  chinfii,  to  whom  they  were  entirely  devotttd, 
and  who  exercised  over  them  a  paternal  but  alwolute  sway.  'J'ho  spirit  of  clanship  led  lliem 
to  attach  themselves  stronffly  to  the  hereditary  ri^rht  of  the  Stuarts,  of  which,  under  Mont- 
rose, they  frave  powerful  proofs,  which  had  nearly  turned  the  tide  of  war  in  its  Ikvour. 
Atlerwards,  in  1746,  they  suddenly  invaded  England ;  and,  in  tlie  absence  of  the  army  in 
Flanders,  struck  alarm  into  the  dynasty  of  Hanover.  The  issue  of  that  contest  broke 
entirely  the  independence  of  the  highland  chiefs.  A  number  were  either  brought  to  the 
8ca(!()ld,  or  sent  into  exile ;  militarv  roads  were  made,  and  forts  erected  in  the  heart  of  their 
territory;  they  were  deprived  of  their  feudal  privileges;  even  the  national  drens  was  pro 
hibited,  on  account  of  the  recollections  it  was  copulated  to  excite.  After  the  tirdl  aluruis, 
however,  had  subsided,  the  British  government  adopted  the  plan  of  conciliation.  Pitt  con- 
ceived the  i<lca  of  forming  the  highlanders  into  national  regiments,  allowing  even  a  limited 
use  of  the  appropriate  dress;  and  they  have  since  ranked  with  tlie  bravest  and  most  distin- 
guished troopH  in  the  British  army.  Out  of  the  forfeited  estates  and  oUier  funds  voted  by 
government,  vast  sums  have  been  expended  on  the  Caledonian  Canal,  roads,  bridges,  and 
other  great  works  for  the  improvement  of  this  rude  territory.  The  lairdg,  deprived  of  tlicir 
absolute  power,  and  attracted  by  the  gaieties  and  luxuries  of  cities,  soon  accustomed  thorn- 
selves  to  view  their  estates  only  as  "  material  capitals,  to  bo  worked  according  to  the  great 
principles  of  political  economy."  The  multitude  of  little  spots,  divided  among  vaesals,  in 
whose  numbers  they  placed  their  strength,  were  thrown  into  large  Hheei>-funns ;  and  the 
tenants  were  driven  out  to  seek  a  homo  wherever  they  could  find  it.  Some  migratc<l  to  the 
lowland  cities,  and  a  great  proportion  went  to  America ;  yet,  in  consequence  of  the  advunco 
of  commerce  and  fisheries,  even  the  highland  counties  augment'}d  their  population  during 
this  period,  thougii  not  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  Lowlands.  Between  1801  and  18!;21, 
it  increosed  from  434,000  to  512,(KX).  There  is  one  great  manufacture,  generally  difl'usod 
throughout  this  region,  which  tends  rather  to  disturb  the  peace  than  to  improve  the  condition 
of  the  community ;  this  is  whiskey,  which  the  people  prepare  in  small  stills  from  their  here, 
or  coarse  barley,  and  give  it  a  flavour  superior  to  any  otiier  spirit  made  in  England  or  Scot- 
land. 

The  Highlands  are  composed  of  two  great  districts, — the  west  and  the  north.  The  formci 
comprehends  the  shires  of  Dumbarton,  Argyle,  Bute,  and  part  of  Perth ;  the  latter  embracot 
the  counties  of  Inverness,  Ross,  Sutherland,  &c.  The  Hebrides,  or  Western  Isles,  belong 
to  the  counties  of  Bute,  Argyle,  Rosb,  and  Inverness. 

Perth  is  a  noble  and  extensive  county,  forming  the  link,  as  it  were,  between  the  Lowlnndt 
and  Highlands ;  in  its  diflferent  parts  uniting  the  beauty  and  fertility  of  the  one  with  tht 
grandeur  of  the  other.  The  former  qualities  are  conspicuous  in  the  carae  of  Gowrie;  s 
broad  sloping  plain,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Tay,  profusely  covered  with  orchards  and  cul- 
tivated fields.  The  upper  part  of  Strathearn,  also,  between  Perth  and  Cricfl',  varied  with 
gentle  hills,  cultivated  valleys,  and  the  windings  of  two  great  rivers,  may  almost  be  called 
the  garden  of  Scotland.  As  we  proceed  to  the  north  and  west,  the  Grampians  gradually 
swell,  and  at  length  are  found  occupying  the  whole  interior  of  the  county,  in  a  line  from 
north-east  to  south-west,  and  comprehending  the  mighty  summits  of  Ben  Jjawers,  Benmoro, 
P^ngloe,  Schehallion,  Ben  Voirlich,  Benledi,  Benvenue;  all  from  3000  to  upwards  of  4000 
leet  high.  Within  their  recesses  they  enclose  the  three  large  lochs,  Tay,  Earn,  and  Katrine. 
These  lakes,  varied  with  woods  and  verdure,  exhibit  in  many  parts  scenes  of  great  gramlfnir 
and  beauty.  In  the  lowlands  of  Perth,  agriculture  is  carried  to  great  perfection ;  the  higli- 
land  tracts,  on  the  contrary,  are  in  general  fit  only  for  pasturage.  They  are,  however, 
covered  with  the  remains  of  ancient  forests,  to  which  the  great  proprietors  have  boon 
making  very  extensive  additions.  The  towns  of  Perthshire  participate  in  the  different 
national  manufactures :  the  bleachfields  and  printfields  are  numerous ;  but  this  can  in  no 
view  be  generally  regarded  as  a  manufacturing  county. 

Perth  is  well  built,  and,  as  to  situation,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities  in  the  kingdom. 
The  view  of  it  from  the  north,  in  particular,  in  the  heart  of  a  finely  wooded  plain,  with  the 
Tay  winding  round  it,  and  the  Hill  of  Moncrieff  rising  above,  is  almost  without  a  rival  in 
the  kingdom.  Perth  might,  for  a  long  time,  be  considered  the  capital  of  Scotland.  It  was 
the  fVequent  residence  of  the  kinwH,  Purlinments  and  Geneni!  Asscmhlies  met  there  oftrnof 
than  in  any  other  placo ;  and,  in  the  civil  contests,  the  ixissessiori  of  Perth  was  considered 
of  vital  importance  by  the  contending  parties.     At  present  it  has  declined  to  a  rar.k  decidedly 


IkMK  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


iilft 


FillorBruar. 


frovincial ;  and  ita  commorcff,  onco  coiwidprable,  han  Ixton  almoat  wholly  traniforrml  to 
)iimlcn.  It  haH  linon  and  other  nmnufkctiirei*,  which  priMliicn  an  annual  vahit)  uf  ulxMii 
2(HMNK){. ;  while  ita  /idvantaKoouH  aito,  and  tho  oxcollont  r<lucati<)n  aftordiNl  bv  tho  i^raniniar 
HcluMil  and  academy,  attract  a  number  of  tlie  noighbourinK  gentry,  and  remfor  it  ({ay  and 
taHhiunabln. 

.  'I'he  other  towna  of  Perthshire  are  amall,  but  diatintniiaheil  for  tho  granA  and  pictumMpio 
Hcenery  amid  which  thev  are  situated.  Dunknid,  in  thia  rcMiMtitt,  ia  ifonuraliy  cun!<id<)rrd  tlio 
pride  of  Scotland;  the  nnely  wooded  and  rockv  hillx  through  which  the  'I*ay  nicmndorM,  with 

Uio  vallnyH  and  ((lonH  opoiiinj;  on  every  aido,  prodiico 
a  divoraity  of  landHcapit  Nciircoly  <M|iiiilltMl  olMttwIit'n*. 
Tho  late  Duke  of  Atliol,  whiwo  Mpacioim  doniiiiim 
cover  thia  imrt  of  I'urthHhirn,  woa  moat  activo  in 
reapoct  to  pluntationa,  ainco  thoao  of  Dunkeld  alone 
cover  11,00()  acroa;  and  the  whole  numbc:  of  trofs 
planted  by  the  duku  amoimt  to  :3(),()(H),(NM).  A  routo 
of  twenty  miloH,  diroctly  north,  iiaatiinff  oppoaitu  to 
tiie  flne  mountain  villaffo  of  Lojufierait,  and  t}irou);h 
tho  bold  jHiMH  of  Killikrunkio,  Icnda  to  Blair,  aluo  |Mirt 
of  the  Atiiol  territory,  and  one  of  thu  moat  pict<irea<|ue 
apota  in  Hcotland.  Ita  atrikinff  featnroa  conaiat  in  the 
lo%  mountain  ficn^loc,  thu  ((lena  of  the  Tilt  and  the 
Garry,  and  the  picture8(|uo  rocky  iklla  of  tho  Bruar 
(Jiff.  199.).  Weatwanl  ia  Loch  Iwnnoch,  aiirroundrd 
by  extonaive  foroata  of  fir,  ond  ovurhimfif  by  Hcho- 
hnllion,  on  whoae  lofly  aummit  Dr.  MuHkolynn  per- 
formed Bomo  of  hia  operationa  for  the  moaHiireinont 
of  the  earth.  Out  of  it  flowa  the  TumnI,  a  nipid 
atream,  which  forma  aomn  romantic  caBca<lGH.  From 
the  Tumol,  a  military  rood  leoda  to  Loch  Tay,  tho  larf^eat  of  tho  lakes,  and  aurroundod  by 
the  lotlieat  mountains  of  Porthahire.  Ben  Lawera,  with  a  chain  of  attendant  monntuins 
overhang  it  froni  the  north;  while  Benmoro  shuts  it  in  on  the  west;  and  perhaps  ihoro  is 
no  lake  m  Britain  cncloaed  by  ho  (frand  a  circuit.  Tho  aides  of  tho  mountams  are  somewhat 
naked ;  but  tho  g'rounda  of  Taymouth,  at  tho  head  of  the  loch,  form  a  rich  forofrroinid. 

Farther  south  ia  the  valo  of  Struthoarn,  at  one  end  of  which,  Crieff,  a  thriving  little  town, 
looks  upon  tho  windings  of  tho  river,  and  tho  vast  mountiiina  from  amid  which  it  iaHiioH. 
lioch  harn,  a  small  lake,  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  grand  ranges  of  very  lofty  moun- 
tains. 

The  upper  volleys  of  the  Forth  and  tho  Teith  have  somo  very  remarkable  scenery.  On 
the  Allan,  i^  Dumblane;  a  pleasantly  aitiiated  little  town,  with  the  remains  of  a  fine 
cathedral ;  Callender,  overhung  by  Bcnlcdi,  is  chiefly  frequented  as  tho  key  of  IiOch  Katrinp, 
situated  about  ten  miles  to  tho  westward,  and  approached  by  a  narrow  road  along  the  small 
lakes  of  Venachoir  and  Achray.  Tho  scenes  of  btuuty  and  grandeur  which  mlorn  tho 
eastern  extremity  of  this  loke,  the  mighty  clifTs  of  Bei>venue,  the  wild  wooded  glen  of  tho 
Trosachs,  and  the  beautiful  little  islana  in  the  centre  of  tho  scene,  have  obtained  celobrity 
from  tlio  muse  of  Scott.  Farther  south,  the  Forth,  rising  from  Ben  Iximond,  rolls  through 
a  iMiatoral  mountain  valley,  once  the  oeat  of  tho  power  and  the  scene  of  the  adventures  of 
the  outlaw  Macgregor.  It  forms  several  little  lakes,  of  which  Loch  Ard  is  the  largest  and 
most  beautiful. 

Tho  county  of  Inverness  is  purely  highland,  presenting  range  after  range  of  mountains, 
of  which  Ben  Nevis,  Cairngorm,  and  several  others,  are  the  most  elevated  in  the  United 
Kingdcm.  The  intervals  between  them  are  filled  either  by  long  lakes,  or  by  narrow  glent', 
the  level  space  of  which  does  not  usually  exceed  a  mile  in  breadth.  The  principal  one, 
culled  the  Great  Caledonian  Glen,  reaches  from  Inverness  in  an  oblique  direction  acrobs  the 
kingdom,  filled  with  an  almost  unbroken  chain  of  lakes, — Ix)ch  Ness,  Loch  Oich,  I/xih 
I/ochy,  and  Loch  Linnhe ;  which  last  opens  by  the  Sound  of  Mull  into  the  western  sea ;  a 
continuity  which  facilitated  the  formation  of  the  Caledonian  Canal.  In  the  cost,  the  district 
along  the  upper  course  of  the  Spey,  bearing  the  name  of  Strathspey,  comprises  an  unusual 
extent  of  level  land.  Only  about  a  fortieth  part  of  the  county  is  capable  of  cultivation ;  but 
that  fortieth,  composed  of  hauffk  or  alluvial  land,  on  the  rivers,  or  the  lakes,  is  extremely 
fertile.  The  greatest  branch  of  industry  consists  in  the  rearing  of  black  cattle,  sheep,  and 
goats.  Game  of  all  kinds  abounds,  and  there  are  still  considerable  remains  of  the  great 
Caledonian  forest,  composed  chiefly  of  fir. 

Inverness,  the  gay  capital  of  the  Highlands,  is  of  a  very  different  charncter  from  that  of 

the  wild  region  over  which  it  holds  a  sort  of  dominion.     Seated  on  a  bay,  at  the  head  of  the 

Moray  Frith,  it  partakes  in  a  great  measure  of  the  mild  and  fertile  character  of  its  shores, 

and  stands  at  some  little  distance  from  the  awfiil  ranges  of  mountains  by  which  it  is  enclosed. 

Vol.  I.  36*  3D 


4M 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paiit  in. 


Fall  of  Fran. 


After  mflhrinpf  n  cnnmdnrabln  (iecliiin  tVotn  its  nncinnt  im|)(>rtnnrn,  it  hn«,  within  tiin  limt 
thirty  yearn,  nnarly  triplwl  itit  nxt«tnt  and  impiiiation.  In  j^niorul,  a  ronmilfmlilo  polmli 
of  tnannora  is  ohnurvablo ;  and  it  linH  b«!(>n  rtnimrkod  that  thn  KnffliNh  lnn)(nii^f>  in  it|N)ktm 
in  ffreater  purity  than  in  any  othi^r  imrt  of  Hcotluiui;  a  circimiMtttnoo  which  haii  \uwn 
arn'ribfid  to  tho  ruaiiitmco  of  Unplinli  otficorH  artt-r  tho  h«ttl»'  of  ('ullodpn.  lii't-rni'MM  han  ■ 
town  hoiiM),  inHnnary,  aMoinbly-rfxiins,  and  theatre.  Manutkcturoflof  hoinp,  Hnx,  and  tnrtan 
havo  been  eHtabliahud.  The  viowH,  l)ot)i  of  sea  and  land,  in  ita  vicinity,  uru  iihniMt  un- 
rivalled. 
Invemoas-flhire  haa  scarcely  anotlier  place  which  can  make  much  pretension  to  tho  tiaiTin 

even  of  a  village,  Ben  Nevix,  umially  conHidt^rcd 
the  lotlioflt  mountain  in  Scotland  and  in  the 
United  Kin^fdom,  is  4370  feet  above  the  lovcl  of 
the  oea ;  the  view  fh)m  the  aummit  ia  vt^ry  rxtcn* 
eive,  embracing  a  ((reat  portion  of  tho  llobridoa. 
To  the  oast  of  fjoch  Nosh,  tho  rivulet  of  FycrH  or 
Foyers  (fiff.  200.),  forms  tho  );reateat  watortiill  in 
Scotland;  the  lower  or  principal  fall  ditaoemlii 
from  a  height  of  '212  feet;  but  the  stream  is  not 
very  copious. 

Argyle,  commonly  called  tlie  Western  High- 
lands, is  a  wide  and  irregular  territory,  stretch- 
ing  into  long  promontories,  and  indented  by  deep 
arms  of  the  sea,  so  as  to  form  a  coast  of  very 
great  extent.  In  general  tho  shore  is  bordered 
by  high  hills,  and  the  interior  covered  with  ranges 
of  rugged  mountains.  Its  industry  is  almost  en- 
tirely pastoral ;  herds  of  black  cattle  and  vaot 
flocks  of  sheep  are  fed  on  the  sides  of  its  moun- 
tains. Tho  herring  of  the  west  coast,  and  especially  of  lioch  Fyne,  enjoys  a  high  reputa- 
tion. The  county  is  chiefly  tenanted  by  Campbells,  who  were  wont  to  rally  round  tho  Mac- 
callummore,  a  designation  of  tlieir  chief  the  Duke  of  Argyle,  with  all  the  ardour  of  kindred 
and  national  attachment. 

Dumbarton  is  mostly  a  pert  of  the  same  district; 
yet  it  has  a  lowland  strip  extending  along  the  north- 
ern banks  of  the  Clyde.  In  the  western  part  are  the 
Great  Canal,  Joining  the  Clyde  at  Dunglass;  and 
the  wall  of  Antoninus,  called  by  the  ScottJHh  vulgar 
"  Graham's  dike."  The  approach  to  Dumbarton  af- 
fords one  of  the  most  striking  prospects  in  Scotland ; 
and  its  caatle  (Jiff.  201.),  the  ancient  and  mighty 
hold  of  the  Britons,  towering  on  the  summit  of  a 
perpend i'''ular  rock,  still  maintiiins  its  importimce  as 
a  fortresM.  Dumbarton  hiin  a  large  nuinnfnctory  of 
crown  glasH,  which  is  exiwrted  to  foreign  jmrts ;  and 
on  the  banks  of  the  Leven  there  are  extensive  printfields. 

Loch  Lomond  (^g.  202.)  is  celebrated  for  the  expanse  of  its  w  aters,  ond  tho  many  beautiful 

__  islands  with  -n  hich  is  studded.  From  its  foot, 

2"*  -'^  bordered  by  cultivated  hills  and  ornamented 

villas,  to  its  mountain  head,  there  is  a  con- 
tinued transition  from  beauty  to  grandeur, 
and  at  the  central  point  of  Lush  they  arc 
rt^markably  united.  The  numerous  and 
iiutiful  islands,  and  the  long  WfX)ded  pro- 
montories stretching  into  tho  water,  with 
the  majestic  form  of  Bnn  Lomond  in  tiie 
back  ground,  produce  a  combination  of  liiml- 
senpo  which  perhaps  no  other  spot  in  Britain 
can  equal. 

On  turning  the  head  of  Loch  Long  til 
Arrochar,  the  view  opens  cm  the  romantic  valley  of  Glencoe,  enclosed  between  two  ranjrtv 
of  mountains  rising  almost  pt-^-pendicularly  to  an  ama/.ing  height,  and  leaving  between  tliciii 
only  a  narrow  vale,  through  which  a  rivulet  flows.  Tim  vale  of  Glenfinglas  is  then  paHsttil, 
whose  high  sloping  sides  coveretl  with  innumerable  flocks  inspire  pleasing  pastoral  images, 
and  at  the  termination  of  which  appears  the  grand  estuarv  of  Loch  Fyne. 
Inverary,  the  capi:  I  of  the  Western  Highlands,  is  situated  near  the  head  of  Loch  Fynn 


Dumbarton  C'aatlo. 


Loch  Lomond. 


Pabt  hi. 

m,  within  thn  Imt 
onNi<li'mlil(>  poliiili 
ui^tin^r  in  ii|)<iki>n 
whirli  hiiM  l)f<<ti 
Fti<'rrnf'NH  litiH  a 
tp,  fliix,  nrid  fnrtnn 
y,  uru  uliiKMt  uii< 

inNion  to  tho  rwiitm 
umiiilly  conHi(i«;ri'(J 
)tlaii(l  ond  in  tiiu 
al)ovo  the  lovol  (if 
imil  is  wry  f-xtcii- 
n  of  tho  llobri(l<>H. 
ivulet  of  Fyrra  iir 
eatest  wntnrtUII  in 
ipal  fall  tloHcondH 
the  ■tream  ia  not 

10  Weatom  Hi^h- 
territory,  atrotch- 
I  indented  by  deep 
n  a  coaat  of  very 
ahoro  la  burdorott 
)vered  witli  rangea 
Liatry  ia  almnat  en- 
{  cattle  and  vaut 
sides  of  its  tnoun- 
lys  a  hiffh  reputa- 
ly  round  the  Mac- 
ardour  of  kindred 

he  aame  district; 
J  along  the  north- 
stem  part  are  the 
it  Dunfflass;  and 
10  ScottiHli  vnlgfar 

to  Dumbarton  at- 
»oct8  in  Scotland; 
!iont  and  miphty 
the  summit  of  a 

its  importance  oa 
B  nianiifiictory  of 
itcign  jmrts ;  and 

10  many  beautiful 
od.  From  its  Coot, 
1  and  ornamontod 
d,  there  is  a  con- 
mty  to  grandf-'iir, 
of  fjusrt  they  arc 
a  numprous  and 
lonfj  Wfxxlod  pro- 
tho  water,  with 
I^niond  in  tiie 
ibination  of  Itmii- 
er  spot  in  Britain 

f  Loch  Ijonjj  al 
•een  two  ranjrt^n 
\(T  between  thi-in 
\s  is  then  pasHcd, 
pastoral  imojpfes, 

id  of  Loch  Fynn 


Book  I. 


BCOTIjlND. 


ita  onvirona  are  not  mountainoua;   but  iti  noble  caatlo  (f^.  'iOn.),  aurronndwi  bv  wood- 
I  n<u|  ed  hilla  and  wide   lawiix,   with   tim  lotly 

moutitaiiiM  which  xhut  in  the  divtimt  view, 
rondnr  it  a  um^iiilio'iit  and  dcliirlitful  H^Mit. 
Tho  town  in  huiuII  and  neat,  without  any 
employment,  exceui  the  herriiu'  lialiery. 
AlxMit  ten  mileu  below  Inverary,  the  ('rinan 
(Jaiml  joins  Ixx-h  Fyno  to  the  wtmtern  hou, 
ami  has  made  Lochgilphead  a  placu  of  atuna 
conH*!(|uenco. 

The   interior  and  the  wootern  cooat  of 
Argyleahiro  are  in  uiany  roH|)cctM  inter(>iit- 
ing.  I'ttralloltoIxwhFyno.atthediHtancuof 
'"•"""  t-""'!"-  ton  or  twolvo  niiloa,  ia  the  long  lino  of  Loch 

Awe ;  an  interior  lake,  over  whoso  heod  towers  Ben  Cruachan,  thn  lotliest  ainnmit  in  Argylo. 
Tho  cawtio  of  Kilchurn,  riHing  on  one  of  the  islands,  prtxluces  a  highly  pictureM(j*j«'  ('Hlct, 
lk>yond  thia,  liOch  Ktive,  u  narrow  arm  of  the  sea,  stretches  far  into  tiio  interior,  ('limbing 
the  high  mountains  at  tho  head  of  Loch  Etivo,  wo  come  to  (ilencoe,  which  in  torritic 
grandeur  surpasses  perhaps  every  other  spot  in  Great  Britain,  This  cfibct  is  produced  by 
Its  bold  and  broken  mountain  forms,  its  Hpiry  rocks,  and  black  precipices;  at  tho  bottom  of 
which,  in  a  deep  chasm  or  raviiut,  down  the  rivulet  of  Coe.  This  stream  is  the  C«na  uf 
OHsian,  bolievod  tho  favourite  iiaunt  of  that  celebrated  Caledonian  Ixird.  Tho  vale  has  uIho 
a  glix)U)y  recollection  attached  to  it,  from  tho  massacre  of  1691.  Emerging  from  this  scene, 
the  traveller  is  cheered  with  the  gay  aspect  of  Ijoch  Lovcn,  which  presents  much  pleasing 
highland  scenerv,  whilo  tho  hills  roimd  tiie  ferry  of  Balachulish  atford  valuable  (juarries  uf 
slate.  From  BalachuliNh,  along  the  broad  expanse  of  the  Linnbe  Loch  with  which  the  great 
Caledonian  chain  terminates,  extends  Appin,  a  beautiful  district,  divorsiiied  witli  tine  wckmIh, 
rich  pasturage,  and  more  culture  tiian  is  usual  in  Argyleshiro.  On  the  opposite  side  of  tiio 
Linnno  Ixx;Ti  ia  a  peninsular  district  called  Ardnamurchan,  separated  only  by  a  narrow 
Hound  from  the  Island  of  Mull.  The  district  of  Strontian  contains  lead-minca  of  some  value. 
Crossing  the  Linnhe,  and  passing  Lismore,  a  long,  level,  and  fertile  island,  we  find  I/irne, 
separated  by  I/Kh  Creran  from  Appin,  to  which  it  is  even  superior  in  beauty  and  fertility. 
Near  the  opening  of  l-och  Etive  into  tho  soa,  tradition  places  Bcregonium,  the  rejioited 
capital  of  tlio  Picta  in  the  third  century ;  and  near  it  is  found  Dunstaffnage  (Jiff.  2()4.),  oiico 


204 


the  scene  of  fcjcottish  rcL'^ul  [Hirnp, 
now  a  ruin,  crowning  a  (lil'ii  long 
the  western  sea.  Th>  long  pen- 
insula of  Cantyrc  stretclies  tiir 
out  into  tho  sea,  being  vJMilile 
from  the  Irish  ctmst  of  Antrim. 
The  Macdonaldd,  lords  of  the 
Isles,  long  luld  sway  over  it, 
till  tliey  vv  t-re  driven  out  by  the 
earls  of  Argyle.  Campbolllown, 
OunrtamiagB  c».tio.  ^^^^  jj^  g,5„t|i,.rn  e.'itremity,  ia 

a  thriving  port,  n(jw  the  largest  on  this  coast,  and  serving  in  particular  as  a  general  ren- 
dezvous for  tho  herring  fishery. 

The  three  extreme  counties,  Ross,  Cromarty,  and  Sutherland,  form  tlic  most  remote  and 
northerly  portion  of  the  Highlands,  and,  Caithness  exeoj)te(l,  of  nil  i'  ■  mainland.  The  f<outh- 
eastern  border  of  tlie  friths  of  Moray,  Cromarty,  and  Dornoch  iMiitains  some  fine  land,  and 
several  thriving  towns;  the  rest  is  a  continued  range  of  rook,  mountain,  heath,  fon^st,  and 
loch,  similar  to  Inverness,  but  still  wilder.  The  lochs  whicli  ind'Mit  the  western  coast  are 
large  and  numerou.s,  particularly  Loch  Carron,  Loch  Terridon,  i\iid  Ijoch  Br(K)m;  and  they 
have  generally  grand  mountain  boundaries.  Cape  Wrath,  the  north-western  point  of  Scot- 
land, is  a  lofty  pyramidal  rock,  standing  in  fVont  of  a  vast  range  of  broken  cliffs,  and  breasting 

the  whole  wide  expanse  of  the  ocean.    On 


205 


Dun  Dornadillt. 


the  northern  coast  is  Loch  Eribol,  a  wide 
inlet,  bordered  by  limestone  rockn,  j)er- 
forated  by  caves  of  great  extent  and  re- 
markable form.  Sutherland  presents  numer- 
ous Duns,  or  ancient  forts  of  pecullhr  struc- 
ture, of  which  the  most  remarkable  is  Dun 
Dornadilla  (fig.  205.),  situated  on  the  lofty 
sides  of  Ben  Hope,  not  tar  from  Loch 
Eribol, 

Cromarty,  the  capital  of  the  little  county 
«f  the  same  name,  stands  at  the  foot  of  itN 


128 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III 


own  firith ;  while  Dingwall,  the  county  town  of  Roes,  is  situated  at  the  head.  Cromarty  is  a 
considerable  fishing  station.  On  the  south  side  of  the  Dornoch  Frith  is  Tain,  and  on  the 
north  is  Dornooh,  an  ancient  town,  of  whoso  cathedral  some  part  still  remains. 

Caithness  forms  the  north-eastern  angle  of  Scotland :  it  is  scarcely  a  highland  county,  only 
the  Paps  of  Caithness  rising  to  the  character  of  mountains.  Its  surface  is  moist,  bleak,  and 
bare,  filled  with  little  lakes,  and  covered  with  extensive  moors.  The  chief  branch  of  industry 
is  the  herring  fishery.  Kelp  is  also  made  from  the  sea-weed  thrown  on  its  shores.  Thurso, 
the  county  town,  is  an  improving  place,  in  the  midst  of  a  cultivated  country.  Its  b^  afihrda 
a  safe  roadstead,  peculiarly  valuable  for  ships,  whicn,  in  rounding  the  north  of  Scotland, 
must  pass  through  the  Pentland  Frith,  rendered  dangerous  by  its  violent  and  rapid  currents. 
Wick,  the  grand  rendezvous  of  the  herring  fishery,  owes  to  this  advantage  a  very  rapid 
increase.  The  north-eastern  point  of  Caithness  and  of  Scotland  bears  the  familiar  appellation 
of  John  o'Groat's  house;  though  there  is  not  the  vestige  of  a  house  to  correspond  to  this 
title,  which  is  founded  on  a  mere  traditionary  story. 

ScBSECT.  3. — Scottish  Islands. 

The  islands  appendent  on  Scotland,  form  one  of  its  most  conspicuous  features.  Though 
neither  rich  nor  fertile  in  proportion  to  their  extent,  they  exhibit  a  great  variety  of  bold  and 
striking  scenery,  and  are  peopled  by  a  race  whose  habits  of  life  and  forms  of  society  are 
peculiar  to  themselves.  They  may  be  divided  into  the  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Clyde; 
the  Hebrides,  or  Western  Islands;  and  the  Northern  Islands,  or  those  of  Orkney  and 
Shetland. 

The  islands  of  the  Clyde  are  chiefly  Bute  and  Arran,  with  the  smaller  ones  of  the  Cum- 
brays  and  Ailsa.  Bute  is  of  beautiful  aspect,  with  a  climate  accounted  the  mildest  in  Scot- 
land, and  for  that  reason  resorted  to  by  inv&iids;  a  considerable  part  of  the  surface  is  arable 
and  well  cultivated.  Rothsay  is  a  pretty  town,  much  frequented  for  sea-bathing,  and  en- 
riched by  a  considerable  herring  fishery.  Arran  presents  much  bold  alpine  scenery,  the 
central  mountain  of  Goatfield  rising  to  nearly  the  height  of  3000  feet,  while  the  glen  of 
Sanox  at  its  base  has  the  highest  character  of  savage  and  romantic  grandeur.  Lamlash,  the 
principal  town,  possesses  an  excellent  harbour.  Ailsa,  off  the  Ayrshire  coast,  is  a  rock  900 
feet  high,  with  lofty  basaltic  clifls,  formed  into  columns  several  hundred  feet  in  height. 

The  Hebrides,  or  Western  Islands,  stretch  far  into  the  Atlantic.  Their  general  aspect  is 
highland,  with  rude  rocks  and  mountains,  deep  and  dark  valleys,  large  expanses  of  peat-moss, 
hill  pastures,  and  scanty  harvests;  the  mountains  ascend  rather  in  single  peaks  than  in  long 
ranges;  and  the  rocky  cliffs  which  ft.ce  the  sea  assume,  in  many  places,  columnar  forms  of 
peculiar  grandeur.  The  climate  is  moist ;  yet  milder  than  on  the  mainland.  The  earliest 
mhabitants  seem  to  have  been  Celtic.  About  the  eleventh  century,  they  were  conquered, 
together  with  Man,  by  Harold  Harfager,  and  were  governed  for  several  centuries  by  a  Nor- 
wegian dynasty,  after  which  they  owned  the  nominal  sovereignty  of  the  Scottish  kings,  but 
fell  really  under  the  sway  of  the  Macdonalds,  lords  of  the  Isles.  Their  territory  including  a 
great  part  of  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  formed  a  considerablp  power,  till  it  fell  partly  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Scottish  crown,  and  was  partly  divided  among  a  number  of  petty  chiefs, 
whose  feuds  deform  the  subsequent  pages  of^  Hebridean  history.  At  present  these  islands 
may  be  considered  as  retaining  more  of  highland  habits  and  feelings,  than  any  part  of  the 
mainland. 

The  Hebrides  may  be  divided  into  two  main  ranges.  One  of  them  consists  of  the  large 
islands  of  Islay,  Jura,  Mull,  and  Skye,  with  several  minor  attendants,  which  are  nearly 
contiguous  to  the  west  coast,  and  separated  from  it  only  by  narrow  straits  and  sounds ;  the 
otlier  is  composed  of  North  and  South  Uist,  Harris,  I.ewis,  which  are  considerably  out  at 
sea,  and  are  classed,  with  no  very  strict  propriety,  undei  the  general  appellation  of  Long 
Island. 

Islay  contains  a  good  deal  of  level  and  fertile  territory,  which  induced  the  lords  of  the 
Isles  to  make  it  their  residence ;  good  crops  of  barley,  oats,  and  even  wheat,  are  raised ;  and 
the  black  cattle,  which  form  the  main  export,  are  held  in  great  estimation.  Jura  is  separated 
from  Islay  only  by  a  sound,  the  opposite  sides  of  which  correspond  so  exactly  as  to  suggest 
the  idea  of  their  having  been  disjoined  by  some  violent  shock ;  it  is  one  continued  tract  of 
brown  and  rocky  mountain  pasture ;  all  the  inhabitants,  if  collected,  would  scarcely  people 
a  large  village.  Scarba  consists  of  a  single  conical  mountain  broken  into  rocky  precipices, 
and  forming  a  striking  object.  Between  Jura  and  Scarba  is  the  perilous  strait  of  Corryvre- 
kan,  a  whirlpool  noted  for  shipwreck.  Colonsay  and  Oronsay  form  one  long  island,  tlie 
channerbetween  them  being  passable  at  low  wa<pr.  TJie  former  has  a  verdant  appearance ; 
at  Oronsay  are  the  remains  of  a  priory,  ranking  as  the  finest  in  the  Highlands  next  to  thai 
Iff  lona. 

Mull  is  a  large,  rough,  stormy  island,  with  winding  and  deeply  indented  shores,  sepanited 
by  a  long  narrow  sound  from  the  Argyleshire  coast.  The  shores  are  almost  everywhere 
nicky  and  precipitous ;  the  two  once  mighty  holds  of  Duart  and  Aros  crown  rocky  cliffs  on  its 
eastern  shore.   The  great  keep  of  the  former,  with  its  walls  nine  feet  thick,  encloses  an  area 


Book  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


42b 


of  thir*y-tiix  feet  by  twelve.  Black  cattle,  black-faced  sheep,  celebrated  tor  theii  delicate  inut 
on,  kelp,  and  herrings,  are  exported. 
Staffii,  a  large  rock,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  round,  and  encircled  by  clifis,  which  nowhere 

exceed  in  lieight  144  feet,  contains  the 
Cave  of  Fingal  ifig.  206.)  Almost  ull 
the  rocks  of  the  island  are  basaltic  and 
columnar;  but  here  they  arc  arranged 
80  as  to  produce  the  most  singular  and 
magnificent  effect.  An  opening,  sixty- 
six  feet  high  and  forty-two  wide,  formed 
by  perpendicular  walls  terminated  by  an 
arch  at  the  top,  admits  into  a  natural 
hall,  more  than  two  hundred  feet  lon^, 
and  bounded  on  each  side  by  basaltic 
columns  rising  in  regular  symmetrical 
succession.  Two  other  caves,  the  Cor- 
Fini.i'iCa»..  morants'  Cave  and    the  Boat's  Cave, 

present  similar  scenes.    Of  the  columnar  rocks,  which  extend  over  a  great  part  of  tiie 
island,  many  are  bent  and  twisted  in  a  remarkable  manner, 
lona  (Jig.  207),  a  small  island  near  Staffa,  excites  the  deepest  interest  by  the  venerable 

ruins  which  attest,  in  this  secluded 
comer,  the  early  existence  of  re- 
ligion and  learning,  at  a  time  when 
the  rest  of  the  kingdom  was  buried 
in  barbarism.  St.  Columba,  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  century, 
founded  here  a  monastery,  and 
made  it  a  centre  whence  he  en- 
deavoured to  difiuse  the  light  of 
Christianity.  This  religious  estab- 
lishment was  enriched  and  extend- 
ed, and  a  nunnery  was  afterwards 
instituted  under  the  same  auspices. 
The  Culdees,  or  followers  of  Co- 
lumba, appear  to  have  rendered  very  great  services  to  Britain,  and  even  to  the  whole  North. 
Teachers  were  often  drawn  from  among  them  for  seminaries  in  England ;  and  they  under- 
took missionary  expeditions  to  Norway,  and  even  to  Russia.  They  taught,  in  a  great 
measure,  the  principles  of  primitive  Christianity,  rejecting  both  the  vows  of  celibacy,  and 
the  ceremonies  of  the  Romish  church.  lona,  however,  at  length  became  Roman  catholic, 
and  continued  to  flourish  till  the  Reformation,  when  its  monks  were  dispersed,  and  its  edi- 
fices demolished.  The  cemetery  also  remains,  in  which,  according  to  tradition,  were  buried 
forty-eight  kings  of  Scotland,  eight  of  Norway,  four  of  Ireland,  and  one  of  France.  Al- 
lowing the  scepticism  of  Dr.  Macculloch  as  to  this  magnificent  list,  it  appears  confirmed, 
from  the  ornaments  on  the  tombs,  that  many  of  the  West-Insular  chiefs  chose  this  as  a 
sacred  spot,  where  their  ashes  might  repose.  The  ruins  are  extensive.  The  cathedral  is 
164  feet  long  and  34  broad ;  and  near  it  is  a  cli~;pel  sixty  feet  long.  The  style  of  architecture 
is  early  and  rude ;  and  the  sculptures,  though  pretty  numerous,  are,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
grotesque  in  design  and  execution. 

Skye,  the  most  northerly  of  this  inner  chain,  is  the  largest  of  the  gro'^p.  It  is  forty- 
five  miles  long ;  but  its  shores  are  so  winding,  and  so  penetrated  by  lochs,  that  it  may  be 
said  to  form  a  cluster  of  peninsulas.  Ranges  of  rocky  mountains,  many  of  them  3000  feet 
hijjh,  cover  almost  the  entire  surface,  and  the  high  rocks  with  which  it  is  everywhere 
bordered,  display  objects  of  striking  and  romantic  grandeur.  In  Strathaird,  near  the 
soutiiern  point,  is  the  celebrated  spar  cave ;  it  is  about  250  feet  from  the  entrance  to  the 
extremity ;  but  a  great  part  of  the  passage  is  gloomy  and  rocky,  and  only  in  its  most  inte- 
rior part  do  the  sbilactites  begin  to  branch  out  into  that  variety  of  intricate  and  brilliant 
ornaments  which  make  the  cave  so  beautiful.  The  great  body  of  the  island  is  a  hilly  moor- 
land, barren,  brown,  and  rugged ;  the  peaks  being  jjenerally  from  500  to  1000  feet  high ; 
but  some  points  are  level  and  arable.  The  exportation  of  cattle,  with  that  of  a  considerable 
quantity  of  kelp,  forms  the  chief  trade  of  the  island ;  large  quantities  of  herrings  are  also 
taken,  and  cured  by  fishermen,  who  carry  on  this  branch  of  commerce  on  a  small  scale.  The 
property  of  Skye  is  almost  shared  between  the  family  of  Lord  Macdonald  who  claims  descent 
*•       11  :     1  '-rds  of  the  Isles,  and  that  of  Macleod.   Duntulm,  the  almost  ruined  seat  of 


lona. 


**tl\^l*^il%f 


the  Macdonalds,  and  the  Macleods'  castle  of  Dunvegan,  a  magnificent  pile,  founded  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  are  on  the  north-west  coast.  On  the  east  is  Rasay,  masked  by  long 
lofty  clifis  of  fine  sandstone,  which  have  on  their  tops  green  and  cultivated  farms.  To  the 
soutli-west  is  Rum,  a  wild  and  rugged  mass  of  mountains,  surrounded  by  shores  scarcely 


ISC 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  UL 


accessible,  and  involved  in  almost  perpetual  tempest    On  the  east  of  Rum  is  Egg  or  Eig|;, 
which  contains  several  large  caves. 

Lone  Island  is  the  general  name  given  to  the  exterior  chain  of  the  Hebrides,  which  con- 
sists oi  five  large  and  many  smaller  islands ;  so  closely  contiguous  that  the  whole  may  bo 
considered  as  one  island.  It  is  a  strange  mixture  of  bogs,  rocks,  lochs,  and  sands ;  its  pas* 
tures  are  chiefly  occupied  with  cattle  destined  for  the  markets  of  the  mainland ;  and  large 
quantities  of  kelp  are  produced,  which  yield  considerable  profit 

Lewis  is  the  largest  of  all  the  Hebrides,  being  upwards  of  eighty  miles  fixnn  north-east 
to  south-west,  and,  at  some  point",  more  than  t'venty  in  breadth.  Of  its  inhabitants,  those 
occupying  its  most  northern  point  called  the  Butt  of  Lewis,  appear  to  be  Danish,  the  rem- 
nant of  Uiat  colony  who  once  ruled  the  island.  The  people  are  industrious  in  cultivating 
their  rude  soil,  and  in  the  fisheries  which  have  rendereo  Stomoway,  the  capital  of  Lewis,  a 
place  of  some  consideration.  Harris,  a  peninsula  on  the  southern  point  of  Lewis,  consists 
of  a  mass  of  rugged  rocks,  which  project  in  long  promontories  into  the  sea,  giving  to  the 
shore  a  very  picturesque  aspect  The  arable  patches  are  small,  and  in  such  inaccessible 
sites  that  they  can  be  cultivated  only  by  the  spade.  Sheep  are  more  numerous  than  black 
cattle,  being  better  adapted  to  this  rugged  surface.  North  and  South  Uist,  with  BerUtecula, 
exhibit  the  general  aspect  of  Long  Island,  of  whose  length  they  compose  about  eighty 
miles.  The  cattle  arc  small,  and  not  exported  in  very  large  quantities.  The  most  flourish- 
ing branch  of  industry  is  kelp,  of  which  they  yield  annually  about  2500  tons.  Barra  is 
distinguisiied  for  the  industry  of  its  fishermen,  who  carry  their  cargoes  through  the  Crinan 
canal  to  the  Greenock  market.  About  half  a  mile  from  the  southern  shore  is  Chisamil,  the 
castle  of  the  Macleans,  now  partly  in  ruin,  but  of  such  extent  as  to  have  been  capabln  of 
containing  500  men. 

St.  Kilda  is  the  remotest  point  of  the  Hebrides ;  small  and  solitary,  far  out  in  the  Atlantic, 
whose  waves  dash  continually  against  its  perpendicular  cliffi.  It  is  about  three  miles  long, 
girt  on  all  sides  by  a  wall  of  rock,  which  at  one  point  is  about  1300  feet  high ;  Ck)noxhan, 

the  loftiest  hill  on  the  island,  being  there 
cut  down  perpendicularly  fVom  the  summit 
to  the  base.  "  Dizzy  heights,  from  which 
the  eye  looks  down  over  jutting  crags ;  a 
boiling  sea  below.  Without  a  ooundary; 
dark  cliflfs  beaten  by  a  foaming  surge,  and 
lost  in  the  gloom  of  involving  clouds ;  the 
mixed  contest  of  rocks,  ocean,  and  sky," 
are  the  scenes  which  characterise  St 
Kilda.  On  the  top  of  the  rocks  is  a  green 
and  somewhat  fertile  surfiice,  on  which  are 
fed  sheep  of  the  Norwegian  breed,  with 
short  tails  and  coarse  wool,  but  whose  mut- 
ton is  delicious ;  there  are  a  few  cows,  and 
a  little  very  fine  bear  is  grown.  But  the 
favourite  food  of  the  natives  is  drawn  from 
the  face  of  the  perpendicular  cliffs,  which 
in  fearful  and  dizzy  height  overhang  their 
shores.  Suspended  by  a  rope,  they  step 
from  point  to  point  a^d  take  the  eggs  or 
young  of  the  solan  goose,  pufiin,  cormorant 
petrel,  and  others  of  the  numerous  species 
which  breed  on  their  sides. 

The  Orkneys  form  a  group  of  about 
thirty  in  number;  but  Pomona  or  Main- 
land contains  nearly  as  much  ground  as  all 
the  rest  put  togetlier.     Nothing  can  be 
more  irregular  than  their  form ;  the  deep 
■oimds  by  which  they  ato  penetrated,  and  the  narrow  straits  which  separate  them  firom  each 
other,  cause  a  complete  intermixture  of  land  and  sea.    These  straits  are  rendered  dangerous 
by  numerous  currents  and  eddies  from  the  two  oceans  which  rush  in  from  opposite  sides. 


Kg.S03.    Map tf tike Or/tnegliUmdt. 


Reference  to  the  Map  of  the  Orkney  Idands. 


NORTH  RON- 
ALDSUAY. 
1.  Hulliind. 

SANDAY. 
I.  Tiifttnras 

S    Mnykirk 

I.  ( .>'  ff  unit  Biirneu 

S.  9iuve 


WE8TRAY. 
1.  Newark 
S.  Bpiiunmif 
3.  Fyrawnll. 

RowsAy, 

1.  9ivHfik''«l 

2.  VVi  f>'l>illB. 

HM  M'lNriHAY. 

1.  VVullllUM) 


2.  Kirkbuiier 

3.  Holland. 

POMONA  or 
S!A!N!.ANn. 

1.  Si.  Anrirnw'i 

2  Smdaide 

X  Il..ln 


4.  I'oiMiy 

5.  Gulr 


Imp 


6.8nbo 
7.  Kirkwall 
a  PIrlh 
9.  SiMipa 

i'h  Orphir 
12.  (^hnp'rcin 
^'^,  'f'tirn^tnn 
U.  II  iiil.ll 
IS.  VViKidwIck 


16.  Rnrgai 

2.  Bring 

17.  Rlrsn 

3.  Air 

18.  Mnrwlck 

4.  S(.  Walby. 

1(1.  KIrkiiiwi 

2u.  >!nM>ri<w 

SOiTTH  RON 

Sl.Pnndwick 

ALDSriAY. 

2'.'.  Siriimni'U. 

J.  C'lirH 

2.  KrK 

HOY 

X  llirvvwk 

].  Iluy 

4.  Uruiiili, 

Rook  I. 


SCOTLAND. 


481 


The  Pentland  Frith,  in  particular,  between  Orkney  and  the  Mainland,  ia  a  moat  formidable 
paraage.  The  opposing  currents  keep  the  channel  in  a  state  of  perpetual  ebullition,  and  produce 
at  eevf^ral  points,  violent  whirlpools.  Orkney  is  in  general  low,  bleak,  boggy,  and  bare ;  Uiough 
its  western  islands  face  the  Atlantic  with  some  very  bold  and  rugged  clink  About  a  tweltlh 
part  is  cultivated  in  a  rude  manner  with  the  plough ;  a  somewhat  larger  portion  is  under 
regular  pasture;  the  rest  is  moor  and  waste.  The  cattle,  though  small,  are  of  a  good 
and  about  50,000  sheep,  almost  in  a  wild  state,  roam  through  tho  commons.     '^'"' 


bit'ril; 


The 


Fig.  81tt    Itop  qflMe  SketUtnd  Iilandt. 


fisheries  are  not  extensive ;  kelp  is  the  staple  commodity  for  export :  it  has  averaged  annu* 
ally  2500  tons,  employing  80b0  men.  There  is  some  coarse  woollen,  and  of  late  there  has 
been  some  linen  manu&cturo.  As. most  of  the  vessels  destined  for  Hudson's  Bay  and  the 
whale  fishery,  and  many  of  those  which,  from  the  east  coast,  sail  to  all  ports  of  the  world, 
pass  by  the  north  of  Scotland,  the  ports  of  the  Orkneys  are  frequented,  and  a  market  is 
afforded  tor  their  provisions. 

The  topographical  details  of  Orkney  do  not  possess  any  peculiar  attraction.    Kirkwall, 
however,  bears  marks  of  the  periods  when  it  was  a  Danish  capital,  and  a  residence  of  the 

sovereign  Earls  of  Orkney.  There  is 
a  large  and  massive  catliedral,  in  some 
parts  very  elegantly  ornamented  ;  also 
ruins  of  a  king^  palace,  an  earl's  castle, 
and  a  bishop^  palace.  The  town  has 
of  late  be^n  considerably  extended  and 
improved,  and  it  has  a  good  natural  har- 
bour. Stromness  has  one  of  the  best 
harbours  in  the  kingdom,  and  is  the 
favourite  resort  of  vessels  which  seek 
on  this  coast  for  shelter  and  refreshment. 
Near  Stromness  is  that  remorluble 
remnant  of  antiquity  the  "standing 
stones  of  Stennis,"  which  in  magnitude 
Mid  singular  character  almost  rivals 
Stonohenge.  Shapinshay,  Stronsay, 
Rowsay,  Eday,  Westray,  Papa,  and 
Sanday,  are  small  islands  stretching  to 
the  north-east.  Burra  and  South  Ro- 
naldshay  are  towards  Caithness;  and 
to  the  west  the  long  island  of  Hoy, 
which  presents  a  series  of  bold  and 
rugged  promontories. 

The  Zetland  or  Shetland  islands, 
called  by  the  natives  Hialtland,  form 
one  of  the  extremities  of  Europe,  en- 
circled by  the  illimitable  extent  of 
the  Arctic  and  Atlantic  oceans.  Placed 
thus  far  north,  and  amid  so  wide  a 
waste  of  waters,  the  climate  of  Zet- 
land is  cold,  bleak,  swept  by  furious 
winds,  and  deluged  by  torrents  of  rain. 
The  surface  is  rugged,  without  being 
mountainous;  it  is  everywhere  pene- 
trated by  long  lagoons  with  flat  shores, 
called  voet,  by  which  even  the  largest 
islands  are  so  intersected,  that  there  it 
scarcely  a  spot  in  them  two  miles  distant  from  the  sea.  The  extensive  mosses,  and  the 
trunks  of  trees  dug  out  of  them,  prove  that  a  vast  expanse  was  once  covered  with  natural 
forests;  hut  these  are  now  totally  eradicated,  and  the  violence  of  the  winds  and  sea-spray 
lias  rendered  abortive  every  attempt  to  replace  them,  so  that  the  aspect  of  the  country  is 
now  com|)i';toly  naked,  scarcely  producing  even  a  shrub.  The  coasts  are  peculiarly  eteep, 
rocky,  and  bold,  the  rocks  being  hollowed  into  deep  caverns,  ai\d  broken  into  precipices  and 
clifl's  of  the  most  varied  forms.  The  aspect  of  tiicse  shores,  agiinst  which  the  waves  of  the 
great  surrounding  ocean  dash  with  almost  perpetual  fury,  is  etjually  grand  and  terrible.   The 


I'a^miluwii  t}^ 
Kami  New/"' 

DdIc 

MitiburiflT 

■  V«lii» 

Hllveny 

8.Niuiiiiil 

CoVf»y  '' 


«\«S*\^\y*    """•"1  Hd. 


^'^nilESSAV  I. 
Ngul. 
rA,^fl«nl  of  UrM«ir 

•Ml. 

uiU  NaM 
mby  Nmi 
Pbol 


^i 


Vk*" 


Mnl' 


PAIItlfl. 
„.i\i»'''-^h<«pCnisr 


10       |> 

'         ■ 

Eiiiliih  Mil* 


W 


TINST. 
!.  Norwirk 
tt.  V"8l!lirth 
3.  Mew  Kirk. 

vi;i-i-. 

I  VVindtiiiuu) 


References  to  the  Map  of  the  Shetland  Inlands. 


3.  Mann 

3.  I^iiiidwick 

4.  Uuuya. 

MAINLAND. 
1.  8kutt 


3.  OlHliotry 
3.  Oihiixia 
4  ."^ienni"ii« 
.VSiiiherhiiuso 
K.  Din  I 
T  llrimgh 


P.  .Tnirnn 

U.  liirfllll 
JO  ^\n\\>r 
II.  MMckliira 
13.  rill., .-irk 
13.  S.iiitlatt.'ii|| 


14.  nrnk 

90.  (tuendit. 

l.'i.     lillflWRll 

1(1.    .iTvvick 

BRKBaAY 

17.  Hi.  PiiMl'i 

1.  fi.ir.lis 

IH.  MiiywMk 

3.  S  .  Aiidrinvt 

lU  lli't.iwit. 

482 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


nnthcr  of  "The  Pirate"  draws  a  most  lively  picture  of  these  "deep  and  dan^rous  seat!  <if 
the  north,  their  precipices  and  headlands,  many  hundred  feet  in  height — their  perilous 
straits,  and  cnnents,  aud  eddies — long  sunken  reefs  of  rock,  over  which  the  vivid  ocean 
fuims  and  boils,— dark  caverns,  to  whose  extremities  neither  man  nor  skiiF  has  ever  ven- 
tured,— lonely  and  often  uninhabited  isles,  and  occasionally  the  ruins  of  ancient  nortiicrn  fiiHt- 
nesses,  dimly  seen  by  the  feeble  light  of  the  arctic  winter."  The  dangers  of  the  navigation, 
however,  are  considerably  mitigated  by  the  spacious  and  commodious  havens,  formed  by  the 
deep  bays  and  voe$,  or  by  the  sounds  and  channels,  between  different  islands. 

The  Shetland  Iclands  contain  about  20,000  acres  of  arable  land,  and  nearly  as  many  of 
Cfood  meadow ;  but  this  compriiSes  little  more  than  a  twentieth  part  of  the  surface,  all  the 
rest  consisting  of  ^^aste  or  oommon,  on  which  the  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  are  turned  out, 
to  find  pistures  n-  best  they  may.  The  horses  are  of  a  very  small  size,  with  a  huge  mane, 
but  active  and  hardy.  The  cows  are  equally  diminutive,  pad  gi>'o  very  little  milk,  but  both 
the  milk  and  the  flesh  are  of  good  quality.  The  sheep  are  most  numerous  of  idl,  being 
reckoned  at  seventy  or  eighty  thousand ;  they  are  stunted,  like  the  other  animals,  and  their 
wool  is  very  scanty ;  but  some  of  it  is  peculiarly  fine,  affording  the  material  of  almost  the  only 
manufacture  of  Shetland, — that  of  knit  hosiery,  of  a  texture  close,  soil,  and  warm.  The 
greatest  branch  of  Shetland  industry,  however,  is  the  cod  and  ling  fishery.  All  the  coasts 
abound  with  these  fish ;  and,  within  the  last  few  years,  a  particularly  rich  and  extensive 
bank  has  been  discovered  to  the  westward.  At  the  proper  season,  fleets  of  boats  issue  from 
all  the  bays  and  voes,  to  the  haafar  deep  sea-fishery,  which  is  carried  on,  not  without  peril, 
at  the  distance  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  miles  from  the  coast.  The  fishermen  are  supplied 
by  the  landlords  with  boats  and  implements,  on  condition  of  their  delivering  to  them  the  fish 
at  a  stipulated  rate ;  and  as  their  farms  are  held  at  will,  they  are  in  a  state  of  vassalage 
more  complete,  perhaps,  than  any  other  class  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  unnals  of  Shetland  are  Norwegian.  These  islands,  according  to  the  earliest  tradition, 
were  peopled  from  Norway.     In  the  ninth  century  they  were  conquered  by  Harold  Harft.- 

fer,  or  the  Fair-haired,  the  most  powerful  and  formidable  of  all  the  sea-kings  of  the  north, 
'he  Norwegian  sway  extended  for  several  centuries  over  all  the  Scottish  islands ;  but  in 
the  Shetlands  it  was  undisputed,  till  the  cession  of  them,  along  with  those  of  Orkney,  as 
the  dowry  of  a  princess  of  Norway  married  to  James  III.,  in  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
Lerwick,  the  capital,  is  a  thriving  village,   ill  and   irregularly  built,  but  improving. 

The  opposite  island  of  Bressay  forms  Bressay 
Sound,  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  the 
world,  and  the  rendezvous  of  all  the  vessels 
destined  for  the  north  and  the  whale  fishery 
Off  Bressay  is  the  Noss  {jig,  210.),  a  small 
high  island,  with  a  flat  summit,  girt  on  all 
sides  by  perpendicular  walls  of  rock.  The 
communication  with  Bressay  itself  is  main- 
tained by  strong  ropes  stretched  across,  along 
which  a  cradle  is  run,  in  which  the  pas- 
senger is  seated.  The  promontories  of  Sum- 
burgh  and  Fitful  Head,  at  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  Mainland,  are  also  distin- 
guished by  the  boldness  of  their  aspect  and 
the  perils  with  which  they  threaten  the  ma- 
riner. The  number  of  the  Shetlands  has 
<  been  variously  estimated,  according  to  the  gradations  of  islets  and  rocks  included ;  but  only 
about  forty  are  inhabited.  Of  these.  Yell,  and  Unst,  stretching  northwards  from  the  Main- 
land, are  alone  of  any  magnitude.  The  last,  though  the  most  northerly,  is  rather  the  most 
fertile  of  any,  and  distinguished  by  its  numerous  caves.  Admcent  to  Yell  is  Fetlar;  on  the 
east  of  the  Mainland  are  Whalsay  and  Bressay ;  to  the  west,  Burray,  Housa,  Frondray,  Papa 
Stour,  Muckle  and  Little  Rooe,  all  so  close  as  to  be  little  more  than  peninsulas.  Considera- 
bly out  at  sea,  Foula,  a  small  rocky  islet,  faces  the  Atlantic,  with  high  cliffs  covered  with 
numberless  flocks  of  sea-fowl. 


Non  Holm,  Shetland. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

IRELAND. 

Ireland  is  a  fine  extensive  island,  situated  to  the  west  of  England,  and  forming  one  of 
the  three  grand  portions  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

Sect.  1. — General  Outl'ne  and  Aspect. 
Th«'  greatest  dimension  of  Ireland  is  from  Cape  Clear,  in  51°  19',  to  Malin  Head,  in  55" 
23  N  latitude ;  making  about  280  miles.    The  utmost  breadth,  if  reckoned  from  the  tnofl 


PautTII. 

dan^rous  sean  »t 
fht — their  pcrilnua 
ch  the  vivid  ocean 
skiff  has  ever  von- 
cient  nortliern  tit»t- 
1  of  the  na vibration, 
ens,  formed  by  tlie 
nda. 

nearly  as  many  of 
he  surface,  all  the 
sep  are  turned  out, 
with  a  huge  mane, 
ittle  milk,  but  both 
erous  of  all,  being 
animals,  and  their 
1  of  almost  the  only 
,  and  warm.  The 
y.  All  the  coasts 
-ich  and  extensive 
[>f  boats  issue  from 
,  not  without  peril, 
rmen  are  supplied 
^g  to  them  the  fish 
state  of  vassalage 

3  earliest  tradition, 
by  Harold  Harfi.- 
kin^  of  the  north, 
sh  islands;  but  in 
lose  of  Orkney,  as 
;  fifteenth  century, 
t,  but  improving, 
ssay  forms  Bressay 
t  harbours  in  the 
of  all  the  vessels 
the  whale  fishery 
Jig.  210.),  a  small 
immit,  girt  on  all 
lis  of  rock.  The 
say  itself  is  mam- 
;ched  across,  along 
n  which  the  pas- 
montories  of  Sum- 
the  southern  ex- 
are  also  distin- 
f  their  aspect  and 
r  threaten  the  ma- 
le Shetlands  has 
ncluded;  but  only 
ds  from  the  Main- 
is  rather  the  most 
is  Fetlar;  on  the 
,  Frondray,  Papa 
isulas.  Considera- 
lifis  covered  with 


Book  I. 


'T^     IRELANI/  *« 


4i« 


id  forming  one  of 


alin  Head,  in  55" 
led  from  the  tnos 


east  •.  'y  point  of  the  county  of  Down  (opposite  Bur  Island)  to  Dunmore  Head  in  Kerry,  will 
l)e  218  miles;  but  it  is  nowhere  so  broad  under  the  same  parallel  of  latitude.  The  island, 
Accurdinf  to  Reaufurt,  contains  more  than  30,0(10  English  square  miles,  or  nearly  20,000,000 
acres;  bui,   i<l  the  survey  be  completed,  precision  on  this  subject  caimot  be  attained. 

I'hc  su'.lkce  of  Ireland  cannot  on  the  whole  be  called  mountainous;  its  central  districts 
c(irii))osing  one  vast  plain,  which  crosses  the  kingdom  fhim  east  to  west  It  is,  however, 
diversified  by  ranges  of  mountains,  superior  in  extent,  and,  with  the  exception  of  those  of 
Wales,  equal  in  elevation,  to  any  in  England.  Wicklow,  in  the  vicinity  of  Dublin,  may  be 
classed  as  an  alpine  region.  On  the  borders  of  Leinster  and  Munster,  the  Slieve-Bloom, 
the  Knockmele  Down,  ana  the  Oaltics,  form  long  and  lofty  ranges,  commanding  an  exten- 
sive view  over  the  wide  pluins  that  stretch  beneath  them.  All  these,  however,  are  much 
surpassed  by  the  extreme  south-west  county  of  Kerry,  which  presents  a  complete  chaos  of 
lofty  and  rockv  summits.  The  most  elevated  are  those  which  enclose  the  beautiful  and 
finely  wooded  lakes  of  Killamey,  Man^rton  and  Macgillicuddy's  Reeks,  the  last  of  which 
is  considerably  more  than  3000  feet  high.  At  the  opposite  or  north-eastern  extremity  of 
Ireland,  Antrim  presents  to  the  Scotti»i  seas  a  barrier  of  rocky  cliffs,  less  lofty,  but  of  a 
very  bold  and  peculiar  chn^cter ;  precipitous,  and  formed  into  long  columnar  ranges;  a 
phenomenon  which  the  Giant's  Causeway  exhibits  on  a  greater  scale  than  bny  other  spot  in 
tho  known  world.  The  Moume  mountams,  a  lofty  granite  range  in  the  south  of  the  county 
of  Down  ;  those  of  Carlingford,  which  extend  into  the  county  of  Armagh;  with  considerable 
ranges  in  Tyrone,  Derry,  and  Donegal,  may  dispute  the  pre-eminence  witli  those  of  the 
south.  In  Connaught  there  are  also  some  considerable  detached  mountains,  of  which  Croegh- 
Patrick  in  Mayo  hac  been  reckoned  by  some  to  exceed  even  Macgillicuddy's  Recks ;  hut  Jre- 
land  has  no  extended  table>lands,  like  those  which  cover  a  considerable  part  of  England. 
Tho  most  elevated  part  of  the  Bog  of  Allen,  in  that  central  point  where  the  rivers  divide, 
is  not  more  than  270  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  Shannon  is  without  a  rival  in  the  three  kingdoms.  It  rises  ;'ar  in  the  north,  from 
Lough  Allen  in  the  province  of  Cunnaught,  and  has  a  course  of  170  miles,  throughout  the 
whole  of  which  it  is  more  or  less  navigable,  the  only  obstruction  which  existed  having  been 
removed.  Below  Limerick  it  expands  into  an  estuary  about  sixty  miles  in  length,  by  which 
the  largest  vessels  have  access  to  that  city.  The  Barrow  is  also  an  important  river,  which 
runs  southward  through  the  greater  part  of  Leinsier,  receives  from  the  west  the  Nore  and 
the  Suire,  and  finally  forms  the  harbour  of  Waterford.  The  Bayne,  so  celebrated  for  the 
victory  gained  on  its  banks;  the  Foyle,  which,  after  passing  Irondonderry,  forms  Ix)ugh 
Koyle ;  the  Bann,  which  passes  through  Lough  Neagh,  and  affords  a  flourishing  salmon 
fishery ;  and  the  Blackwater,  which  terminutes  in  the  hay  and  port  of  Youghal,  are  also  de- 
serving of  mention.  The  other  rivers  are  rather  numerous  than  of  long  course ;  but  they 
almost  all  terminate  in  wide  estuaries  and  loufjhs,  which  diffuse  through  Ireland  the  means 
of  water  communicction,  and  afford  a  multiplicity  of  spacious  and  secure  harbours. 

Lakes  or  loughs  are  a  conspicuous  feature  in  Ireland,  where  this  last  name,  like  the 
similar  one  used  in  Scotland^  is  in  many  instances  applied  to  arms  of  the  sea.  Lough  Neagh 
is  the  largest  lake  in  the  United  Kingdom,  covering  nearly  100,000  acres.  Its  banks  are 
flat,  tame,  and  in  many  places  marshy  and  inundated.  Lough  Erne,  also  in  Ulster,  is 
divided  into  two  reaches,  the  united  length  of  which  is  about  thirty  miles,  while  its  circuit 
includes  a  great  variety  of  rich  and  ornamented  scenery.  Lough  Foyle,  Lough  Swilly,  and 
Belflist  I^iigh,  are  properly  bays.  The  Shannon  forms  several  lakes,  of  which  Lough  Rei- 
in  the  principal ;  and  the  whole  of  its  course  downwards  from  Limerick  resemblep  more  a 
lough  or  bay  than  a  river.  Connaught  has  several  extensive  lakes.  That  of  Killamey,  in 
the  south,  is  famed,  not  for  its  extent,  but  for  the  singular  grandeur  and  beauty  of  its 
sliores.  A  fuller  description  of  this  and  some  others  uow  mentioned  will  be  found  under  the 
local  section. 

'j      Sect.  11. — Natural  Oeug^phy. 

The  Botany  and  Zoology  of  Ireland,  having  been  treated  under  the  head  of  {England,  thiai 
section  will  be  confined  to  Geology. 

SinwECT.  1. — Geology  of  Ireland. 

The  geology  of  this  part  of  the  empire  is  not  so  well  known  as  that  of  Great  Britaut. 
The  following  sketch  will  enable  our  readers  to  form  a  general  conception  of  the  geognos* 
tical  structure  of  those  parts  of  the  island  whicli  have  been  already  surveyed ;  viz. — 1.  North 
of  Ireland  ;  2.  Connaught  coal  district ;  3.  East  of  Ireland  ;  4.  South,  and  part  of  the  wea* 
of  Ireland. 

(1 .)  North,  of  Ireland.  This  district,  limited  by  Dundaik  Bay  on  the  south-east,  and  by  Lough 
Foyle  on  the  north-west,  is  marked  by  three  distinct  systems  of  groups  of  mountains,  one  of 
which  occupies  the  more  southern  counties ,  while  the  more  northern  are  divided  between 
the  two  others. 

Ist  system.  The  Moume  rmyuntaina. — The  Moume  mountains  form  a  well-defined 
Vol,.  I  3T  3B 


m$  MAP  OF  IRELAND.  Fia.  2U 


iMliMt  Wm 


GrtcbWK 


U  -I     -   ■>■■<';    . 


Fia.  21  i 


-J4 


r^/« 


n>iit 


1^ 


4*" 


C) 


Book  I. 


IRELAND.  II 


((roup,  extendinfr  ftom  Dundram  Bay  to  Carlingffbrd  Bay,  in  the  ■outhem  flxtremity  of  Down. 

Slieve  Duimnl  is  tho  hiffhost  suminit  of  this  ffroup,  and  riaoa  about  3064  feet  above  the  level 
ot'  tlie  BOB.  The  north-west  of  the  main  {(roup,  Uie  l<Nithom  Hill,  HIiove  Girken,  or  the 
Nowry  moMntains,  and  Slieve  GuUon,  are  nituated  in  tho  Noulii-oaiit  of  Armagh ;  and  Uto 
RavotiMdulo  and  ("arlinffford  moiintaina,  in  the  north  of  LouUii  may  be  conaiderwi  as  ita  ap> 
ptnidagcH,  Granite,  which  ia  the  prevailing  rock  of  these  mountains,  contains  beautiful 
r«)ck  crystals,  also  felspar  and  mica  crystals,  topaz  and  beryl.  To  the  north  of  the  Mourne 
mountains  Slieve  Croob,  compdsed  of  synnito,  and  Bliove  Anisky,  of  hornblende  rock,  form 
an  elovatod  tract,  dependent  upon,  but  placed  at  some  distance  tVom,  tlie  main  group.  Horn- 
blonde  rock,  greenstone,  and  |)orphyry  are  said  to  be  abundant  on  the  skirts  of  this  granite  dis- 
trict. The  Plutonian  granite  and  syenite  hills  rise  through  strata  of  transition  rocks,  which 
arc  grey  wankH,  grey  wacko  Hlate,  transition  clay  slate,  and  transition '  limestone.  Tho  I'lu* 
tonian  rocks  bear  but  a  small  proportion  in  supertioial  extent  to  tlume  of  t)i«  transition  class, 
tho  latter  advancing  west  and  north  into  Cavan,  and  to  Belfast  liough  and  tlie  peninsula  of 
Ards.  The  points  ol  the  coast  of  Sool'  ind,  directly  opposite  the  peninsula  of  Ards,  present  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Portpatrick,  and  through  the  great  alpine  band  which  traverses  the 
south  nt  l^otland,  and  terminates  on  tho  east  coast  m  St.  Abb's  Head,  the  same  transition 
rucks.  Hence  it  is  probable  that  the  great  soutliorn  high  land  of  Scotland  was  formerly 
joined  with  the  transition  hills  of  the  Mourne  mountain  ^roup  by  a  ridgo  of  land  extondinff 
across  the  Channel  fVom  Scotland  to  Ireland.  In  this  district,  tlieru  uro  some  patches  of 
mountain  limestone  and  of  old  red  sandstone. 

2d  system.  Primitive  chain  qf  Londonderry. — This  mountain  group  rises  at  tho  distance 
of  about  Si)  miles  to  the  north-north-west  of  the  external  chains  of  the  tirst  system,  including 
tho  counties  of  Londonderry  and  Donegal.  One  of  tlte  highest  points  in  tliis  district  is  BawelT, 
said  to  be  2257  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  This  great  tract  of  country  is  principally 
coinpoHod  of  mica  slate,  with  various  subordinate  beds,  as  limestone,  quartz,  &c.  On  th9 
eastern  bank  of  the  Roe,  these  mica  slate  hills  and  mountains  are  succeeded  by  a  range  of 
gccundnry  hills  covered  by  a  groat  pktform  of  secondary  trap,  and  forming  a  part  of  the 
third  systuiK  of  hills,  afterwards  to  bo  described.    These  newer  rocks  repose  upon  and  con- 


NORTH  PART. 

I,  NnwioniliiiM 
3.  niillyniiille 

3.  Cliiiigh 

4.  Kimlmrkun 
.1.  Knllymnny 

?.  ('(ilutiino 
.  Oarvnili 
8.  Giant'i  Sonnce 
0.  nnllvkdlly 

10.  Muff 

11.  BHilynally 
».  Malm 

13.  Vtiin 

14.  Riirnriiot 

15.  ("hniikitl 
10.  Kaihmullin 

17.  finrtyhock 

18.  DunKlim 
in.  Oonvoy 
90.  Hlranorlnn 
31.  Ilmihoc 

W.  Loidnndorry 
S3.  Mfford 
34.  Hiriilmno 

SO.  Mnghara 
B7.  flwatteriiiih 

t!.  Kiillt 
I.  (Jlonnrin 
.10.  Hallirenrrr 
31.  Carrickr<!riiui 
33.  Cnimlin 
.33,  Antrim 
.14.  Riindiiliiiown 
3.5.  MonrymDtt' 
3(1.  CookHlown 

37.  rn^li-rickulown 

38.  Nrwlon  Stowatt 

30.  lloMlill.ll 

4U.  Dorv  Bridie 
41.  Anirua 

43.  'r;:i«n 

43  Killyben 

44.  Invor 
4.V  Oimeoal 

40.  II  illyalinnnon 
47.  {•nriimin 

45.  Chircliill 
40.  (Inndidy 

50.  Krili 

51.  nmnicli 
.13.  (3liieh3my 
Y(.  U'l'Ivk'nw  ey 
54  Hl>ifkwai(*r 
V).  Oiinitniiniin 
S";.  I<lni«mill« 

SI.  MXKA 

&I.  tiiilywilod 


00.  DantRhida* 

01.  Uray  Abbny 

82.  Pnrlalerry 
A3,  Uowiipttriok 
64.  Killinchy 

0.1.  HilUhorouih 

00.  pundrum 
n7.  Jtutht'riland 
08.  Li)Uihbrlok- 

land 
'.  Lurtin 

fttma|^h 
uwiown  Ha- 
milton 
73.  MonnilMii 

73.  Auchar 

74.  (;io(h(!r 
73.  PivS  Mile 

Town 
70.  Donouch 

7?;  ciHSw.'ifl 
7u.  Knniakillon 
HO.  liariiif 
81.  Htridock 
ffi.  Hllgo 

83.  Dunhlra 

84.  Bunrn 
8.1.  Killnla 
HO.  Bnttlnliui 

87.  Inver 

88.  Cldican 

89.  Ralllna 
IM).  Foxfnrd 

01.  Bwinefnrd 
OS,  Raleana 
113.  nnllymote 
04.  Tieitiim 

0.1.  Ballinimore 

on.  Bellurbft 

117.  Cavan 

n«  Drum 

Oil.  Ballybnv 
KM)  CViIh  nianey 
101.  .Iiini'iibiiro 


R^erenee$  to  the  Map  of  Irdand. 

117.  Jameilown 

118.  KIphin 
110.  Ciirrink  nn 

C*hannua 
120.  Tulik 
131.  Aajlyhadirwn 

ilM,  KilcolmaD 
las  llearlren 
196.  Balllnvnrr 
137.  Nnwporl 
198.  Onmlebar 

1;i0.  Klllory 
'llaiian 

lunnwen 

3on« 

1.34.  Balllorobe 

13.1.  Hollymnunt 

136.  Kilmainmore 

137.  RIfinwull 

138.  Tluninore 
130.  niNi)amodd|r 


n.MoalaOrenuuM 

10.  rhilipduwn 

90.  Iy,''«r»  '■•• 
SI.  Ballydomot 
S3.  Iiontwood 
S3.  Cluncurrr 
94,  Olano 
BS.  Murnooth 

96.  Unliiiilh 

97.  Ralhcuule 
i».  puLlin 
%.  Killiiihhln 
^.|nni.k«rrr 


76.  Klllenaul* 

I.  Butriiloagh 

'  Tonmnvara 

"lin  Mine 

iiiwpdrt 


ilmariek 
ridjmlown 
4x  MItfl  nrlriie 
M.  PHraillM 
89.  i'lnndiirlaih 
80.  Kilniih 

88.  Hal'lVii'lsh         1 


I-U.  Abbey  Odoine 
lifae         •' 

Rhiirt 
..inlladi 


1.31.  blaiian  M.  Uonerd  01.  Ballyltinirord     i 

1:13.  Bunnwen  XI.  RIoMliiilan  93.  l.iHiowen  ] 

13.1.  Cnnit  34.  Nana  03  Alibyreale         l 


140. 


lalllntobfir 


03  Nimrv 

03.  Nnrrnw  Water 

04.  Kilkool 

0.1.  Ciirlinnrord 
m.  niindalk 
07.  LiMiih 
ll".  t.iirif'in 
Itr*.  (^I.iutiar 

110.  l.iiitirMlh 

111.  Nolilinr 
113.  M"yMn|iy 

113.  niilVlHirourh 

114.  9iradnn« 

11.1.  Rally  .Inmindu 
lie.  Riioiduft' 


141.  R<Mcummon 
143.  Tarmiinharry 

143.  Ijongfnrd 

144.  Konngh 

145.  Kdinworlhi- 

town 
140.  Jxhnilnwn 

147.  MiilllnEar 

148.  Cloiimuliun 
140.  Trim 
1.KI.  Biimmeihill 
131.  N.ivan 
ISS.  Skryno 
1.13.  Drogheda 
IJH,  Nniit 
ISS.  Btvcirdi 

eOlITH  PART. 

I.  Kilhi'min 
9.  Invcnin 

3,  Hiinnii 

4.  Killnmiiitn 
.1.  (Inlway 
0.  Mriiririird 

7.  Kcldaro 

8.  Ailii'tiry 
0.  Mi'iiivia 

111    T!!'!n! 

it.  CKfl..  nini'knry 
13.  lliiDlnimlor 

13.  Mnlliiiatnnrp 

14.  Kniii'krniifhry 
1.1.  .^ihliine 
iO.  Muyaluwn 


in.  Knri 

47.  Killuni 

48.  KiilO'n 
40.  Innialy 


irirklnw 
onerd 
nioMliiilan 
Nana 
:».  ()ld  Kilcullen 

36.  Klldart 

37.  Porlarlinvinn 

38.  Mountmellrk 
30.  Birr 

40.  Banglior 

41.  Eyre  ('ourt 
43.  Portumna 

43.  Aiiihrim 

44.  Iiniighree 

45.  Curimmart 
40.  Olnrl 

jluny 
nora 
tmoa 

50.  l-'nnla 

51.  rinre 

53,  Talla 
3.1,  Pniirriir 

54.  Killahie 
.1.1.  Nenngh 

.16  RiirrMakan 
.17.  Rdciraa 
.18.  Rjiihdiiwnv 
.m.  Biillyiiakdl 
Oil.  Mnryliuruugh 
01.  Aih» 
03.  Ciirhiw 
03.  Sirntfiird 
64.  llaltlnilaiB 
0.1.  Knihville 
»i«.  Tinrhdy 
117.  Unlhdiiim 

8H.  Arkli.w 

7(1.  FnrilK 
71.  riiinmiall 
7'J.  Miirritt 
73  111,1  r,..iRhlin 

74.  Kilkenny 

75.  Urlinnford 


M 


iixnaw 

llUlreet 


143, 
144. 
14.1. 

146, 

-47 

148.  Cork 


ghart 
iiriinl 
4llllo«rh 
Cunmara 

illarner 


III  Bireot 
acromp 


J40,  Fermoy 
150.  Hal 


atonrmuek 


3,  Ardiigh 
iknalnti 
iddiiffh 
furna 


A'  fci"'"""' 


ngarvan 


Well 


S8' 

iSSiM"'' 

01.  Oullen 
03.  Tipperarr 

03,  (/'appagh 

04.  OvMun  Bridge 
(13.  Caihdl 

07!  Ballyniitrlck 
08.  Knncktopher 
00.  Innibtiogo 
110,  Thomaatnn 
:  II.  Now  Roae 
'  13.  rinnbeorlti,'' 

13.  Killane 

14.  Ballymarlin 
1.1.  Taghmon 
10.  WoxUrd 

17  IMinRii.iiuck 
18,  (.'loninirwi 
10,  Whilicriiircli 
30.  Walflrf'urd 
131.  KilmnRnw 

133.  Kilmacthumaa 
123.  Ulonrriil 

134.  nHllynnniult 
l«.  f;»l.ir 

13(1.  llHllypiiri'en 
137.  Arnirlin 
rs.  Kil*'  ttli 
13!l  lliillylin>'ty 
i;t||.  Ilxnrraila 
131,  Mnll"W 

133.  l,i«'Firrol 
i;c<.  Ni'Wmarkfll 

134.  Ch.i  bland 


133.  Agluh 
1.14.  Vdughal 


153.  Cloyn. 
m  Carliale  Fort 


Paicaje  „ 
amdan  Fort 
.jnialu 

100.  Innlfbannon 

101.  Inchlgeelagh 

163.  Dunmanawar 
193.  Glengurr    ' 

164.  Oatinith 

165.  Banlry 
106.  uunmaiiuf 
iA7.  Ballimore 
168.  Skibboreon 
160.  l/oap 

170.  Timolaagua 

jHiver^ire. 

a  Foyle,  R. 
b  nann,  R. 
c  Mnyiiln,  R, 
d  Ntiwry  Canal 
e  llornL,  K. 
r  I.ifruy.B. 

KHIanny,  R.      '< 
Hiirruw,  R. 
i   Nore,  R. 

niiiro.  H. 
Hack  water,  R 
.•■«.  R. 
ni  Bniidoii,  R. 
n  PiMk,  R.  „ 

0  rhnniinn,  R. 
p  (*iirr)iunnrt,  R 
n  Mnynr,  R. 

r  Hiick,  R. 
•  Mny.  R. 

1  Vml,  R. 

u  Munroe.  B. 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Put  111. 


ceal  the  mica  alate  in  the  eastern  part  of  Derry,  but  the  mica  slate  afifain  emern^i*  thna 
beneath  this  covering,  after  an  interval  of  about  81)  inilea,  on  the  nortii-oast  cuaut  uf  Antrim, 
and  rises  into  hills,  which  break  down  abruptly  towards  tiio  coast  between  Tor  Point  uud 
Cuuhenden  Bay.  The  mica  slato  rocka  on  this  part  uf  the  Irish  coast  may  be  considered  a 
continuation  ot  those  that  occur  on  the  oppaiite  coast  of  Scotland  at  the  Mull  of  Cantyre, 
or,  on  a  more  general  view,  as  a  continuation  of  the  great  Grampian  riuige,  which  may,  io 
Uiis  way,  be  said  to  extend  from  the  north-east  coast  of  Scotland  to  the  '.vcstern  shores  of 
Ireland,  on  the  coasts  of  Donegal.  In  the  eastern  part  of  Tyrone,  which  intervene; 
between  the  transition  mountains  and  the  mica  slate  mountains,  a  coal  tbrniation  occurs 
associated  witli  that  kind  of  limestone  which  is  usually  ibund  below  coal  in  Great  Britain. 
The  position  of  this  coalfield  offers  another  analogy  with  Scotland,  where  the  space  between 
the  southern  and  northern  mountains  is  principally  occupied  by  rocks  of  the  coal  formation. 

3d  system  of  mountains.  The  Trap  group. — -This  group  mav  be  described  as  separated 
into  two  chains,  bounding  on  the  east  and  west  the  trough  or  valley  through  which  the  river 
Bann  flows  from  Loagh  Neagh  to  the  ocean.  The  eastern  chain  lies  in  the  county  of  An- 
trim, being  comprehended  between  the  valley  of  the  Bann  sjiJ  the  North  channel.  It  pre- 
sents an  abrupt  declivity  towards  the  sea,  fiilling  with  a  gcmtle  slope  towards  the  west,  in 
which  direction  the  beds  composing  its  mass  incline.  Knock-lead,  in  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  chain,  is  the  highest  summit :  it  rises  1820  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  but  the 
basis  of  this  hill  is  occupied  to  the  height  of  500  feet  by  primitive  mica  slate  rock,  leaving 
only  1320  feet  for  the  thickness  of  the  secondary  :<'  mta  peculiar  to  this  system.  Diris  Hill, 
near  the  southern  extremity  of  the  chain,  is  wholly  composed  of  secondary  strata,  and 
attains  an  elevation  of  1475  feet  The  western  part  of  the  chain  included  between  the 
Roe  and  the  Bann  forms  the  exact  counterpart  of  the  former ;  but  the  strata  here  dip  nearly 
in  a  contrary  direction,  viz.  towards  the  north-east ;  the  fall  of  the  hills  being  gradually  in 
this  direction,  while  they  front  the  west  and  south  with  abrupt  and  precipitous  cliffs.  Crag- 
nashoack,  at  the  southern  extremity,  rises  1864  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  the  highest  sum- 
mit of  the  group.  The  geological  nature  of  this  third  system  is  very  different  from  that  of 
the  two  former ;  all  the  principal  formations  belonging  to  the  secondary  class  of  rocks. 
These  rocks  are  partly  Plutonian  and  partly  Neptunian.  The  Neptunian  rocks  are  gene- 
rally covered  with  an  enormous  mass  of  secondary  trap,  which  appears  to  attain  its  greatest 
thickness  on  the  north ;  the  trap  cap  of  Beny-Avenagh,  the  most  northern  summit  of  the 
western  chain,  measuring  more  than  000  feet :  the  average  depth  of  this  superimposed  mass 
may  therefore  be  estimated  at  546  feet,  and  its  superficifd  extent  at  800  square  miles.  The 
trap  rocks  are  greenstone,  basalt,  amy^aloid,  wacke,  and  red  bole  ;  occasionally  associated 
with  them,  forming  isolated  tracts,  as  m  the  Sandybrea  district,  there  are  porphyries  of  dif- 
ferent kinds,  as  pitchstone  and  pearl-stone  porphyries.  The  amygdaloid  and  also  some  of 
the  other  rocks  of  this  series  contain  calc  spar  and  white  calcedony,  semiopal,  felspar,  and 
steatite,  or  serpentine.  The  basalt  contains  olivine.  Iron  pyrites  is  a  mineral  frequently 
disseminated  in  the  greenstone.  Wood  coal  occurs  in  seams  varying  from  two  inches  to 
four  or  five  feet  in  thickness,  alternating  with  trap  rocks,  near  Ballentoy ;  also  in  the  cliffs 
of  Fortnofler  on  the  east  of  the  Giant's  Causeway,  at  Killymoris  near  the  centre  of  the  trap 
area,  and  at  Portmaoc,  and  other  places  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lough  Neagh. 

Veins  of  trap.  Trap  veins  exhibit  many  interesting^  phenomena,  particularly  in  their  pas- 
sage through  chalk,  which  they  sometimes  convert  mto  a  kind  of  marble.  They  traverse 
not  only  the  Neptunian  strata,  as  chalk,  lias,  and  coal  formation,  but  also  trap  itself.  The 
mos*;  interesting  and  splendid  displays  of  the  trap  rocks  occur  at  the  Giant's  Causeway  and 
Fairhead,  so  well  known  to  travellers ;  and  the  cliffs  of  Kenbaan  exhibit  very  interesting 
displays  of  the  commingling  of  the  trap  and  chalk. 

Underneath  and  sometimes  intermingled  with  this  vast  mass  of  trap  are  the  following 
Neptunian  formations : — Chalk,  which  is  frequently  very  compact,  and  sometimes,  as  where 
in  immediate  contact  with  the  Plutonian  rocks,  changed  into  a  granular  limestone  resem- 
bling marble:  the  average  thickness  does  not  amount  to  more  thian  200  feet.  Underneath 
the  chalk  occurs  the  deposit  known  under  the  name  mulatto  stone,  the  green  sand  of  Eng- 
lish geologists,  lying  upon  the  lias  limestone.  Underneath  the  lias  occur  beds  of  red  and 
-vr,riegated  marl,  variegated  sandstone  with  gypsum,  and  from  these  issue  salt  springs. 
These  four  formations,  which,  together  with  the  trap,  form  the  whole  mass  of  the  hills 

':'>nging  to  the  third  system,  cannot  be  estimated  as  possessing  a  less  average  thickness 
tiian  from  800  to  1000  feet.  The  whole  system  appears  at  tiie  north-eastern  and  south- 
wc8t'3rn  extremities  to  repose  upon  the  coal  formation  and  its  accompanying  rocks,  and 
these  on  the  transition  or  primitive  rocks.*  Coal  occurs  in  Tyrone,  at  Coal  Island  and  Dun- 
gannon,  and  in  Antrim,  near  Ballycostle.  Of  these,  the  collieries  at  Ballycastle,  which 
occupy  an  extent  of  not  less  than  one  English  mile  along  the  coast,  are  the  most  considerable. 
They  have  been  long  wrought,  and  were  once  in  a  more  prosperous  state  than  at  present,  as 

*  Patchei  of  old  red  sandttmt  occur  on  the  east  coait  between  Ballyfdlly  and  Glenarm  Bay ;  and  alio  on  tte 
Mme  coait  to  tite  loutliward  of  Oenon  Point. 


PabtIU. 

jBfain  etnerfj^eH  trorn 
^t  cudnt  ut'  Antrim, 
eeit  Tor  I'oint  und 
lay  be  considered  a 
e  Mull  of  Cantyre, 
^e,  which  may,  in 
v.'cstern  shorea  of 
which   intervener 
A  tbrmation  occurs 
il  in  Great  Britain, 
the  space  between 
klie  coal  formation, 
cribed  as  separated 
igh  which  the  river 
i  the  county  of  An- 
1  channel.    It  pre- 
wards  the  west,  in 
northern  extremity 
»f  the  sea ;  but  the 
slate  rock,  leaving 
ystem.     Diris  Hill, 
iondary  strata,  and 
luded  between  the 
■ata  here  dip  nearly 
being  gradually  in 
pitous  cliffs.    Crag- 
is  the  highest  sum- 
fferent  from  that  of 
lary  class  of  rocks, 
lian  rocks  are  gene- 
o  attain  its  greatest 
\ietn  summit  of  the 
superimposed  mass 
square  miles.    The 
asionally  associated 
e  porphyries  of  dif- 
and  also  some  of 
niopal,  felspar,  and 
mineral  frequently 
Tom  two  inches  to 
;  also  in  the  cliffs 
e  centre  of  the  trap 
eagh. 

cularly  in  their  pas- 
le.  They  traverse 
trap  itself.  The 
int's  Causeway  and 
>it  very  interesting 

)  are  the  following 
imetimes,  as  where 
r  limestone  resem- 

feet.  Underneath 
freen  sand  of  Eng- 
ur  beds  of  red  and 
issue  salt  springs. 

mass  of  the  hills 

average  thickness 
[•eastern  and  south- 
panying  rocks,  and 
3al  Island  and  Dun- 
Ballycastle,  which 

most  considerable. 

than  at  present,  as 

mBsy;  anil  alio  on  tte 


Boob  L 


IRELANa/!'!"!  f.r  V'„W 


487 


thoy  used  formerly  to  send  ttom  10,000  to  16,000  torn  of  coal  to  th«  market  7**rly;  wherea* 
now  the  (|uantity  exported  does  not  amount  to  more  than  1600  or  2000  tons.  The  coal  of 
these  districts  is  almost  entirely  what  Bcrger  cslls  slate  coal.  In  one  of  the  works,  how- 
over,  in  Coal  Island,  a  bed  of  cannel  coal,  six  feet  thick,  is  said  U)  have  been  wrought 

The  most  remarkable  minerals  of  tlie  alluvial  kind  found  in  this  part  of  Ireland  are  the 
fossil  woods  of  Lough  Neagh,  a  sheet  of  water  132  feet  above  the  level  of  tlio  leo,  about 
nuteteen  miles  six  hirlonga  long  from  N.  W.  to  8.  £.,  and  fortv-five  feet  deep  at  its  centre. 
The  wood  is  silicified,  ana  in  some  specimens  one  extremity  will  be  petrified,  while  the  other 
remains  in  a  ligneous  state.  The  oak,  the  holly,  and  tite  hazel  appear  to  have  been  the 
trees  thus  affected.     It  occurs  ir.  alluvium  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  lake. 

(2.)  Connauffhl  Coal  District.  This  district  occupies  a  portion  of  the  counties  of  Ros- 
common, Sligo,  and  Loitriro,  in  thii  province  of  Connaught,  and  part  of  the  county  Cavan  in 
tlie  province  of  Ulster.  LcMigh  AUen,  situated  near  the  head  of  the  river  Shannon,  forma  a 
basin  in  the  centre  of  the  district. 

A  range  of  primary  mountains,  varying  in  breadth  firom  three  miles  to  a  quarter  of  a  mile, 
extends  firom  Foxford  in  the  county  of  Mayo,  to  Colooney  in  the  county  of  Sligo,  and  ter- 
minates two  miles  to  the  north-east  of  Manor-Hamilton,  which  may  be  viewed  as  the  base 
on  which  the  newer  formation  of  this  part  of  Ireland  rests.  This  range  of  country  is  prin- 
cipally composed  of  mica  slate,  with  some  subordinate  rocks.  Benbo  Mountain,  near  Manor- 
Hamilton,  140!^  feet  above  the  sea,  may  be  cited  as  exhibiting  an  interesting  display  of  tiie 
various  primitive  rocks.  The  summit,  and  about  800  feet  immediately  below  it,  are  com- 
posed of  a  fine  ^anular  frranito :  the  granite  is  covered  on  both  cides  of  the  mountain  with 
gneiss,  dipping  m  the  direction  of  its  declivity  at  an  angle  of  50°.  At  the  base  of  the 
mountain,  mica  slate,  with  garnets,  hornblende  rock  and  hornblende  slate,  are  seen.  Large 
blocks  of  beautiful  syenite,  also  of  serpentine  with  embedded  garnets,  were  found  in  a  stream 
at  Uio  base  c .'  the  mountain  near  Liirganbov.  The  western  side  of  Benbo  is  traversed  by  a 
vein  of  copper  pyrites,  which  was  formerly  wrought,  but  apparently  to  no  great  extent 
Veins  of  iron  pyrites  also  occur  there. 

Resting  upon  these  old  rocks  in  many  places,  we  observe  the  first  or  old  red  sandstone 
formation.  A  tract  of  this  sandstone  extends  in  Roscommon  fix>m  west  to  east,  from  Derry- 
naslieve  to  Cashes  rrigans,  and  in  greatest  breadth  in  a  southerly  and  northerly  direction, 
fr'^rr.  Leitrim  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Dnimshambo.  Resting  upon  this  sandstone,  forming 
the  base  of  the  coal  district  and  encircling  it  is  the  mountain  or  CB,rboniferous  limestone. 
This  limestone  exhibits  the  usual  character  of  the  formations.  The  coal  formation  rests 
upon  the  limestone,  ond  is  the  uppermost  or  newest  of  the  secondary  deposits  met  with  in 
this  part  of  Ireland.  The  external  aspect  of  this  coal  district  is  described  as  being  hilly 
and  dreary,  and  as  extending  in  greatest  length  in  a  north  and  south  direction,  from  Down 
Mountain  to  Keddue,  about  sixi«en  miles,  and  in  greatest  breadth  from  the  hills  above  Swad- 
linbar  to  Killargy,  sixteen  mil  3s.  The  area  of  the  whole  coal  country  within  the  edge  of 
the  limestone  is  about  114,0r/0  Irish  acres ;  exclusive  of  Slieve  Russel,  which  is  detached 
from  the  great  district  by  the  limestone  valley  of  Swadlinbar.  The  rocks  which  form  the 
coral  series  w  the  Connaught  coal  district  pre  similar  to  those  mot  with  in  other  coalfields. 
Besides  coal,  wbirh  is  the  black  bituminous  species,  the  formation  contains  sandstone  flag, 
slate  clay,  bituminous  slate,  clay  ironstone,  and  fire  clay.  Some  kinds  of  the  coal  afford  in 
the  100  parts,  71.42  carbon,  23.37  bitumen,  and  5.21  gray  ashes.  Iron-works.  The  beds 
of  clay  ironstone  that  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  Connaught  coal  district  appear,  at  an  early 
period,  to  have  attracted  the  attention  of  miners ;  and  works,  on  a  small  scale,  called 
bloomeries,  were  carried  on  in  various  parts  of  the  adjoining  country,  as  long  as  any  wood 
remained  to  supply  them  with  charcoal,  but  they  have  since  been  given  up. 

(3.)  East  of  Ireland.  This  district  extends  nearly  100  miles  firom  north  to  south,  and 
between  sixty  and  ninety  miles  from  east  to  west  comprehending  about  a  third  part  of  the 
island.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Irish  Channel,  on  die  south  and  west  by  the  moun- 
tains which  confine  the  Suire  and  the  Shannon,  anrx  on  the  north  by  the  clay  slate  iiills  of 
Louth  and  the  mountain  limestone  hills  of  Meath,  the  clay  slate  hills  of  Cavan  and  the 
mountain  limestone  of  Longford,  and  by  a.line  produced  from  thence  to  the  bay  of  Galway. 
In  the  landscape  of  Ireland  there  is  one  very  remarkable  feature,  which  cannot  fail  to  strike 
evory  observer :  in  traversing  most  parts  of  the  island,  we  meet  with  ranges  and  groups  of 
bold  mountainous  and  hilly  tracts,  in  some  degree  isolated,  while  the  interval  between  them 
is  {renerally  occupied  by  a  surface  that  appears  nearly  level,  when  viewed  on  the  great  scale. 
Silt  which  is  found,  on  a  nearer  view,  to  present  a  gently  waved  outline :  a  considerable 
expansion  of  the  plain  occupies  the  central  counties  ot  Ireland,  and  extends  across  the  island 
from  Dublin  Bay  on  the  east  to  Galway  Bay  on  the  west ;  and  in  general,  where  a  similar 
plain  •surface  occurs,  the  immediately  subjacent  rock  is  mountain  liniestoiie ;  to  the  abund 
ance  of  which  mineral,  next  to  the  mild  temperature  and  general  moisture  of  the  climate, 
the  soil  of  Ireland  is  probably  more  indebted  for  its  superior  fertility  than  to  any  other  cause 
In  this  district  mountainous  and  hilly  tracts  arise  above  the  surface  of  the  limestone  plain 
on  the  east  the  south,  the  west  the  centre,  and  the  north.    The  eastern  chain  extends  from 

7* 


488 


DESCRIPTIVE  0ECX3RAP11Y. 


Pamt  III 


the  north  side  of  Dublin  B«y  to  tho  confluence  of  tho  Barrow  with  thn  Ruirfi  on  the  south 
Tho  hijpfhoHt  |HMnt  if*  Lugimciiiilln,  which  i«  :)07()  feet  above  low-water-mark  in  Dublin  Ifoy. 
It  conaiata  almost  wholly  of  primitive  and  trannition  rockn,  of  which  tho  tbllowin|f  «p<!ci«>H 
occur :  ffranito,  mica  slate,  quartz  rock,  ciny  nhite,  t;rey  witcke,  trap  and  porphyry.  Mt>liilli- 
ferouB  minerals  are  wanting  on  Ihr  west  side  of  the  granite  cham,  but  ab()un(l  on  tho  eant 
tide.  In  the  granite  and  mica  slato  districtH  thero  are  vems  of  ^falona  or  load  glance ;  of 
Uiese  tlie  nnost  considerable  are  in  Glenmaiur;  in  the  clay  HJate  tract  eleven  diHbrnnt 
metallic  substances  have  been  met  with,  viz.  gold,  silver,  coppor,  iron,  lead,  zinc,  tin,  tung- 
sten, manganese,  arnenic,  and  antimony. 

Native  gold  (Hcurs  in  the  Biillinvalloy  stn^amH  at  Croghan  Kinshola :  and  in  1B()1,  regular 
mining  was  commoncod,  but  did  not  lend  to  any  important  r»>Hiilt«;  and  after  a  time  the  workinj; 
wan  given  up.  The  gold  of  Croghan  Kinshela  cxrurrod  ii\  grains  und  maHHCstVom  the  MmnlloHt 
size  to  lumps  of  considerablu  weight;  ono  piece  weighed  twenty-two  ounces,  Tho  gold  was 
found  in  alluvium,  accompanied  with  other  motnilic  substances,  as  magnetic  iron  ore,  iron 
glance,  red  iron  oro,  brown  iron  ore,  iron  pyrites,  timtone,  woltVam,  gray  manganese  ore,  und 
nragmentH  of  quartz  and  chlorite.  In  some  specimens  the  gold  was  onsorved  ramified  in  Hlt<n- 
der  threads  through  tho  wolfram,  and  in  others  incorporated  with  iron  ochro :  some  of  tho  gold 
was  cryHtallized  in  octahedrons,  and  also  in  the  elongated  garnot  dodocaliedml  form.  Native 
gold  was  also  found  in  Croghan  Moira  min',  about  seven  miles  distant  tVom  the  former 
mountain,  but  in  small  quantity. 

The  copper  m<ncs  of  Cronbane  and  Tigrony,  in  this  district,  aro  situated  in  clay  slate  and 
quartzose  clay  slato.  The  ores,  which  are  cnppor  pvrites  and  black  copper  ore,  are  unhm- 
ciated  with  iron  pyrites,  and  rarely  with  galona ;  and  auriferous  silver  occurs  in  be<lR  in  the 
slaty  strata.  In  the  twelve  years  ending  in  IBll,  the  produce  of  the  mines  was  19,842  tons 
13  cwL  of  ore;  yielding  KWfl  tons  10  cwt.  of  copper.  The  mineral  waters  flowing  from 
the  mines  are  impregnated  with  blue  vitriol  or  sulphate  of  copper.  These  waters  are  re- 
ceived into  tanks,  in  which  the  muddy  particleH  are  allowed  to  subside.  Tho  clear  watem 
aro  then  passed  into  pits  filled  with  plate  and  scrap  iron,  which  occasions  a  precipitation  of 
the  copper. 

The  other  tracts  of  this  district  are  composed  of  secondary  rocks,  more  or  less  deeply 
covered  with  diluvial  and  alluvial  deposits.  The  secondary  rocks  are  old  red  nandstone, 
mountain  limeatone,  (or  as  it  is  called  in  Ireland,  Irish  limestone,)  and  the  coal  formation. 
Of  tliese  formations  the  mountain  limestone  is  by  far  the  most  abundant ;  indeed,  with  the 
exception  of  the  counties  of  Derry  and  Antrim  in  tho  north,  and  Wicklow  n  the  east,  there 
is  no  county  in  the  island  in  which  it  does  not  prevail  moro  or  less.  The  coal  forniution 
occurs  in  the  Leinster  coal  dtBtrict.  The  sandstone,  slate,  ironstone,  clay,  and  coal,  which 
constitute  tiie  series,  alternate  with  each  other,  and  the  whple  rests  on  the  mountain  lime- 
stone, and  is  frequently  disposed  in  the  basin  i>liapo.  The  coal  of  this  district  is  glance  coal, 
the  blind  coal  of  miners,  the  anthracite  of  French  geologists,  tho  Kilkenn.  coal  of  some 
authors  (so  named  because  the  town  of  Kilkenny  is  situated  in  this  coalfield). 

The  most  interesting  alluvial  phenomena  are  those  exhibited  by  the  limestone  gravel,  the 
granite  blocks,  and  the  vast  peat  bogs.  The  great  limestone  held  abounds  in  hillocks  and  ridgeR 
of  limestone  gravel.  Sometimes  these  ridges  appear  like  regular  mounds,  the  work  of  art, 
forming  a  continued  line  of  several  miles  in  extent.  That  which  passes  by  Maryborough, 
in  the  Queen's  County,  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  this  kind;  and  similar  mounds,  hillix^kfl, 
and  ridges  occur  also  in  the  cotmties  of  Meath,  Westmeath,  Kildare,  Carlow,  and  otiier  por- 
tions of  the  limestone  field,  in  which  the  limestone  gravel  and  sand  frequently  exhibit  a 
stratified  arrangement,  the  alternate  beds  being  very  distinct  from  each  other.  The  in- 
equality of  surface  thus  produced,  seems  to  have  occasioned  the  formation  of  those  extensive 
tracts  of  peat  bog  which  cover  so  considerable  a  portion  of  the  limestone  plain  of  Ireland.'' 
The  natural  course  of  springs  and  streams  being  obstructed,  stagnant  lakes  and  pools  n| 
water  were  formed ;  thus  promoting  the  growth  of  those  aquatic  reeds,  grasROs,  and  rushes. 
which,  by  their  constant  increase  and  decay,  appear  to  compose  the  mass  of  the  bogs  of  Ire- 
land. In  this  maimer  it  is  conceivable  that  shallow  lakes  may  in  process  of  time  have 
become  entirely  filled  with  peat;  and  that  peat, bogs  may  thus  havo  gradually  acquired  a 
convexity  of  surface,  or  at  least  that  greater  declivity  by  which  their  borders  are  dis- 
tinguished. The  avf>'<ige  depth  of  these  bogs  is  commonly  from  sixteen  to  twenty-five  feet, 
but  the  extreme  depth  observed  is  forty-seven  feet.  In  the  same  manner  we  may  conceive 
tlie  gradual  growth  of  peat  bog  to  have  successively  extended  from  the  higher  regions  to 
tlie  flanks,  and  thence  to  the  feet,  of  motmtains.  That  fallen  forests  were  not  tho  primary 
origin  of  these  peat  bogs  seems  evident  from  the  circumstance  that  two  and  even  three  suc- 
cessive growths  of  trees  have  been  observed  at  diflerent  depths  in  a  section  of  the  same  boi,'. 
In  these  instances,  the  trees  lie  horizontally,  frequently  crossing  each  other,  and  either 
attached  to  their  roots  or  broken  over ;  and  in  the  latter  case  tho  stumps  usually  stand  erect 
where  they  grew.     The  prostration  of  trees,  however,  may  to  a  certain  extent  have  acted 


*PeBt  ii  jstimated  to  extend  over  a  tenth  of  the  vrhole  iiland. 


PiUIT  III 

Ruirfi  on  the  south 
lark  in  Dublin  Bay. 
)  t'ollowing  BpecieK 
Kirphyrv.  Molulli- 
alMMinil  on  tho  eant 
or  lead  ^lanco ;  of 
:t  oioven  ditlbrftnt 
imi,  zinc,  tin,  tun{i[- 

nd  in  184)1,  regular 
a  time  the  workitijf 
eatVoin  theHmnilcxt 
ices.  The  gold  wan 
fnetic  iron  ore,  iron 
rrmnfifancsn  oro,  itnd 
ed  ramiiied  in  HJon- 
'o:  some  of  tho  jjold 
odral  tbrm.  Native 
It  tlrom  the  former 

ed  in  cloy  nlate  and 
ypper  ore,  are  uwso- 
BcurH  in  bedfi  in  the 
nea  was  19,:)42  tons 
iratera  flowing  from 
ose  waters  are  re- 
Tho  clear  waters 
IB  a  iifecipitation  of 

lore  or  less  deeply 
old  red  sandstone, 
he  coal  formation. 
t ;  indeed,  with  the 
w  n  the  east,  there 
The  coal  furmatioii 
ay,  and  coal,  which 
he  mountain  lime- 
trict  is  glance  coul, 
tenn^  coal  of  some 
iel(i). 

Tiestone  pravel,  the 
1  iiillocks  and  ridges 
ds,  the  work  of  nrt, 
a  by  Maryborouffh, 
ir  mounds,  hillocks, 
•low,  and  other  por- 
rcquently  exhibit  a 
;h  other.  The  in- 
1  of  those  extensive 
3  plain  of  Irelund.' 
lakes  and  pools  nt 
rasKos,  and  rusiies, 
of  the  bogs  of  Irc- 
xress  of  time  have 
radually  acquired  b 
ir  borders  are  dis- 
to  twenty-tive  feet, 
r  we  may  conceive 
5  higher  regions  to 
re  not  tiio  primary 
md  even  three  sue- 
on  of  the  same  boij. 
1  other,  and  eitiier 
usually  stand  erect 
extent  have  acted 


Rook  I. 


IRELAND 


I'll ikf  i-i'itii 


439 


as  an  auxiliary  in  promoting  the  growth  of  peat  boga;  and  this  proitmtion  tppeara  in  general 
ti<  have  taken  placu  either  from  natural  decay,  or  from  Irwn  puMseiMiiig  littlo  iiold  ot  a  wet 
H|Hjngy  soil  iiaviiig  boon  overturned  by  atoniia.  This  may  jwrtly  aouuunt.  lor  troeH  of  all  agm 
bi'in<r  tbtind  in  the  bogs  of  Ireland,  whether  thoae  bogri  bo  situutotl  iii  j)luiiw,  or  lijriii  the  iiii- 
mediate  cover  of  high  mountain  tracta.  The  univeraal  deatruction  ot  ttiu  turoutit  of  Ireland 
is  principally  to  be  attributed  to  the  general  introduction  of  iron  furnaces,  tui  the  iitost  prolil- 
ultle  mode  of  consuming  tho  timber,  then  a  material  esteemed  of  little  vuluo ;  and  he iicv  the 
ulmost  total  neglect  of  copaing  those  tracts  in  which  tho  wocmIs  had  been  felled.  'I'Jiu  iiiurt 
beds,  HO  fruquently  met  with  in  these  peat  bogs,  are  curious  in  a  zoological  view,  tVom  lliuir 
wxuNionally  containing  remains  of  that  splundid  uniiiial  the  fossil  elk.  But  the  reniains  of 
the  extinct  species  occur  also  in  the  gravel ;  and  the  late  Mr.  Edgeworth  obsorvod  the  re< 
mains  of  the  rod  door  in  the  same  marl  as  that  which  contained  tlie  extinct  species. 

(4.)  South  of  Inland.  Under  this  division  we  comprise  the  counties  of  Cork,  Kerry, 
Clare,  Watorford,  Tipperary,  and  part  of  Galway. 

This  mountainous,  hilly,  and  diversified  region  is  chiefly  composed  of  chains  having 
generally  a  direction  from  east  to  west,  and  attaining  their  greatest  elevation  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Kerry,  where  Qurrane  Tual,  one  of  Macgillicuddy's  Kecks,  near  Killarney  (tlie 
iiighest  land  in  Ireland),  is  3410  feet  above  the  sea.  The  rocks  in  this  elevated  county  are 
chiefly  of  the  transition  class :  thuy  decline  graduullv  towards  tho  north,  and  Hiiallv  puss 
under  the  old  red  sandstone  and  mountain  limestone  or  thu  midland  counties.  The  tollow- 
iiig  may  be  considered  a  general  estimate  of  the  geogiioatical  relations  of  the  soutii  uf 
Ireland ; — 

Transition  rocks.  In  Kerry,  the  transition  strata  range  from  east  to  west,  and  dip  to  the 
north  and  south,  with  vertical  beds  in  the  axes  of  the  ranges:  the  strata,  as  they  diminish 
in  inclination  on  each  side,  form  a  succession  of  troughs.  The  rocks  are  chiefly  Noptuiiian, 
tiie  Plutonian  being  comparatively  rare.  The  Neptunian  are  eitiier  simple  or  compound ; 
the  simple  are  clay  slate,  quartz  rock,  hornstone,  Lydian  stone,  and  limestone :  tlio  com- 
pound arc,  greywacke,  greywacke  slate,  sandstone.  Tho  Plutonian  rocks  are  greenstone 
and  porphyry.  Organic  remains  occur  in  tho  limestone,  slate,  and  greywacke,  but  more 
frequently  and  abundantly  in  the  limestone  than  in  the  other  rocks.  In  Koiimaro  these 
fossils  consist  of  a  few  bivalves,  and  some  crinoidal  remains:  and  these  also  are  most 
r>uinerous  in  the  Mucruss  and  Killarney  limestones.  At  the  foot  of  tho  Slievemeesh  miigo 
^his  limestone  includes  asaphus  caudatus,  calamine  macrophtliulma,  with  orthocerulitos, 
ellipsolites  ovatus,  ammonites,  ouomphalhos,  turhinites,  ncrititcs,  molanites,  and  several 
species  of  terobratula,  spirifer,  and  producta.  Near  timerwick  harbour  similar  organic  re- 
mains are  abundant  in  slate  and  greywacke,  together  with  hysterolites,  and  many  genera  of 
iwlyparia. 

Transition  coal.  All  the  coal  of  the  province  of  Munster,  except  that  of  the  county  of 
Clare,  is  referable  to  the  transition  class,  At  Knockasartnct,  near  Killarney,  and  on  the 
nortii  of  Tralee,  there  arc  three  beds  of  glance  coal,  alternating  with  strata  of  grevwucke 
and  slate.  In  tho  county  of  Cork  this  glance  coal  is  more  abundant,  particularly  near 
Kanturk,  extending  from  tho  north  of  the  Blackwater  to  the  Allord.  Tho  ravines  of  the 
latter  river,  and  various  other  defiles,  expose  clay  slate,  greywacke,  talc,  and  samlstone,  in 
nesrly  vertical  strata  ranging  from  west  to  east  This  transition  tract  extends  to  the  river 
Shannon  on  the  north-west.  As  the  strata  range  from  west  to  east,  in  a  series  of  paiallol 
narrow  troughs,  they  exhibit  great  variety  of  inclination,  d  jtping  rapidly  either  to  the  north 
ur  south,  and  becoming  horizontal  between  the  ridges.  The  glance  coul  is  raised  in  sufficient 
quantities  for  the  purpose  of  burning  the  limestone  of  the  adjacent  districts. 

The  coal  and  the  strata  ',vith  which  it  is  accompanied  abound  with  impressions  of  e(|ui- 
seloj  and  calamites,  and  afibrd  some  traces  of  fucoides.  Bods  of  glance  coal  also  occur  in  the 
county  of  Lini3rick,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Shannon,  north  of  Abbeyteale,  and  at  Longhill ; 
and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  at  Labbosheoda.  The  transition  rocks  of  Kerry  and  Liino- 
riek  extend  into  Cork  and  Watorford. 

Mines.  Copper  mines  occur  in  limestone  in  Ross  Island  in  the  lake  of  Killarney.  In  the 
county  of  Cork,  there  are  copper  mines  at  Allihios,  Audley,  and  Ballydehol ;  and  others, 
proilucing  lead,  at  Doneen  and'Rinabelly.  The  mine  at  AUihies  is  one  of  the  richest  mines 
in  Ireland ;  it  was  discovered  in  1812,  and  yields  more  than  20(K)  tons  of  copper  ore  aimually. 
The  ore  occurs  in  a  large  quartz  vein,  wiiich  generally  intersects  the  slaty  rocks  of  the 
country  from  north  to  south,  but  in  somo  places  runs  parallel  to  the  strata.  It  is  remarked 
that  all  this  portion  of  the  county  of  Cork  indicates  a  very  general  diffusion  of  cupreous  par- 
ticles, so  much  so  that  in  the  year  1812,  there  existed  a  cupriferous  peat-bog  on  the  east  side 
of  Glandore  harbour,  forty  or  fifty  tons  of  the  dried  peat  producing  when  burnt  one  ton  of 
iwhes,  containing  from  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent,  of  copper.  The  lead-mines  of  Doneen  and 
iiinabelly  are  in  slate. 

Coal  formation  of  Clare.  The  transition  clay  slate  of  this  county  is  bordered  by  a  zone 
of  old  red  sandstone,  to  which  succeeds,  in  ascending  order  and  conformable  position,  the 
uu'intain  limestone  and  coal  tbrmation,  both  of  which  occupy  flat  and  undulating  hills,  and 


44C 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOOUAPHY. 


Part  UI 


Jie  ttnta  are  nMrlv  horiionul.  The  boat  Mctiona  are  Men  in  the  clifla  m  the  weat  coMt, 
where  bituminoui  thale,  tUte  clay,  niniliitonu,  auU  Huulalone  tiAg,  rout  upun  liinoitone.  Cual, 
however,  ia  of  rare  occurrence,  mid  when  tbiind,  ia  of  iiidiiU'reut  quality. 

Aa  in  every  uthur  part  of  Ireland,  the  dialricl  abounda  wiUi  alluvial  depoaita.  In  ro|fHrd 
to  the  di8i  ribution  of  thu  older  ol  liioae,  or  thu  diluvium  in  thoHouUt  of  Ireland,  it  ia  rtuiiurknd, 
— 1.  That  bouldera,  (gravel,  and  aand,  derived  ftom  tlie  tranaition  rocka,  arc  diatribulod  aUmg 
the  bordera  and  Midea  of  the  inountaina  in  Kerry.  'J.  In  a  ttnall  dmtrict  of  Limerick  uiiu 
Tipperary,  aituated  between  the  Oaulteea  and  Ulieve-na-muck,  Uie  rolled  inaaaea  conaiat  not 
only  of  portiona  of  contiffuoua  rocka,  but  contain  alao  porphyry,  which  ia  not  to  be  found  in 
iitu  near  the  vicinity  ol  rallia  Hill.  8.  In  the  poninaula  ot  Nenville,  nearOalway,  the  aiir- 
face  of  the  mountain  limeatone  ia  atrowed  ovur  with  nunieruua  bouldera  of  rod  and  irriiy 
((ranite,  syenite,  (froenatone,  nml  sandatune,  which  muat  apparently  have  been  coaveyod  trom 
the     ipoaite  aide  of  the  bay  of  CUIway. 


1. 


Skot.  III. — Httfoneei  Qtography. 

The  oarlioat  inhabitonta  of  Ireland,  from  which  the  native  race  now  exiatin||[  haa  aprung, 
appemr,  by  the  lan^nioge  still  spoken,  to  have  been  Celtic.  The  Romana,  in  occupying 
Britam,  could  not  tail  to  acquire  much  information  relative  to  leme,  Hibornin,  or  Ireland  ; 
and  accontingly  we  tind  tliat  the  map  of  that  country  by  Ptolemy  ia  leaa  defective  than  the 
one  which  he  gives  of  Scotland.  About  the  fourth  century,  wo  find  Ireland  bcorinfr  the 
name  of  Scotland,  tVom  the  loading  people  on  its  eaaturn  shore,  who  aA«rwarda  iMuwiiig  into 
Argyle,  and  making  themselves  mostcrHofall  Caledonia,  comnmnicnted  to  it  the  name  of 
Scotland,  tinally  withdrawn  from  the  country  to  which  it  originally  belonged. 

The  Danes,  during  the  height  of  their  power,  trom  the  nintli  to  the  tweltlh  centurins, 
poasesaed  almost  the  whole  ooatcm  coast  of  Ireland,  making  Dublin  their  capital.  Befuro 
this  timo  Ireland  had  been  converted  to  Christianity,  and  a  number  of  celebrated  liionaaterius 
had  been  founded,  the  tenanta  of  which  were  distinguished,  even  over  Europe,  for  their  piety 
and  learning. 

The  Rn^rlish  sway  commenced  in  1170.  Richard  Slrongbow,  earl  of  Pembroke,  as  a  pri- 
vate individual,  formed  the  tirst  aettlemcnt;  but  Henry  II.  soon  assumed  the  title  of  "  lord  of 
Ireland."  The  range  of  dominion  was  long  rcatricled  to  a  |x)riioii  of  the  kingdom  oiicloweMl 
witliin  what  is  called  the  English  pale,  without  which  the  Irish  remained  still  under  the  rulu 
of  their  native  chieftains.  Henry  VIII.  assumed  the  title  of"  king  of  Ireland,"  but  without 
any  material  extension  of  his  authority  over  that  kin^om. 

The  Irish  massacre  was  a  dreadful  outrage,  to  which  attachment  to  poperv  and  zeal  foi 
national  independence  united  in  impelling  a  proud  and  fierce  people.  Forty  thousand 
English  settlers  arc  supposed  to  have  perished,  and  the  rest  were  driven  into  Dublni. 
Cromwell,  however,  aflerwards  crossed  the  Channel,  and  made  cruel  reprisals ;  he  took  lliu 
principal  fortified  towns,  and  reduced  Ireland  under  more  full  subjection  than  ever.  Yet 
the  disposition  of  the  people  remained  the  same ;  and  when  James  II.  was  driven  from  the 
English  throne,  he  was  received  with  enthusiasm  in  Ireland,  and  became  for  some  time  its 
master.  The  battle  of  the  Boyne,  followed  next  ^ear  by  that  of  Aughriin,  decided  the  fate 
of  the  empire,  and  more  especially  of  Ireland,  which  then  felt  for  the  first  time  the  miseries 
of  a  conquered  country.  The  estates  of  many  principal  nati/e  proprietors  were  confisoutod ; 
the  Catholics  were  deprived  of  all  political  privileges ;  tliey  were  rendered  incapable  of 
holding  any  office  or  employment  in  the  state;  tliey  were  debarred  even  from  holding  land, 
fVom  devism;^  property,  and  from  exercising  other  important  functions  of  civil  society.  Under 
these  severities  they  pertinaciously  retained  their  political  attachments  together  with  their 
religious  creed ;  and  a  continual  ferment  prevailed,  which  broke  out  from  time  to  time  into 
partial  rebellions. 

The  gradual  emancipation  of  Ireland  commenced  at  the  period  of  the  American  war.  Till 
that  era  England  had  denied  to  her  the  right  of  trading  directly  with  any  foreign  nation ;  and 
had  compelled  her  to  export  and  import  every  commodity  tiirough  the  channel  of  Great 
Britain.  The  extremity,  however,  to  which  Britain  was  reduced  enabled  the  Irish  to  place 
themselves  in  a  formidable  attitude;  and  by  forming  armed  associations,  and  adopting  other 
threatening  measures,  they  induced  parliament  to  ^rant  them  fVee  trade  with  all  nations. 
From  this  time  also  the  most  obnoxious  of  the  restrictions  on  the  Catholics  were  gradually 
repealed  or  fell  into  disuse ;  and  before  the  end  of  last  century,  they  had  obtained  almost 
every  political  privilege,  except  that  of  sitting  in  parliament,  and  of  holding  the  very  highest 
ofHces  of  state.  The  propriety  of  conceding  these  also  became  one  of  the  leading  questions 
which  long  divided  the  public  mind. 

A  very  formidable  rebellion  broke  forth  in  spite  of  these  concessions.  The  French 
revolution,  which  caused  a  general  ferment  in  Europe,  was  intensely  felt  throughout 
Ireland.  A  aocioty  wns  formed  of  "  United  Irishmen ;"  and  secret  meetings  were  held, 
having  in  view  the  entire  separation  from  England,  and  the  formation  of  the  kingdom  into 
an  independent  republic.  The  vigilance  of  government,  and  the  failure  of  the  French  in 
their  attemots  to  land  a  force  of  any  magnitude,  prevented  matters  from  comaig  to  the  la«t 


Part  UI 

in  thfl  wflit  coMt, 
liineaton*.  CokI, 

Maito.  In  roffiird 
ltd,  it  is  roiimrkml, 
I  (liNtributed  nUma 

of  liimorick  una 
nftMeii  cuiiMiHt  not 
not  to  bti  tbiintl  in 
■Gal way,  tliu  mir- 

of  rod  and  amy 
ten  conveyed  iroin 


iiting  hu  iiprun(f, 
ina,  in  occu|)yiii){ 
oniiii,  or  Irolund  ; 
ilcfcctivo  thiui  tlio 
jlund  boarin(r  tho 
vardi  |)awiin|{  into 
D  it  thu  noiHu  of 

twcltlh  centurioH, 
r  capital,  Bciforo 
brati'diiionaMtnriua 
upe,  for  their  pii.'ty 

embroko,  as  a  pri- 
tie  title  of  "  lord  of 
kin(i^dom  eiicloxi'il 
Htill  under  tho  rtilu 
land,"  but  without 

tperv  and  zoal  foi 

Forty  thouMuid 

ivvn  into  Dubliu, 

iaulH ;  he  took  tliu 

than  ever.     Yot 

s  driven  from  the 

for  Honu!  tinio  itti 

,  decide<l  tiio  fute 

time  the  mlHcrics 

were  confiBcutod  j 

red  incapable  of 

rom  holding;  land, 

vil  society.  Under 

tgether  with  their 

time  to  time  into 

nerican  war.  Till 
>rcign  nation ;  and 
channel  of  Great 

the  Irish  to  place 
nd  adopting  other 

with  all  nations. 
C8  were  gradually 
obtained  almout 
f  the  very  highcBt 

leading  questioni 

18.  Tho  French 
felt  throughout 

3tings  wfife  held, 
the  kingdom  into 
of  the  French  in 

lomiQg  to  the  la«t 


IVmi  I. 


IRELAND. 


k41 


rxlroiuity  till  17M,  when  a  violent  inmirroction  arose  in  fimr  of  the  countif^s  nearext 
l>iililin.  The  rehels,  tiiough  zealous  and  brnve,  being  without  diHcipline,  wiiro  roti  ed  in 
•lurt'CHnivu  oncoiinterH  witli  much  inferior  boilies  of  regulars  and  militia ;  ami  being  unNU|i* 
iKirti'il  liy  French  aid  wore  couiplotoiy  put  down  in  a  few  monthM.  The  exaM)teration, 
liowi'vcr,  priHJuct'd  by  the  tragical  evcntn  of  this  short  jmriod  continutNl  long  to  rankb^  in 
till'  luiniiM  of  till)  Irish,  and  to  iiggravatn  thu  evils  under  which  they  laboiirtHl.  To  «M)tho 
tliiH  irritation,  another  oxpedient  waH  employed,  which  materially  a/lbcted  tho  situation  of 
Iriilaiid. 

Thf  (litHcult  and  reluctant  union  of  the  two  kingdonu  was  effected  in  1800  by  Mr.  F'itt. 
Ireland  gaiii)!<l  tliim  coiiHiderabiu  commercial  advantages;  and,  from  Uio  example  of  Hcot* 
kind,  it  wiiit  hoped  that  a  gradual  tranquillity  would  be  the  result,  This  expectation  has  not 
yet  been  tUllilled.  The  p<<asaiitry  of  the  south,  intlamed  by  national  jealousy,  by  religious 
animoHity,  and  by  the  Moveru  privatiotiH  under  whicii  they  labour,  have  continued,  if  not  in 
op<Mi  rebollion,  at  leiiHt  in  u  Htate  of  turbulence  conHtantly  tending  towards  it;  and  their  di>> 
contents  have  been  incrijat<ed  by  the  indiscreet  zeal  of  tlie  Protestant  party. 

The  bill  for  Catholic  emanci(Hiti()n,  so  unexpectedly  introduced,  in  lH*iH,  by  the  Duke  of  - 
Wellington,  and  carried  atler  Huch  a  violent  ferment  of  part  ies,  lias  made  a  remarhable 
cliunge  ill  the  political  constitution  of  Ireland.  The  |X)litical  diiubilitioB  under  which  the 
(/atliolicM  had  hitherto  lul)oured'  have  been  tinally  removed.  They  are  mode  admifwib'.i)  to 
the  highest  ofKceH  of  stiite,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  lord  chancellor;  an  nxcl'.ision 
decided  upon,  not  so  much  on  account  of  the  dignity  of  Uiat  office,  as  the  extensive  church 
|<atrc>nage  attached  to  it.  lloinan  Catholics  are  mIho  made  ndrnisHible  to  sit  in  \.  )th  houses 
ot  parliament,  and  to  every  other  political  privilege  enjoyed  by  their  fellow  cou'-<trymen. 

Hbct.  IV. — Political  Cieoffraphy. 

The  political  evils  under  which  Ireland  labours  will  sufficiently  appear  fVom  the  fbrc^^  '>«  |ir 
survey  of  hiir  history.  From  tho  earliest  times  she  has  been  in  tho  situation  of  a  conqi.^rea 
country,  without  ever  becoming  reconciled  to  the  yol:e,  or  isaimilated  to  the  "<1ing  nation. 
Within  the  last  two  centuries,  her  devoted  adherence  to  a  n^ligion  which  had  '  •. ..  enounced 
by  her  rulers,  has  had  a  most  fatal  tendency,  which  we  may  however  hope  to  uo  r  ich  miti- 
gated by  thu  healing  mooiiurcB  that  have  now  been  adopted.  In  consequence,  also,  of 
repeated  scenes  of  rebellion  and  forfeiture,  by  much  the  greater  part  of  tho  lands  are  in  the 
possession  of  English  and  Protestant  proprietors,  who,  having  no  nntural  influence  over  the 
occupiers  of  their  estates,  hold  their  plore  only  by  the  hated  tenure  of  dominion  and  law. 
Being  connected  with  the  country  by  no  natural  ties,  and  attracted  by  tho  superior  brilliancy 
of  the  English  and  French  capitals,  most  of  them  quit  Ireland,  and  become  habitual  absenteet. 
When  the  Scottish  Highlanders  arrayed  themselves  against  the  government,  they  acted 
under  the  influence  of  a  few  leading  chiefs,  whose  interests  and  passions  aflbrded  a  lever  by 
which  the  people  could  be  moved.  But  the  Irish  [Kiople,  deprivetl  of  any  such  guidance, 
chose  their  loaders  from  among  themselves,  or  from  those  who  courted  their  favour  by  fos- 
tering all  their  national  propensities.  Secret  associations,  party  badges,  mysterious  natnes, 
have  exerted  an  influence  over  their  minds,  the  extent  and  nature  of  which  it  is  imi)ossible 
to  calculate. 

Ireland,  liker Scotland,  has  been  united  to  England;  yet  it  '••>tain8  somewhat  more  of  the 
aspect  of  a  separate  kingdom.  A  lord  lieutenant  still  display  -  portion  of  the  state  and 
exercises  some  of  the  functions  of  royalty.  He  has  not  only  .  '  ^isehold  estoblishment,  but 
a  chancellor,  a  secretary,  and  other  ministers  of  state.  The  courts  of  justice,  and  the  dif- 
ferent orders  of  magistracy,  are  nearly  on  the  same  footing  as  in  England ;  yet  they  have 
not  the  reputation  of  exercising  their  functions  with  quite  the  same  dignity  and  impartiality. 
The  violence  of  party  spirit  acts  upon  judges,  and  still  more  upon  juries ;  and  in  the  country, 
the  absence  of  groat  proprietort),  and  the  want  of  uny  middling  class,  render  it  diflicult  to 
find  materials  for  a  respectable  n  nd  effective  magistracy.  Ireland  sent  to  the  Imperial  par- 
liament 100  members  of  the  House  of  Commons,  of  whom  36  were  for  cities  and  boroughs, 
and  64  for  counties,  which  latter  sent  two  members  each.  The  large  proportion  of  this 
latter  class  was  expected  to  render  the  representation  more  respectable ;  but,  unfortunately, 
the  low  qualification  required,  amounting  only  to  40s.,  enabled  the  great  proprietors  to  split 
votes  among  their  numerous  little  tenantry  to  such  an  extent  as  almost  to  produce  universal 
suffrage.  The  very  system  of  letting  farms  on  leases  for  lives,  which  confers  the  right  of 
voting,  extended  that  right  to  almost  every  tenant.  This  could  scarcely  be  said  to  confer 
the  real  right  of  suflrage,  as  the  dependence  of  tlie  tenants  was  almost  always  such  as  to 
enable  the  landlord  to  dictate  their  vote ;  though  in  late  elections,  the  influence  of  the  priests 
was  in  several  counties  successfully  exerted.  To  remedy  these  evils,  the  same  act  which 
removed  the  disabilities  of  tiie  Ctttholics,  raised  the  qualification  of  freeholders  in  Ireland 
from  40«.  to  iQl.  a  year,  and  thus  reduced  them  to  less  than  a  third  of  their  former  number. 
Many  also  of  the  principal  boroughs,  as  Belfast,  Wexford,  Cashel,  Sligo,  Dundalk,  Ennis- 
killeii,  were  entirely  close,  the  members  being  chosen  by  twelve  self-elected  burgesses; 
while,  in  otliers,  the  whole  ground  on  which  a  borough  stood  belonged  to  the  nearest  great 

Vou  I.  3  F 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  in. 


proprietor.  The  consequence  waa,  that  an  oligarchy,  formed  by  the  poBsesBors  of  those  vast 
properties  into  which  the  greater  part  of  Ireland  is  divided,  held  an  almost  unlimited  sway 
over  the  countiy.  Previous  to  the  union,  the  influence  of  the  three  houses  of  Beresford, 
Ponsonby,  and  Foster  was  such,  that  the  aid  of  one,  and,  if  possible,  two  of  them,  was  neces- 
sary for  carrying  on  the  measures  of  gove  nment.  That  influence,  however,  has  been  on 
the  decline,  and  there  is  no  proupect  of  its  renewal. 

The  Reform  Bill  gave  to  Ireland  only  five  additional  members,  and  it  made  no  material 
change  in  the  returning  boroughs ;  but,  by  placing  the  election  in  the  hands  of  all  house- 
holders paying  10/.  annually,  it  rendered  those  nominations  jpcn  which  had  formerly  been 
made  by  the  small  number  of  individuals  composing  the  corporation. 

The  naval  and  military  force  of  the  empire  in  general  defends  Ireland.  There  is  a  com- 
mander of  the  forces  resident  in  Dublin ;  acting,  however,  under  the  orders,  not  of  the  lord 
lieutenant,  but  of  the  British  commander-in-chief.  The  number  of  regular  troops  stationed 
at  diflferent  points  is  always  considerable. 

The  revenue  levied  in  Ireland  has  never  borne  the  same  proportion  to  her  natural  resources 
as  that  0^  England.  The  rates  in  all  the  principal  articles  of  consumption  have  been  lower, 
The  tax  on  hearths,  however,  was  found  very  oppressive ;  as  it  required  inquisitorial  visits, 
and  affected  the  lowest  of  thu  people.  This  and  all  the  other  assessed  taxes  were  so  irregu- 
larly levied,  that,  notwithstanding  the  discontent  excited  by'them,  they  did  little  more  than 
cover  the  expenses  of  collection.  For  this  reason,  by  a  motion  of  the  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  tliey  were  entirely  remitted.  In  1800  the  revenue  was  2,684,000/.  and  the  debt 
25,662,000/.  At  the  union,  the  stipulation  was  made  that  Ireland  should  pay  two-seventeenths 
of  the  whole  expenditure  of  the  empire ;  this  arrangement  has  led  to  a  continual  increase 
both  of  debt  and  revenue.  In  1811  the  former  amounted  to  77,382,000/.,  and  the  latter  to 
3,906,900/.  In  1830  the  revenue  was  3,548,822/.,  and  in  1835  it  amounted  to  4,400,953/. 
The  particulars  for  the  latter  year  were : — 

Customi £1,744,764     I     Stamps i;470,%6 

Excise 1,966,531     |     Postage,  Jcc 319,372 

The  public  expenditure  in  1830  was  as  follows : — 


Charges  of  Oiiidea  debt Xl.178,454 

Civillist,  &c 584,969 


Army X986,900 

Miscellaneous 747,689 


The  national  debt  of  Ireland  in  1817,  when  it  ceased  to  form  a  separate  item  in  the  public 
accounts  in  consequence  of  the  consolidation  of  the  British  and  Irish  exchequers,  waa 
134,602,769/. 

For  local  and  patriotic  objects  in  Ireland,  very  considerable  sums  are  allowed  out  of  the 
public  revenue.     Of  these,  for  the  year  1832,  there  appear  the  following : — 


Schools  and  Education jC30,000 

Protestant  Charity  Schools 3,000 

FniinilUriK  Hospital 36,314 

Four  other  Hospitals 10,045 

House  of  Industry 21,193 

Hlohmond  Lunatic  Asylum 1,388 

Hibernian  Marine  Society 050 


Female  Orphan  House Xl,8.13 

Roman  Catholic  College e,i)38 

Royal  Dulilin  Society 5,300 

Belfast  Academical  Institution .  1,500 

Nonconforming  and  other  Ministers 34,334 

Public  Works 33,564 

Dunmore  Harbour 7,500 


Sect.  V.— Productive  Industry. 

Ireland,  in  this  respect,  has  long  presented  a  painful  spectacle ;  a  great  pro{)ortion  of  her 
people  being  involved  in  extreme  and  squalid  poverty.  The  Irish  do  not  want  enterprise,  or 
even  industry ;  but  various  causes  have  combined  to  degrade  them  in  the  scale  of  improve- 
ment Among  these  the  conduct  long  held  by  Britain  must  be  considered  as  prominent ; 
thus,  after  other  expedients  had  proved  ineflfectual,  it  was  prohibited  to  export  woollens  to 
foreign  countries.  Similar  measures  were  taken  with  regard  to  glass,  hops,  and  every 
branch  in  respect  to  which  any  rivalry  was  apprehended.  There  was  one  article,  however, 
the  production  of  a  large  surplus  of  which  could  by  no  means  be  avoided.  This  was  black 
cattle  and  sheep ;  but  the  value  of  these  was  effectually  cut  down  by  the  prohibition  to 
import  them  into  England,  the  only  accessible  market.  Under  these  regulations,  all  the 
exertions  of  Ireland  to  better  her  condition  were  cramped,  and  while  Britain  was  making 
the  most  rapid  advances,  Ireland  continued  in  the  same  state  of  depression.  However,  in 
consequence  of  her  spirited  efforts  at  the  end  of  the  American  war,  and  of  the  embarrass- 
ments of  the  British  government,  the  most  odious  and  pernicious  of  these  restrictions  were 
repealed.  Further  advantages  were  obtained  at  the  time  of  the  Union ;  and  at  present, 
every  exertion  is  making  to  place  the  two  cotmtries  in  a  state  of  perfect  reciprocity.  The 
consequence  has  been,  that  in  the  course  of  forty  years,  Ireland  has  made  a  rapid  progress 
in  industry  and  commerce ;  yet  some  of  her  greatest  evils  are  so  deeply  seated,  that  they 
have  scarcely  yet  begun  to  give  way  to  the  influence  of  a  more  auspicious  system. 

Agriculture  has  been  long  in  a  backward  and  very  depressed  state.  The  farms  were,  for 
the  most  part,  small,  managed  by  the  farmer  himself  and  his  fiimily,  destitute  of  capital 
with  wretched  implements,  and  with  a  pertinacious  adherence  to  all  the  'obsolete  practices 
of  a  rude  ago.  The  best  soils  exhausted  a  great  portion  of  their  strength  in  throwing  up 
weeds,  which  no  effective  measures  were  taken  to  extirpate.   Tho  system  also  of  infield  and 


pakt  in. 

sore  of  those  vast 
i  unlimited  sway 
1868  of  Bereaford, 
them,  was  neces- 
!ver,  has  been  on 

lade  no  material 
inds  of  all  house- 
ad  formerly  been 

There  is  a  com- 

3,  not  of  the  lord 

troops  stationed 

natural  resources 
have  been  lower, 
quisitorial  visits, 
s  were  so  irregu- 
little  more  than 
ihancellor  of  the 
m.  and  the  debt 
two-seventeenths 
intinual  increase 
and  the  latter  to 
ed  to  4,400,953/. 

JE470,286 

219,372 

£9m,wa 

747,689 

tern  in  the  public 
9xchequer&,  was 

lowed  out  of  the 


Xl,833 

8,!128 

5,300 

1,500 

n 84,224 

33,504 

7,500 


irojwrtion  of  her 
nt  enterprise,  or 
3ale  of  improve- 
d  as  prominent; 
sort  woollens  to 
lops,  and  every 
rtiele,  however, 
This  was  block 
e  prohibition  to 
Illations,  all  the 
ain  was  making 
1.  However,  in 
the  embarrtiss- 
jstrictions  were 
and  nt  present, 
ciprocity.  The 
I  rapid  progress 
sated,  that  they 
astern. 

farms  were,  for 
itiite  of  capital 
solete  practices 
in  throwing  up 
o  of  infield  and 


Book  I.    ' 


IRELAND. 


448 


outfield  was  strictly  adhered  to,  the  ground  bcuig  heavily  cropped  as  long  as  it  would  yield 
any  thin^,  and  afterwards  of  necessity  allowed  two  or  three  years  tx>  recruit  Although 
these  defects  still  exist  to  a  considerable  extent,  yet  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  but  particu- 
larly in  the  east  and  north,  improved  practices  and  implements  are  beginning  to  be  intro- 
duced. 

The  Irish  tenures  are  long,  some  of  them  perpetual,  in  which  case  they  may  be  considered 
as  property,  the  rent  being  a  mere  trifle ;  a  lease  of  thirty-one  years  and  three  lives  is  very 
common.  These  long  leases  are  attended  with  scarcely  any  of  the  benefits  which  might 
be  naturally  expected.  As  the  farmer  commences  usually  without  any  capital,  trusting  for 
the  payment  of  the  first  year's  rent  to  the  produce  of  his  form,  he  almost  always  fiilb  more 
or  less  into  arrear,  and  thus  lies  at  the  mercy  of  his  landlord.  This  would  be  less  pernicious, 
were  it  the  landlord  himself  with  whom  he  had  to  deal;  but  the  landlords  of  Ireland,  hrld- 
ing  usually  properties  of  immense  extent,  and  being  mostly  resident  out  of  the  country, 
cannot  or  will  not  undertake  the  task  of  dealing  with  this  impoverished  multitude  of  smalt 
tenants.  They  devolve  it  upon  the  intermediate  agents  and  middlemen.  The  latter,  a  class 
peculiar  to  Ireland,  take  a  large  extent  of  ground,  which  they  let  out  in  small  portions  to 
the  real  cultiv3tor.  They  grant  leases,  indeed ;  but  as  the  tenant,  fh)m  the  circumstances 
above  mentioned,  soon  comes  under  their  power,  they  and  the  agents  treat  him  with  the 
greatest  harshness,  exact  pei^nal  services,  presents,  bribes;  and  draw  from  the  land  as 
much  as  they  possibly  can,  without  the  least  regard  to  its  permanent  welfare.  This  system, 
while  it  crushes  the  tenant,  is  not  less  injurious  to  the  landlord,  into  whose  coffers  there 
often  passes  less  than  one-half  of  the  sum  paid  by  the  tenant.  The  only  use  to  which  the 
latter  turns  his  long  lease  is  to  divide  and  subdivide  the  lands  among  his  children,  till  the 
share  of  each  affords  only  the  most  miserable  aliment,  and  an  overgrown  population  is  fixed 
upon  the  farm.  An  attempt  to  let  land  on  a  different  footing  can  only  be  effected  by  tlie 
ejection  of  more  than  half  its  existing  occupants,  who  in  that  case  are  apt  to  fly  to  violent 
and  revengeful  courses,  so  that  even  a  partial  endeavour  to  introduce  such  improvements 
has  been  a  main  cause  of  the  existing  disturbed  state.  Another  injurious  mode  is  that  of  part- 
nership leases,  in  which  a  number  of  persons  take  a  form  jointly,  and  make  it  a  sort  of  common 
property.  Each  is  allowed  to  put  upon  it  a  certain  number  of  collops ;  the  collop  consisting 
of  "ne  horse,  two  cows,  or  twelve  goats.  A  degrading  stipulation  is  often  introduced  into 
leacics,  by  which  the  occupant  is  bound  to  work  for  his  landlord  either  without  wages,  or  at 
a  rate  lower  than  ordinary. 

Tithe  is  one  of  the  evils  of  which  the  Irish  cultivator  most  grievously  complains.  Al- 
though it  must  in  all  cases  fall  ultimately  on  the  landlord,  yet  to  take  from  the  cabin  of  the 
peasant  the  pig  which  he  has  reared,  or  the  handful  of  potatoes  which  he  has  raised  for  the 
support  of  his  family,  is  an  act  peculiarly  discouraging  and  irritating.  The  exemption  of 
grass  lands  tends  also  to  discourage  tillage.  Measures  taken  by  parliament  to  promote  the 
commutation  of  tithes,  have  been  attended  with  considerable  success;  and  by  a  late  act 
arrangements  are  made  by  which  the  church  rates,  instead  of  being  taken  out  of  the  farmer's 
produce,  are  paid  by  the  landlord  out  of  his  rent. 

The  extent  of  country,  and  the  objects  of  culture  in  Ireland,  vary  considerably  from  tiiose 
of  the  sister  kingdom.  Its  superficial  extent  is  computed  at  12,000,000  Irish,  or  19,271^  700 
English  acres.  Of  this,  notwithstanding  the  considerable  amount  to  be  deducted  for  moun- 
tain, lakes,  and  bogs,  Mr.  Young  calculates  that  there  is  a  greater  proportioij  of  productive 
land  than  in  England.  The  soil  of  Ireland  is  shallow,  consisting  most  generally  of  a  thin 
sprinkling  of  earth  over  a  rocky  ground ;  but  the  copious  moisture  wafted  from  the  sea, 
by  which  it  is  everywhere  surrounded,  produces  a  quick  and  rapid  vegetation,  and  in  par- 
ticular a  brilliancy  of  verdure,  not  equalled  perhaps  in  any  other  region  of  Europe.  Such 
a  country  is  of  course  highly  favourable  to  pasturage ;  and  as  this  pursuit  is  suited  to  the  im- 
perfect stages  of  culture,  the  rearing  of  live  stock  has  been  long  the  main  staple  of  Irish 
husbandry.  Its  luxuriant  plains  are  depastured  by  vast  herds  of  black  cattle ;  and  from  lliis 
source  is  derived  the  very  large  quantity  of  salted  provisions  shipped  from  the  southern 
ports.  The  number  of  oxen  and  covs  annually  killed  for  this  purpose  was  reckoned  at 
18,000.  This  trade  has  considerably  decreased  since  the  peace ;  but  the  export  of  live 
cattle  is  extensively  carried  on.  Great  facilities  have  been  lately  afforded  for  it  by  the 
steam  packets.  The  dairy  is  also  a  great  branch  of  industry  in  Ireland.  None  of  its 
cheeses,  indeed,  have  acquired  a  reputation;  but  butter  of  excellent  quality  is  made  and 
largely  exported.  Another  species  of  live  stock  is  an  essenlinl  article  to  the  economy  of  an 
Irish  cultivator.  The  pig  usually  shares  his  cabin,  and  is  fed,  like  himself,  on  potatoes.  It 
is  too  great  a  luxury  to  be  killed  for  his  own  consumption ;  but  is  sold  and  driven  to  the  ports 
to  be  salted  for  exportation.  Sheep  are  bred  extensively  on  the  mountain  tracts,  whicii  are 
unfit  for  rearing  any  other  stock.  In  many  places  they  are  bred  for  the  wool  and  milk.  In 
this  last  respect,  however,  goats  are  more  productive ;  and  they  are  reared  in  immense  quan 
tities  in  the  mountain  districts  in  the  north.  The  Irish  horses  are  small,  hardy,  and  capablo 
of  doing  much  work  upon  little  food.  Poultry  are  fed  in  great  numbers  in  and  around  all  tha 
cabins  the  interior  of  which  they  are  admitted  to  share ;  a  practice  extremely  favourable  ti* 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY.  Part  IH. 

their  increase.  Great  quantities  of  geese  are  kept  for  the  sake  of  the  feathers,  which  are 
cruelly  plucked  from  the  animals  alive.  The  produce  of  grain  is  also  large,  notwithstanding 
the  imperfect  processes  employed  in  cultivating  it.  Wheat  and  barley  were  litt'.e  raised  tin 
of  late,  when  both  the  culture  and  export  of  the  former  have  been  greatly  extended.  Still 
the  main  objects  are  oats  and  potatoes ;  the  former  as  the  subject  of  a  large  export,  the 
latter  as  the  staple  food  of  a  considerable  body  of  the  people.  The  Irish  boast  of  the  potatoe, 
as  if  it  were  nowhere  else  produced  in  equal  perfection.  Compared  with  grain  of  any  kind, 
it  certainly  affords  the  means  of  supporting  a  greater  population  upon  a  given  extent  of 
ground.  The  scope,  however,  which  it  afToiras  for  the  multiplication  of  the  people  in  miser> 
able  circumstances,  is  generally  considered  by  the  political  economists  as  one  of  the  causes 
of  tiie  present  distress  in  Ireland.  Flax  is  also  a  valuable  product  of  Irish  husbandry,  afford- 
ing the  material  of  the  linen  manu^cture.  According  to  a  return  made  to  the  trustees  in 
1809,  the  extent  sown  was  76,740  acres ;  in  addition  to  which,  the  various  little  scattered 
patches  raise  the  number  probably  to  about  100,000  acres,  supposed  to  produce  at  an  average 
about  30  stones  per  acre ;  which,  at  10«.  6d.  per  stone,  would  make  the  entire  value  about 
1,500,0001. 

There  is  a  want  of  trees  in  Ireland.  The  immense  forests  which  some  centuries  age 
covered  a  great  proportion  of  its  surface,  have  fallen  and  been  converted  in  a  great  measure 
into  moss  or  bog.  The  bogs  of  Ireland  present  an  extensive  obstacle  to  cultivation.  They 
are  estimated  by  the  parliamentary  commissioners  at  2,330,000  English  acres.  From  them, 
indeed,  fuel  is  supplied  to  many  districts,  yet  the  draining  of  a  large  portion  would  be  cer- 
tainly desirable;  and  the  commissioners  seem  to  think  that,  from  their  generally  elevated 
position,  this  might  be  done  with  great  ^ility  and  advantage.  The  great  quantity  of  water 
beneath  these  bogs  causes  often  a  singular  phenomenon,  that  of  moving  bogs.  Bursting  the 
surface,  the  bog  inundates  the  surrounding  lands,  spreading  desolation  and  barrenness 
through  its  whole  course,  which  in  one  instance  extended  no  less  than  twenty  miles. 

In  respect  to  manufactures,  the  state  of  Ireland  cannot  be  described  as  flourishing ;  a  mis- 
fortune for  which  she  may  accuse  the  oppressive  policy  of  England.  .  One  species  of  fabric, 
however,  she  has  been  allowed  an  1  even  encouraged  to  cultivate,  and  it  has  attained  to  a 
very  considerable  magnitude. 

The  linen  manufacture  wa£i  first  introduced  by  the  Earl  of  Strafford,  who  brought  flax- 
seed from  Holland,  and  workmen  from  France  and  the  Netherlands.  His  attainder,  and  the 
subsequent  troubles,  suspended  the  undertaking ;  but  it  was  revived  by  the  Duke  of  Ormond, 
who  established  near  Dublin  a  colony  from  Brussels,  Jersey,  and  Rochelle,  and  gave  lands 
on  advantageous  terms  to  those  willing  to  embark  in  the  business.  Afler  the  Revolution, 
the  English  parliament  created  a  board  for  the  promotion  of  the  'iiicn  manufacture,  and 
granted  bounties  both  on  the  raising  of  flax  and  the  export  of  linen.  These  exertions  met 
with  great  success ;  and  the  manufacture  has  become  general  throughout  Ireland,  and  par- 
ticularly in  Ulster.  The  following,  according  to  a  late  parliamentary  report,  was  the 
reputed  value  of  brown  or  unbleached  linens  sold  in  the  markets  of  Ireland  in  the  year 
1824  :— 

Ulster £2,109,309 

Leinster     - 192,888 

Munster 110,421 

Connaught 168,090 

Total je2,580,7{» 

The  mode  of  conducting  this  manufacture  is,  however,  in  several  respects,  very  rude  and 
iiiiperfect.  It  is  generally  p,  ctised  by  individuals  holding  little  spots  of  ground,  the  culture 
of  which  they  combine  with  that  of  weaving.  The  same  person,  or  at  least  the  same  family, 
in  many  cases  raises  the  flax,  dresses  it,  spins  it  into  yam,  and  weaves  it  into  cloth.  There 
is  too  much  anxiety  to  obtain  the  greatest  possible  quantity  of  yarn  out  of  a  given  quantity 
of  flax,  without  regard  to  the  quality ;  and  the  sorting  of  the  yam,  so  that  it  may  be  of  an 
uniform  texture,  suited  to  the  kind  of  linen  intended  to  be  woven,  is  almost  wholly  neglecteu. 
In  p-^me  instances,  however,  it  is  worked  to  a  most  extraordinary  degree  of  fineness.  Anne 
M'Uuillin,  in  the  county  of  Down,  could  spin  105  hanks  to  the  pound,  which  would  reach 
214  English  miles.  Exertions  have  lately  been  made  to  introduce  mill-spinning,  which,  if 
is  supposed,  would  generally  improve  the  quality  of  yarn,  though  it  could  not  producp  it  of 
such  extreme  fincne?s  as  some  of  that  spun  by  tiie  hand.  Twenty  years  ago  the  mill  could 
not  produce  above  fifteen  cuts  to  a  pound ;  now  it  can  make  nearly  My. 

The  export  of  linen  fVom  Ireland,  in  the  year  1824,  amounted  in  all  to  49,491,037  yfirdf, 
of  which  46,466,9;J0  were  to  Gjeat  Britain ;  and  3,024,087  to  foreign  parts.  The  real  viilue 
of  the  whole  was  2,4i2,858<.  Uf  that  sent  to  Great  Britain,  31,314,533  yards  were  retained 
for  home  consumption ;  the  rest  were  re-exported  to  the  same  quarters  as  Scotch  linen.  This 
great  manufacture  is  chiefly  supported  by  its  own  growtii  of  flax.  Ireland,  however,  im- 
ports 25,000  tons  of  hemp  from  abroad,  and  3300  fVom  Britain ;  also  about  7500  tons  if 
linen  yarn;  of  all  which  materials  the  value  falls  short  of  45,000?. 


Past  nt 

there,  which  are 
notwithstanding 
5  litt'e  raised  tifi 
extended.  StiJl 
large  export,  the 
3t  of  the  potatoe, 
:ain  of  any  kind, 
given  extent  of 
people  in  miser* 
tie  of  the  causes 
usbandry,  afford- 
the  trustees  in 
little  scattered 
;e  at  an  average 
itire  value  about 

e  centuries  age 
a  great  measure 
tivation.  They 
38.  From  them, 
n  would  be  cer- 
nerally  elevated 
uantity  of  water 
s.  Bursting  the 
and  barrenness 
iy  miles, 
irishing ;  a  mis- 
pecies  of  fabric, 
IS  attained  to  a 

10  brought  flax- 
tainder,  and  the 
ukeof  Ormond, 
and  gave  lands 
the  Revolution, 
mufacture,  and 
exertions  met 
eland,  and  par- 
eport,  was  the 
nd  in  the  year 


BoosT. 


,V ' ' 


IRELAND. 


445 


very  rude  and 
nd,  the  culture 
le  same  family, 
cloth.  There 
given  quantity 
t  may  be  of  an 
oily  ncglecteu. 
leness.  Anne 
would  reach 
img,  which,  it 
.  produce  it  of 
the  mill  could 

491,037  ynrdf". 
The  real  vjihis 
were  retained 
;h  linen.  This 
however,  im- 
7500  tons  i/^ 


Distillation  is  another  branch  of  industry  characteristic  of  Ireland,  but  by  no  meana 
attended  with  the  same  happy  effects.  It  has  hitherto  been  carried  on  chiefly  in  defiance 
of  the  revenue  and  government,  and  has  given  birth  to  a  vast  system  of  contraband,  equally 
destructive  of  morals  and  of  public  order.  All  the  mountains,  bo^,  and  def  p  valleys  uf  thu 
north  and  west  abound  with  illicit  stills,  in  spots  where  the  most  diligent  search  cnn  scarcely 
discover  them ;  and  where  detected,  they  can  scarcely  be  seized  without  the  aid  of  an 
armed  force.  When  the  troops  are  seen  advancing,  concerted  signals  are  made,  and  the 
small  light  stills  are  soon  conveyed  to  a  distant  quarter.  The  fermers  and  proprietors  en- 
courage illicit  distillation  as  the  most  ready  mode  of  aflbrding  a  market  for  their  grain.  The 
quality  of  the  spirit  was  long  much  superior  to  that  produced  by  the  legal  distillers,  owing 
to  r>;strictions  imposed  on  the  latter ;  so  that,  in  selling,  it  was  considered  the  highest  re- 
commendation that  it  "  never  paid  duty."  The  most  rigorous  laws  were  enacted  in  vain,  for 
they  only  rendered  the  people  concerned  in  this  practice  more  desperate  and  determined. 
Of  late,  however,  the  duty,  as  in  Scotland,  has  been  reduced  and  free  exportation  permitted. 

The  effect  has  been  remarkable ;  the  quantity  of  spirits  paying  duty,  which  fiom  1818  to 
1822  varied  from  3,000,000  to  4,000,000,  rose  in  1824  to  7,800,000,  and  in  1832  to  8,6.57,000 ; 
thus  warranting  a  presumption,  that  the  contraband  febrication  of  this  iirticle  has  been 
greatly  diminished. 

The  killing  and  salting  of  beef  and  pork  for  sale  forms  a  great  branch  of  Irish  commerce. 
The  beef  is  packed  in  three  different  forms,  called  planter's  beef,  India  beef,  and  common 
beef;  the  first  two,  having  the  coarse  pieces  taken  out,  and  charged  4s.  additional 
per  cwt  While  the  export  of  salt  beef  has  diminished,  that  of  pork  has  of  late  been  much 
extended. 

The  cotton  manufacture,  since  1822,  has  spread  through  Ireland  in  a  very  surprising 
manner,  particularly  in  the  counties  of  Antrim,  Down,  Ix)uth,  and  part  of  Dublin.  The 
coarser  linen  fabrics  are  disappearing  before  it,  and  proceeding  to  the  westward  and  south- 
ward, retaining  still  an  equal  hold  of  the  kingdom  in  general.  More  recently  this  fabric 
has  rather  declined,  and  anen  has  regained  the  ascendency. 

The  other  manu&ctures  are  not  of  primary  importance.  A  great  quantity  of  wool  is,  in- 
deed, worked  up  by  the  peasantry  into  frieze,  linseys,  and  flannels,  for  their  dor\estic  use  ; 
but  the  only  fabrics  on  a  great  scale,  which  are  those  of  broadcloth  at  Carrick-on-Shannon, 
and  of  flannels  at  Kilkenny,  are  on  the  decline.  Breweries  have  been  established  in  the 
principal  towns,  and  are  rather  in  a  flourishing  state. 

In  the  distribution  of  minerals,  Ireland  has  by  no  means  been  neglected ;  but  f  ome  unpro- 
pitious  circumstances  have  prevented  any  of  them  from  being  turned  to  great  account.  Of 
these  impediments  the  most  material  is  the  want  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  good  coal.  The 
fuel  of  Ireland  is  in  general  either  coal  imported  from  England  and  Scotland,  or  the  turf 
dug  out  of  its  immense  bogs;  but  the  latter  has  not  yet  been  found  applicable  to  ttie  fusion 
of  metals.  From  these  causes  the  veins  of  iron  ore,  which  are  very  extensively  diffused 
through  the  island,  have  not  yet  been  turned  to  any  important  use.  The  copper,  also  of 
fine  quality,  which  is  found  in  the  counties  of  Wicklow  and  Cork,  must  be  sent  over  to 
Swansea  to  be  smelted.  The  lead,  however  of  Wicklow  is  worked  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent with  imported  coal. 

Fishery  is  a  branch  of  industry  for  which  the  extended  shores  and  deep  bays  of  Irelana 
would  be  peculiarly  adapted.  Nor  do  the  inland  waters,  the  rivers  and  lakes,  less  abound  in 
the  species  of  fish  appropriate  to  them.  The  diligence  of  the  Irish  in  taking  fish  for  im- 
mediate consumption  is  considerable,  being  urged  on  by  the  frequent  a,bstinence  from  other 
ti)od  wiiich  their  Catholic  profession  enjoins.  Their  trout  and  salmon  are  distinguished 
both  for  size  and  taste :  the  salmon  are  caught  by  weirs,  stake-nets,  and  other  contrivances, 
but  with  so  little  precaution  that  their  number  has  been  sensibly  diminished.  The  curing 
of  fish  has  made  very  little  progress,  when  compared  with  the  opportunities  which  the 
coasts  of  Ireland  afford ;  and  Ireland  cannot  come  into  competition  with  Scotland. 

Commerce, — The  manufactured  products  of  Ireland  are  quite  inconsiderable;  she  hasj  how- 
ever, great  facilities  for  the  production  of  raw  materials ;  and  it  is  in  all  respects  more  suit- 
able for  her,  as  well  as  for  England,  that  she  should  direct  her  efforts  to  this  department, 
and  import  manufactured  articles  from  Britain,  than  that  she  should  attempt  to  enter  into  an 
unequal  competition  with  the  latter  in  manufacturing  industry.  In  1825  the  restraints  on 
the  intercourse  between  Ireland  and  Great  Britain  were  mostly  abolished ;  and  owing  to  this 
circumstance,  and  to  the  establishment  of  a  regular  intercourse  by  steam  packets  between 
Liverpool,  Glasgow,  Bristol,  and  the  principal  towns  on  the  east  and  south  coasts  of  Ireland, 
the  trade  between  the  two  countries  has  been  vastly  increased.  Owing  to  the  circumstance 
of  this  intercourse  being  now  placed  on  the  footing  of  a  coasting  trade,  no  account  has  been 
kept  later  than  1825,  of  the  reciprocal  imports  and  exports  of  each,  except  in  the  case  of 
corn. 

In  1629,  the  imports  from  foreign  parts  were  valued  at  1,669,406?. ;  in  1831,  they  were 
1,552,228/, ;  in  1832,  they  were  1,348,828Z.  The  exports  in  1831  were  608,938/. ;  in  1832 
they  were  452,775/.    Within  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  a  most  extraordinary  in- 

Vou  I  38 


fim 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  III 


crease  in  the  quantity  of  grain  and  live  stock  imported  from  Ireland  into  Great  Britain.  The 
turmer,  on  an  average  of  1830  and  1831,  amounted  to  543,618  quarters  of  wheat,  and 
1,56:^593  quarters  or  oats  and  oatmeal.  In  1832,  there  were  imported  into  Liverpool  alone, 
SaSfi'^d  quarters  of  wheat,  value  048,2171. ;  325,720  quarters  of  oats,  309,434/. ;  14,486 
quarters  of  barley,  24,626.'. ;  <39,624  cows,  765,864/. ;  14»,090  pigs,  484,542/. ;  74,260  sheep, 
129,955/. ;  24,077  lambs,  24,077/. ;  169,817  loads  of  meal,  208,780/. ;  177,262  sacks  of  flour, 
407,679/. ;  10,771  bales  of  bacon,  64,626/. ;  292,830  firkins,  15,861  half  firkins,  and  10,348 
coolies  of  butter,  819,141/.  These,  with  some  minor  articles,  made  up  a  value  of  4,444,500/. 
Tlie  imports  into  I^ondon,  Bristol,  and  other  por's,  may  be  presumed  to  be  as  much  more, 
and  perliaps  the  whole  may  not  fall  short  of  10,00t,000/.  sterling. 

The  fuilowing  table  exiiibits  the  relative  foreign  commerce  of  the  principal  ports  of  Ire- 
lanH  in  the  year  1824.  We  add  the  ships  and  tonnage  belonging  to  and  the  amount  of  cus- 
toms on  each,  which  a  recent  report  enables  us  to  bring  down  to  1829 : — 


,Mwi       r.'I'-'WK     -lis '■■«)!> 

Entered  at      }>~i   i\!i 


Tonnage  Entered. 


Britiah.     Foreign. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Vr.Asl 

Cork 

DroL'hrda..  ■ 

DtihtiM • 

Galway 

Limerick  ... 
I.on(li)nc1erry. 

Nuwry 

SliKO 

Watprford  . . 
Wexford 


19,133 

iS,OSS 

890 

S4,306 

546 

5.323 

3,293 

6,705 

IfiHS 

7,600 

1.40<1 


11,903 

13,076 

420 

10,467 

3,090 

3,489 

5,479 

7,612 

3,463 

3,137 

SOU 


Belonging. 


Ships.    Tonnage. 


S47 

3S6 
30 

389 
10 
39 
32 

161 
20 
76 

135 


35,000 

17,000 

3,.T00 

34,000 

800 

1,800 

4,300 

8,000 

1,300 

7,000 

6,700 


Paid. 


Customs. 


359,000 

196,000 

12.000 

669,000 

4,800 

85,700 

74,000 

55,000 

1,600 

116,000 

4,800 


The  shipping  of  Ireland  is  small,  compared  with  that  ot  the  sister  island.  On  the  Slst 
December,  1830,  she  had  1424  vessels;  the  tonnage  of  which  was  101,820,  navigated  by 
7794  men  and  bti^s.  In  18J32  there  were  built  twenty-five  ships,  of  1909  tons.  There  were 
entered  inwards,  in  1831,  14,499  ships,  of  1,420,382  tons;  outwards,  9801  ships,  1,073,545 
tons.  Of  this  were  employed  in  trade  with  Great  Britain,  13,584  ships,  and  1,262,221  tons, 
inwards;  9029  ships,  921,128  tons,  outwards;  in  foreign  trade,  915  ships,  158,161  tons, 
inwards ;  772  ships,  152,417  tons  outwards. 

Canals  have  been  undertaken  in  Ireland  on  an  extensive  scale,  but  with  only  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  expected  benefit  This  seems  partly  owing  to  the  excessive  magnitude  of  the 
plans,  and  partly  to  the  prevalence  of  jobbing.  The  two  chief  undertakings  ore  the  Grand 
and  the  Royal  canals,  both  proceeding  from  Dublin  into  the  interior.  The  former,  com- 
menced in  1756,  has,  by  large  advances  from  government,  been  completed,  at  an  expense  of 
upwards  of  2,000,000/.  It  is  carried  across  Kildare  and  King's  County  to  the  Shannon,  near 
Clonfert.  This  distance  is  eighty-seven  miles,  which,  with  a  branch  to  the  Barrow  at  Athy, 
one  westward  to  Ballinasloe,  and  several  others,  makes  an  entire  length  of  156  miles.  The 
Royal  Canal,  of  nearly  the  same  dimensions,  reaches  from  Dublin  through  Meath  and  Long- 
ford, nearly  eighty-three  miles,  to  Tarmonbarry,  on  the  Shannon.  The  expense  was 
1,420,000/.,  while  the  tolls,  in  1831,  amounted  only  to  12,700/. 

The  roads  of  Ireland  have  long  J3en  excellent.  Any  person  may  present  a  memorial  to 
the  grand  jury  of  the  county,  showing  the  necessity  of  a  new  road,  and  if  this  presentment 
be  approved,  the  work  immediately  proceeds.  Government  has  established  mail-coaches  to 
all  the  principal  towns,  and,  since  the  rebellion,  has  made  fine  military 'oads  into  the  interior 
of  Wicklow ;  but  stage-uoaches  and  other  means  of  conveyance  are  indiiierent 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 

The  population  of  Ireland,  firom  its  great  amount  and  rapid  increase  is  considered  as  one 
of  the  chief  causes  of  the  severe  poverty  which  presses  upon,  the  body  of  the  peoole.  Till 
the  census  of  1821,  the  data  upon  which  it  was  calculated  were  conjectural.  Between  1712 
and  1726,  upon  a  calculation  from  the  number  of  houses,  at  tix  to  a  house,  it  was  represented 
as  varying  from  2,000,000  to  2,300,000.  Calculations  founded  on  the  produce  of  the  hearth 
duty  gave  in  1754, 2.372,000 ;  and  in  1788,4,040,040.  In  1812,  it  was  estimated  at  5,9;}7,000. 
In  1821,  a  censut-  gave  6,801,000.  That  of  1831  amounted  to  7,767,401,  of  whom  3,794,880 
are  male,  and  3,972,521  female. 

The  Irish  character  presents  very  marked  features,  many  of  which  are  amiable,  and  even 
admirable.  Hospitality  is  an  universal  trait,  and  is  enhanced  by  the  scantiness  of  the  portion 
whicn  ie  liberally  shared  with  the  stransrer.  The  Irish  are  brave,  lively,  merry,  and  witty ; 
and  even  the  lowest  ranks  have  n  courteous  nnd  pol'tn  address.  Thoy  ore  cclnbniteil  for 
warmth  of  heart,  and  for  strong  attachments  of  kindred  and  friendship,  which  leads  them,  out 
of  their  scanty  means,  to  support  thuir  aged  relations  with  the  pure.st  kindness.  Benevo- 
Icncp  is  a  distinguishing  feature  of  tlie  higher  ranks.     They  are  curious,  intelligent,  aur 


Past  UI 

■eat  Britain.  The 
re  of  wheat,  and 
I  Liverpool  alone, 
09,434Z.;  14,486 
I. ;  74,200  sheep, 
152  sacks  of  flour, 
rkins,  and  10,348 
lue  of  4,444,500/. 
le  as  much  more, 

iipal  ports  of  Ire- 
le  amount  of  cus- 


I 1 

Paid. 

10. 

ClIStOIM. 

0 

%S9,000 

l) 

196,000 

) 

13.000 

0 

669,000 

) 

4,800 

J 

85,700 

0 

74,000 

u 

SS,OUO 

u 

1,600 

() 

116,000 

u 

4,800 

id.  On  the  Slst 
20,  navigated  by 
ons.  There  were 
I  ships,  1,073,545 
id  1,262,221  tons, 
M,  158,161  tons, 

>nly  a  small  por- 
nagnitude  of  the 
fs  are  the  Grand 
^he  former,  com- 
at  an  expense  of 
18  Shannon,  near 
Barrow  at  Athy, 
156  miles.  The 
^eath  and  Long- 
le  expense  was 

t  a  memorial  to 
lis  presentment 
mail-coaches  to 
into  the  interior 
nt 


msidered  as  one 
le  peoDie.  Till 
Between  1712 
was  represented 
ce  of  the  hearth 
tedat5,9:}7,000. 
whom  3,794,880 

liable,  and  even 
!8s  of  the  portion 

rry,  and  witty ; 
cclnbr.Tted  tor 

loads  them,  out 
Inoss.  Benevo- 
intelligent,  anr 


BoobL  ''•^"^'^^ IRELAND.        '    *<'  447 

eager  for  information.  With  so  many  good  qualities,  it  were  too  much  to  expect  that  there 
should  not  be  some  faults.  They  are  deficient  in  cleanliness;  have  little  taste  for  conve- 
niences or  luxuries ;  and  are  destitute  of  that  sober  and  steady  spirit  of  enterprise  which 
distin^ruiBhes  the  English.  The  love  of  fighting  seems  to  be  a  general  intirmity.  The  ^'airs, 
wliich,  in  every  town  and  village  of  Ireland,  are  regular  and  of  long  duration,  aflbrd  the 
grand  theatres,  first  of  unbounded  mirth,  and  ultimately  of  bloody  conflict.  The  Irish  do  not 
nght  single-handed,  but  in  bands,  and  on  a  great  scale.  On  receiving  a  supposed  i:ijuTyi 
tliey  go  round  to  their  companions,  friends,  and  townsmen,  and  collect  a  multil'ide,  with 
which  they  make  a  joint  attack  on  Uie  objects  of  their  wrath.  The  other  blemishes  of  the 
Irish  are  rattier  frailties  than  sins.  They  are  represented  as  vain,  talkative,  prompt  to  speak 
as  well  as  act  without  deliberation!  this  disposition,  with  their  thoughtless  gaiety,  betrays 
them  into  that  peculiar  blunder  called  a  buU,  which  their  neighbours  have  so  long  held  forth 
OS  a  national  characteristic. 

Th<}  ecclesiastical  state  of  Ireland  has  been  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  its  mv'iettled  con- 
dition. The  native  Irish  did  not  share  in  any  degree  the  reformation  so  mianimously  adopted 
jn  England  and  Scotland.  When,  therefore,  the  English  church  was  introduced  as  the 
established  religion,  it  threw  out,  as  dissenters,  the  bulk  of  the  Irish  population.  Even  of 
the  protestimt  part,  a  large  proportion  introduced  as  colonists  from  Scotland,  were  attached 
to  the  presbyterian  form. 

[Prom  a  parliamentary  paper,  it  appears  that,  in  1836,  there  were, —      '^'^  •)'•'  ..  j' .-'  . 

percent.",'"' 

Roman  Catholics, 6,427,712    -    -    804 

Members  of  Established  Church,        8.52,064    -    -    10| 

Presbyterians, 642,356    -    -      8      "'  • 

Other  Protestants, 21,808    -    -        i 

..rT...;<    ■  ■        s'.      .  7,943,940.    .- 

Although  there  is  here  some  slight  inaccuracy,  yet  this  statement  serves  to  show  very 
nearly  the  proportion  of  the  different  sects.  The  places  of  worship  are  stated  in  the  same 
paper  to  be, — 

Roman  Catholics,    .............  -  2105 

Established  Church, -  1544 

Presbyterians,    ....    ..............  452 

Others,     - -  .  403         ; 

In  41  benefices  there  was  no  member  of  the  Established  Church. — Am.  Ed.] 
The  Roman  Catholic  clergy  receive  no  etipend  fi'om  government,  but  are  entirely  sup 
ported  by  their  flocks.  They  are  formed,  however,  into  a  regular  hierarchy,  at  the  head  of 
which  are  four  archbishops;  Armagh  (the  primate),  Tuam,  Cashel,  and  Dublin.  Under 
them  are  twenty-two  bishops,  with  a  vicar-general,  dean,  and  archdeacon  in  each  diocese. 
The  number  of  Catholic  priests  has  been  stated  at  1400,  besides  several  hundred  friars. 
Their  income  arises  less  from  any  fixed  allowance,  than  from  dues,  offerings,  and  presents ; 
and  the  bishops,  to  make  up  their  incomes,  receive  from  the  parish  priests  a  portion  of  what 
tliey  have  collected.  Mr.  Wakefield  has  attempted  an  estimate,  nccording  to  which, 
Christmas  and  Easter  ofieringa  amount  to  337,000?.;  marriages  proi!  v  ,  in  licenses,  fees, 
and  collections,  78,500i. ;  christenings,  12,500/. ;  burials,  12,500/. ;  m  all,  440,500/.  Ac- 
cording to  Archbishop  Curteis,  .lie  income  of  a  bishop  is  about  500/.  a  year ;  that  of  a  priest 
varies  firom  100/.  to  400/.  Although  a  conge  is>  asked  from  the  pop<>i  the  rca.1  election  to 
vacant  places  rests  with  the  clergy  themselves ;  but  as  their  incomes  depend  entirely  on  the 
fiivour  of  their  hearers,  they  are  subject  to  a  necessity  of  choosing  popular  priests,  which  is 
not  felt  by  the  established  Catholic  church.  -^  Hence  the  influence  of^the  priests,  always  so 
remarkable  under  the  Catholic  system,  exists  in  Ireland  to  a  ^  extent  perhaps  unequalled. 
On  the  other  hand,  many,  especially  among  the  bishops,  are  .uarked  for  their  exeni'^';  , 
life,  and  for  ihe  diligent  discharge  of  their  functions.  They  are  even  sometimes  ii,  "  ■ 
mental  in  prevent'ng  not,  in  discovering  theft,  and  procuring  restitution.  Tke  recffit 
admission  of  Eoman  Catholics  to  all  political  privileges,  though  it  does  not  make  any  chan!;fe 
in  the  condition  of  the  clergy,  has  been  hailed  by  the  body  in  general  with  peculiar  satistuc- 
tion.  It  is  iioped  that  it  will  either  make  them  more  friendly  to  the  established  government, 
or  diminish  their  influence  in  estranging  from  it  ihe  minds  of  the  people. 

The  Presbyterians,  as  already  observed,  are  nearly  confined  to  Ulster,  where  they  are  the 
most  numerous  sect.  The  synod  of  Ulster  is  formed  into  a  sort  of  establishment,  consisting 
of  201  congregations,  besides  which  there  arc  110  congregations  in  communion  wiui  ihe 
Scottish  seceders.  The  ministers  receive  a  royal  gift  of  14,000/.  annually,  which  alfbrds 
from  50/.  to  KK)/.  to  each.  The  Presbyterinns"  form  the  most  indiistrion!-,  thriving,  and 
intelligent  portion  of  the  people;  y^t  a  o-rmt  prnpnrtioti  htivc  imbibed  republican  ideas,  ar.j 
tlicy  emijjrute  to  America  more  readily  than  any  other  class. 


448 


DESCFIPTIVE  GEOC.RAPHY. 


Part  III. 


Tkie  [i>tablishe(i  Church  of  ItulaiiL'  t.i  in  union  with  that  of  England,  and  every  way  niini- 
lur.  ft  con8ii>'«i  of  four  archbi8hoprick<  iiui  ei^'htecn  biHhoprics ;  but  by  an  act  recently  inihsuiI, 
two  arclibishopiru:  i  are  to  bu  convtirtfH,'  into  bidlioprict* ;  and  ten  bishoprics  are  to  be  aboliBbod.* 
The  enti  .'  "j<'i:^\\  of  the  Irmh  chu>cli  hiui  been  ascertained  to  exceed  15(),U(K)/.  tor  the 
biflhopricd,  '  '  '; )  >.2(HM.  for  other  beneticcs.  The  lands  belongin^f  to  the  bisliops  ure  of  liir 
greater  vul  i  ,  Ij)/  .  in  conaequence  of  being  lot  on  old  leases  renewed  from  time  to  time  on 
payment  of  iiuc^  and  never  coming  to  a  ten.iination,  tlie  rent  derived  from  ihrn  \Vi\^.f;v.!a\\y 
under  tlie  leal  value.  U  is  proposed  now  to  offer  these  leases  to  the  pre^  itru  iticuTubetit,  in 
perpetuity,  on  payment  of  six  years'  pxchasc  of  their  estimated  value,  w!  ;icb,it  ic^caJcuiktui, 
will  produce  alwut  3,000,0002.  A  ta  x,  moreover,  varying,  according  to  tiv.t  ani>;'  .n .  of  inciine, 
from  five  to  fifteen  per  cent.,  is  to  be  iiid  on  all  livings  above  2002. ;  aivl  ita  j.^f^duce  ij  be 
applied  to  tiie  augmentation  Ji'the  poorer  livings,  and  the  building  of  glcbo  Lou&oh  ant',  of 
new  churches.  Hence  the  [jiiiochial  Vix,  called  the  voL^try  cet-s  or  chii.';fc  rate,  ^ciiiounujig 
to  about  90,<M)0/.  a  year,  i^  no  longer  ttv  be  levied. 

The  literature  of  Irelaitd  in  modem  <imes,  cannot  h'i<ut  any  vrry  distir-.,,'  a?ihcd  pie-«mi- 
iience;  yet  she  has  maintained  her  stiUion  in  tlie  liforary  world,  ^n  wit,  and  eloquence, 
indeed,  she  has  excelled  botli  the  sinter  kingdoms.  Ir  \lv.  former  quality,  f^wift  and  Sheridan 
nhirio  ivnrivaUod;  and  in  the  latter,  Bur!.(i,  f/rattan,  and  6.;urran  have  displnyc-'  daring  and 
br  llvuil  flights.  In  her  graver  pun-iiiUi,  Ireland  has  noi  bfc(  i?  sc>  hnppy;  though  liiilKr 
atrained  tlie  first  cmiiienne  in  theological  loarriiog,  and  Bcrkaley  was  the  author  of  a  highiy 
ingo'iioiis  ayKtcni  of  philosophy 

rUk:  hish  estahljbhmenta  for  ■  (iucation  Bre  scarcely  adequate  titlu  inagnitudeof  tlui  un- 
try.  Tlrerr.  is  onij-  or;  •  univenity,  that  of  Dublin,  founded  bj  Elisatteth  on  '';emod«l  of 
those  of  J'l»'.gJ(U)d,  '*^--i  \i\x  or  so  jjjreat  a  ncale,     Of  it  and  of  other  Irish  literary  institutions, 


an  account  will  ba  'mukI  un  'f v 


tlte  he;;  i  of"  Dublin.  As  the  constitution  of  this  university 
is  strictly  Protestant,  zad  (!'■  not  iillir.v  the  teaching  of  Catholic  thcobgy,  the  students  of 
tliivt  tcitii  m-dtit  have  bfi,-  i^l'  edijciitod  abrmd,  had  not  government  endowed  for  their  use 
tlie  (^olJL'jro  of  MayiKKiti..  U  is  supported  by  a  revenue  of  about  OOlK'f.  a  year,  and  contains 
'i  prosidt,n«i,  viotspresKlf.ni,  ami  el  :ven  professors,  all  with  moderatr;  appointments.  The 
stidents  rt(  !ve  kwn!  and  education;  and  the  whole  annual  expense  of  each  is  not  supposed 
to  exceed  itO/,  Tlie  students  of  tho  north  resort  chiefly  to  Glasgow  tiir  theology,  and  to 
Edinburgh  tor  medicine;  though  tliere  has  been  an  attempt  to  obviato  this  necessity  by  the 
fornmtioii  of  an  institution  at  Belfast. 

Tlie  eduri!'oa  of  the  pcxjr  in  Ireland  is  a  subject  which  excites  tho  deejiest  interest  in  all 
the  friends  of  tiMt  country.  It  appear?  that  by  the  8th  of  Henry  VIII.,  evury  clergyman,  on 
Ills  induction,  In-^omes  bound  to  keep  or  cause  to  be  kept  an  English  Rchool.  This  act, 
however,  ig  eitlicr  obsolete,  or  8o  &r  evaded  that  only  23,000  children  are  now  taught  in 
tiicse  parochial  schools.  The  greatest  etTort  at  Irish  education,  however,  is  that  made  by 
the  Ciiarter  Schools,  instituted  in  1 783,  which,  by  parliamentary  grants  aiid  private  bene- 
fa-.i ions,  have  <injoyed  an  income  of  30,000/.  a  year.  But  this  sum,  which  might  almost 
fiii.ssh  schools  to  the  half  of  Ireland,  is  spent  upon  2000  boys,  who  receive  board  as  well  as 
instruction.  Although  the  act  recites  no  other  object  than  instruction  in  the  English 
tongi.'e,  proselytisin  has  become  almost  t'le  sole  a'm.  The  Hibernian  Society,  the  Baptist 
Society,  tind  that,  for  discountenancing  vice,  support  schools  to  a  very  considerable  extent. 
I'lie  iiildare  Stroet  Society,  established  in  1812,  founded  numerous  schools,  in  which  they 
endeavoured  to  induce  tho  Catholic^!  to  attend  by  renouncing  all  attempts  to  gain  prose- 
ly  tes ;  but  from  the  entire  Scriptures  being  read  in  these  schools,  and  othf^r  alleged  causes, 
the  Catholics  were  supposed  to  view  them  with  jealousy.  The  allowance  made  to  this 
er  ioty  wiS  therefore  withdrawn,  and  e  new  plan  instituted,  in  which  the  moral  and  literaiy 
i'Sipiuated  from  the  religious  education,  and  is  communicated  to  the  youth  of  both  religions 
d  iriiig  four  or  five  days  in  the  week,  while,  in  the  remaining  period,  religious  instruction 
i&  expected  to  be  administered  by  the  clergy  of  the  respective  churches.  Extracts  only 
from  tlie  Scripture,  approved  by  the  1  lading  Catholic  clergy,  are  read  in  the  common 


*■  T\ic  new  arrangement,  wlien  completed,  will  be  aa  follows: 

Ar  M AOB  (with  Cloglier,  Arciib.) 

Mcatii, 

Dorry  (with  Raphoe) 

Down  (with  Cnnnnr  and  Drnmoro) 

Kiliiiore  (with  Ardagh  nnd  El  >l>.    

Tiinm(with  Killaln  and  Ach'> 
UuBLiM  (with  Olandclagh  aii<: 
Osanry  (with  Leighlin  and  ^ 

Cathel  (with  Emiy,  Waterford,  and  Liimore) 

CInyne  (with  Cork  and  Robs) 

Killalo  (with  Kilfenora,  Clonfert,  and  Kilmaeduagh) 

iamericV  vWiih  Ardieri  and  Aghadoe) 


»)• 


Income. 
X13,170 
..  S,231 
...  8,033 
...  5,800 
...  7,473 
...  5,030 
...  0,321 
. . .  6,6.10 
...  7,354 
...  5,000 
.  4..vn 
...  5,3e» 


Total. 


83,953 
[Ak.  Kd.I 


Part  III. 

rid  every  way  Hiini- 
acl  recently  {NiRsutl, 
are  to  be  alioliBluid.* 
9<i  15<),0UU/.  tor  the 
le  biyliops  ure  of  liir 
>in  time  to  time  on 
m  t'i;-:(i  v,'(wifi'.;ut.ly 
KilMt  »ticuTiil)«i;t,  in 
^icb,  it  lacaicuiiaui, 
'.i  am*,' JO .  of  incoine, 
I'l  Ju  j.TiJuce  lo  be 
ebo  LousiiH  an«5  if 
*r;h  fate,  jiiiounii'jg 

if'jfi  ashed  pin-emi- 
wit  and  eloquence, 
Swift  and  Sheridan 
splaye-'  darinj;  and 
>l>y;  though  l/shcr 
i  author  of  a  highiy 

B;nitU!leoftlii'v  un- 
ih  on  '';e  mod«l  of 
literary  institutions, 
n  of  this  university 
igy,  the  students  of 
owed  for  their  use 
L  year,  and  contains 
ppointmenta.  The 
ach  is  not  supposed 
)r  theology,  and  to 
lis  necessity  by  the 

ijiest  interest  in  all 
k'ury  clergyman, on 
school.  This  act, 
ire  now  taught  in 
r,  is  that  made  by 
hid  private  bene- 
rhich  might  almost 
ve  board  as  well  as 
m  in  the  Englisii 
ociety,  the  Baptist 
onsiderable  extent. 
[x>ls,  in  which  they 
ipts  to  gain  prose- 
lor  alleged  causes, 
ance  mode  to  this 
moral  and  literaiy 
th  of  both  religions 
digious  instruction 
28.  Extracts  only 
id  in  the  common 


Income. 
i;i3,170 
..  a,291 
..  H,(K» 
..  3,800 
. .  7,473 
..  5,090 
. .  9,321 
..  6,6m 
..  7,354 
..  5,0U0 

A.iaa 
..  siaoB 

.  83,953 
[Ak-Kd.) 


Book  I. 


IRELAND. 


iiV 


Bcliix)l8.  Local  i\inds,  to  a  certain  extent,  arc  re(|uired  to  bo  contributed.  Although  this 
Hyijtem  has  met  with  many  opponents,  yet,  in  the  beginning  of  18'M  there  had  been  0Htul>- 
Ushud  under  it  between  OOU  and  U(H)  schools,  calculated  tor  tliu  education  of  about  UO,(HH) 
scholars.  In  1824,  the  number  of  schools  in  Ireland  was  11,U!;23,  and  scholars  QttO^vU). 
Of  t  leso  scholars  3l>4,74*2  paid  for  tlieir  own  instruction,  and  among  this  number  were 
ItO^itHH)  (Catholics,  who  thus  showed  no  small  ardour  in  obtaining  the  bcnotits  of  knowledge. 
The  tbllowing  table,  from  parliamentary  documents,  shows  the  number  of  pupils  receivmg 
public  instruction  in  the  years  spccitied. 


IR91. 

VfiO. 
]H,34. 


Malffi.  FnmatM.  Total. 

805,1)00 13U,!»7 3M.HI3 

349,1113 309,037 508,904* 

84,045 00,870 145,Siil 


The  fine  arts  do  not  appear  to  have  attained  any  great  excellence  in  Irelaiid.  Her  best 
painters  have  sought  tor  patron  .ge  in  the  British  metropolis;  and  the  attempts  to  establish 
an  annual  exhibition  in  Dublm  have  not  succeeded.  The  Irish  harp  and  native  Irish  melo- 
dicH  enjoy  considerable  reputation.  The  ecclesiastical  structures  have  not  that  splendour 
anil  richness  which  so  strongly  mark  many  of  those  in  England ;  but  the  modem  edifices, 
OHpccially  in  Dublin,  display  a  taste  as  well  as  magnificence  which  render  that  capital 
almost  pre-eminent. 

In  funerals,  marriages,  and  similar  solemnities,  the  Irish  retain  several  old  national  cus- 
toms. The  practice  of  hired  howling  women  at  funerals,  called  ululates,  is  very  prevalent; 
a  considerable  sum  is  paid  to  those  employed,  though,  in  cases  of  necessity,  they  howl  gratis. 
A  still  more  unfortunate  custom  is  that  of  the  wakes,  where  thirty  or  forty  neighbours 
assemble,  are  entertained  with  meat  and  drink,  and  indulge  in  every  sort  of  fun.  Marriages 
in  many  parts  of  the  country  are  marked  by  some  real,  or  at  least  apparent,  violence ;  the 
bridegroom  collects  a  large  party  of  fViends,  seizes  and  carries  off  the  seemingly  reluctant  bride. 
Alluding  to  this  custom,  her  going  to  her  husband's  house,  even  in  ordinary  cases,  is  called 
ti\e  "  hauling  home.'*  This  is^not  prompted  by  any  peculiar  shyness  on  tlie  part  of  the  fair 
80X ;  on  the  contrary,  the  mothers,  with  whom  the  atfeir  chiefly  rests,  display  even  a  fever- 
ish anxiety  that  their  offspring  should  not  remain  long  in  a  state  of  single  blessedness.  Thr 
fair  sex  are  treated  among  the  higher  ranks  with  a  gay  and  romantic  gallantry ;  among  the 
lower  almost  as  slaves,  being  subjected  to  the  most  degrading  labour. 

Amusement  forms  a  copious  element  in  the  existence  of  an  Irishman.  Ample  scope  is 
afforded  to  the  Catholics  by  their  numerous  holidays,  and  the  Protestants  vie  with  them  in 
this  particular.  The  fairs  afford  a  grand  theatre  for  fun  of  every  description.  The  chief 
bodily  exercise  is  hurling,  which  consists  in  driving  a  ball  to  opposite  goals ;  to  this  are 
added  horse-racing,  cock-fighting,  cudgelling,  leaping,  and  dancing;  to  say  nothing  of  drink- 
ing and  nghting.  The  conversation  of  the  Irish  is  distinguished  by  loud  mirth,  seasoned 
with  a  good  deal  of  humour,  by  singing,  and  telling  long  stories.  Thus  employed,  even  the 
poor  will  often  sit  up  to  a  late  hour. 

The  houses  of  the  Irish,  if  we  except  those  of  the  rich,  or  in  towns,  which  are  formed 
afler  the  English  model,  are  mere  hovels  formed  of  earth,  taken  out  of  the  ground  on  which 
Uicy  stand ;  whence  the  floor  is  reduced  at  least  a  foot  below  the  outer  level,  and  becomes  a 
receptacle  for  all  the  superfluous  moisture.  This  is  the  more  incommodious  as  it  has  no 
bodrde,  ami  the  bed  no  frame;  nor  is  the  latter  raised  from  the  ground,  being  merely  straw 
spread  upon  the  floor.  This  humble  mansion  is  shared  by  all  the  living  creatures,  which  the 
family  are  able  to  muster;  cow^t,  pigs,  geese,  and  fowls;  which  are  rarely  separated  by  any 
partition  from  the  other  tenants. 

No  compulsory  provision  exists  in  Ireland  for  the  support  of  the  poor ;  a  circumstance  to 
which  we  are  inclined  to  ascribe  much  of  their  distressed  state,  as  well  as  of  the  backward 
state  of  the  country  in  general.  Not  being  obliged  to  contribute  any  thing  to  their  support, 
the  landlords  and  occupiers  hav?,  generally  ppeaking,  manifested  great  indiflerencc  to  the 
conditi<in  of  th'"  peasfntry  Ft  >'  among  them  have  hesitated  to  kIIow  their  estates  to  be 
suMivided  iiyi.  Tir.i'.tL  portions  to  advant:e  their  political  interests,  or  to  obtain  an  increase 
of  rent.  V  '  t  is  abundantly  Ciirtain  that  thay  would  have  paused  before  venturing  on  such 
■:  coMTf-  .'  ,:roceeding,  had  the}  h-^en  made  responsible,  in  all  time  to  come,  for  the  paupers 
they  we  thus  introducing  upon  iheir  properties. 

The  '.'ress  of  the  Irish  peasantry  consists  *  iofly  of  the  native  wool,  worked  rudely  up 
into  frieze  or  linsey ;  for  they  seldom  can  aflforu  b)  wear  the  fine  linen  which  they  fabricate. 
But  tlie  most  prominent  feature  of  this  nttire  nmong  the  lowest  class,  is  its  lamentable  de- 
ficiency;  in  many  instances  it  covers  little  more  than  half  of  the  person,  and  presents  an 
iimjre  oi  e.^trenic  poverty.  When  this  deficiency  does  not  exist,  the  Irishman  lOves  to  dis- 
play the  extent  of  his  wardrobe ;  when  go^ng  to  a  fair,  La  puts  on  all  the  coats  he  has,  though 
!he  season  be  midsummer. 

The  <^jod  of  vhe  Irish  peasant  is  no  less  scanty  than  his  dr'^ss  and  habitation.    It  is  almost 


VouL 


•  Including  0,135  n  4  aiw'taiuad. 

38* 


SG 


460 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


PABTin 


wnolly  comprised  in  the  potato,  without  ar^  other  vegetable  (for  he  is  a  atranger  to  the 
luxury  of  a  garden),  and  only  in  favourable  circunititancea  is  it  accompanied  with  milk.  This 
fixKl,  however,  is  autiicient  to  preserve  him  in  full  health  and  vigour.  In  the  north,  the  use 
of  oatmeal  in  the  form  of  cakes  and  pottage  has  been  derived  tVom  Scotland. 

SsoT.  VII. — Xioca{  Qeography. 

Ireland  is  divided  into  four  provinces,  or  rather  regions :  Leinster  in  the  east,  Munster  in 
.he  south,  Connaughl  in  the  west,  and  Ulster  in  tne  north.  This  is  independent  of  the 
minutfir  English  division  into  counties,  a  number  of  which  are  comprised  m  each  of  the 
four  provinces.  Those  last,  indeed,  when  Ireland  was  ruled  by  native  governments,  formed 
.scpartitc  kingdoms.  They  ore  still  distinguished  by  marked  boundaries,  by  a  difibrent  aspect 
of  nature,  and  by  a  considerable  variation  of  manners  and  customs. 

The  tuliowing  table  exhibits  the  leading  provincial  statistics  of  Ireland.  The  population 
statements  differ  considerably  from  those  hitherto  published ;  but  they  liave  been  flimished 
by  Mr.  Porter,  of  the  Board  of  Trade  as  the  result  of  the  latest  and  most  accurate  digest  of 

e  returns  for  1831. 


1 


Provincet 

Rnd 
Count  '.ttu 

tetntter. 

Dublin 

Louth 

Mcath 

Wirklow... 
Wi-xforU . . . 
Longrord. .. 

Wcitmeath 
Kind's  Co. 

Qiieen*!  Co. 
Kililare 

Kilknnny  .. 
Carlow     . . 


UUUr. 
Ontvii.... 


Antrim  ..•■ 

Ixindonderr, 
Donpiral  . .. 
PiTinaiiagh 

Cnvuii 

MDiinchaH  . 
ArinaKh. .. . 
Tyrone  . ... 


funster. 

Clnrc  

Kt-rrv        . 


Cork . 


Waterford 
Tipperary. 

Limerick  ■• 


ConnaugU. 
lioitriro  — 

Slico 

Mayo 

Galway.  ■• . 


RoKommon 


8qii%re 
Mile*. 


931 
173 
51'i 

4m 

53S 

son 

361 

440 

307 
309 

460 
314 


4,356 


544 

60S 

.    479 

1,001 

440 

478 

2ai 

734 


4,R»4 


744 
1,013 

l,63e 


410 

fl07 


604 


5,375 


400 

386 

1,335 

1.546 

541 


4,108 


•ie,633 


Impimrfd 
Acrrt. 


937,819 
101,345 
561,537 
400,704 
545,079 
103,500 

313,935 
304,569 

335,838 

335,988 

417,117 
190,833 


4.113,360 


503,677 

483,106 

373,667 
520,736 
390,590 
431,463 
300,068 
9«7,3I7 
550,630 


3,749,353 


534,113 
581,189 

1,068,803 


353,347 

819,658 


588,843 


3,935,853 


366,640 
857,917 
871,084 
055,713 

453,455 


3,805,009 


14.603,473 


Unln. 
pmvml 
Acrm. 


10,819 
14,916 
5,H00 
04,000 
18,500 
55,347 

55,983 
133,349 

60,979 
66.447 

06,569 
93,030 


035,434 


108,560 

895,070 

136,038 
644,371 
101,953 

30,000 
0,336 

43,473 
171,314 


1,469,922 


959,584 

553,803 

700,760 


118,a'M 
183,147 


91,981 


1,905,368 


128,167 
168,711 
435,134 
476,957 

131,063 


1,330,033 


5,340.730 


EitiDutid 
Annual 
V>lu«. 


£ 

350.311 
M4,7nj 
5;0,414 
996,833 
.395,1:M 
151,505 

351,063 
317,010 

977,767 
955,08^ 

437,603 
164,895 


3,479,460 


489,133 

560,159 

310,963 
349.501 
35»,991 
307,741 
313,581 
17f,H5.5 
538,005 


3,905,378 


441,393 
344,610 

1,303,936 


395,364 
880,539 

629,933 


3,801,670 


210,187 
397,443 
550,018 

868,794 

379,638 


2,3.16,070 


12,715.578 


HnnM 
in  IMI. 


35.740 

3i,:i03 

37,943 

17,989 
SU.ISI 
18,U8' 

93,015 
93,564 

33,105 

10,478 

99,789 
13,038 


378,398 


59,747 

48,038 

34,601 
44,800 
23,585 
34,148 
33,378 
36,960 
47,164 


359,801 


35,373 
35,597 

114,459 


9.3,860 
55,307 


49,409 


FnpnU- 
tlon  in 
1831. 


380,167 

134,840 

176,836 

191,.V5' 

189,713 

113,556 

136,873 
144,335 

145,851 
108,434 

193,680 
81,088 

1,909,713 


Dublin 904,155 

DroKheda  ....    17,305  Dundalk 0,350 

Trim 9,470 

Wicklow....  S,04«  Arklow...    .    3,808 

Wexford 8,396 

■.oiiKford  ....  3,783  New  Rest     .    4,475 

Gnnincorthy  ,  3,557                , 

MulUniiar  ...      4,100  Athlone 11,369 

Philipatown  .      1,031  Birr 5,406 

Tiillaiiinrc  . .  ■  5,517 

Poriarlington  9,8/7  Maryborough    8,077 

Athv 3,693  Naai 3,073 

Kildoro 1,516 

Kilkenny....  33,741 

Carlow 8,035 


359,019 

335,615 

939,013 
980,149 
149,703 
337,933 
195,536 
330,134 
304,468 


2,286,623 


358,399 
963,196 

610,739 


177,054 
408,563 


315,355 


306,9053,337,159 


21,769 
27,0.TO 
53,051 
58,137 

37,309 


CillM  unl  Tdwu,  with  IMr  Fopuklkn. 


Ne wry 10,013  Downpalrick     4,133 

Donnaghadee  9,705 

Bulfhut 53,000  CarrlekfBrgui    8,70.) 

Antrim 2,485  Liiburn'' 4,684 

Iiondonderry.      0,313  Colerain 4,851 

Ballyahannon     3,831  LIfibrd 976 

Enniikillen..  9,390 

Cavan 8,383 

Monoghan...  3,738 

Armagh 8,403 

Ouiagh 8,005  Duniammon  •    3JM3 


EnniB 0,701 

Tralee 7,547  Killarney ....    7,014 

Dingle 4,988 

Cork 107,016  Bandon 10,179 

Kinsale 7,068  Voushal 8,969 

Fermoy 6,703  Mallow 4,114 

Watorford  . . .    38,831  Liiimore 8,330 

Clonmcl 15,590  Cushol 6  548 

Tipperary  ■ .  ■  6,348  Curr.-on-Suir     7,466 

RoKrea 5,839 

Limerick  ....  60,554 


141 ,594  Carriek-oii  -Sh.     1,673 

171,785Sligo 9,383     ' 

.366,398  Caatlebar....  5,404 

414,6e4Galway 33,130  Tuan 

Hallinailoe  .  ■      1,811 
249,613  Roscommon  .      3,015 


4,571 


197,408ll,343,ni4 
l,142.(!O9J7,7fi7,401 


SuusECT.  1. — Leinster. 
Leinster  is  the  richest  and  most  cultivated  of  the  foiur  great  divisions,  ani*,  c   containing 
the  scat  of  crovcrnmont,  tlie  most  imnortant  thcntro  of  political  evejjts      Th*.  ugh  the  sur- 
face be  level  to  a  great  extent,  it  is  not  destitute  of  considerable  rangea  of  mountains.  These 


r*  Thji»  iH  the  Irish  mile  of  40  to  a  degree. 
-Am.  Bu.] 


The  area  has  already  been  «tatcd  to  bu  30.000  Engllth  square  mile* 


PabtID 

Btmnger  to  the 
with  milk.  This 

he  north,  the  use 

i. 


eaat,  Munster  in 
lependent  of  the 
1  in  each  of  the 
srnmentfl,  formed 
a  diflbrent  aspect 

The  population 
9  been  ftimishcd 
ccurate  digfest  of 


IMrFapulUion. 


)undalk 0,336 

\rklow...    .  3,8P8 

«ew  Rom     .  4,473 

Uhlone'....  11,363 

lirr 5,406 

Maryborough  S,077 

Naai 3,073 


>ownpatrick  4,133 

;arriekfsrgui  8,70J 

Jtburn'' 4,684 

^olerain 4,831 

Jffbrd 076 


)uiigsn»non  •    3543 


Cillarney....  7,014 

landon 10,170 

oughal 8,969 

fallow 4,114 

liHtnore 9.330 

UBbol 6  348 

larr.-on-Buir  7,460 


4,571 


i",  c  containing 
rh>,  j(f"  tiie  sur- 
ountains.  These 

uglith  square  milei 


Book  I. 


IRELAND 


Ml 


include  almost  the  whole  county  of  Wicklow,  whose  bold  and  picturesque  scmmits  are  seen 
oven  from  Dublin.  In  the  interior,  the  lonff  ranf^e  of  Sliovo-Bloom  strotchos  towards  the 
borders  of  Munster.  A  considerable  part  also  nt  the  midland  counties  is  covered  by  the 
(Treat  hog,  which  crosses  the  whole  centre  of  Ireland.  After  all  deductions,  however,  there 
remains  a  large  extent  of  level  lanii,  fit  either  for  tillage  or  pasturage.  This  is  tlie  part  of 
Ireland  whore  wheat  is  grown  to  the  greatest  extent,  oats  being  elsewhere  almost  the  only 
i^rain ;  and  its  rich  postures  supply  the  capital  with  cattle  and  the  products  of  the  dairy. 

I<einster   comprises  the  counties  of  Dublin,  Kildare,  King's  county.  Queen's  County, 
W  cklow,  Carlow,  Kilkenny,  Wexfonl,  Mcath,  Westmeath,  Ix>ngfbrd,  and  Louth. 

The  county  of  Dublin  owes  its  distinction  almost  oxclusivoly  to  its  containinfi^  the  capital 
iif  Ircliind.  The  city  of  Dublin  disputes  with  Edinburgh  and  Bath  t};o  reputation  of  being 
the  inoHt  beautiful  city  in  the  empire.  If  the  brick  of  which  the  houses  are  built  impair  the 
efSect  of  tiie  general  range  of  its  streets  and  ac^uares,  its  public  buildings,  composed  of  stone, 
Hurpass  in  grandeur  and  taste  those  of  any  of  its  rivals.  There  is  no  period  of  Irish  record 
ill  which  Dublin  was  not  an  important  place.  It  is  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  under  the  name 
i)f  Eblana.  The  Danes,  in  the  ninth  ccnturjr,  made  it  their  capital,  and  enclosed  it  with  a 
wall  about  a  mile  in  length,  the  course  of  which  may  still  bo  traced.  As  soon  as  the  Eng- 
lish began  to  establish  themselves  in  Ireland,  its  proximity  induced  them  to  make  it  their 
lieod-quarters  I  it  grew  with  the  improvement  of  Ireland  and  the  extension  of  the  English 
Mway,  but  all  its  splendour  has  arisen  within  th^  last  sixty  or  seventy  years.  The  numerous 
streets  and  squares  formed  during  that  period  have  been  built  on  a  regular  plan,  and  contain 
several  superb  mansions,  which  once  belonged  to  the  principal  nobles.  The  squares  are  {mut- 
ticularly  aumired ;  that  of  St.  Stephen's  G^ecn  is  nearly  seven  furlongs  in  circuit ;  Merrion 
H(|uare,  which  contains  the  splendid  mansion  of  Leinster  House ;  Rutland  Square,  in  the 
interior  of  which  are  the  gardens  of  the  Lying-in  Hospital ;  and  Mountjoy  Square,  are  also 
spacious  ond  finely  laid  out.  Of  the  streets,  the  finest  is  Sackvillc  Street,  170  feet  wide, 
and  adorned  with  many  splendid  mansions.  To  the  west  is  the  old  town,  now  bearing  marks 
of  decay,  and  still  farther  west  is  the  tract  called  "  the  Liberty,"  as  being  out  of  the  juris- 
diction of  the  magistrates.  It  is  inhabited  only  by  the  lowest  orders,  and  exhibits  scenes  of 
(iltii  and  wretchedness  not  to  be  paralleled  in  any  city  of  tlie  sister  island.  A  room  fifteen 
feet  square  is  frequently  let  to  three  or  four  families;  and  one  house  was  ascertained  to  have 
lodged  108  persons.  Dublin  has  been  "  shorn  of  its  beams"  since  the  Union ;  when  the 
nobles  and  gentry,  no  longer  called  to  attend  parliament,  transferred  their  own  rep.'  nee  to 
the  metropolis  of  the  empire,and  their  Dublin  mansions  h'-ve  been  converted  to  humblsr  pur- 
poses. The  Castle,  the  residence  of  the  lord  lieutenant,  is  extensive ;  but  its  architecturril 
beauty  is  almost  confined  to  a  modern  Gothic  chapel.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Patrick  (Jig.  21l' 
and  Christ  Church  have  a  venerable  aspect;  but  they  can  rank  only  ^ocondary  to  the  fi>.u 
212  structures  in  the  English  cities.   "The  splendid 

structure,  formerly  the  parliament-house  of  Ire- 
land, and  now  the  national  bank  (Jig.  213.), 

213 


SI.  Palrick'i  Ciiihodral.  Bank  of  Ireland,  Dublin. 

was  built  between  1729  and  1739 ;  but  an  eastern  front  was  added  in  1785,  and  a  western 
front  shortly  after.  The  portico  is  147  feet  in  length,  supported  by  lofty  Ionic  columns;  the 
whole  covering  an  acre  and  a  half  of  ground.  The  Royal  Exchange  (fig.  214),  forms  a 
square  of  100  feet,  and  its  principal  front  has  a  richly  decorated  portico  of  six  Corinthian 
columns.     The  Four  Law  Courts,  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river  (fig.  215.),  forni 

215     . 


EzchanRo,  UubliD. 


Four  Cmirta,  Dublin. 


4I» 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOORAl'HY. 


Pa«t  III. 


alao  one  of  the  nobleat  BtnictiiruH  in  Dublin:  it  coimiHt*  nf  a  aquarf  nf  140  font,  urcncnlin(ra 
front  uf  iiix  Curintliiaii  villars,  Hupporljiit;  a  circular  liiiiturn  ami  nmjfniHccnt  ilonit*.  'I'iie 
quay  is  ornamented  by  I.K!  ("ustoui-luiuHe.  of  svlncli  tin-  tVont  in  omircly  of  I'ortliind  8loni>, 
einUiHiHluHl  with  a  Dt)ric  colonnmlii,  and  oxtt'ndiii^  :)7>*t  |i<«)t.  The  I'oot  Otfue,  in  Saiikvillo 
Streut,  in  uxtiuisive  and  nia^fntlitunt,  with  a  I'runt  of  '2*^.')  foot,  adornod  with  iiu  Ionic  |)ortico 
of  t'ortliind  alono;  tho  main  ntriK^turo  is  of  granite.  In  the  contrn  of  Sackvilit)  Str«<ot,  ia 
tin-  monument  erected  to  Nei  »n;  an-olyect  by  no  means  ornannMital.  The  innH  of  court, 
tlio  theatre,  tlio  half-finished  ll(jmnv  <"''  ♦!)  lie  ni'itrojiolitun  chnpel,  and  sevrnlotherchnrclien 
and  cha[)«*ls,  with  many  of  tlu'  '  uJh.  <i       be  mentioned  hh  adding  to  liio  arcliitectuml 

eidiMiduur  of  Dublin.  All  tl  •  umci  ,mv  » nUions  for  the  relief  of  distress  are  snpiiorted  on  ii 
liberal  t-ciile,  and  great  •/.>  <•'.  v.<  sm'  r  m  avour  of  all  institntions  for  the  promotion  of  krow- 
ledge.  Trinity  College  wum  founded  in  15UI);  and  its  studentt)  amount  to  lUUi).  There  are 
25  fellowships,  and  the  'r  ings  in  the  gift  of  the  university,  which  are  conmdemblo  in  num- 
ber and  value,  are  oflbrod  to  the  fellowa  in  tho  order  of  seniority.  The  gradations  of 
rank,  amongst  the  fellows  in  Trinity  (Jolle^e,  are  indicated  by  a  different  dress  and  table. 
The  library  contains  KKM^^H)  volumes;  but  its  other  cnllentions  are  not  n<{ual  to  those  of  tiie 
Dublin  Society.  T'-ilier,Switl,  Berkeley,  Chandler,  !  !•  •  '  "ttioII,  Burke,  Grattan,  Curran, 
with  other  distinjjuished  characters,  are  numtii  ....  m>  (IUJjiIs  fthi.  iminuiy  The  buildings 
of  tho  College  uro  on  a  Itirgc  scale,  divided  into  three  quadrangles,  tor  the  accommodation 
of  the  feljows  and  pupils.  The  front  towards  College  Groon  extends  300  feet,  and  is  ailornod 
with  columns  of  the  Corinthian  order.  Tho  library  forms  a  fourth  quadrangle,  built  of  hewn 
Btone,  wit'  l  rich  entablature ;  and  the  principal  room,  210  feet  long  and  41  feet  broad,  ia 
elegantly  ti*'  i  up.  At  a  short  distance  from  town  is  a  botanic  garden.  The  Koyal  Dublin 
Society,  inc  .  iijrtttod  in  1749,  for  the  promotion  of  husbandry  and  tho  useful  arts,  has  a 
botanic  <ifar"onj  a  musouin  of  natural  history;  a  schoo)  for  drawing,  with  models;  and 
teachers  in  all  these  departments.  Tho  Roval  Irish  Academy,  incoriwrated  in  17H2,  lia.s 
published  many  volumes  of  Transactions.  The  Dublin  Institution  has  been  formed  on  the 
model  of  that  of  London,  and  a  city  Library  established.  Altliotigh  a  great  literary  spirit 
prevni's  in  Dublin,  there  are  few  books  printed  thore,  and  the  art  of  printing  is  in  a  back- 
ward state.  The  w. ila  of  Irish  authors  issiie  from  the  London  presses.  Dublin  has  very 
little  foreign  trade ;  but  she  has  a  considerable  trade  with  England,  particularly  with  Liver- 
pool. The  bay  is  spiioious,  and  has  good  anchoragj;  but  the  entrance  is  beset  with  formida- 
ble sand-banks,  particularly  those  called  the  North  and  South  Bulls,  which  cant  •  'w  [Mssod 
by  large  vessels  at  low  water;  so  that  vessels  embayed  at  that  time  of  tho  tide,  and  attackt>d 
by  strong  easterly  gales,  ciin  scarcely  escape  being  driven  upon  one  of  them.  To  avert  these 
evils,  n  ttouble  wall  bar,  been  constructed  three  miles  in  length,  composed  of  enormous  blocks 
of  granite,  dovetailed  into  each  other,  the  interval  filled  with  gravel ;  and  a  light-house 
erected  at"  the  end,  Anotlier  pier  of  great  extent  has  been  built  at  Dunleary,  now  Kings- 
town, on  the  southern  side  of  the  bay,  which  is  connected  by  a  railway  with  the  ciipital. 
To  these  advantages  Dublin  unites  that  of  being  placed  at  the  termination  of  the  Grand 
Canal  on  the  south,  and  the  Royal  Canal  on  'he  north,  which  penetrate  by  difTerent  iines  to 
the  Shannon  and  the  interior  of  Ireland.  In  1829,  Dublin  paid  the  sum  of  660,000/.  of  duty 
on  imported  goods,  while  that  paid  at  all  the  otlier  '  mrts  of  Ireland  amounted  only  to  910,000/. 
The  environs  are  celebratef'  for  ti.eir  btauty.  T)  •  vast  iiumbtr  of  villas  and  villages  which 
cover  the  adjacent  districts,  .i.il  are  rtiJerod  con  cuous  by  the  ground  sloping  down  to  the 
bay;  Die  foreground  of  the  Dublin  mountains,  .  ad  the  picturesque  summits  of  those  of 
Wicklow  in  the  background,  render  the  situation  striking  and  delightful.  To  the  west. 
Phoenix  Park,  a  royal  demesne  of  r-veral  miles  in  circumference  affords  an  agreeable  pro- 
menade, and  has  lately  been  l  'omed  with  an  obel  .  k,  210  feet  h.^h,  in  hcr.our  of  the  Duke 
of  Wellington.  The  rest  of  the  county  contains  only  villages,  and  the  interior  pos-osses  few 
intiTosting  objects.  The  shores  of  the  bay,  however,  i'^xlude  many  striking  sites;  and  the 
vit  .V  from  the  Hill  of  Killiney  is  almost  matchless. 

Wicklow  is  in  general  composed  of  bog,  fi.  'st,  am  mountain,  and  contributes  little  to  the 
wealth  of  Ireland.  It  is,  however,  celebr.T  r  piruiresque  beauty.  Its  coast,  diversified 
by  hills,  broken  into  glens,  and  richly  wood  a1'     st  covered  with  tho  seats  of  the  gentry 

and  opulent  citizens  of  Dublin.  These  varu'irfited  ad  embellished  grounds,  having  on  one 
side  the  expanse  of  the  Irish  Channel,  and  on  the  otIi'T  the  lofty  mountains  in  the  interior, 
p-  ''ice  a  number  of  beautiful  sites.  The  demesne  of  Powersconrt  is  pre-eminent,  the  water- 
fii ;  I  i^Jig.  216.),  descending  360  feet  down  a  steep  hill,  amid  vast  hanging  woods.  The  interior 
of  the  county  presents  features  of  a  very  different  description ;  glens  between  lofty  mountains, 
nr.ked  and  desolate.  Among  these  is  Glendalough  (^g,  217.),  which  is  surrounded  by  a  most 
majestic  circuit  of  mountains,  and  contains  some  remarkable  ecclesiastical  monuments  attri- 
buted to  St.  Kevin,  a  great  patron  saint  of  Ireland  in  the  seventh  century.  One  of  his  disci- 
Dies  founded  at  Glfindftlonorh  a  little  rifV;  long  celebrated  as  a  seat  of  religion  and  learning 
Only  its  site  can  now  be  traced ;  but  there  are  distinct  remains  of  seven  churches,  among 
which  the  cathedral  and  St  Kevin's  kitchen  are  the  most  entire.    Loughs  Dan  and  Bnv 


Book  t 


lART  \m 


IMi  .-;'J'I 


)  cant  •    'mj  [ittSBcd 


■itiiated  in  thr  bo^-  i  of  tho  Wildwt  mountain  A  enclnaod  by  dark  iind  lofty  rock*,  proMnt 
nature  under  an  ai  ,m!i;1  the  nioHt  nuicly  -■ulil,  -.  Wickliiw  Iiuh  vt-inM  of  c«>|i|M;r  ami  load; 
gold  waa  collected  in  one  year  to  tho  vo.iin  oi  10,0(M)/. ;  hut  thu  vein  waa  luion  exhauated, 

Tho  towna  of  Wickl<»w  and  Arklow,  though  well 
built,  ore  inconi*iderabin ;  ^et  tlio  latter,  at  the 
inoutli  of  tliu  Ovdcii,  haaa  littlo  trado,  and  waiionco 
ilie  reaidencn  of  the  kingH  of  Ireland.  It  waa  Uio 
Hcono  of  a  niemorablu  action  in  171)H,  when  tlio  in- 

217 


Fdwnrao.uiirl  Wulcrr>ll 


Olundiilouih 


Biirgenta,  ab(>.<3  S(),00()  Mtrong,  wcrn  doteiited  by  a  aniall  British  dotachmont. 

Wexford,  to  tho  south  of  Wicklow,  iH  Mejinratcd  from  it  by  a  range  of  mountains;  but 
lie  interior  contains  a  great  deal  of  level  land,  in  which  agriculture  ia  purmied  with  greater 
diligence,  and  tiie  tenantry  are  more  conifDrtiible,  than  in  moat  other  mrts  of  Iroland.  Barley 
is  a  prevailing  crop.  Tho  woodlanda  also  iire  «'xtenHivo  and  valuable.  Wexibrd  ia  a  place 
ofwnne  consequence,  with  a  harlx)ur  much  obstructed  by  sand;  yet  itcarricH  on  aome  tratlic. 
Some  wot)llenH  are  made  botii  at  Wexford  and  P'nniwcorthy.  New  Rohh,  in  the  weatcrn  part 
of  the  county,  ih  n  flouriahing  town,  on  tho  Burrow,  which  (uhnita  of  largo  ahipa  coming  up 
to  itH  (|uay. 

Kilkenny,  .  tine  and  extensive  county,  aeparated  from  Wexford  by  tho  Barrow,  ia  watered 
it  only  l)y  that  river,  liiit  by  ita  tributariea  the  Noro  and  the  Suire.  These  Htreams  carry 
oil'  the  Huperfiuou.s  moisture,  and  prevent  the  tbrniation  of  bog  or  tnarah  to  any  extent.  Kil- 
!o'n;M,  being  chiefly  level,  or  iuterHOcted  only  by  hilla  of  rncxlerate  height,  is  compoacd 
uli,,.  I,  entirely  either  of  arable  or  fine  puHture  land.  The  latter  ia  employed  in  extenaive 
tiairies,  hut  ilio  syHtcni  of  cultivation  ia  still  imperfect.  Kilkenny,  the  capital,  advantago- 
oii.sly  nitu^ii'  in  till'  Nore,  ia  partly  built  of  tiie  marble  of  the  surroimding  quarriea.  Its 
i-'ithedral  is  of  tli(<  finest  in  Ireland,  and  the  castle,  with  ita  remaining  gates  and  bastions, 
I'liibits  indiiations  of  that  strength  which  enabled  it  to  hold  out  against  Cromwell  longer 
Ihiin  any  otiier  city  in  Ireland.  At  present  Kilkenny  flourishes  by  inland  trade,  and  by  a 
manufactory  of  blankets  and  other  woollens.  The  foreign  trado  of^  tho  county  is  carried  on 
by  Waterford. 

Cnrlow  is  encompassed  by  mountains,  which  however  enclose  a  champaign  tract  of  great 
beauty  and  fertility,  equally  fit  for  tillage  anil  pasture,  and  pro<lucing  the  bos*,  butter  in  Ire- 
land. The  town  of  Carlow  is  a  considerable  place,  distinguished  by  nn  vilibr'y  and  castle, 
both  of  great  antiquity.  The  town  has  a  manufactory  of  coarse  woolicn?,  un('  carries  on  r 
considerable  trade  down  the  Burrow.  An  extensive  Catholic  semiinir}  has  lately  been 
t<)imded  here. 

Queen's  Coimty  and  King's  County  form  a  table-land  of  moderate  elevation.  Part  of  the 
great  chain  of  bogs  crosses  those  counties,  and  renders  a  large  proportion  of  them  unpro 
diKtive,  though  it  supplies  them  \'\tU  cheap  and  abundant  fuel.  The  remaining  surface  m 
hiivhly  fertile.  Queen's  County  is  situated  along  the  heads  of  the  Barrow  and  the  Nore ; 
Kmgs  County  reaches  to  the  Shannon;  and  Ixjth  communicate  by  canals  with  Dublin 
I'ortariington,  on  the  borders  of  the  two  counties,  is  a  well-built  pl.ice,  with  gcxxi  scl.ofijs, 
Hill]  the  residence  of  a  considerable  number  of  gentry.  Tullamore,  on  the  great  canal,  and 
Birr  or  Pursonstown,  are  the  most  thriving  towns  in  King's  County. 

Kildare,  with  the  exception  of  aliout  a  sixth  part  of  hog,  forms  a  plain  of  the  finest  arable 
soil,  well  cultivated,  and  wheiuc  the  capital  b  chiefly  supplied  with  grain.  The  Grand  and 
Uoyal  Canals,  which  both  cross  its  northern  border,  afford  the  means  of  ready  conveyance 
to  Dublin.  Kildnre-town,  "resenting  a  lofty  round  tower  and  fiome  other  vestiges  of  jKist 
-rnjiortance,  is  only  supported  by  tln!  races  held  on  the  currafh  of  KHdare,  an  expanse  of 
•several  thousand  acres  of  the  very  finest  turf.  Naas  and  Athy  are  larger  towns,  and  the 
castle  of  the  former  bears  testimony  to  the  period  when  it  was  the  residence  of  tlie  king* 


404 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOORAPHY. 


PiUiT  la. 


of  Leiniter.  In  thii  county  in  Maynooth,  a  ftinall  town  containing  tha  col'i  /••  f»if^>4ii),«d 
by  irovnmment  for  the  education  or  the  Koinun  ('iitholica. 

Mi'iUh  iH  ono  ot'tlin  moxt  tUvournd  counties  of  tlio  kingdom  in  reiipcct  to  noi!.  Its  rich  p>u< 
turea  Bupport  vaiit  herdx  of  black  cuttlu,  wiiich  aupply  thn  umrkt'tM  of  th«  capital,  and  nro  ox- 
ported  to  England.  Tho  priHluctH  of  the  dairy  an*  abundant,  thouKh  not  of  vi<ry  mifHTiur 
quality.     Trim,  whore  the  asNizua  are  hohl,  iH  a  small  town;  Navan  and  Kolla  ant  lar)(t<r. 

Louth,  tiioiigh  the  amallcHt  in  aroa  of  any  Irinh  county,  ia  one  of  tho  flrat  in  |)oint  of  natu- 
ral and  acquiroid  advantagea.  An  activn  apirit  of  improvmnont  haa  broutfht  aluioat  ovory 
part  of  ita  «>xcellont  aoil  under  cultivatiim.  Ita  linon  manufacture  pnalucoa  chioHy  dowlas 
and  ahontinga,  with  aomo  cambric.  l<<Mith  proatmta  many  aamploa  of  tho  earthen  moumiri 
called  ralhs.  Dundalk,  the  capital  of  tho  rnunty,  ia  ancient,  |N)puloua,  and  Houriahing.  it 
haa  been  the  theatre  of  important  hiatorical  evcnta;  but  ita  lotty  towera  and  caatlua  are  now 
demolialiod,  and  have  given  pliu  i-  to  cornfortablo  dwellinga.  The  town  conaiata  chiolly  ol' 
one  large  and  brood  atrcet,  whence  many  lanea  are  acen  diverging.  It  ia  the  only  place  iii 
Ireland  where  the  cambric  manufiicture  haa  been  introduced,  and  continuea  to  Houriah, 
Drogheda,  at  the  mouth  of  tho  Boyno,  waa  of  atill  greater  importance  aa  a  military  atatimi, 
being  conaidered  one  of  tho  keys  of  Ireland.  In  the  great  rebellion  of  1641,  it  atocai  a  loii){ 
siege,  but  waa  afterwards  taken  by  Cromwell,  who  puniahed  ita  rcaistanco  by  a  moat  iMrlia- 
roua  maaaacre  of  the  garriaon.  In  1090,  two  milca  above  Drogheda,  waa  foujj^ht  the  battle 
of  the  Boyne,  that  memorable  field  which  eatabliahnd  tho  civil  and  religioua  liberties  of  thi! 
empire.  The  fortifications  are  of  obsolete  atructure,  and  are  commanded  on  aeveral  aides. 
The  place  has  an  excellent  harbour,  and  cxtenaive  commerce  in  grain  brought  down  the 
river  m  considerable  quantities  for  exportation ;  in  return  for  which,  coals  and  otlier  commo- 
dities are  imported. 

Westmeath  and  Ijongford,  reaching  westward  as  fkr  oa  the  Shannon,  consist  chiefly  of  a 
very  extensive  plain  considerably  encumbered  with  lakes,  bogs,  and  moraaaea,  and  aubject  in 
part  to  the  overflowing  of  the  Shannon,  but  including  fertile  tracta  of  groat  extent.  Alli- 
lone,  the  largest  inland  town  of  Ireland,  ia  situated  partly  in  Westmeath  and  partly  in  lloi*- 
common.  It  ia  memorable  for  it«  resistance  to  General  Ginkle  in  1691,  previous  to  tho  battle 
of  Aughrim,  and  is  still  considered  an  important  military  station.  It  is  divided  by  tho  Sliaii- 
non  into  two  ports  united  by  a  bridge.  With  this  exception,  these  provinces  contain  oidy 
small  country  towns  and  large  villages.  Mullingar,  in  Westmeath,  has  a  considerable  trade, 
Longford  is  the  capital  of  the  county  of  that  name. 

SumKCT2. — Munater.  ' 

Munster  includes  the  south  and  south-west  of  Ireland,  and,  though  not  tho  mobt  extensive 
division  of  the  kingdom,  is  one  of  those  which  presents  the  boldest  and  most  striking  fea- 
tures. Most  of  the  great  mountain  chains  of  Ireland  traverse  Munstor ;  among  which  are 
conspicuous  the  Galties  and  the  mountAins  of  Kerry,  which  encircle  Killarnev ;  so  that,  not- 
withstanding the  almost  Imundless  plains  of  Limerick  and  Tipperary,  and  the  level  character 
of  a  great  part  of  Cork,  it  may  be  considered  as  a  mountainous  region.  It  has  manufacturon, 
tliough  not  on  so  great  a  scale  as  those  of  tlie  north  ;  and  its  commerce  is  very  conaiderabk', 
chiefly  in  the  export  of  salted  provisions.  The  Catholic  religion  prevails,  with  little  inter- 
mixture of  that  of  the  English  church.  Munster  is  divided  mto  larger  and  less  numcroun 
portions  than  Leinster ;  its  counties  are  Tipperary,  Watorford,  Cork,  Kerry,  Limerick,  and 
Clare. 

Tipperary,  extending  over  almost  tho  whole  frontier  of  Ijeinster,  is  crossed  by  a  long 
chain  of  mountains  called  variously  Sliove-Bloom,  the  Devil's  Bit,  and  other  uncotith  nanuw; 
and  on  the  south  it  includes  part  of  the  Galties.  On  the  north  a  small  portion  of  tho  groat 
central  bog  extends  across  the  county  ;  but  one  district,  along  the  upper  course  of  the  Suiro, 
bears  the  appellation  of  the  Golden  Vale.  The  sheep. ana  homed  cattle  are  of  excellent 
quality.  There  are  manufactures,  chiefly  for  domestic  use ;  and  some  coal,  similar  to  that 
of  Kilkenny.  Clonmel,  the  co\mty  town,  is  one  of  the  most  considerable  in  tho  interior  of 
Ireland :  it  stood  a  long  siege  against  Cromwell,  who  afler  its  reduction  demolishod  the  strong 
walls  and  castles  by  which  it  was  defended.  It  is  a  well-built  town,  with  four  streets  cross- 
ing each  other,  and  carries  on  a  brisk  inland  trade.  Cashel  is  a  largo  and  liandsomo  city, 
the  seat  of  an  archbisliop,  to  whose  residence  a  considerable  library  is  attached.  In  ancient 
times,  it  was  the  capital  of  the  kings  of  Munster,  of  whose  palace  some  remnanta  may  still 
be  traced.  Noble  fragments  remain  of  the  ancient  cathedral,  majestically  seated  on  the 
riummit  of  a  precipitous  rock.  The  choir  and  nave,  210  feet  long,  ore  strewed  with  the  re- 
mains of  its  rich  ornaments.  Here  was  deposited  the  Lia  Fale,  or  fatal  stone,  on  which  the 
kings  of  Munster  were  crowned.  The  structure  is  now  abandoned  to  decay,  and  a  inodnrn 
cathedral  of  fine  Grecian  architecture  has  been  substituted.     Cashel  contains  remains  of 

rkthof.  mnnaofri/*  o/)ifi/«oa    r\P  ivViinh   Hqi*<>     AKIiAir      t\n    fho    aamA    i*r\/>1r  iirifVi    fKo    /laf liofli-al      ia    n 

magnificent  specimen,  still  almost  entire. 
Waterford  is  a  mountainous  county,  and  only  a  small  portion  is  under  cultivation  *  thd 


Pa»t  IU. 

«)i!.  lU  rich  p>u- 
apitiil,  and  tiro  ox- 
it  ot"  vi'ty  au|M>riur 
[olU  iiro  liir((nr. 
it  ill  |M)iiil  ut'  imtii- 
Ufht  nliiKwl  ov(iry 
:0M  cliintly  ddwliiit 
u  nitrthnn  iiiduihIh 
ul  HoiiriMhini;.  It 
[111  eimtlofi  ure  n<i\v 
coDrtiita  chi«lly  ol' 
I  tlio  only  placp  iii 
tinuet  to  HoiiriHli. 
a  military  xtiitinii, 
41,  It  atodil  u  loii^ 

0  by  a  most  Inrhii- 
tbujjrht  tliR  bnttio 

UH  libortimt  of  i\w 

1  on  uovoritl  ii'u\v», 
brouiflit  down  tlic 
and  otlier  cornino- 

:onHi8t  cliictly  of  u 
JHCH,  uiul  Hubjeut  in 
reat  extent.  Atli- 
and  partly  in  lliix- 
oviouH  to  the  battle 
vided  by  the  Hliiin- 
inces  contain  only 
conHidorable  trade. 


tho  mofct  oxtonsive 
most  striking  fen- 
amonjf  which  are 
rney ;  so  that,  net- 
he  level  cliiiructor 
has  manutiictiireH, 
very  considerable, 
i,  with  little  intei- 
md  less  numeroiiH 
ry,  Limerick,  and 

crossed  by  a  lotii; 
?r  uncouth  nanKw ; 
)rtion  of  tho  preat 
3urso  of  the  Suire. 
are  of  excellent 
lal,  similar  to  thiit 
!  in  the  interior  of 
ioli8h(Ml  tho  Htrong 
four  streets  cross- 
id  JiandBomo  city, 
iched.  In  ancient 
•omnantH  may  still 
illy  seiitod  on  tho 
owed  with  the  re- 
:one,  on  which  the 
cay,  and  a  modern 
titains  remains  of 
he  cathedra!    is  - 

>r  cultivation  *  th« 


Book  L 


'>'  1/     IRELAND,     fla  •>  :i'i 


4Ati 


ohiof  branch  of  rural  tndiiittry  ia  the  dairy,  and  irrnat  quantitioa  of  buttrr  are  Mltoil  iiir  ex* 
portation.  Watttrford,  itn  capital,  one  of  tlie  priiieipal  Mea-portM  of  the  einiiir(%  Ihmii^  pliioMl 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Uiirrow  and  Hiiire,  tin*  second  and  thinl  rivers  ot  Irelniid,  eiijoyx  u 
iiiiiHl  extensivi'  intercoiirm)  with  the  interinr.  The  (|imntity  (if  beef,  pork,  butter,  and  {;ruin 
ex|Nirtod  to  Kn^'iand,  in  IHiU-'i,  waa  valued  ut  2,(Miri,8<iW. ;  of  which  bacon  waa  .')47,(MN)/. ; 
liutti-r,  KKINN)/.;  wheat  and  ll.iur,  fVMMMNM. ;  oaU,  12B,0U()/. ;  live  pin,  n7,U(M)/.  The 
wiiithern  packet  communication  with  Kn((iand  ia  carried  on  iVom  Waterlord  to  Milfonl  Haven 
Witliin  theae  few  yeara,  aoventy  veiMclii  have  been  fitted  out  tor  the  Nuwtbundland  Hsherv 
Watertord  onjoya  tho  bonetit  of  a  deep  and  npacioua  harbour,  and  a  flno  quay  half  a  mile 
lon((.  Ita  ecclcMiaatical  monumenta  are  of  conakierablo  ma^^nitude,  and  it  haa  an  eleKant 
iiKHlnrn  catho<lral,  with  other  tine  public  editkea.  Twenty  inilea  to  the  weat,  on  a  amuli 
bay,  ia  I)un;;arvan,  tho  larfifeat  tiahin;;  town  in  Ireland;  and  ita  anti(|iiity  ia  iitteHtod  by  a  cas- 
tle and  ae  veral  monastic  remains.  Liamore,  on  the  Black  water,  is  now  descrtiul ;  but  its  cuatle, 
erected  by  King  John,  in  1185,  atill  prcacnto  marks  of  ancient  grandeur,  and  has  been  lately 
repaired. 

Cork  ia  the  largeal  county  of  Ireland.  On  the  northern  border  ia  the  lofty  ran|fe  of  the 
Oaltiea,  which  present  many  picturesque  features,  and  command  extenaive  and  beautiful 
proapocta;  ita  western  border  partakes  of  the  mountainous  character  of  the  neighlMMiring 
districta  of  Kerry ;  and  the  rocky  ahorea  and  headlands  washed  by  tho  waves  of  the  Atlantic, 
arc  of  an  awful  and  terrific  character.  About  a  fifth  of  the  county. consists  of  mountain  and 
bog;  the  rest  is  only  traversed  by  hills  of  motlerate  elevation,  oncloaing  fertile  arid  often 
beautiful  valleys,  especially  that  along  the  river  and  bay.  The  style  of  culture  is  altogether 
Irish;  in  small  farina,  by  poor  tenants,  chiefly  by  the  spade,  and  potatoes  the  prevailing  crop. 
The  manufactures  consist  of  sailcloth,  coarso  linens  and  woollens.  There  are  also  some 
extensive  distilleries. 

Cork,  the  great  southern  emporium  of  Ireland,  haa  a  population  of  107,000 ;  being,  in  point 
of  wealth  and  magnitude,  tho  second  city  in  the  island.  Ita  monastic  structures,  once  con- 
siderable, have  almost  entirely  ilisappeared.  Its  great  prosperity  is  ma-lern,  in  consequence 
of  tho  provision  trade,  of  wliich  it  has  become  the  chioi  mart.  The  river  Ijce,  at  its  junc- 
tion with  the  sea,  forms  the  spacious  enclosed  bay,  called  the  Cove  of  Cork,  composing  one 
of  the  finest  harbours  in  the  world.  In  consequence  of  its  convenient  situation,  the  West 
India  bound  fleets  usually  touch  there,  and  take  in  provisions.  The  export  of  salted  beef 
and  pork  has  somewhat  diminished  since  the  peace;  but  that  of  provisions  in  |;eneral,  and 
particularly  grain,  has  been  greatly  augmented;  and  Cork,  on  the  whole,  is  in  a  very 
flourishing  and  prosperous  state.  A  great  part  of  the  old  town  consists  of  miserable  and 
crowded  alleys ;  but  a  number  of  handsome  new  streets  have  been  built,  and  several  chan- 
nels branching  from  the  Lee,  which  flowed  through  the  city, 'and  were  detrimental  to  the 
health  of  the  inhabitants,  have  been  filled  up.  Cork  has  a  literary  institution,  with  the  usual 
appendages  of  library,  lectures,  and  botanic  garden ;  and  it  supports  the  charitable  estab- 
lishments usual  in  great  cities  on  a  liberal  scale. 

Kinsale,  on  a  fine  bay  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bandon,  was  much  more  frequented  than  Cork 
by  the  early  English  monarchs,  who  bestowed  on  the  place  extensive  privileges,  and  viewed 
it  as  the  key  of  southern  Ireland.  It  has  now,  however,  sunk  under  the  superior  importance 
of  its  neighbour ;  and  it  is  chiefly  supported  by  a  fishery.  Youghal,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Blackwater,  has  a  good  harbour,  though  obstructed  by  a  bar;  and  carries  on  some  trade  and 
manufacture. 

Kerry  presents  an  assemblage  of  mountains  wild,  rocky,  and  desolate.  These  are  Inter- 
spersed with  valleys  and  narrow  plains  which  are  almost  wholly  employed  in  pasturage ;  and 
Kerry  has  a  small  breed  of  cows,  which  yield  plenty  of  excellent  milk.  Its  coast  is  broken 
into  several  very  deep  bays,  particularly  those  of  Dingle,  Kenmare,  and  Tralee.  A  considerable 
quantity  of  herring  is  caught  in  these  bays.     Tralee,  the  county  town,  exhibits  the  remains 

of  a  strong  castle,  once  the  residence  of 
the  Earls  of  Desmond,  when,  under  the 
title  of  Palatine,  they  exercised  the  real 
sovereignty  over  this  part  of  Ireland  ;  a 
sway  which  terminated  with  their  attain- 
der under  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 

Killarney  and  its  lakes,  as  to  scenery, 
have  no  rival  in  Ireland.  There  is  only 
one  body  of  water,  to  which,  however, 
the  term  lakes  is  usually  applied;  so 
completely  is  it  divided  into  three  bays 
united  only  by  narrow  straits,  and  pre- 
dentin" each  a  different  asnect.  The  lower 
lake,  immediately  adjoining  Killamev 
(Jtg-  218.),  forms  the  main  expanse  of  water,  and  presents  all  the  features  on  the  greater 


4Sf> 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt.  in. 


MucniH  Abbey. 


scale     On  the  eastern  shore  rise  the  mountains  known  by  the  name  of  Macgillicuddy'a 

Reeks,  the  highest  of  which  rises  to  3400 
feet,  the  most  elevated  point  in  Ireland. 
On  this  side  also  are  the  mountains  of 
Tomies  and  Glena,  with  their  immense 
forests.  Near  the  western  bank  is  the 
beautiful  island  of  Innisfallen.  At  tlie 
most  southern  point  of  the  lower  lake  a 
much  smaller  bay  branches  off  from  it, 
through  channels  formed  by  Dinis  Island. 
This  bay,  called  Turk  Lake,  is  over- 
hung on  one  side  by  the  precipitous 
sides  of  the  lofty  mountain  of  tliat 
name,  and  bordered  on  the  other  by 
the  long  wooded  and  winding  penin- 
sula of  Mucruss.  The  venerable  ruin 
of  Mucruss  Abbey  (Jiff.  219.)  adds 
greatly  to  the  interest  of  this  part  of  t)'e 
scenery.  From  Dinis  Island,  a  long 
winding  channel  of  more  than  two  miles  leads  to  the  Upper  Lake.  The  scenery  seen  in 
this  passage  is  of  surpassing  grandeur  imd  beauty.    The  most  striking  spot  is  al  the  Eagle's 

Crag  (Jiff.  220.;,  a  stupendous  and 
220  rugged  cliff,  which  bursts  suddenly 

on  the  view,  rising  in  a  pyramidal 
form  from  the  water.  Thioughout 
all  the  rocks  of  Killarney,  but  here 
most  particularly,  the  effect  of  eclioes 
is  most  powerful  and  striking.  The 
Upper  Lake,  the  least  extensive  but 
the  most  sublime,  exhibits  all  the  lof- 
tiest mountains  under  tho  most  im- 
posing point  of  view.  Its  shores  are 
winding  and  varied  with  numerous 
islands,  whose  rocky  sides  contrast 
with  the  brilliant  green  of  the  ar 
butus.  The  ascent  of  the  highest 
mountains,  Mangerton  to  the  north, 


Eaglo'i  Crag. 


and  Gheran  Tual,  the  highest  of  the  reeks  to  the  south-east,  discloses  awful  ranges  of  rugged 
precipices  and  of  dark  and  rocky  ravines ;  and  their  summits  command  an  astonishing  view 
of  the  mountain  glens  and  rocky  shores  of  Kerry,  and  the  expanse  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the 
distant  plains  of  Cork  and  Limerick. 

Limerick  is  one  of  the  finest  counties  of  Ireland.  Its  borders  include  Pome  branches  from 
tlie  high  mountams  of  Kerry  and  Tipperary ;  but  the  main  body  consists  of  a  fertile  plain. 
An  alluvial  tract,  two  or  three  miles  broad,  along  the  Shannon,  is  quite  exuberant  Thai 
noble  river,  now  expanded  into  an  estuary  or  bay  si.:ty  miles  in  length,  runs  along  the  whole 
northern  border  of  Limerick. 

The  city  of  Limerick,  now  outstripped  by  Cork,  is  the  th-rd  in  Ireland  Its  situation,  in 
the  centre  of  the  grand  internal  navijofation  of  the  kingdom,  secures  to  it  an  extensive  trade ; 
and  the  largest  vessels  can  ascend  to  the  harbour.  Limerick  is  one  of  the  great  marts  tor 
the  export  of  grain  and  provisions ;  the  value  of  those  shipped  from  it  in  18^1,  having  been 
estimated  at  854,600/!.  It  was  anciently  the  strongest  fortress  in  Ireland,  and  has  always 
stood  out  to  the  last  extremity  for  the  Catliolic  cause.  Ireton,  Cromwell's  lieutenant,  re- 
duced it  only  afler  a  long  siege,  aided  by  a  party  within  the  place.  In  1690-1,  it  stood  two 
long  sieges,  and  yielded  only  upon  those  advantageous  terms  called  the  "  capitulation  of 
Limerick."  Its  capture  was  considered  as  closing  the  contest  in  support  of  the  Stuarts.  At 
this  day,  not  more  than  a  twelfth  part  of  the  population  of  Limerick  is  protestant.  The 
spacious  monasteries  are  almost  entirely  demolished  ;  the  streets  are  narrow,  crowded,  and 
gloomy ;  but  since  the  fortifications  were  demolished,  they  have  been  carefully  widened.  In 
a  quarter  built  by  Lord  Perry,  and  bearing  his  n^'ie,  they  are  spacious  and  regular;  and  tlie 
houses,  though  only  of  brick,  built  in  the  most  handsome  modern  style.  The  assembly-moms, 
theatre,  and  other  modern  structures,  are  elegant  and  commodious. 

Clare  county  is  a  wild,  hilly,  romantic  district,  abounding  with  fine  .t>  vcks  and  harbours, 
but  without  commerce,  and  with  mines  of  lend,  iron  and  coal,  which  he^  .  ;t  been  turned  to 
account.  More  tlinn  half  the  surface  consists  of  mountain,  bojr,  • ;  a  wtistf  its  hills,  how- 
ever, support  nuinerrnis  flocks  of  sheop,  tlie  wool  of  which  is  of  sut»,  "  qi;  i.iy.  Tho  piains 
on  the  bankbof  the  Shannon  and  the  Fergus  vie  in  fertility  with  ;  ■!,  ,he  kingdom.  Eunis, 
the  capital,  is  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  last-mentioned  river,  by    viiich  it  uomiauuicates 


Part.  ni. 

'  Macgillicuddy'i 
'hich  rises  to  3400 

point  in  Ireland, 
the  mountains  of 
th  their  immense 
stem  bank  is  thn 
istkllen.     At  the 

the  lower  lake  a 
iches  off  from  it, 
d  by  Dinis  Island, 
k  Lake,  is  over- 

the  precipitous 
lountain  of  tiiat 
on  the  other  by 

winding  penin- 
e  venerable  ruin 
[Jig.  219.)  adds 
of  this  part  of  the 
I  Island,  a  long 

scenery  seen  in 
;  is  at  the  Eagle's 
a  stupendous  and 
1  burets  suddenly 
g  in  a  pyramidal 
;er.  Throughout 
illarney,  but  here 
he  effect  of  eciioes 
nd  striking.  The 
jast  extensive  but 
ixhibits  all  the  lof- 
ider  tho  most  im- 
IV.  Its  shores  are 
!d  with  numerous 
:ky  sides  contrast 

green  of  the  ar 
nt  of  the  highest 
irton  to  the  north, 
rannfes  of  rugged 
astonishing  view 
Atlantic,  and  the 

me  branches  from 
)f  a  fertile  plain, 
jxuberant  Thai 
8  along  the  whole 

Its  situation,  in 
1  extensive  trade; 
!  great  marts  for 
8^1,  having  been 
,  and  has  always 
's  lieutenant,  re- 
(0-1,  it  stood  two 
"capitulation  of 
the  Stuarts.  At 
proteetant.  The 
)\v,  crowded,  and 
iilly  widened.  In 
regular ;  and  the 
!  assembly-moms, 

ks  and  harbours, 
-t  beon  turned  to 
e  its  hills,  how- 
i,ty.  Tiio  jiiiiins 
kingdom.  Knnis, 
it  comiautiicatea 


Book  I 


IRELAND 


4effi 


with  the  Shannon.    It  is  considerable,  though  irregularly  built ;  and  its  abbey,  in  the  pureat 
style  of  Gothic  architecture,  is  considered  the  finest  in  Ireland. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Connaught. 

Connaught  forms  a  great  peninsula,  the  most  westerly  part  of  Ireland,  extending  from  thp 
Shannon  to  tho  Atlantic.  This  division  is  of  all  others  the  most  decidedly  Irish,  having 
continued  unsubdued  long  afler  the  English  kmgs  claimed  the  proud  title  of  lords  of  the 
island.  It  still  contains  fewer  English  inhabitants;  the  religion  is  more  universally  Catholic, 
industry  and  manufactures  have  mode  less  progress,  and  all  the  imperfect  agricultural  im- 
plements and  processes  are  in  more  general  use.  Disturbances,  however,  have  never  taken 
place  iiere  to  so  great  an  extent  as  in  Munster  and  Leinster.  Its  shores  are  penetrated  by 
deep  and  extensive  bays,  forming  some  of  the  finest  harbours  in  the  world.  The  counties  io 
Connaught  are  Galway,  Mayo,  Sligo,  Roscommon,  and  Leitrim. 

Galway  presents  to  the  sea  ranges  of  steep  cliffs,  which,  with  the  waves  of  the  Atlantic 
dashing  against  them,  exhibit  a  grand  spectacle.  The  interior  contains  two  extensive  lakea. 
and  is  diversified  with  hills,  though  there  are  few  which  are  not  fit  for  pasturage.  The  cattle 
are  of  go<jd  quality,  and  the  flocks  of  sheep  are  more  extensive  than  in  other  parts  of  Ireland. 
The  fisheries  of  herring  and  salmon  are  considerable.  Galway  has  always  been  a  consider^ 
able  town,  and  is  still  supported  by  some  inland  and  foreign  commerce,  by  a  considerable 
fishery,  by  the  resort  of  the  gentry  to  it  for  sea-bathing,  and  as  the  only  scene  of  gay  society 
to  be  found  in  Connaught.  It  was  once  very  strongly  fortified  both  by  nature  and  art ;  and 
to  obtain  the  protection  of  the  walls,  the  streets  were  made  narrow,  and  the  houses  high, 
massive,  and  gloomy ;  but  they  have  of  late  been  considerably  opened,  and  suburte  built,  of 
a  more  gay  and  elegant  description. 

Tuam  is  an  ancient,  handsome  town,  of  considerable  extent,  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric. 
Ballinasloe,  on  the  eastern  border,  holds  the  greatest  cattle  fair  in  Ireland,  where  the  oxen 
and  sheep  of  the  pastoral  counties  of  Galway  and  Mayo  are  mustered  Sr  the  ca,pital.  At 
the  mouth  of  the  bay  of  Galway  are  the  bold  and  rocky  islands  of  Arran. 

Mayo  is  chiefly  elevated  and  rugged  ;  some  of  the  mountains  rising  to  upwards  of  2600 
feet ;  but  many  of  their  sides  are  verdant,  and  the  valleys  rich  and  well  watered ;  so  that 
Mayo  is  a  fine  pastoral  county.  The  estates  are  large,  but  the  farms  small,  and  much  sub- 
livided.  Mayo  contains  no  town  of  sufficient  importance  to  return  a  member  to  parliament. 
Castlebar,  the  county  town,  is  well  built,  with  a  linen  hall ;  and  the  linen  manufacture 
flourishes.  Killaln,  a  straggling  village,  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  is  chiefly  noted  for  the 
landing  effected  in  1798,  by  a  body  of  French  troops  under  General  Humbert,  who  pene- 
trated to  Castlebar,  but  were  finally  obliged  to  surrender  to  Marquess  Cornwallis. 

Sligo  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  bog ;  but  the  remainder  consists  of  a  sandy 
gravelly  soil,  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  barley  and  oats ;  so  that  pasturage  is  not  so 
exclusively  tha  employment  here  as  'n  the  two  last-mentioned  counties.  Salmon  is  caught 
in  large  quantities.  The  linen  manufacture  has  made  considerable  progress,  and  is  extend- 
ing. Sligo,  the  capital,  at  thb  mouth  of  the  river  and  the  head  of  the  bay  of  the  same  nam;^, 
was  in  early  times  a  considerable  place:  it  has  suffered  severely  in  civil  contention;  ye!,  oy 
the  advantage  of  a  good  situation  and  harbour,  it  has  attained  considerable  importancf  ?irid 
trade.  In  the  vicinity  is  a  remarkable  circle  of  stones,  called  the  Giant's  Grave,  somi what 
resembling  Stonehenge. 

Roscommon  is  mostly  level,  finely  watered,  and  celebrated  for  rich  pastures;  but  the  in- 
crease  of  population  and  manufactures  has  caused  a  great  part  of  them  to  be  lately  brought 
into  tillage ;  it  contains  some  pretty  little  lakes,  among  which  Lough  Key  is  particularly 
admired.  Roscommon  is  ancient,  aiid  marked  by  sonr.e  ecclesiastical  antiquities,  but  it  is 
not  now  80  important  as  Boyle,  pleasantly  situated  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  over  which 
there  are  two  fine  bridges ;  in  its  neighbourhood  are  the  ruins  of  a  stately  abbey,  (bunded  in 
1512,  the  arches  of  which,  forty-six  feet  in  height,  are  deemed  models  of  Gothic  architect- 
ural grandeur.    Elphin,  the  seat  of  a  very  ancient  episcopal  see,  is  only  a  village. 

Leitrim  is  filled  with  high  mountains,  presenting  nature  under  bold  features,  oflen  height- 
ened by  the  ruined  castles  which  crown  their  summits.  There  are  veins  of  iron,  lead,  copper, 
and  coal,  the  lost  of  which  has  been  wrought.  There  are  good  pastures  in  the  valleys,  and 
on  the  sides  of  the  hills ;  and  pretty  large  quantities  of  oats  are  raised.  The  linen  manu- 
facture is  extending,  and  there  are  some  considerable  potteries.  Carrick  on  Shannon,,  the 
county  town,  and  Leitrim,  which  gives  rmoe  to  it,  are  only  villages. 

ScBiLiECT.  4. — Ulster. 

This  part  of  Ireland  presents  in  many  respects  a  superior  character  to  the  other  three,  ifa 
population  being  more  industrious,  better  instructed,  and  in  more  comfortable  circumstances. 
The  Presbyterian  form  of  worship,  introduced  by  the  Scottish  settlers  under  the  reign  of 
James  I.,  is  the  prevailing  one.  The  linen  manufacture,  the  staple  of  the  country,  !ms  here 
its  chief  seat,  and  is  carried  on  almost  in  every  village.  The  hurhours  of  Belfast,  London- 
derry, and  Lough  Swilly,  are  sufficient  for  the  wants  of  commerce.    The  coast  of  Antrim, 

Vol.  L  39  3H 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paht  III. 


in  tlic  boldneBs  and  peculiar  diameter  of  its  rock  Hconory,  is  witliout  a  matoli  in  nny  otlivr 
part  of  tho  wori(i.  Tito  cotiiitioii  of  Uuh  proviiKut  nro,  Furmaiiatfii,  Duiiogai,  Ijoiulomlorry, 
Antrim,  Down,  Annii^li,  'I'yrono,  Monii^lian,  (!uv!in. 

Per' lanajjh  is  a  w)in(nvhat  rmijrii  county,  coniprininpr  a  Inri;o  pro|M>rtioii  of  nioniiliiiii  nixi 
boff,  but  wiUi  tertilo  valleyx,  in  wliicli,  IwHitlos  thn  uhuuI  promintM  of  mU  and  ))otiitiM>H,  Hnx 
is  cultivated  to  tiie  nxtont  of  altout  5(HK(  ticros.  Tho  watt»rn  of  all  tho  liijjfli  fyroundH  How 
down  into  Louffh  Krno,  a  noblo  lako,  upwards  of  twenty  niiloH  in  lon^th.  It  in  MtuddtHJ  willi 
numerous  islands,  lovorod  with  Hnn  woods;  lotiff  wooded  pmmontorioH  are  wntn  xtriMiiltin^i^ 
&r  into  tho  waters;  and,  thou^^h  tho  iiumediatn  lH)rdera  of  the  lake  are  not  niountainouH, 
.oity  distant  oniinenccs  tbrm  the  (general  backf^nnmd  to  its  proHpoctM.  Castle  (valdwell,  Hid- 
turbet,  and  Belleisle  are  the  s|)ots  in  which  its  lamuties  are  peculiarly  cDocentrated.  The 
chief  town  is  Enniskillen,  doli^htfully  situatoil  on  an  island,  accessible  oi  ly  by  two  op|K>site 
bridges;  tliis  site  enabled  it  to  make  its  noble  stand  against  the  army  of  .ames  II. 

Donegal  includes  a  (^reat  extent  of  tlie  notth-western  coast  of  Ireland,  t\ill  of  (Uxtp  Imys 
and  tine  harlmura.  In  its  interior,  however,  it  consists  almost  entirely  of  mountain,  niosn, 
and  moor,  with  only  a  tbw  productive  valleys.  It  is  otlen  called,  witli  some  adjoining  din- 
tricts,  "the  black  north  ot  Ireland."  Distillation  forms  an  active  branch  of  its  iiiduMtry. 
Liiibrd,  its  small  county  town,  stands  on  the  Foyle,  upon  the  borders  of  Deny.  Ilnllyslmii- 
non,  almost  at  the  opposite  extremity,  is  a  thriving  town,  beautifully  situated  on  the  channel 
by  which  Lough  Err.o  (lours  its  waters  into  tho  Atlantic.  Kaphoe  is  a  celebrated  opiscoiNil 
see,  but  now  only  a  decayed  village. 

Derry,  or  Ijondonderry,  a  large  and  fine  county,  is  crossed  by  a  range  of  mnnntains,  whose 
principal  peaks  are  from  l(HM)  to  15(H)  feet  high,  and  a  considenihle  |Nirt  of  whose  surfnce 
consists  of  heath  and  hog.  There  are,  however,  fme  valleys,  and  extensive  plains,  which 
are  cultivated  with  some  diligence,  but  according  to  that  system  of  minute  subdivision  which 
is  the  bane  of  Irish  agriculture.  The  linen  manufacture  flourishes  in  full  vig«inr,  chiefly 
according  to  the  Irish  system,  among  tlie  little  farmers  and  cotters,  who  combine  it  with  the 
cultivation  of  a  few  acres.  Londonderry  is  a  fine  city,  situated  at  the  point  where  the  Foyle, 
after  traversing  a  great  part  of  this  county  ami  that  of  Tyrone,  tiills  into  the  bnxul  basin  of 
Lough  Foyle.  It  is  ancient,  being  tho  theatre  of  remarkable  events  oven  in  tho  time  of  the 
Danes.  In  1(108,  after  the  attainder  of  O'Noale,  it  was  granted  by  James  I.  to  tho  citizens 
of  London,  whence  it  derived  tho  first  part  of  its  name.  Hut  its  ciiief  distinction  was  from 
the  siege  sustained  by  tho  city  in  1690-1,  against  the  united  threes  of  Irolantl  under  James 
II.  liondondorry  ^s  comnosed  of  four  main  streets  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles,  and 
surrounded  still  by  its  ola  walls  in  fitll  repair,  serving  rather  for  ornament  than  defence.  It 
lias  an  ancient  Gothic  cathedral,  and  some  liandKoine  modern  edifices.  It  is  now  sup))ortod 
by  an  extensive  commerce,  tor  which  Iioiigh  Foyle,  though  its  entrance  is  somewhat  impeded 
by  a  iMir,  affords  a  simcious  and  secure  harbour.  Its  chief  intercourse  is  with  the  United  States 
and  the  West  Indies,  to  which  it  exptirts  the  linen  manufactured  in  this  part  of  the  country. 
Coleraine  is  a  well-built  town  on  the  Bann,  which  flows  from  liough  Neagh,  and  on  which 
is  the  most  extensive  salmon  fishery  in  tho  island  ;  but  the  rapidity  of  tho  stream  obsti  nets 
tho  navigation  uowards. 

Antrim,  occupying  the  north-eastern  corner  of  tho  kingdom,  opposite  the  coast  of  Heothuid, 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  districts  of  Ireland,  in  reganl  to  natural  features  as  well  iih  to 
commerce  i^.vA  industry.  A  great  i)art  of  tlie  surface  consists  of  rugge<l  mountains,  (Com- 
posed chiefly  of  rociv  and  ;t:oss,  and  even  its  best  soils  are  scarcely  available  for  agricultnnil 
puriwses  (ill  improved  by  tlie  use  of  the  lime  with  v;hich  tiie  country  al)oim<lH.  The  moiin- 
tainfj,  where  they  face  tlie  ocean,  are  broken  into  vast  perpendicular  precipices,  exhibiting 
the  hnsultic  columnar  form  on  a  grander  scale  than  exists  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 
Of  these  objects,  the  Giant's  Causeway  (fiff.  IWl.)  is  the  most  celebrated  and  tnagniliccnt. 

Three  natural  piers  or  moles,  4(M)  tent 
in  height,  here  stretch  out  into  tlie 
sea,  and  are  visible  iiIkivo  the  wiitcr 
for  alMjiil  •)(«)  yards.  The  wails  are 
coin|M)He(l  of  dark  basaltic  coliimiis,  of 
the  tnost  regular  form,  and  so  closely 
united,  that  only  tho  blade  cf  a  knife 
can  be  thriiKt  between  tliein.  Eiich 
column  is  distinct  from  the  .rtiiers,  and 
divided  into  jointed  |M»rtitnH,  as  per- 
fect as  if  art  had  formed  them;  tlicre 
being  in  each  part  a  projection,  which 
18  lodged  in  a  corresponding  concavity  or  socket  of  the  one  contiguous.  The  coast  eastward 
of  the  causeway  is  composed  of  a  succvission  of  capes,  presenting  the  most  sublime  scenery ; 
dark  precipitous  cli!?s,  rising  regularly  in  gradually  retiring  strata,  iuid  rbrmed  into  various 
broken  colonnades  which  might  suggest  the  idea  of  jialaces  overwhelmed  in  ruins. 
Otiicr  striking  features  distinguish  the  coast  of  Antrim.     Conspicuous  above  all  otliors  is 


Tho  Giant'i  CauKWiiy. 


Part  IH. 

toll  in  niiy  otiior 
III,  IjHiuloiulorry, 

)t'  iiioiiiitiuii  niid 
lui  )N)tiitiM>H,  l!n.x 

,'ll    RTIIIHUU   How 

t  in  Ntiiililixl  Willi 
Ht'oii  8ln>l(!liinj|f 
ot  niitiitittiinouH, 
a  OhMwoII,  H«|. 
;ontrHf.t»(l.  Tlio 
by  two  oi)|>»)»ii(( 

lOH  II. 

lill  of  (Imtp  bnyH 
inoiintaiii,  inoM, 

0  ndjoinin^  diH- 
of  ita  iiulimtry. 
ry.     Hiiilyslmii. 

1  on  tliu  clwtiHiol 
bratod  o|iitic(i|)itl 

lotiiitainH,  whoso 
f  whoso  Hiirtiivn 

0  pliiinn,  wliirii 
ibdivinion  which 

viffour,  chiefly 
ibiiio  it  with  the 
^horo  tho  Foylo, 

1  bnxul  biiflin  of 
tho  tiino  of  tho 
.  to  tho  citixoim 
notion  was  from 
1(1  under  Jiunos 
(fht  iiiifirloR,  and 
an  dofonco.     It 

now  snpiKirtod 
lowhat  impeded 

0  Unito<l  Stiitfs 
of  tho  country. 
,  and  on  which 
Team  olMtiucta 

fist  of  Hcotiiind, 
(•Has  well  MM  to 
lonntaiiiH,  coin- 
f()r  ajfricultjinil 
H.  Tlin  moim- 
icoH,  (>xhibitiiijr 
r  tho  world, 
id  innjjiiidccnt. 
mol(>H.  4(M»  fi'f^t 
h  out  into  tho 
Mivo  thn  vviitcr 
Tho  wallH  (in.' 
Itic  coIiimnK,  of 
and  80  closely 
liuln  cf  a  knitb 

1  tliom.  Eiich 
tho  others,  anil 
)rti<.nH,  au  pi  r- 
d  tlioin;  tliero 
ejection,  which 
coast  eastward 
l)liino  scenery; 
ed  into  various 
'uins. 

ve  all  otiiors  is 


Hook  I. 


IRKLANR 


Wm 


I'Virhfiiid,  called  nlno  Itonmoro ;  a  pnimontory  which  forms  nnarly  thn  iiorth-rnstern  |HMnt  of 
IrnlAnd.  It  conNists  of  n  vast  nuiNM  of  enlmnnnr  KroiMistone,  roiriixmin);  a  miiiiil  nreeipicn 
nidoly  columnar,  nnd  VUM)  foot  liiKii.  At  ilj<  foot  liits  a  cIiiioh  of  hii)fo  niasseri  oi'  rocli,  IioiiihmI 
togotlior  in  tho  wildost  conttision,  and  tormintf  n  scene  of  ruin  tho  Hwt\il  ifniudeur  of  wliicli 

has  Hcarcidy  a  (uirallel,  A((ainst  this 
the  <«ea  heaves  in  a  solemn  miijestio 
swell,  the  petMiliiir  altniiiite  of  the  At» 
lantio  waters.  ('arricl(.ii-He(le(,//^,y'^*JI,) 
is  a  Hinall  island  com|Nised  of  a  mass  of 
Imsalt,  imperfectly  formed  intocolmmis, 
Me|Hirate(l  fVoin  the  continent  by  ii  chnNm 
of  sixty  feet.  The  tlshurmrn,  howovfir, 
have  occanion  to  resort  to  it  with  tho 
view  of  placintf  netjt  to  inlorcept  th« 
salmon ;  to  reium  it,  therel!)re,  they  hav«) 
oonstnicti^d  a  darin|i(  and  sinuiiliir  lirid|iri«, 
tiirnKMl  of  two  strcHi)^  parallel  ciibles  ILxiul 
TluN  slight  )M)nt.a({o  in  subject  to  violent 


Cnirluk  ii'lliiiln, 

to  each  sido,  with  planks  inserted  hotwoim  them. 

mnvonionts,  and,  if  not  Judi(WoiiNly  triNldtm,  may  precipitatn  the  iNiswtiifror  into  the  abyKN} 

but  tho  fishermen,  accustomed  to  tread  it,  carry  ^reat  huids  across  withtMit  tho  slitflitest 


opprohonsion.     Heveral  of  tho  procipitous  cliffs  am  adornod  with  the  riiinM  of  ancient  <ioiti(<«, 

lonu'  ridjre  of 
an  almost  insulated  rock,  which  pr(<setits 


tho  ((randost  of  wiiich  is  Dunluco  {Jiff.  22!$.),  whoso  extonsivo  area  covers  the  lonu'  ridjri 


Diiiiliion  OiMtla. 


its  perpi<ndi(Milar  liice  to  tho  ocean.  M'lio 
walls  enclose  the  ontiro  siirtUce  of  I  lie 
rock,  and  rise  up  iin  a  continuiitnni  ol'  its 
nrecipilouN  sides.  In  one  |)lare,  the  nx-ky 
niise  haviii((  f^iven  way,  thif  a|)artmeiit 
aliovo  actually  overhan^cH  tho  sen. 

HidliiHt,  th(>  xriind  emporium  of  the 
north  of  Ireland,  lias  risen  to  (freiitiiefM 
by  rapid  Ht.e|)S.  Currickferi^iis,  by  irieiitm 
of  piM-iiliar  privileifcs,  i;iono|ioliHcd  nil 
the  trade  of  tiiis  part  of  Indand,  till  tlioiio 
privil('((eM  were  boiiKlit  up  by  the  llnrl 
of  Htralliird.  The  cartw^r  of  coiii|)ctilioii 
was  then  opened  to  HeiliiHt,  and  sho  (^rndiially  outstripped  all  her  rivals.  In  HMHI,  tlm  town 
contained  iilKHit  rtfjIM)  inhidiitantM.  At  |)reHent  the  popiiliition  is  fiM.fHM),  excliiHive  of  ii  Inrife 
suburb  in  the  county  of  Down.  The  linen  mamifacture  is  very  llourishin((  at  ilitllJiHi,  mid 
that  of  cotton  is  rapidly  ext.('n(linK;  besides  which  tlieri-  are  vii.i!>us  minor  liibrics.  <'oiii- 
inerce,  howBV«!r,  is  tlio  main  Hourc.o  of  its  wealth.  Tic  linen  fiibri(ts  of  the  north  are  liirj'ily 
exported,  alonsj  with  oalH,  oatmeal,  and  suited  provisiMis;  the  entire  vuIik!  of  which,  in  I'^ld, 
amounted  to  2,f)0(MHW)'.  The  duties  of  customs,  which  in  IH()|  wen;  lH%\\W.,  bud  riMiii 
in  IH'JH  to  2r)(>,(M >().'.  llelfast  l.oU(,'h  llinris  a  iiotle  and  secure  buy,  nnd  the  chiinnel  iil  tlm 
mouth  of  the  Lajyaii  bus  been  so  deepened  by  art,  tbnl,  v<!SH(dn  (lriiwiii(jf  Ibirteen  feet  wiil"i 
cim  come  close  to  the  wharves.  IHtast  is  m<»ct.lv  built  of  brick  ;  but  H.'venil  iiublic  edilice., 
re(!(mtly  erected,  the  ('omiiKTcial  lluildiu^fs,  tfie  iVliisi'uni,  Ht.  <leor/r»!'s  ('hiircb,  iVc,  nre 
ernanuMited  with  pillars  of  freestone.  Heltiist  has  sevenil  coiumercini  and  literary  iiisliln- 
tioiis;  and  in  IHiO,  the  Royal  AciuK=mic;il  (/'olie(re,  n  seminary  on  ::n  extensive  scale,  vvim 
fouiidi^d. 

The  other  towns  of  Antrim  can  IkiiisI  little  more  than  niiiues  kur>wu  in  history.  Antnin 
itself  h(i.H  lost  its  former  im|«)rtanco,  tJioii/^h  beaiitiililly  situated  near  tbc  ((rent  Imdy  of  wider 
calb^d  l/juffh  Neii(;b,  which  covers  aUait  KMMMMI  Kn^flish  acris,  and  liorders  on  five  eouii- 
tjcH, — Armagh,  Tyrone,  l,<indond<!rry,  Dov.'u,  and  Aiit.riiti.  Its  (bit  shores  |miss(!nh  little  of 
intirrest  ctr  beimty  ;  and  its  overflowmj^s  have  corivertf^l  into  liii|(  alMsit  (H},iMA)  aci*(;s  round  it. 
(^arricktfjrjjus,  at  the  mouth  of  Utdfast  l.^iiiifh,  is  a  very  amneiit  t/»wn,  oncct  Oks  'fir.poriiirn 
'liid  kt!y  of  northern  Ireland,  but  it  has  yiidded  the  pii''u  of  commci'ce  entirely  U>  Hellimt,, 
nnd  is  supported  only  by  beini^  tlu!  county  town  and  n  ■  rt.tid  to  as  a  wnferin;(-place.  Lis- 
Uirn  is  a  pri)Hp(!rouM  town,  with  a  marnifactun!  (tf  damnsk. 

Down  is  a  fine  county,  pcMietrat.ed  by  sevenil  initre  lakes,  ns  those  of  Stran>?fbrd  and  dir- 
liiifrford.  Tlie  Inst  of  these  receives  tho  Newry,  which  coinmunicates  by  n  canal  witl.  l/mrh 
Nea,'/b.  The  Moiirnt!  mountains,  on  thi;  siMithern  border,  exceed  iitXHt  feet  in  li'itflit,  nnd 
form  a  conspicuous  object;  but  a  Inr^re  <!xt."nt  of  the  county  is  levid,  and  a  (greater  jiropor- 
tion  is  under  tillnrre  than  piistiirairr!.  Tbr>  c,ornbinatif)n  of  faitnin!*  and  weavinir  exists  in  a 
remarknbli!  de^reo ;  and  the  lineii  fabrics  un.  nnt  only  extensive,  but  sonit!  (»f  tlujin  very  (iii<!. 
Of  late,  bow«)ver,  those  of  cotton  have  /^raimid  a  pi('fer<!nce  in  many  districts.  I/ovvn.  or 
Downpatrick,  celobrat(j(l  in  tradition  an  the  burial-olaco  of  the  patron  mint,  in  tf  m<Ki(!ral« 


4eo 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PaetITI. 


dimensions,  and  its  public  buildings  respectable.  Newry  is  larger  and  more  flourishing. 
These  advantages  are  owing  to  its  situation  in  the  bay  of  Carlingford,  and  its  canal  comniu* 
nication  with  Lough  Neagh,  which  enable  it  to  export  the  linen  manufactures  and  provisions 
produced  in  an  extensive  district  It  is  ancient,  but  in  1689  was  reduced  to  ashes  by  Mari 
shal  Berwick ;  so  that  it  is  now  quite  a  new  town.  Donaghadec,  a  considerable  port,  with  a 
large  substantial  quay,  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  fcrrv  between  it  and  Portpatrick,  the 
shortest  sea  communication  with  Britain,  and  by  which  packets  are  despatched  and  live  stock 
in  very  great  quantities  conveyed  over. 

Armagh  is  also  a  fine  and  agreeable  county.  In  general  it  is  only  pleasingly  diversified 
with  little  hills,  the  bogs  are  no  more  than  requifiite  for  supplying  fuel,  and  only  a  small  part 
Is  left  unproductive.  Both  culture  and  manufacture  are  prosecuted  with  great  activity. 
The  linens  produced  in  1824  were  reputed  at  568,0002.,  exceeding  a  fifth  of  the  produce  of 
the  whole  kingdom.  Annagh,  the  capital,  was  celebrated  in  the  early  history  of  Ireland 
as  one  of  its  most  extensive  and  populous  cities,  and  hrs  always  been  the  ecclesiastical  me- 
tropolis of  the  kingdom.  The  Augustine  monastery,  and  the  college  attached  to  it,  ranked 
for  a  long  time  among  the  most  celebrated  institutions  in  Europe  for  religion  and  learning ; 
the  latter,  it  is  said,  could  once  bopst  of  7000  students.  Armagh  sunk,  however,  under  suc- 
cessive ravages  by  the  Danes,  the  English,  and,  finally,  the  Irish  insurgents  under  O'Neale, 
and  fell  into  decay ;  but  by  good  fortune  had  for  its  primate  Dr.  Richard  Robinson,  to  whose 
iiiuniflcent  exertions  is  ascribed  its  revival  and  its  having  become  one  of  the  prettiest  little 
cities  in  Ireland.  To  him  Armagh  is  indebted  for  the  repair  of  its  cathedral,  for  a  library, 
and  an  observatory.  The  linen  market  is  well  supported  by  the  flourisliing  state  of  the 
manufacture  in  Armagh.  The  only  other  place  of  consequence  is  I^urgan,  a  thriving  manu- 
fiicturing  town. 

The  three  counties  of  Tyrone,  Monaffhan,  and  Cavan  occupy  a  groat  proportion  of  the 
interior  of  Ulster,  and  present  a  very  uniform  aspect ;  a  considerable  extent  of  mountain  and 
bog,  fertile  plains,  rude  cultivation,  and  the  linen  manufacture.  O'Neale,  Earl  of  Tyrone, 
was  long  one  of  the  most  formidable  enemies  of  the  English  power.  Omagh  is  the  county- 
town  of  Tyrone,  but  is  not  so  considerable  as  Dungannon,  a  large,  populous,  and  handsome 
place,  once  the  chief  seat  of  the  O'Neales ;  but  this  powerful  castle  was  demolished  by  the 
oarliamentary  forces.  Strabane  is  also  a  populous  place,  finely  situated  on  the  Foyle. 
Moiiaghan  and  Cavan  are  both  tolerable  county-towns,  which  alone  possess  any  importance 
in  their  respective  shires.  , 


FINANCES  OF  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM. 

L  Income  for  the  year  1834. 
CiiBtoma i:2i,ns,g3o 

Excise ]6,7.5(>,710 

,4H2,755 
,t)fi7.:i.50 
,319,!IH0 
*56,1I8 
60,000 
,007,  l!« 
6J8,73« 


Stamps  and  Hackney  Coaches,  &c 7. 

Taxes 4 

Post  Office 2, 

Misccllannniis a , 

East  India  Company 

■     id. 1, 


Balance  on  ham 
Repayments 


i;53.450,571 

II.  Expenditure  for  the  year  18o4^ 

Payments  out  ofthegroim  Heietiue. 

Drawhacks,  Bi-pavnu'iits,  4.c jC2 004,296 

Charires  of  Collection,  &c 3,582,035 

Miscellaneous TSr'.SlO 


0,525,741 
Paid  a!  the  F.rr/ifijjer. 

Interest  ano  Mnnsfrement  of  Permanent  Debt J{4,ISS,879 

Terniiiinble  Annuities 3,0A,)<)23 

Interest  on  Exchequer  Rills 691,2fl4 

Rii8si.in  fjoan.  raised  in  Holland 100,810 

Civil  Lis 


list 

Civil,  Naval,  Military  aad  Judicial  Anouitie*  anJ  Penaioiia. 

Salaries  and  Allownnci^s 

Diplomatic  Salari«>«  and  Pensions 

Courts  of  Justice 

Mint 


Army 6, 

Navy , 4 

Orilnnnce 1 

Misrelln  neons 2 

Advances  for  Piililic  Work! 2, 


510,000 
502,310 
162,030 
1HI,448 
4X(,fll0 

,403,025 
,503.010 
,00P,293 
,:<35,5n0 
,0I4,51S 


Tof«l  Expenditure je53,44l,0a» 

III.  Public  Debt—Januuri,   L(*\A.  CiiMrfif  for  IBIiS 

Piir.dedBrV i,7Sl,iis8,l<r3  XT  7«2.!16 

I/uflinded  Debt 2'<.!H)ri,!)00  770,761) 


Totals. 


.jer;o,SG5,783 


,£9e,Mi,eea 


PaetITT. 

lore  flourishini;, 
a  canal  comniu« 
sand  provisions 

0  ashes  by  Mar-i 
ib!e  port,  with  a 
Portpatrick,  tlie 
;d  and  live  stock 

ngly  diversified 
nly  a  small  part 

great  activity. 

uie  produce  of 
story  of  Ireland 
desiastical  me- 
ed to  it,  ranked 

1  and  learning ; 
iver,  under  sue- 
under  O'Neale, 
(inson,  to  whose 
B  prettiest  little 
1,  for  a  library, 
ig  state  of  the 
thriving  manu- 

■oportion  of  the 
>f  mountain  and 
Earl  of  Tyrone, 
'»  is  the  county- 
,  and  handsome 
nolished  hy  the 
on  the  Foyle. 
any  importance 


1,118,090 

50,716 

',4(12,753 

!,;n9,iiw) 

*5B,118 

60,000 

,n07,l!« 

6)8,738 


BiOOK   I. 


TRADE  OF  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM. 


Ml 


l,4SC,.Wl 


,525,741 

,!5f<,879 

,</,.<  >m 

6!»l,eS4 
100,810 
010,000 
509.310 
162,030 
181,448 
43:<,fllO 
14,8.Vi 
,403,025 
,503.010 
.0(i8,223 

:<;t5..5no 


I.  Account  of  tho  Omcia)  and  of  the  Real  or  Dvclarcd  Valu«  of  Die  principal  Artlclef  of  Britiili  Produco  uA 
Manufacture  exported  in  18X2,  1833,  and  1834.— (From  the  Annual  Finance  Book  fur  ldil5,  pp.  Ittl— 128.) 


AiUelM. 


DnM  and  coppm-  nuDufactUTM 
I  otiDii  iiuiiiufaclurM   -••... 

. yarn 

Ilarilwam  antl  cutlery 

Iruu  »iid  htMl,  wnHisbtandun* 

\vn>u<hi - 

Linen  ui  inufacturei  -  • 

—  yam  .-...--•---. 

Salt 

Silk  niiauruturd 

{yiap  .'\nil  ciiullei.  ..•■••■. 

Su«ar,  relined 

Tin,  wnmsbt  and  anwrought  * 

Wixii.  iheep'i 

VVuolJeii  and  wonted  yam  •  >  • 
Wojlleu  manufaclurea  -  -  -  • 
All  other  arUdei 

TtMt 

Whereat  from  Oreal  Britain  •  ■ 
Fnm(  Ireland  •  • 


Official  Value.* 


|g 


L.  I.  d. 

1,IM,M6  IB    3 

37,II0a,4M)  10    4 

6,7M,5(n  17    8 

878,381  17    1 


9,4(«,lli3  18 

a,78>,M9  13 

»,8»B    7 

363,824  19 

'    475,l«»  19 

348,2)16    8 

l,S»il,48»    9 

^,1M  10 

149,991  12 

I2ii,l24  19 

0,666,1194    8 

4,232,981     I 


85,026,701  II    0 


64382,037    9    7 
444,865    I    6 


1833. 


C          I.  d. 

1,019384  II  6 

40,133,343    2  3 

M79,078    6  8 

986,6al    4  7 

3,600,363  14  3 

3,680,539    0  8 

60,125  18  6 

392,063    7  8 

696,324    0  8 

463,910  17  S 

893,131  14  4 

871,834    3  4 

1-6479  12  3 

119^191    3  9 

7,7e8,8«i    6  3 

4,978,«48  II  II 


69,969,339  13    8 


69,633,853  16    1 
356,486  17    7 


1(34. 

L.         t.  d. 

\,0»fi»'    t  4 

44j2ti6,9Uf  13  0 

6ia£237  18  8 

047^8  18  11 

3,e2i,6;a  g  8 

3,860,783  14  6 

83,189  10  9 

371,489  19  10 

633,688    9  7 

383,198  10  0 

1,141,686  14  4 

870,115  18  10 

81,383  17  IC 

99,933  11  9 

6,614,700    3  10 

4,878,680    I  8 


73,831,660  IS    4 


DecUred  Value. 


73,495,635  11    3 
33a,0lj    4    I 


1832. 

L.  i7d~ 

WMVi  I  5 

12,676,tS2  e  6 

4,722,759  3  8 

1,434,431  7  11 

1,190,747  13  10 

1,774,728  13  9 

8,106  7  0 

r  148,878  1  6 

639,990  10  10 

316,644  18  3 

1,0^789  10  0 

366,356  9  3 

319,660  I  0 

836,307  7    6 

j,844Ji8  II  8 

6,632,290  II  9 


36,444634  18    7 


36,016,027  11     6 
39D,497    7    3 


L.  I.   ■/. 

U»t,l49    4    9 

I3,78'.,:i76  17    6 

4,701,(*4    9    I 

\,mp&\  13  II 

1,406,084  19  3 

3,187,023    7  I 

73,008    6  0 

184,175  10  3 

787,403  17  10 

3SI,2M  19  1 

663,l»2    4  3 

369,183    0  3 

332,503  17  4 

246,204    0  0 

8,294,433    3  9 

6,097,113    0  3 


39,667,347    8    6 


39,305,613  19    8 
361,834    8    U 


IU4. 

L.    I.  i 

«6I,IB3    3  II 

15,303,571    7  1 

6,211X14  17  8 

1,486,333    I  I 

l,408,f<7S  3  I 
iMSjM  18  7 
1381313  II  » 
163,186  14  10 
637,108  6  4 
363.972  4  II 
8 
6 
I 


916,391 
370382  II 
193,176  14 
338,643  16 
6,736,870  II 
6,194458    I 


41,649,191    9    8 


41,288^94    S    8 
383,697    4    0 


II.  Account  of  the  Real  or  Declared  Value  of  the  various  Articles  of  the  Manufacture  and  Produce  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  exported  to  Foreign  Countries  during  tlit-  eight  years  ending  with  18.34 ;  t^\Kd(y'u\s  their  Value,  th« 
Countries  to  which  exported,  and  the  Value  of  those  annually  shipped  for  each.— (Papers  pubti$htd  by  Board  qf 
Trade,  vol.  iv.  p.  287.) 


Countrloi  to  nhich  exported. 


Runia 

Sweden  .---.. -•• 

Norvviiy 

Dennrarlc 

I'ru.si.i --• 

Gemiaiiy 

Holland 

Rel|(iiiai  .--.•.---"■--••" 

France .,..-.•---. 

Por!'.i^aI,  Proper 

Azotra 

Madeira  .....----• 
S|nin  and  the  Balearic  Illandf  •  •  • 

i:  irary  latanda  .-••  ■ 

Gjbrallar 

Italy  And  tlte  Italian  lalandi 

M.illa 

Idni.in  Islandi ••• 

Tufkry  and  Continental  OrMca  (ex- 
cluiit'u  of  the  .Morea) 

Mnrc-i  .lid  Greek  Islands 

Keyijt  (I'lirts  on  the  Mediterranean) 

'Iripoli,  Hartary,  and  Morocco     -- 

Western  roast  of  Africa 

Cape  nl'dooA  Hope 

Ca|Ki  V,rd  IsUnds 

St.  11,1,-iia 

Isle  of  flDiirbon 

Mainitius 

Ariljia 

F.ast  luilii  Company's  Terrilaria 
anil  t  eyion 

China 

Siinntra  aiKl  Java  .  -  •  •  - 

Ptiilipptn.-  Islands 

New  South  Wales,  Van  DiemenVi 
Land,  ;uid  Swan  Kiver 

New  Zealand, and  South  Sea  Islands 

htrts  of  siain 

Britiili  North  American  Cnlonio- 

Briliili  Wist  ludiei 

Ilavti 

CuU  Aih\  Other  Foreign  West  Indies 

L'oiteil  .Sti'fr,  of  America 

Mexico  ................ 

GiMleoinla •-' 

Colondji, 

Bn/ii        

Stales  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata 

Chili 

Pe^  u ,  .  .  .  . 

Isles  of  Guernsey,  Jcraey,  Alderney, 
and  Man 


Exports. 


1827. 


L. 

1,408,970 
46,731 
39,129 
104,916 
174,338 

4,654,618 

2,104,681 

446,952 

1,400,044 

eS^687 

39916 

825,414 

48,821 

1,046,266 

l,»t'2,762 

200,949 

37,198 

;     631,704 

63,824 

8,201 
155,759 
3I6J38 
76 
41,430 
137 
196,713 


1838. 


3,682,012 

610,6.17 
120.717 
85,826 

339,968 
172 


1,318,936 

42,699 
63,^82 
111,880 
179,146 
4,394,104 

2,142,736 

498,938 
946,016 

87,940 

39,802 
301,153 

38,132 

1/138,105 

2,178,149 

239,4r,8 

41,078 

186,842 

335 

36,3(n 
13.745 
191,452 
218,049 
5,8.56 
31,362 
36,t88 
185,972 


lj«29. 


1830. 


L. 

1,433,805 
38J^52 
&t,2U 
95,'247 
189,011 

4,473,o65 

2,050,014 

491,388 
1,196,404 
31,244 
40,'2S3 
88l,li75 
60  010 
604,163 
2,203,030 
234,010 
80,165 

668,884 


69,30.1 


4,256,5a2 


189,200 

443,839 

2,487 


Totab. 


1,397J50 

3,.'kS3,2Z2 
2.57,931 
649,378 

7,018,272 

693,800 

1,943 

213,972 

2,312,109 
154,895 
400,134 
228,466 

320,969 


87,181,335 


1X91,044 

3,289,704 

24S,3'28 

jro,72f< 

6,910,315 

307,029 

6,191 

361,113 

3,518,297 
312,389 
709,371 
374,ei5 

329,428 


36,812,766 


244,233 

237,601 

240 

45^531 

16;341 

206,658 


3,659,218 


2a6,885 
4,721 

S10,6>-8 
843 


l,58l,T23 

8,6t2.n8''> 

297,709 

en>,i-5 

4,823,415 
303,562 


232,703 
3,616,040 
758,540 
818,950 
300.171 

319,996 


36,842,828 


i. 
1,489,636 

40,488 
63,926 
118Jil3 
177,1123 
4,463,605 

3,033,458 

476,881 

1,106^686 

23,629 

38,444 

607,068 

42,620 

2ia,7t>0 

3,251,379 

1»»,I35 

66,963 

1,139,616 

0,694 
110,227 

1,138 
2.52,123 
330,006 

1,710 
38,015 
1 0.042 
161,029 


1831. 


3,896,530 


ll>2,102 
71,220 

314,677 

1,396 

10,467 

1,857,133 

3,838,448 

321,793 

6lr,029 

6,132,316 

978,441 


216,751 
2,453,103 
632,172 
640,626 
363,469 

344,uJ6 


38,271,697 


i. 

1,191,665 
67,127 
6S5tO 
93,294 
IM,H18 

3,642,962 

8,0:0,536 

602,688 
975,991 

41,0^8 

38  060 
697.S48 

33,282 

367,285 

2,4f(0,376 

134,319 

60,883 

888,664 

10,446 
122,832 
426 
234,768 
257,'245 
215 
39,431 


1832. 


1J87,250 
64,932 
34,528 

rajy6 

25K,,55« 
6,066,997 
2,789,398 

674,791 

640.793 
77,920 
26,038 

442.<.>26 
21,0.33 

461,470 

3,361,772 

96,994 

65,723 

915,319 

10,149 

113,109 

751 

290,061 

292,406 


148,476 


3,377,412 


285,296 
39,613 

398,471 

4,758 


2,089,327 
3,681,910 
^76,103 

663,531 
9,053,5SJ 

728,868 


248,250 
1,238,371 
339,870 
651,617 
409,003 

324,634 


37,164,372 


21,236 
163,191 


3,514,779 


150606 
102,284 

466,238 
1i;676 


2,076,726 

2,439,S08 

643,104 

633,-00 

5,468,272 

199,821 


283,668 
5,144,903 
660,152 
708,193 
275,610 

317,466 


36,450,594 


1834. 


L. 

1,531,002 

69,649 

65,038 

99.<l.31 

144,179 

4,353,548 

2,181,893 

886,429 

848,333 

967,091 

64,430 

33,411 

442,817 

30,307 

3f>.5,4W 

2,316,260 

135,438 

38.916 

1,019.604 

25,914 
146,6.17 
2,350 
329,210 
346,197 
146 
30,041 


83.424 


3,406,301 


471,713 
186|298 

&!;8,372 
936 


2,092^30 

2,597,589 
381628 
677,228 

7,579,699 

421,487 

3,700 

121826 

2,575,380 
615,362 
816,817 
387,524 

336.934 


39,667,347 


L. 

1,382,300 

63,094 

61,988 

94,696 

136,423 

4Ji47,168 

2,470 ,287 

750,068 

1,116,886 

1,600,123 

63,278 

38,4.56 

325,607 

30,686 

460,719 

8^282,777 

^,6G6 

94,498 

1,207,941 

37,179 

158,877 

14,823 

326,483 

304,383 

630 

31,616 

7,091 

149,319 

350 

3,678,669 

842,832 

410,273 

7^618 

718,014 

19,742 

1,671,069 

2,680,024 

337,3»7 

913,005 

8,844,989 

459,610 

30,366 


3,460,879 

831,564 

896J221 

299,2)6 


41,649,191 


*  '<  he  rate  m  which  all  arti  'leg  of  export  and  import  are  officially  valued  was  fixed  in  1606,  but  an  accrunl  of 
the  real  or  declared  value  of  '.he  exports  is  also  prepared ;  there  is,  however,  no  such  account  of  the  imports,  and 
UKrefore  tlM  .r  official  value  alune  can  be  given. 

39* 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


1 1 


pakt  in. 


III.  Account  of  the  Quantitiei  of  the  Principal  Article!  of  Foreign  and  Colonial  Merehandiie  imported  Into, 
expiirttHi  flrom,  and  retained  (kit  Convuinptlon  in  the  United  Kingdom,  with  the  Nett  Revenue  accruing  thereon 
during  the  Yourt  ended  ilh  January,  1634,  and  ie35.—{Paptrt puMtktd  »y  Beard  qf  Trtit,  vol.  iv.  pp.  l»-ig.) 


DMeripllnn  of  MnckudiM, 


QuuliUw  importaiL 


ins. 


1894. 


((uuUUm  nixwteiL 


1838. 


IB34. 


QuiDtlllM  raUiMd  for 
CoQNinplioD. 


lUS. 


ItM. 


NMt  BnniM. 


IKU. 


BuilU  ud  ilktU  •  • 


Buk  Ibr  Uiinlii(  or 

<ly»iu| 

Cotto,  vit  I— 

Hriilih  iiUntilloa 

Kul  India  :iiii]  Mkuriliui  - 
Foreif  a  pUntiilluo  •  >  .  ■  - 

ToUta- 


•Ibt. 


CooM Ita. 

Hufki  and  thcIU — 

C'nttoD  wool  fruni  forelga  oountries 
-It :-  '  ^ 

I'li.alShilaorADUnrln — 

B.jiil  -    - 

Turkey  kA  E|ypt — 

Other  foroitfii  crtuntriee — 

CoHoa  wool  troin  BrlUih  po«anioiii, 

UaM  Indies  xni  MiurlUia  ■  •  ■ .  — 
Briliah  Weal  India,  Um  irowth 

of — 

Briliili  vVeil  InJIei,  imported 

froin — 

Otbar  Britidi 


TdIJ  quutitiet  • 


'Itn. 


>  ton. 
.  owla. 


■  cwte. 


Ma,7n 
ii4,tn 

163,101 
8J3TJ,WJ0 

'!H,ae,iot 


4,008,718 
6I^S38 

BT,'W«,7i8 

Jlli,4tia,KII 

087,MI 

l,eM,IOll 

aji,TU,l84 

l,fi6$,l8B 

43I,«M 

ia>,e» 

300,666,837 


Indin 

JL«c  dy« 

Imcwind 

Mulder 

Madder  rooti 

FUx  and  low,  or  codilta  of  flax 

ud  hemp — 

Curruti .^— 

Lmioni  ud  oranffla cheala 

Raislu cwta. 

Hale  of  itraw No. 

Plaiting  of  ilriw lis. 

Hemp  undroMed cwtL 

HideiL  untuned,  tIi.  ;— 
Bun'ain,  bull,  ux,  cow,  nr  hone 
hides ewln 

Hidea,  tanned,  via.  i— 
Bulnta,  IhuI,  ox,  cow,  or  bone 
hide IIm. 

Lnatbar  liovea pain 

Molaaiea •••.  cwta. 

Oil— 

Oli« lallf. 

Film cwlii. 

Train,  ipermaceti  and  blubber  •  ■  tuns 

Saltpetiet  and  cubic  ai'.re cwti. 

Flax  ud  Uoaeed buahets 

Sllil- 

H«w Ibi. 

Walte  and  knubba — 

Caasia  Lignea   ■•  .- — 

Pepper — 

Pimento — 

Sunr,  vi7.  :— 

West  India 

East  IiKlia  and  Maunlioi 

Foreign — 

Tallow - 

Tea — 

Timber,  »i '.  :— 

Battena  and  batten  anda — 

Deal  and  deal  ende  ■  ■  ■  -  great  hund. 
Masts  ()  and  under  8  inchea  in  dia- 
meter   No. 

Maala  8  and  und*  12  inchea  in  dia- 
meter   — 

Masts  12  inchea  ud  uptrards  ■  ■  Ida. 

Oak  planks — 

StaTcj gt.  hund. 

Fir,  S  inches  aqnare  and  upwuils,laads 

Oak,  ditto 

Un^numenled,  ditto 

Wiinscnl  Inya,  ditto 

Tnbarco,  via. :  — 

Unmanufscluied lbs. 

Manufactured  or  legars — 

Snuir — 

Wno!,  iheepaid  bniba^ — 

Wine,  viz.  t  — 

CA[)e imp.  gal'r 

Fronch 

Piinu^l —^ 

Spanish 

Mstleira — 

fther  snrti 

All  sons 


6,6U,4a6 


96,080 
6IJ)S7 
61(663 

1,199,633 
141,638 
361,961 
198,314 

JLi,Vli3 

6n,46» 


66,701 

l,4iW,47i 

717,934 

1,801,918 
ie7,l»4 
32,876 
169,746 

2,179,136 

2,783,109 
C4»,4SI 
1,297,710 
8,729,552 
4,844,973 

3,665,821 
737,6.M 
346,018 

1,115,427 
32,067,832 

10,697 

65,796 

9,169 

S,13« 
4,416 
2,381 
63,896 
4e6,liS4 
27,622 
32,484 


i»,082,979 


3.>«4 
88,04«,097 

4S4,3<)4 

815,360 

2,2211.73:1 

3,3(;i'..'<IO 
301,11.7 

sn,76i 


04,134 
193,971 

849,300 

^,089,123 
9,991,141 
»,824,m7 


11,3(6 

2,4Ja 


354 

194,980 
3,096,097 
11,198,901 


«,IS6 
1,133 

i,IU 

768,946 
J03,6S2 
,177,972 


161,422 
119,609 

M4,n« 

ao,»41,l»4 

1,790,319 

1,471 


M,910 
180,490 

848,6SI 

22,334,073 

1.668,604 

9,418 


L. 
1,906 

I6.70S 
Drawbacks  k 
repayomU 


4l,ti66,lll 


I5,340y678 


16,360,460 


22,741,964 


21,789,W6 


8,984,894 
404,030 


9e9,308II7S 

19,291,396 

853,167 

2,260,862 

32,930^ 
l,«7321l 

624,314 

47,546 


336,876,436 


4,166,296 
708,999 
91,054 
72,004 
80^97 

811,723 
192,7)16 
266,3£1 
2I3,7» 
16,960 

49;n3 

673,811 


437,201 


80^262 
1697,944 

676,382 

2,318,143 
270,669 
86,334 
368,488 

3,310,237 

3,643,6!2 
i;012,9'.l 
2,068,836 
7,87.'  — 


7,075,340 
1,39^773 

3,844,243 

697,141 

2G8,C30 

1,387,407 

33,643,980 

i3,3ea 

«7,t06 

10^333 

S,853 
4,473 
2,738 
86^95 
488,4t>6 
a6,«»l 

4i,7e9 

3,031 

38,617,861 

969,8i^ 

164 

4e,45e,332 

484.208 
36:1,378 
4.2IU27 
3,44fi.lfl3 
a.-'.'.ilHS 
P^VTVI 


3,831,877 


^IOBs3l8 


1,268,387 
449,168 


I7,3«3,883 


3,6(4,814 

63,811 

7,046 

756 

37 

18,303 
10,664 

5,294 
.%I27 
66,093 

2,801 
32,17'; 


74^66 

10,460 

1,902 

397,367 

19,738 

2,083 

90,737 

662 

86,187 

1,341,546 

3,997,097 

3,810,384 

Rj 

36&590 

Keliu 

245,698 

39,245 

264,460 

60 
1,098 

484 

313 
466 

19 

3,081 

810 

42 

90 


24,461,963 


3,938,236 

88,234 

4,648 

1,637 


18,867 
1,460 

27,635 

33,96« 
2,833 

19,672 

H,13T 


4,964 

12,638 

3,078 

234,930 
80,4U 

3,727 
68,276 

7,523 

307,007 
1,680,350 
6,391,247 
1,799,143 

598,744 

401,044 

19,068 

1,181,005 


860 


210 
86 

2,634 
684 
32 
34 


ed. 


VOfiOfn 


439,672 
17,696 
73,186 
60,649 

1,113,190 
140,445 

319,147 
137,692 
31,468 
22,0-9 
613,6X1 

363,861 

48,678 

1,411,316 

643,886 

1,368,817 
31^23 
>  31,842 
160,236 

3,223,967 

4,417,027 

287,472 

77,067 

8,828,303 
330,246 


y  3,661,804 

1,090,766 
31,889,619 

12,384 
67,291 

8,766 

3,309 
4,833 
2,549 
66,480 
481,683 
87,23« 
33,111 


1,173,796 

443,786 


303,036,66; 


8,447,827 

383,474 

■  4,026 

70,951 

75,271 

794,8.1 
163,5Si3 
364,783 
147,467 
11,487 
35,470 
666,006 

342,718 


40,339 

1,603,828 

607,»80 

3,225,8;7 

364,606 

2l.4(i2 

815,963 

8,311,968 


8,060,963 

3:0,914 

'2,3i9 

442,606 

16,43*; 
90,540 
iM.V"7 

7.'2..1'» 
20".l'4 

3ii.2ri 


13,980,951 

873,360 

10,;i03 

807,362 

5,56« 
t2*,906 

aocivis 

«>'i,024 
17,r!!lo 
340.:i75 


j     7,443,841   I      9,-:U-.,ll6  !  _I,6!3>218.1._  '.639,121 


20,602.971 

143,856 

i:i8 

39,0«6,«2O 

545,191 
232.-,50 

Km  5,in 

8.246.  OS-. 
Idl  042 
4i8.B-2 


_fc20:  ,770  J      6,460.544 


100,182 

2,457,020 

383,751 


3,741,679 

1,1')0,180 
34,969,651 

13,660 
61,808 

9,996 

3^612 
3,191 
2,616 
83,186 
493,800 
86,8r>4 
40.362 
3,269 

21,048,924 

145,3S.5 

161 

40,840,871 

524.081 
2I10,M0 
2  7M13n3 
2.27'' SVI 
l'.0;ifi9 
4S-13CS 


Hl,141 


{       11,0W 


479,011 


29,781 
1,170 
3,498 

14.730 
3,721 

4,788 
311,063 
69,392 
149,196 
6,092 
18,768 
3,110 


39,087 


289,633 

49,743 

31,043 

1,781 

4,184 

13,933 

15,900 

893 

1,778 

111,174 


4,414,303 

171,606 
3,444,108 

116,316 
Ml,49t 


10,449 


10,14!) 

43,386 

437,62P 

33,77'i 


■  3,140,(86 

137,M6 

75.97;> 
63,183 


1.4(11  O?? 


I. 

1,(26 

OnaarcT. 

17,764 


88,87« 
•14,434 


11,778 


979,818 


92,066 
1,057 
2,942 
7,207 
1,892 

9,409 

142,180 
67,434 
132,878 
3,260 
80,915 
3,844 

31,769 

617 
39,963 
338,621 

46,365 
83,606 
1,559 
6,993 
13,890 

13,860 

450 

'2,196 

123,852 

6,726 


4,669,392 

182,998 
9,589,361 

129,774 
601,914 


9,819  I 


8,108 


10,442 

3((766 

44O.30D 

33,075 

10.170 

8,867 


3,223.648 

131.319 

72,046 
71,131 

l,.5e2.34l 
1,705,929  j 


Book  I. 


>      DENMARK. 


liie  imported  into, 
s  accruing  tbareon 
al.  iv.  pp.  1!>-19.) 


IV.  Account  of  the  Shipping  employed  in  the  Trode  and  Navigation  of  the  United  Kingdom  in  1H34;  ipeclfyini 
Ihi-  Nunibur  and  Tonnage  of  Veiieli  unlering  Inwards  and  clearing  Uulwardi  (Including  their  repeated  Voy- 
Mgei),  and  the  Ndmber  of  their  Orewi ;  leparating  Britiib  from  Foreign  Veneli ;  and  diillnguiihing  the  NavU 
gniiuti  with  each  Uuuutry, 


CouBiria. 


Siftdea 

Ntrmy 

Umiiurk 

PruiU 

Otrnuuit 

Hnllind  ■ 

Het|ium  ■...••• 

Francs    

ForluoJ,  Proper  •  -  • 

A/orai  •  -  ■ 

Mvlein  .  ■ 
SraJn  and  tiM  Ualauic 

Cwtry  lilandi 

OlknlUr 

Ildjr  and  Itilltn  Idandi  •  •  • 

M«hi 

loiiUn  UUrAi 

Turkey  k  Cnntinentel  Onaoa 
Monu  uid  Oreek  Mande  •  • 

Tripoli.  Barbinr,  k  Morooco 
Coaat  of  Afrlca,in)ni  Momceo 

to  the  Cape  of  Good  llopa 

Cape  of  0(x)(I  Hope 

Kaiteni  Coast  from  the  Cape 

.<r  Ooxl   Hope  to  Babel 

Kaulet 

Illtof  Bourbon    

Cape  de  Verd  lalaodi 
St.  Heleiu  and  ' 

Maurltiua 

Arabia 

Eaat  India  Company^  Ttni. 

toriM,  SiRfapore  fc  Ceylon 

SuBvitn 

China 

.lava 

Philippine  lilanU 

R)nior8iani 

New  South  tValea 

Britiah  Northern  Colonial.  • 

BrUlih  Went  India 

Hayli 


Cuba,  and  other  Foralan  Wait 
InJi 


Unjied  SUtaa 

Mexico 

Guatemala 

Colombia 

Biaaila •  .       •  • 

Siaiea  of  Rio  de  la  Flat*  •  •  • 

Chili 

Peru 

The  Whale  Fisheriea  •  -  ■  • 
Islca  of  Guernsey,  Jeraey,  and 

Mm 

Orectilaiid  (Ice)  ..--.-. 
Foreifo    parta    (not  diatin- 

gnished) •  -  • 


Tolala- 


Inward*. 


BritUi. 


aiupi. 

ijSn 
m 
n 

47 
199 
701 
1,011 
407 

'IS 

MS 

14 

487 

M 

88 

W7 

B 

02 

l« 

16 

« 

3S 

IS7 


IN 


tJKA 

tl8 

u 
» 

381 

36 

t 

S8 

140 
M 
tt 
15 

107 

8,360 
7 


ntfiia 

IM63 

<^ 

a,ii«i 

11,081 

115,878 

137,^6 

40,in5 

188,017 

S»,0.5 

13,338 

8,475 

4M54 

3,830 

3,780 

58,148 

i,o«a 

8,4« 


8JII 
1,184 
4,014 

38,313 
5,566 

138 


363 
10^900 


T^4«l 


3IU08 
1,901 
1,588 


18,400 

584,606 

846,«)» 

1,928 

7,153 
94,668 

6,803 
373 

7,459 
89,371 
10,130 

6,341 

8,788 
34,161 

146,543 
803 


13,903  I  8,898.863 


Afen. 

13,968 

164 

368 

376 

1,506 

5,5(n 

6,684 

3,265 

11,168 

MO 

IS 

8,586 

I9S 

307 

3,318 

m 

46J 

1,018 
131 
57 
300 

1,763 
330 


II 
1,073 


4,638 


8JI48 
85 


671 
83,970 
13,387 

113 

358 

4,078 

366 

17 

414 

1515 
536 
338 
167 


10,103 
'  61 


183 
618 
657 
557 
644 
646 
371 
1,403 
36 


6 

492 

8 


37 


136,727  I   6.li94 


•IS 


14,380 
^68 


4n 


378 


1,367 
304,539 

490 


1,074 


5,668 


Foreign. 


Timi, 
5«,I66 
35,810 
08,303 
53,383 
119,111 
45,471 
67,330 
43,683 
74>> 


Mm. 

3,78) 
1,731 
5,183 
3,138 
5,081 
3,558 
3,667 
3,860 
9,307 


710 
9 


54 

8,417 
83 


886 


833,905  I  45,897 


Shift. 

I,M 

101 

44 
336 
165 
719 
877 
373 
1,574 
60S 
116 

80 
341 

14 

34 
473 

to 

43 
140 
10 
14 

80 

161 
47 


3 
18 
33 
8 

197 
1 

16 
It 
3 
I 

90 

1,860 

900 

49 

67 
387 
83 

18 
176 
48 

88 
II 
99 

3,141 
3 


OutvanU. 


Briliah. 


Tau. 

817,376 

15,378 

4,ir 

66,700 

85  606 

117,964 

130^84 

34,051 

131,941 

61,618 

13,483 

X433 

361799 

3,711 

11,734 

71,076 

11,083 

6,763 

10,789 

1,158 

6,067 

li6M 

36,613 

9^146 


8,158 

9,193 

637 

90,833 

2T9 

8,887 

^766 

738 

337 

89,567 

603,303 

346,<ia9 

7,738 

16,756 

133,754 

6,608 

3,830 
41,154 
9,206 
6,533 
3.176 
33,014 

112,366 
331 

1,169 


i,396,M5 


9,941 

770 

883 

8,667 

1,316 

^«69 

5,847 

3,896 

12,361 

3,l>3a 

8W 

197 

8,176 

196 

648 

3,943 

645 

806 

1,166 

69 

393 

141 

3,091 
630 


14 
39 
119 
490 
33 

5,829 

^1 

633 

161 

46 

30 

1,756 

33,315 

13,836 

454 


6,217 
314 

303 

3,101 

613 

386 
136 

4,875 

8,941 
16 


Foreiin. 


5Mi 


Ik 

135 
641 
817 
436 
586 
597 
333 
1,303 
90 
8 

61 

I 

6 

60 

< 


II 

646 
2 


Tont. 
36,836 
3i,l74 
107,809 
86,710 
88,396 
48,865 
64,314 
36,369 
66,459 
16,833 
361 

•,49> 

93 

1,151 

13,947 

964 

19B 

100 


140 


1,476 
1,03 


331 

3,236 

B0,9I3 

490 


864 

too 


849 


47    164   20,660 


131,604  I  5,833  |  858,837 


I.Tll 
1^1 
6w406 

*tm 

3^17 
8,731 
3>01 
l,M3 
7,182 
%6 
U 

HO 
8 

6« 

ms 
II 


83 

146 

9,161 

84 


U 


113 


46,939 


J  ,029,229_[      1,705,»39  I 


]  CHAPTER  V.  ' 

DENMARK. 

Denmark  is  an  ancient  kingdom,  formerly  very  powerful,  holding  sway  over  the  surround- 
ing regions,  and,  as  a  predatory  state,  the  terror  of  all  Europe.  Though  now  reduced  to 
the  secondary  rank,  her  situation  renders  her  «f  importance  in  the  general  system  of  the 
Continent 

Sect.  I. — General  Outline  and  Aspect. 

Denmark  consists  mainly  of  an  extensive  peninsula,  shooting  out  from  the  north-west 
corner  of  Germany,  and  a  cluster  of  large  islands  to  the  east  of  the  peninsula.  The  northern 
shores  of  Denmark  approach  close  to  the  southern  point  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula, 
bounding  the  great  interior  sea  of  the  Baltic.  She  commands  the  only  channel  by  which 
the  countries  around  this  sea  can  transmit  their  products  to  the  rest  of  Europe ;  a  circum- 
stance wliich  gives  her  some  consideration  as  a  maritime  state,  at  the  same  time  that  the  toll 
she  imposes  on  ships  passing  and  repassing  tlie  Sound,  is  productive  of  revenue.  The  Danish 
peninsula  is  termed  Jutland ;  and  the  islands  in  the  interior  of  tlie  Baltic,  interposed  be- 
tween Jutland  and  Scandinavia,  are  Zealand,  Funen,  Odensee,  and  a  few  others  of  smaller 
note.  Denmark  holds  also  the  German  territories  of  Sleswick  and  Holstein  ;  with  Iceland, 
the  P^iroe  Islands,  and  some  settlements  on  tlie  coast  of  Greenland,  remnants  of  iier  former 
maritime  power. 

Tie  extent  of  the  dominions  of  a  country  broken  into  such  a  variety  of  detached  portions 
can  with  difficulty  be  estimated.     The  only  compact  mass  consists  of  Jutland,  iSleswick 


4tM 


MAP  OF  DENMARK. 


Fio.  22a 


r  I  I 

9       iMflluiU  Eut        10     fniui  Orwawidi      11 


Fia.  saa 


Book  I. 


DENMARK. 


405 


.-.    .) 


13 


"I 


n 


and  Iloliitnin;  bounded  on  the  weHt  and  north  by  the  North  Sea  or  Gorman  Ocoan  ;  on  tJie 
(MHt  l)y  thu  Kuunda  which  turiii  the  entrance  of  the  nultic;  on  tlic  Hoiith  hy  tlio  Clljo.  Thin 
tiiict  licN  frennrully  between  5;)^°  nnd  r>7A°  nortli  hitiludo,  iind  8°  und  11^  euHt  Icnj/itude. 
We  have  thuH  ii  length  of  'iHO  niilen,  anil  a  breadth  of  12U.  I'he  total  urea  ut'  the  Uanitili 
monurcliy,  is  about  'JI2,(H\0  winure  inihiH. 

The  tiurtiice  of  Denmark  ia  nearly  flat;  forming,  witli  the  exception  of  Holland,  the  lowest 
))  irt  of  the  ffreat  plain  of  Northern  Germany.  Tiie  ialunds,  in  particular,  in  many  places, 
rise  oi:ly  a  tew  teet  above  the  level  of  the  uea.  Tlie  soil,  us  in  the  rest  of  this  plain,  is  fVe- 
qiuintlv  sandy  and  marshy ;  the  c.  ..  te  humid,  though  not  liable  to  those  severo  Oosts  which 
prevail  in  tlio  interior  of  Scandinavj. ,  Hence  it  alfords  good  parturage,  and  its  soil  is  fkvour- 
able  to  the  growtli  of  the  coarser  species  of  (j^rain. 

The  waters  of  Denmark  consist  chiefly  of  its  numerous  sounds  and  bays ;  the  Skaf]fer-rack, 
which  cornea  in  from  the  North  Sea,  and  separates  Jutland  from  Norway;  the  Cute(i;at, 
which,  running  southward  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  Ska)j|crrack,  separates  that  peninsula 
fronj  Sweden ;  the  Soimd,  a  narrow  strait  at  the  extremity  ot  the  Cattejjutj  between  Zeulund 
anil  Sweden,  und  which  forms  the  main  entrance  into  the  Baltic.  The  insular  and  penin- 
sular character  of  her  territory  gives  Denmark  an  extent  of  coast  wnich  certainly  docs  not 
fiill  short  of  600  miles ;  and  there  is  said  to  be  no  part  of  the  land  more  than  ten  miles  distant 
from  the  sea.  This  structure  leaves  no  room  for  tlie  formation  of  any  rivers  of  the  least 
consequence,  except  the  Eyder  in  Hoistein,  ond  the  canal  of  Kiel,  by  which  an  important 
counnunicutton  is  formed  between  the  ocean  and  the  Baltic.  Jutland  contains  a  number  of 
sliallow  but  extensive  lakes,  closely  bordering  on  tho  sea,  with  which  they  in  many  places 
communicate,  and  may  hence  bo  regarded  as  bays. 

Sect.  IK. — Natural  Geography, 

SuBSBOT.  1. — Oeology. 

Denmark.  The  geology  of  this  low  and  flat  country  has  not  been  completely  ascertained. 

As  far  as  is  known  at  present,  it  contains  neither  prnnitive  nor  transition  rocks:  the  only 

secondary  deposits  are  Weald  clay,  and  the  various  members  of  the  chalk  formation  ;  both  of 

which  are  generally  covered  up  with  tertiary  soils;  which,  in  their  turn,  are  as  deeply  covered 


Reference!  to  the  Map  of  Dnmicrk. 


NORTFf  PART. 

1    l.vkenahuut 

3.  HioriiiR 
X  llHialiius 

4.  Tnoriiud 

5.  Skiiiumi 
ti.  Anlli.-k 

7   rUflntrmd 

P.  SwIlVH 

II.  lloiti'rKnnrd 
lU   UlnkllUUi 
ll.Tiilalrup 
\i  'Ihiito 
i:;.  Kyslet 
14.  Ilirratud 
I.").  Vnar 
m.  Al  /, 
n  ITIHed 
IR  IIiiIh 
I'.l.  t^uiidlire 
21).  AiillKirff 
ill   l.ouKtiir 
K.  Kolkinip 
S:i.  Kiiiriip  Pro- 

sti'ijiiurd 
21.  Kiilbyo  Herru- 

miiird 

W.  F.irhye 
27.  -VuL'i'r 
S**.  Vishye 
2".  Siitufhy 
:«t   II"  Icf 
:<l.  \ykiiiliin( 
?fi.  li.erk 
"X.*.  Sirnnilbyo 
34,  MnllH 
'XS.  <;iin<lcrit«d 
I^v  Ann* 
37.  Hislpy 
3H.  Klle^hoy 
nil  Koniiiley 
4(1  «i,.,n 
41.  Viv« 
4'i.  S'pdrineholm 
4:t.  M»rini|er 
44.  Il..hr<.« 
4.'i.  |.<indtirn 
4(i.  Kuldrup 
47.  t'lhicrf 
4H.  Skive 
411,  Kr!!* 

50.  BDrbt'iri; 

51.  i.pmviir 

Vol.  I. 


99.  flnrboe  Ore 
5:i.  Nftei 
.■M.  irilmrf 

55.  VrinaellMm 

56.  Hulitlircie 

57.  lliidiiRycr 

58.  Horiip 

5(1.  KnuilidrupOver 
flO.  Wiborit 
61.  Skivrno 
ffl.  Iiiiurl)ur« 
0,1.  IliiiulerH 
fi4.  Mninini 
05.  Oontef 
6H.  ITIalrup 
«7.  Gicrild 
68.  (JrKpniin.o 
CiO.  Alhime 

70.  Klmliosl 

71.  Hcluenaei 
78.  Aerin 

73.  Thorinirer 

74.  HiiriiRlut 

75.  SkBiliye 

76.  Aiirhiiui 

77.  Dover 

78.  Oiillcriip 
7n.  Midslriip 
80.  Amiriikiiv 
HI   Knui.ivann 
89  giindii 

83.  ArunhurK 

84.  Noromme 

85.  SMiidHrviing 
8n.  Uinkiiiiiini; 
87.  nijbi'raliiiid 
68.  HerniiicBliolii' 
8(1.  Fnuriiftnrd 
00.  Rrandtiolm 
91.  Sn(i« 
93.  Give 

93.  Grcnditnip 

94.  ScandnrboiK 

95.  TveiiBlrup 

96.  Haldnip 

97.  Honcna 
08.  .'\R.ilrup 
99,  Rnium 

100.  Veile 
101  Rtngitive 
109.  t}r««ne 
iin.  Odda'.n 

104.  Froilrupgaard 

105.  liundage 


106.  North  Rurk 

107.  Ilaureii 
lOe.  Klcrgaard 

SDIITIl  PART. 
1.  Him 
9.  Vurdo 

3.  Jornn 

4.  Hiiddn 

5.  Oiording 
0.  Fiildint 

7.  Viiorbuaa 

8.  Oiloii-d 

9.  Sinidatriip 
0.  FteilHrica 

ll.Coblinti 

1'.'.  Oirwlianifiilda 

13,  Aariic 

14,  Haderrkiban 
1.5.  Oram 

16,  Hynm 

17,  lliortland 

15,  Ripc.i 
I'.).  Kniabye 
20.  nullum 
91.  Iloyer 

9'i.  Lygum  Kluiter 

33.  Hoiil 

94.  Schrtidalrup 
3.1.  ApnnrBdn 
^li.  (irnvpnatein 
97.  nnicbul 
28.  IJcke 
2!*.  Tonde: 

30.  Giiil»bull 

31.  J,m:k 
M.  ORkkolm 
'X'.  B'mliiledt 

34.  Mcdulburg 

35.  J.irl 

3B.  Arenholt 

37  Flrnaburg 

38  •^iwrup 

39.  Ovlting 

40.  Knpiwl 

41.  WindKinark 
49.  F.nkerntorde 
4:).  Sleawick 

44  llollingitodc 
45.  Treya 
4*'.,  Huaum 
47,  Mildaiad 
ii.  Frederickutadt 
-K)  Carding 


50,  TiinningHn 

51.  Wiialingburen 
99.  IVIIiiigaledt 

53.  Roiidaburg 

54.  llMrliich 
.55.  Hchneliii 
.Vi.  Kiid 

57.  Itiimnr 

58.  Uneatlor" 
51).  Pruolis 
•iO,  Pliion 
01,  Hit'a«n 
09,  Kriikan 
6^1,  Uiiiiiann 

64.  I.iiigvidxog 

65,  [i>ilend.,rl' 

00,  Olduiiburg 

67.  Rurg 

68.  Huingenhafon 
6D.  (iruninir. 

70.  Nuuatadt 

71.  Kuiin 

79.  Sarau 

73.  Bchi^ini.  idorr 

74.  Nnumi.   iter 

75.  Wildcna  ••'aren 
70.  Uiiiitislt'd 

77.  Giibbm.. 

78.  Middorf 
7U,  Mnrnu 

80.  Hruiiabutlol 

01.  Iixdhne 
89.  Krflnipe 
Kl.  (iluckaiiidl 
84.  IJoli-racm 
8.5.  Uaimalud: 

86.  Hidiunhui... 

87.  ()ldi<al(ih 

88.  Sedglwrg 
80.  Triivemunde 
iW.  hulieok 

91,  Lali«nz 
03,  Sterler 
0;i.  Guduw 

94,  Oreven 

95,  Boitzenburg 

96,  T^unnburg 
JT         .lai- 


10^ 


herg 


109.  ««:■•■. 
103,  E  .i,  tl.. 


Riveri, 
n  Hklern 
b  Giiilat 
c  Widaw 
d  F.yder 
0  Bior 
f  Rlbo 
g  Trava 

t.AAIiAND. 

I.  FrederickidaJ 
3,  Raunihidt 

3,  Nukikov 

4,  Skibbelunde 

5,  Rydu 

0,  Mariiibnn 

7,  Riidbye 

8,  Nyealed 

0,  Saxkioping 

PALSTEB. 

1,  Oniilev 

3,  Slibbekioping 

3,  Karlnby 

4,  Nyvkioping 

.  MOEN. 
1,  Miindimnrk 

9,  HliVf  e 

3.  PhaneAord 

7.KAI.AND. 

1,  'I'oirn'ierup 
3.  Ramloa 

3,  Gilliilyi 

4,  Kliinoro 

a.  Frinlriwbnrg 
0.  Hiimiinrup 

7.  I.ynitliye 

8.  Copitnnr.gen 

9.  Gulilrup 
10.  Riillerup 

II.  Gylling 

13  Kr  >bb«ah«lin 
13.  liulbuk 
'.  i,  Nyckioping 
1,5.  F.^umnrk 

16.  ('iilliindborg 

17.  Giorliiv 

18.  Undlnro 
10.  Aaficrup 
90.  Knachild 

31.  Kioge 


39.  Oilnslrup 

?'■  T'J'»I('"'<>I<1« 

94,  Ruhiilte 

95.  (Sluinaoe 
9<l.  Rmiiatod 
27.  8.>r.ie 

98.  Antvonkov 

99.  ShiKolan 

30.  8hi«likir>v 

31.  Saltoeilat 
39.  Valluniived 
X\.  Neatved 

34.  Priittaloe 

35,  Wordingborg 

BAMBOE. 
1.  Nordbye 
9,  Selveg 


F  i.  NKN. 

t'lidd  ill'arth 
.1»i'lV 
(.:.OIMM 

4.  Beounluv 

5.  Kierieminde 

6.  Rnnknbye 


UT'' 


llingo 

0.  Qdunae 

10.  Brncbye 

11.  Hunibye 
19,  Derated 
1.^.  AaaoM 

14.  Drealette 

15.  Snllinge 
le.  Hilling 

17.  Gudbier 

18,  Bvandborg 
19  Faaborg 

AL8EN. 

1.  Nordburg 

9.  AuguiteDbmf 
3.  Sonderbaig 

AREOE. 
I.  Soebjre 
3.  Kioping 

LANOELAND. 
1.  Humble  K. 
9.  RudUoUni 
a.  BUMme 


SI 


M0 


DERCRIPTTVE  OKOORAPHY. 


Paet  III 


with  diluvium  ofiand,ai.^  calcareous  loam ;  which  latter  are  occaBionally  concealed  by  newe- 

alluvial  deposits. 

Icehmil.  This  island,  k.  far  as  is  known  to  jfooloprists,  is  entirely  composed  of  ijfnijfonous 
rocks.  Thoao  lue  of  two  rliiMHos;  viz.  IMutoniun  iind  volcanic.  Tlio  Plutonian  turmations 
lire  frrrxuHtonr,  uud  its  accc'niwi'y'ni,''  nn^ks,  .'uid  baxalt.  with  its  nssociatotl  tuFuH,  ainyffda 
l(  .(1h.  &,c.  Of  all  the  rocks  *  lie  Imp  scries,  amyptialoid  is  timt  which  contains  th«!  greatest 
varitny  of  minerals;  and  of  these  the  zcolitcH  and  calcareous  Hjmrs  are  most  intfrosting 
and  beiiutitbl.  T''e  volcanic  rocks  exhibit  the  usual  characters,  and  ;  n  land  aru  spread 
around  in  vast  abundance. 

Faroe  hlanda.  This  small  insular  group  consists  of  seventeen  large  inhabited  islands, 
and  of  man<' smaller,  with  and  without  inhabitants.  In  none  of  the  mhabitod  islands  are 
the  most  elevated  summits  lower  than  1()(K)  foet ;  the  iiiffhcst  land  is  in  the  island  of  Osteroe, 
which  rises  to  fully  2,H()0  feet  alx)v«  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  two  prevailing  rocks  arc 
ffrrenstone  (dolorito)  and  clayntone.  Tlie  greenstone  is  sometimes  Iwisaltic,  sometimes  por- 
phyritic,  or  umygdaloidal.  The  claystone  is  red,  yellow,  brown,  and  green.  It  alternates 
with  the  greenstone,  in  beds  of  varying  thickness.  The  beds  of  greenstone  and  ciaystone 
of  the  fjroup  all  incline  or  dip  towards  a  central  point  of  the  group,  rendering  it  prolMiblo 
that  tiie  islands  are  but  portions  of  one  whole.  The  upper  surface  of  the  greenstone  is 
slangy,  showing  that  the  mass  had  been  in  a  state  of  ipneous  solution.  There  are  two 
principal  varieties  of  prconstone ;  one  porphyritic,  with  crystals  of  jflassy  felsjar,  the  other 
without  the  porphyritic  structure.  In  some  of  the  islands  there  are  beds  of  pitchcoal,  asKo- 
ciated  with  fire  clay,  slate  clay,  and  spho^rosiderite,  resting  upon  the  trap,  and  covered  by  it. 
The  beds  of  greenstone  and  slate  clay  are  otlen  traversed  by  veins  or  dikes  of  basaltic  and 
porphyritic  greenstone,  which,  however,  do  not  appear  to  occasion  any  change  in  them ;  but 
the  greenstones  are  changed  in  position  and  direction  by  the  invasion  from  below  of  a 
congioniorated  rock,  a  kind  of  trap'  tuflh.  The  trap  rocks  of  the  Faroes  have  been  long 
celebrated,  on  account  of  the  splendid  zeolites  they  afford :  some  species  of  this  beautiful 
family  appear  to  be  daily  forming.  The  chloropoeritc,  |)eridote,  and  precious  opal  are  also 
productions  of  this  insular  group. 

SuBSEOT.  2. — Botany. 

Denmark  and  Sweden,  Norway  and  Lapland,  the  Faroe  lilatids,  and  Iceland, — the  latter 

giving  a  name,  indeed  to  a  plant  equally  common  in  the  othei 
countries,  Lichen  islandicus,  or  Iceland  Moss,  (Jig,  224.), — 
may  be  considered  under  one  head,  so  far  as  regards  their 
vc>getable  productions;  for  it  is  difficult  to  draw  an  exact 
line  of  demarcation,  and  even  of  these  the  very  nature  of  our 
work  does  not  allow  us  to  treat  much  at  large  :  this  is  the 
less  to  be  regretted,  because  the  classical  works  of  Linnteus 
and  Wahlenberg  are  in  the  hands  of  every  botanical  student; 
and  they  contain  a  mine  of  valuable  information  in  the  Flora 
Lapponica  and  Stiecica  of  both  these  authors,  and  a  fund  of 
interesting  and  delightfui  'arrative  in  the  Lachesis  Lap- 
ponica  of  tlie  great  Swedish .  "ituralist.  The  various  writings 
of  O^der,  Vahl,  and  Hornemann  afford  much  useful  matter 
relative  to  the  plants  of  Denmark.  The  veget?  lion  of  a  great 
portion  of  these  countries  may  be  considered  the  eame  as  that 
of  the  more  northern  and  mountainous  parts  of  Great  Britain. 
Yet  as  the  northern  regions  of  the  continent  of  Europe  pre- 
sent an  alpine  and  arctic  vegetation,  in  a  much  more  perfect 
degree  than  islands,  we  should  scarcely  do  justice  to  our  subject,  did  we  not  offer  some  re- 
marks on  the  distribution  of  the  vegetable  productions  of  a  portion  of  that  more  interesting 
and  extreme  northern  European  territory;  namely  Ijapland.  The  natural  boundaries  of  this 
country  are  formed  by  some  low  mountains,  about  500  feet  in  height,  at  a  distance  of  from 
five  to  eight  Swedish  miles  from  the  extremity  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  They  present  no 
naked  summits,  but  are  covered  with  forests  of  Spruce  Fir*  (fiff,  225.) :  theiie  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  last  subalpine  range  in  northern  Europe.  Commencing  in  thu  south-east,  a 
little  beyond  the  lake  Kemistrask,  in  lat.  67°,  it  tends  towards  Upper  Tornea,  and  ri-.Tir  to 
Ofover  Calix  in  the  west ;  stretches  south  to  Edifers,  in  Lulea ;  and  reaches  Js  soutnermost 
point  at  the  Tafvelsjon,  in  Umcan  liSpland,  lat.  64°,  This  mountain  chain  exhibits  Callu 
pulustris  {fff.  226.),  (a  plant  of  a  poisonous  family,  closely  allied  to  the  Arum  maculatuin 
or  Wake-robin,  and  to  the  Caladiiim  esculcntum  of  the  tropics;  and,  as  wiihthem,  a  kind  of 
bread  called  Misticnbrod,  or  the  bread  of  famine,  is  made  by  the  Iiaplandcrs  from  the  roots); 
Sweet  gale*,  comirion  Spoedwoil*,  Ox-eye*,  Meadow  Fescure-grass*,  and  Carex  stellulata*. 
The  Birch*  them  produces  it*  leaves  in  the  beginning  of  June. 


Iceland  Moh. 


*  TliK  iiRiiiRK  iiiarki.-.l  wllli  uii  iii-trrisk  art;  tlKJSe  of  ulauts  roiitid  alaii  in  Britain. 


Pa»t  III 

mcoaled  by  newe* 

«e(l  of  iffnif^nnoui 
totiian  turiiiationB 
d  tuPiiM,  aiiiy)|r(|a 
itainH  the  preatcsl 
■  most  intoroHting 
IT  land  aro  Bpread 

inhabited  inlanild, 
ibitfNj  iulandH  arc 
JHland  of  Ostoroo, 
vailing  rocks  aro 
c,  Bonjelinics  por- 
m.  It  altornatPH 
no  and  cinystone 
lering  it  prolmblo 
the  greenstone  is 
There  are  two 
felajar,  the  otiier 
jf  pitchcoal,  asso- 
and  covered  by  it. 
38  of  basaltic  and 
ngo  in  them ;  but 
from  below  of  a 
3  have  been  lonjf 
I  of  this  bcuutifiil 
ous  opal  are  also 


eland, — the  latter 
nmon  in  the  othct 
m,  (Jg.  2^4.),- 
as  regards  their 
3  draw  an  exact 
cry  nature  of  our 
arge  :  this  is  the 
irorks  of  Linneeus 
wtanical  student; 
lion  m  the  Flora 
)r8,  and  a  fund  of 
B  Ldchesis  Lap- 
3  various  writings 
ch  useful  matter 
etption  of  a  great 
the  tmme  as  that 
of  Great  Britain, 
t  of  Europe  pre- 
uch  more  perfect 
lot  offer  some  re- 
more  interestmg 
botmdaries  of  tliis 
distance  of  from 
T!iey  present  no 
lene  may  be  con- 
tho  south-east,  a 
rnea,  and  ri.Tir  to 
s  its  soutnermost 
n  exhibits  Callu 
Vrwm  maculatuin 
1  them,  a  kind  of 
from  the  roots) ; 
/a  rex  slellulata*. 


Book  1. 


DENMARK. 


407 


The  inferior  and  woody  district  of  Ijipland  has  its  upper  limit  at  Sondankyla  in  Kemoan 
lAoland,  lietwnen  Keiigis  and  MunoniHka  in  Tornea,  at  JiK-knxiok  in  Lulca,  and  atFaistrak, 
in  Umean  I/ipland ;  and  it  yields,  besides  the  Spruce  Fir,  the  Meadow  "Vefbil,  the  Lysima- 
chia  thyrsiflora*,  Lily  of  the  Valley*,  and  White  Water  Lily*,  whicl.  i,'row  abundantly 
Home  plants  which  are  peculiarly  subalpinc  begin  to  appear,  aa  Tofiddia  palustris*  and  Her 
ratula  alpina*. 


226 


225 


Spruce  Fir. 


Rcin-dMi  Mom. 


The  upper  woody  district  is  distinguished  by  the  abee  ice  of  the  last-mentioned  plants;  but 
the  forests  of  spruce  still  abound.  Where  the  Spruce  ceases,  in  places  of  warm  exposure, 
the  upper  limit  of  this  region  is  indicated.  Its  boundary  in  Kemean,  Tornean,  and  Piteon 
Lapland,  is  more  distinctly  marked,  because  the  country  is  flatter,  and  dcstit'ite  of  deep 
valleys;  but  in  such  situations,  in  Lulea  and  Umea,  the  Spruce  Fir  approaches  nearer  to  the 
Alps,  and  the  sides  of  the  mountains  are  covered  with  it.  There  its  utmost  northern  limits 
are  found  to  be  at  Kyro,  near  the  great  lake  of  Enare,  in  lat.  60°  north.  Here,  too,  is  the 
most  northern  boundary  of  many  well-known  plants,  such  as  Trifolium  repens*,  Festuca 
rubra*,  Rumcx  aquaticus*,  the  Yellow  Water  Lily*,  and  several  other  aquatics.  Many 
alpine  plants  commence,  as  Salix  glauca*,  extending  south  to  the  middle  of  this  region, 
Salix  hastata*,  confined  to  the  north,  and  Bartsia  alpina*,  with  Lychnis  alpina*,  on  the  banks 
of  the  streams.     The  culture  of  barley  still  succeeds ;  but  scarcely  beyond  this  line. 

The  Hubalpine  mountains  inthis  region  ore  very  dry  and  remarkably  gravelly  and  stony; 
abounding  in  that  plant  which  Linnteus  ha£i  so  beautifully  described,  in  his  Flora  Lapponica, 
as  the  main  support  of  the  Rein-deer,  and  consequently  of  the  Laplander,  Lichen  Rangife- 
rinus*  (fifr.  227.),  or  Rein-deer  Moss.  Ill  could  the  I,aplander  subsist  without  the  supplies 
afforded  by  that  useful  animal ;  it  is  his  sole  wealth.  Almost  the  only  winter  food  of  this  ser- 
viceable  animal  is  the  moss,  which  the  deer  are  so  fond  of,  thot  though  it  is  commonly  buried 
at  that  seasfjn  under  a  great  depth  of  snow,  yet,  by  scratching  with  their  feet,  and  digging 
with  their  antlers,  they  never  fail  to  get  at  it  In  short,  without  this  lichen,  both  the  rein- 
deer and  the  Laplancfcr  must  perish.  "Thus,"  adds  Linnasus,  "things  which  are  oflen 
deemed  the  most  insignificant  and  contemptible  by  ignorant  men,  are,  by  the  good  providence 
of  God,  made  tlio  means  of  the  greatest  blessings  to  his  creatures."  Linnaeus  assures  UB 
thill  this  lichen  grows  so  luxuriantly  in  Lapland,  as  to  be  found  sometimes  a  foot  in  height 

But  as  the  hills  scarcely  rise  to  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow,  about  2(H)  or  300  feet  higher 
ilian  the  woods  arc  found,  they  are  fertile  in  such  plants  as  fli        "  " 


/-utnch    in   o 


nd  bai 
viz.,  Menziesia  csirulea*,  Arbutus  alnina*.  J  uncus  trifidus*,  Lycopodium  alpiuum'* 


'Ten  soil , 
Azalea 


^, 


'> 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


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I.I 


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Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  145*0 

(716)872-4503 


■•^'- 


198 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  HI 


228 


prucumbens,"' and,  though  rarely,  Dia|)cn8ia  lapponica.   Here  the  Lichen  tartnreus  (Jig.  228.) 

or  ('iu)beiir,  ul)oiinds,  and  w,  both  here  and  in  Sw^en  and 
:>n*  .  Norway,  collected  and  exported  to  the  dyc-tnanu&cturera. 
Waiilenber};  distiniruishes  by  the  term  "  Regio  subsylva- 
tica,"  or  partially  wooded  region,  that  where  the  Scotch 
Fir  grows,  but  not  the  Spruce.  This  is  more  contracted 
than  the  other  regions,  and  more  difficult  to  be  defined.  It 
is  not  unfrequently  eight  Swedish  miles  brood  in  northern 
Lapland ;  in  Keinca  extending  to  nearly  70°  of  lat.  Be- 
fore the  Scotch  Fir  ceases,  the  Carex  globularis  disap- 
pears, and,  in  the  more  northern  parts.  Prunella  vulgaris. 
P  Cudbeai.  Within  the  Fir  region,  the  beautiful  Pedicularis  lapponica 

appears  scattered  through  the  woods ;  Viola  bifolia,  and 
Thalictrum  alpinum*  following  the  course  of  the  streams ;  Salix  lagata,'"  with  its  splendid 
golden  catkins,  at  the  margins  of  marshes  and  springs,  and  also  Ranunculus  lapponicua 
The  cultivation  of  barley  scarcely  succeeds,  and  the  colonists  are  miserably  poor.  The 
Birch  comes  into  leaf  at  the  summer  solstice.  The  lakes  and  rivers  have  an  elevation  of 
about  1000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  Bub?.Ipine  region  still  yields  the  Birch* 
{Betula  alba),  though  other  trees  will  not  grow.  Its  upper  twundarj  is  marked  by  the 
dwarf  stature  of  these,  where  they  scarcely  attain  a  height  of  six  feet  The  Aspen'"  Q^pu- 
lus  tretnttla)  and  the  Bird-cherry  (Prunus  Padus)  cease  before  the  Birch :  the  Sorbus  Aucu- 
paria,""  or  Mountain  Ash,  extends  as  far.  The  Birch  always  in  Lapland  reaches  to  a  much 
greater  elevation  and  more  northern  latitude  than  the  Scotch  and  Spruce  Firs.  Its  limits 
are  more  easily  determined ;  yet,  on  a  geographical  map,  they  are  with  difficulty  expressed, 
because  the  Birch  ascends  to  the  alpine  regions,  circumscribes  all  the  mountains,  and  pene- 
trates all  the  lesser  valleys :  thus  it  extends  almost  to  lat.  71°  in  Western  Finmark,  and 
stops  but  little  short  of  the  North  Cape.  The  dry  portion  of  this  region  is  again  the  habi- 
tation of  the  Lichen  rangiferinus,  and  of  Azalea  procumbens,'"  LuzuTa  spicata,'"  and  Juncus 
triiidus.*  Oii  the  borders  of  Russia,  the  Birch  as  well  as  tJie  Scotch  Fir  extend  even  to 
the  Northern  Ocean. 

The  lower  alpine  region,  or  the  Lower  Alps,  commence  where  the  Birch  ceases  to  exist, 
and  where  the  snow,  not  of  perennial  duration,  except  in  caves  and  hollows,  melts  before 
the  middle  of  July.  There  the  Diapensia  lapponica,  Silene  acaulis,*  and  Andromeda  hyp- 
noides  are  found.     The  Salix  myrsmite^  and  Dwarf  Birch  still  grow  erect.     Nearly  the 

same  vegetation  as  is  met  with  on  the  Lower  Alps  exists 
upon  the  maritime  alps  of  Finmark,  to  the  most  northern 
promontory,  with  this  difference  only,  that  the  steep 
and  precipitous  rocks  harbour  more  moisture  and  snow, 
and  the  affinity  is  greater  with  the  alpine  range  in  the 
higher  mountains,  which  retain  the  snow  during  the  whole 
summer,  the  partial  melting  of  which  creates  a  moist 
and  even  a  boggy  soil.  Here,  therefore,  are  seen  the 
little  Dwarf  Willow*  (fig.  229.)  (Salix  herbacea,)  Ra- 
nunculus glacialis  and  nivalis,  Pedicularis  hirsnta  and 
flammea,  Stellaria  biflora,  Erigeron  uniflornm  ;*  plants 
eminently  alpine,  and  peculiar  to  those  situations. 
Beyond  these  is  the  region  of  perpetual  snow.  Towards  the  Norwegian  Ocean,  another 
form  of  the  aips  presents  itself;  lofty  mountains  without  any  plains,  circumscribed  with  very 
narrow  zones,  which  Wahlenberg  defines  as  the  more  elevated  tides  of  the  alps,  reaching 
nearly  to  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow,  consequently  always  irrigated  with  snow-water : 
they  nourish  a  few,  and  those  marshy,  plants.  The  Ranunculi  (Crowfoots)  principally 
abound. 

The  lower,  or  less  elevated,  sides  of  the  alps,  generally  destitute  of  perpetual  snow,  yield 
the  Dwarf  Birch*  in  the  moister  spots ;  and,  on  the  drier,  Andromeda  hypnoides,  the  Alpine 
Speedwell*,  Juncus  bifidus*,  and  the  Procumbent  Azalea,* 

The  bases  of  the  alps  are  where  the  Birch  grows,  but  no  Pines.  Among  the  Bircht-s, 
scarcely  six  feet  high,  the  Purple  alpine  Saxifrage*,  with  Saxifraga  nivalis  and  cemua, 
abound  in  the  moist  and  precipitous  places,  and,  in  those  that  are  more  dry,  Aspidium 
Lonchitis.  The  lower  portion  of  this  zone  affords  tall  birches,  such  as  are  found  in  the  more 
northern  reg^'^ns,  only  m  the  inmost  recesses  of  the  deep  bajrs,  and,  beneath  them,  Aspidium 
Filix  Mas*,  Osmunda  Struthiopteris,  the  Blue  Alpine  Sowthistle*,  and  the  Red  Currant* 

The  maritime  alps  include  the  islands  and  promontories ;  so  exposed  to  the  wmds  that 
they  derive  their  alpine  character  more  from  their  peculiar  situation  than  from  their  eleva- 
tion above  the  level  of  the  sea :  and  so  bare  are  they  of  trees  and  shrubs,  that  even  the 
Juniper  will  not  succeed  there.  They  are  almost  equally  destitute  of  the  more  alpine  shrubs, 
such  as  Andromedas;  but  they  are  adorned  with  succulent  alpine  plants,  such  as  Saxifraga 
oppoeitifolia*,  Silene  acaulis*,  and  Dryas  octopetala.    Near  the  shore  occur  some  produc* 


DwBif  Willow. 


Book  L 


DENMARK. 


460 


The  Arctic  Raapberrf. 


tiona  of  the  alpa  of  the  south  of  Europe,  such  as  Eri((eron  alpinum*,  Sedum  villoeum'"  and 
(Heiitiana  inyolucrata,  which  in  Lapland  are  found  nowhere  inland.  The  Norwe^fian  alps 
nourish  numerous  annual  plants ;  but  the  dryer  ones  of  Sweden,  remote  from  the  sea,  are 
I'cmarkable  for  the  little  alpine  shrubs,  particularly  Azalea  lapponica,  which  scarcely  occurs 
in  Norway;  Sal  ices  alone,  such  as  S.  myrsinites*,  occupying  their  place. 

Tlie  subalpine  spots  and  valleys  are  marked  by  the  presence  of  the  Pine;  but  the  most 
extended  Fir  forests  are  only  found  at  the  heads  of  the  deep  inlets  of  the  sea,  in  narrow 
ravines,  sheltered  by  the  loftiest  mountains.  These  valleys  enjoy  a  much  milder  climate 
than  all  the  rest  of  Lapland :  there  are  found  the  Convallaria  verticillata*,  Campanula  lati- 
rolia*  and  FVagaria  vesca'*',  in  abundance ,  but  no  alpine  plants  will  grow,  except  the  Starry 
Saxifrage*  (Saxifraga  stellaris)  along  the  margins  of  the  rills. 

A  more  interesting  account  of  the  vegetation  of  Lapland,  at  different  elevations,  is  pub- 
lished by  Sir  J.  E.  Smith,  in  the  Appendix  to  the  Lachesii  Lapponica  of  Linnteus.  It  is 
translated  from  the  Swedish  of  Dr.  Wahlenberg ;  his  "  Observations 
made  with  a  view  to  determine  the  height  of  the  Lapland  Alps.'* 
(1.)  On  approaching  the  Lapponese  mountains  {Fjall),  we  first 
reach  the  line  where  the  Spruce  Fir  ceases  to  grow.  This  tree 
had  previously  assumed  an  unusual  appearance ;  that  of  a  tall 
slender  pole,  covered  from  the  ground  with  short,  drooping,  dark 
branches :  a  gloomy  object  in  these  desolate  forests !  The  Arctic 
Raspberry*  (Jig.  230.)  (JJm6w»  arcticus)  had  already,  before  we 
arrived  at  this  point,  ceased  to  bring  its  fruit  to  maturity.  With 
the  Spruce  we  lose  the  Cinnamon  Rose  (Roca  cinnatnomea*),  and 
the  Twin-leaved  Solomon's  Seal  {Convallaria  btfolia),  &c. ;  and 
the  borders  of  the  lakes  are  stripped  of  their  ornaments  of  Reeds 
(Arundo  Phragmitei&),  Lysimachia  thyrsiflora*,  Galium  boreale*, 
and  Carex  globularis.  Here  is  the  true  station  of  the  Arctic  Colts- 
foot (Tussilago  nivea).  The  last  beaver-houses  are  seen  in  the 
rivulets;  and  no  pike  nor  perch  is  to  be  found  in  the  lakes  higher 
up.  The  boundary  of  the  Sprace  Fir  is  3200  feet  below  the  line 
of  perpetual  snow,  and  the  mean  temperature  37°  of  Fahrenheit 

(2.)  Scotch  Firs*  (Pinns  sylvestris)  are  still  found,  but  not  near 
60  tall  as  in  the  lower  country.  Their  stems  here  are  low,  and  their 
branches  widely  extended.  Here  are  seen  the  last  of  Ledum  pa- 
ustre*,  Salix  pentandra*,  Veronica  serpyllifolia*,  &c.  The  bogs  have  already  a  vei^  sterile 
ppearance.  Near  the  utmost  boundary  of  the  Scotch  Fir  grows  Phaca  alpina.  Higher  up, 
hardly  any  bears  are  to  be  met  with ;  and  the  fruit  of  the  Bilberry*  does  not  ripen  well. 
The  Gwiniad  and  Grayling,  two  species  of  the  Salmon  tribe,  soon  after  disappear  from  the 
lakes.  The  upper  limit  of  this  zone,  at  which  the  Scotch  Firs  cease,  is  2800  feet  below  the 
line  of  perpetual  snow,  and  the  mean  temperature  about  36°  Fahrenheit  A  little  short  of 
this  point,  or  about  3000  feet  before  we  come  to  perpetual  snow.  Barley  will  not  ripen ;  but 
small  farms,  the  occupiers  of  which  live  by  grazing  and  fishing,  are  met  with  as  far  as  400 
feet  higher ;  for  instance,  Naimaka  in  Enontekis,  and  so  far  also  potatoes  and  turnips  grow 
large  enough  to  be  worth  cultivating. 

(3.)  Beyond  this,  the  dwarf  and  stunted  forests  consist  only  of  Birch.*  its  short,  thick 
stem,  and  stiff,  widely-spreading,  knotty  branches,  seem  prepared  to  resist  the  strong  winds 
from  the  Alps :  its  lively  light  green  hue  is  delightful  to  the  eye,  but  evinces  a  weakness 
of  vegetation.  The  birch  forests  soon  become  so  low,  that  they  may  be  entirely  commanded 
from  the  smallest  eminence.  Their  uppermost  boundary,  where  the  tallest  of  them  do  not 
equal  the  height  of  a  man,  is  2000  feet  below  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  This  zone  is 
therefore  much  wider  than  the  preceding.  Long  before  its  termination,  the  Alder*  {Alnus 
incana),  the  Bird-cherry*  {Prunus  Padtis),  and  the  Aspen  {Populus  tremula*),  were  no 
more  to  be  seen.  A  little  before  the  Birch  ceases,  we  miss  the  Mountain  Ash*,  which  for 
some  time  had  not  presented  us  with  any  fruit;  the  Arctic  Bramble*  {Rubus  arcticus)  was 
already  likewise  barren;  the  Ling*  {Erica  vulgaris),  Aconitum  Lycoctonum,  &c.  Where 
tlin  birch  forest  becomes  thinner,  the  reflection  of  the  heat  from  the  sides  of  the  mountains 
is  the  strongest.  Here,  in  many  sjwts,  we  find  the  vegetation  of  Sonchus  alpinus*,  Sttutiii- 
opteris,  and  Aconitum  Lycoctoiium  remarkably  luxuriant.  The  dryer  spots  now  become 
covered  with  the  Iceland  Moss*  {Lichen  rangtferinus) :  Tussilago  frigida  and  Pedicuiaris 
sco|)l,rum-c!irolinum  extend  to  the  utmost  boundary  of  the  Birch.  Thus  fer  only  the  Char 
(Salino  alpinus)  is  found  in  the  lakes,  and  higher  up  all  fishing  ceases. 

(4.)  All  mountains  above  this  limit  are  called  Fjall  (alps).  Near  rivulets,  and  on  the 
margin  of  bogs  only,  is  found  a  little  brushwood,  consisting  of  Salix  glauca*,  whose  gray 
liUR  affords  but  little  ornament  to  tho  landscape.  The  lower  country  is  covered  with  the 
unrk-iix»king  Dwarf  Birch'*  {Betula  nana),  which  still  retains  its  upright  pasition.  A  few 
Tuniper  bushes*,  and  some  plants  of  Salix  hastata*,  are  found  scattered  olxiut  Every  hill 
is  covered  with  Arbutus  alpina*,  variegated  with  Andromeda  cajrulea*,  and  tlie  Wintergreen* 
Vol  T.  40 


«n) 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  in. 


(TVt'entolw  europaa).  The  more  bogfgy  ^und  is  decorated  with  Andrcmieda  polifolia*  in 
its  greatest  beauty,  and  Pedicularis  lapponica.  On  the  sides  of  the  mountains,  where  the 
reflected  heat  bears  moat  power,  grow  Veronica  alpina*,  Viola  biflora*,  Pteris  crispa*",  and 
Angelica  archangelica.*''  This  zone  extends  within  1400  feet  of  the  line  of  peipetual  snow. 
The  glutton  (^Muatela  Oulo)  goes  no  higher  than  this.  The  berries  of  the  Cloudberry 
{_Rubu8  Chamamortu)  still  ripen  here,  but  not  at  a  greater  elevation. 

(5.)  Now  no  more  brushwood  is  to  be  seen.  The  white  Salix  lanata*  is  not  a6ove  two 
feet  high,  even  about  the  rivulets,  and  Salix  myrsinites'"  is  of  still  humbler  growth.  The 
Dwarf  Birch*  occupies  the  dry  spots,  and  creeps  entirely  upon  the  ground.  The  hills  are 
clothed  with  the  rather  brown  than  green  Azalea  procumbens'",  and  A.  lapponica,  which 
give  this  zone  its  moat  peculiar  feature.  Verdant  spots  between  the  precipices,  where  the 
sun  has  the  greatest  power,  produce  Lychnis  apetala*,  Erigeron  uniflorum*.  Astragalus 
leontinus  and  montanus,  with  Ophrys  alpina.  In  boggy  places,  Aira  alpina*",  Carex  ustu- 
lata*,  and  Vaccinium  uliginosum*  are  observable.  The  only  berries,  however,  which  ripen 
at  this  degree  of  elevation  are  those  of  the  Crowberry*  {Empetrum  nigrum) ;  but  these  arc- 
twice  as  large  as  what  grow  in  the  woodlands,  and  I)etter  flavoured.  The  upper  bouiuiary 
of  this  zone  is  800  feet  below  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  The  Laplanders  scarcely  ever 
^x  their  tents  higher  up,  as  the  pasture  for  their  reindeer  ceases  a  very  little  way  above 
this  point.    The  mean  temperature  is  about  34°  Fahrenheit. 

(6.)  Next  come  the  snowy  Alps,  where  are  patches  of  snow  that  never  melt.  The 
bare  places  between  still  produce  a  few  dark  shrubby  plants,  such  as  the  Crowberry*,  des- 
titute, however  of  fruit ;  Andromeda  tetragona  and  hvpnoides,  and  Diapehsia  lapponica. 
Green  precipices,  exposed  to  the  sun,  are  decorated  with  the  vivid  azure  tints  of  Gcntiana 
tenella  and  nivalis*,  and  Campanula  uniflora,  accompanied  by  the  yellow  Draba  alpina. 
Colder  and  marshy  situations,  where  there  is  no  reflected  heat,  produce  Pedicularis  hirsnta, 
and  Cryas  octopetala.*  This  zone  reaches  to  within  200  feet  of  the  limits  of  perpetual  and 
almost  uninterrupted  snow. 

(7.)  Beyond  it,  the  etomal  snows  begin  to  cover  the  ground,  and  we  soon  arrive  at  a  point 
where  only  a  few  dark  spots  are  here  and  there  to  be  seen.  This  takes  pleu:e  on  the  alps 
of  Quickjock  at  the  elevation  of  4100  feet  above  the  sea ;  but  nearer  the  highest  ridge,  and 
particularly  on  the  Norway  side  of  that  ridge,  at  3100  feet.  Some  few  plants  with  succulent 
leaves  arc  thinly  scattered  over  the  spongy  brown  surface  of  the  earth,  where  the  reflected 
heat  is  strongest,  quite  up  to  the  line  of  uninterrupted  snow :  these  are  Saxifraga  stellaris", 
rivularis*,  and  oppositifolia* ;  Ranunculus  nivalis  and  glacialis ;  Ruihex  digynus*,  Juncus 
arcuatus*,  and  Silene  acaulis.  The  mean  temperature,  at  the  boundary  of  perpetual  snow, 
is  32i°  of  Fahrenheit. 

(8.)  Above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  the  cold  is  occasionally  so  much  tempered,  that  a 
few  plants  of  Ranunculus  glacialis,  and  other  similar  ones,  may  now  and  '  be  found  in 
the  clefts  of  some  dark  rock  rising  through  the  snow.    This  happens  eve;,  le  height  of 

500  feet  above  that  line.  Farther  up,  the  snow  is  very  rarely  moistened,  .  :  ..yfh  some  um- 
bilicated  Lichens  (Gyrophora:),  &c.  still  occur  in  the  crevices  of  perpendicular  rocks,  even 
2000  feet  above  the  line  of  never-melting  snow.  These  are  the  extremes  of  vegetation, 
where  the  mean  temperature  seems  to  be  30°  Fahrenheit.  The  Snow  Bunting  {Emberiza 
nivalis)  is  the  only  living  being  that  visits  this  elevate  J  spot. 

SvBSKCT.  3. — Zoology. 
The  native  Zoology,  in  conjunction  with  that  of  Norway,  has  been  ably  illustrated  by  the 
celebrated  Danish  naturalist  Mitller,  and  shows  that  the  fkuna  of  tliose  kingdoms  is  much 
richer  than  their  northern  and  ungenial  climate  would  lead  us  to  imagine.  The  total  num- 
ber of  land  quadrupeds,  including  the  domestic  species,  is  foity-one.  Among  these  we  Had 
the  lynx,  the  glutton,  the  beaver,  the  leming,  and  tha  flying  squirrel ;  together  with  four 
of  the  largest  deer  inhabiting  Europe ;  namely,  the  elk,  the  stag,  the  rein-deer,  and  the 
iallow-deer. 

The  Elk  (^CervuB  Alcea)  (Jig.  231.)  of  Europe  is  not  the  same  with  the  Moose-deer  of  Ame- 
rica :  it  is  found  in  Europe  between  latitude  53°  and 
65° :  in  size  it  is  higher  than  a  horse ;  and,  to  support 
the  enormous  weight  of  its  horns,  sometimes  nearly 
flfty  pounds,  its  neck  is  short,  thick,  and  very  strong. 
Its  movements  are  rather  heavy :  it  does  not  gallop,  but 
ambles  along,  the  joints  cracking  so  much  at  e\ery 
step,  that  the  sound  is  heard  to  some  distance.  Durint; 
winter  it  chiefly  resides  in  hilly  woods;  but  in  sumniei 
it  frequents  swamps  and  the  borders  of  lakes;  often 
going  deep  into  the  water,  to  escape  the  stings  of  gnats, 
&c.,  and  to  feed  without  stooping.  With  its  enormous 
horns  it  turns  down  branches  of  trees,  to  feed  upon  the 
bark,  with  great  dexterity ;  and  these  are  also  used  as 
shovels,  to  get  at  pasture  when  covered  with  snow. 
I^he  young  are  so  simple  and  fearless,  that  they  will 


'•-.,;r^»rn   rum. 


^^^ 


Pa«t  in. 

polifblia'"  in 
8,  where  the 

crispa*,  and 
petual  snow. 
!  Cloudberry 

t  a6ove  two 
rowth.  The 
'he  hills  are 
onica,  which 
«,  where  the 
',  Astragalus 
Carex  ustu- 
which  ripen 
but  these  are 
wr  boundary 
icarcely  ever 
le  way  above 

melt.  The 
vberry*,  des- 
ia  lapponica. 
of  Gentiana 
)raba  alpina. 
laris  hirsnta, 
•erpetual  and 

ive  at  a  point 
on  the  alps 
St  ridge,  and 
ith  succulent 
the  reflected 
ga  stellaris*, 
nus*,  Juncus 
-petual  snow, 

pered,  that  a 
be  found  in 
le  height  of 
vh  some  um- 
■  rocks,  even 
f  vegetation, 
g  {Emberiza 


trated  by  the 
oms  is  much 
e  total  num- 
hese  we  find 
er  with  four 
leer,  and  the 

leer  of  Ame- 
;ude  53°  and 
id,  to  support 
times  nearly 
very  strong, 
ot  gallop,  but 
ich  at  every 
ice.  During 
ut  in  sumniei 
lakes;  otlen 
ings  of  gnats, 
its  enormous 
feed  upon  the 
also  used  as 
I  with  snow, 
hat  they  will 


Book  L 


DENMARK. 


471 


Buffer  thenwelves  to  be  taken  by  the  hand.  An  unusually  large  elk,  killed  in  Sweden,  is 
said  to  have  weighed  1200  lbs.  These  animals  do  not  now  appear  to  be  employed  in  any 
domestic  office. 

The  Wolverine,  or  Glutton,  is  one  of  those  animals  whose  history  has  long  been  shrouded 
in  fiction  and  romance.  It  is  only  now  that  its  true  habits  have  been  given  to  the  world,  oy 
tiiat  enterprising  traveller.  Dr.  Richardson.  The  Wolverine  of  America,  generally  consi- 
dered the  same  with  the  European  Glutton,  feeds  chiefly  upon  beasts  that  have  beeti  acci- 
dentally killed;  but  it  will  hunt  smaller  animals,  as  meadow-n)ice,  marmots,  &c.  and  occa- 
sionally attack  disabled  animals  of  a  larger  size.  In  its  gait  it  resembles  the  bear ;  and, 
ilthough  not  fleet,  is  very  industrious.  Mr.  Graham  observes,  that  it  does  more  damage  to 
the  small  fur  trade  than  all  the  other  rapacious  animals  conjointly ;  as  it  will  follow  tiie 
martin-hunter's  path  round  a  line  of  traps  extending  sixty  miles,  and  render  the  wiiole 
unserviceable,  merely  to  get  at  the  baits.  Yet  it  flies  from  the  face  of  man,  and  may  be 
killed  with  a  stick.  Its  total  length  is  not  more  than  tv/o  feel  and  a  half. 
The  Birds,  according  to  MuUer,  amount  to  2532  species :  the  greater  part  of  these  are 

common  to  the  northern  countries  of  Europe ;  but  the 
Mocking  Jay  {Corvus  infaustua  Lin.)  {fi^.  232.),  and 
the  Nutcracker  {Nucifraa^a  caryocatactes)  are  unknown 
in  Britain  and  more  southern  latitudes :  the  bill  of  the 
latter  is  shaped  much  like  that  of  a  woodpecker,  and  is 
said  to  be  used  for  breaking  the  shells  of  nuts :  wiience 
its  name.  The  species  of  fish,  from  the  maritime  nature 
of  the  region,  are  numerous. 

Domestic  animals.    It  appears  that  the  breeds  called 

the  lesser  and  greater  Danish  Dogs  are  much  more  com- 

The  Mocking  Jay.  ™°"  '"  °^^^^  Countries  than  in  that  from  which  they 

■'  --     have  been  n^med.    The  horses  and  cattle  are  of  very 

large-sized  breeds,  generally  called  the  Holstein.    The  greatest  number  of  oxen  seem  to  be 

bred  in  Jutland :  they  are  tattened,  during  summer,  in  the  rich  marshes  of  Holstein,  and 

driven,  in  the  autumn,  to  Hamburg.  r  . 

Sect.  III. — Historical  Geography. 

During  the  early  period  of  the  middle  ages,  the  swarms  of  pirates  sent  forth  by  Denmark 
spread  desolation  and  terror  to  the  remotest  extremities  of  Europe.  Canute  king  of  Den- 
mark even  ascended  the  English  thro  ,e  in  1017.  Denmark,  at  the  same  time,  carried  on 
frequent  wars  against  the  contiguous  districts  of  Germany  and  Poland,  and  often  held  away 
over  large  portions  of  them.  But  her  most  brilliant  era  was  the  reign  of  Margaret  of  Wal- 
demar,  suruamed  the  Semiramis  of  the  North,  who,  by  her  courage,  popularity,  and  address, 
succeeded  in  effecting  the  union  of  Calmar,  which  placed  on  her  head,  and  on  that  of  her 
nephew  Eric,  the  crown  of  the  three  northern  kingdoms  of  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway. 

The  decline  of  Denmark  began  in  the  thirteenth  century,  under  the  violent  and  tyranni- 
cal reign  of  Christian  I.  The  sanguinary  course  by  which  he  sought  to  punish  an  insurrec- 
tion of  the  Swedes  roused  all  the  dormant  spirit  of  that  brave  people,  who  found  a  deliverer 
in  Gustavus  Vasa,  and  were  finally  freed  from  the  Danish  yoke.  During  the  two  following 
centuries,  Sweden,  led  to  victory  by  a  succession  of  heroic  monarchs,  rose  to  the  highest 
pitch  of  military  glory ;  while  Denmark,  always  defeated,  was  stripped  of  many  of  her  most 
important  territories,  and  sunk  into  the  rank  of  a  secondary  state.  Still  she  successfully 
cultivated  maritime  commerce  and  shipping,  and  obtained  some  valuable  possessions  in  the 
East  and  West  Indies. 

In  the  great  crisis  produced  by  the  conquests  of  Napoleon,  Denmark  was  thrown  into  an 
imfortunate  predicament.  Placed,  as  it  were,  at  the  point  of  collision  between  France  and 
Ru.ssia,  she  couH  with  difficulty  escape  being  crushed  between  them.  Circumstances  of 
peculiar  hardship  threw  her  into  the  arms  of  France,  to  whose  cause  she  adhered,  and  at  the 
great  contest  whicii  ended  in  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  she  became  a  victim.  First,  she 
was  deprived  of  Norway,  that  it  might  be  ceded  to  Sweden,  and  that  Russia  might  retain 
Finland.  Denmark  received  in  return  Swedish  Pomerania  as  an  inadequate  compensation. 
Next,  she  was  required  to  exchange  Pomerania  for  Lauenburg,  a  territory  of  still  inferior 
extent  and  value ;  but,  as  it  borders  on  Sleswick  and  Holstein,  it  has  rendered  her  dominion 
more  compact,  and  extended  her  frontier  to  the  Elbe,  so  that  she  is  perhaps  rather  a  gainer 
by  the  exchange.  ^^    »    ■ 

Sect.  IV. — Productive  Industry. 

The  agriculture  of  Denmark  is  conducted  under  considerable  disadvantages  both  of  cli- 
mate and  soil.  The  climate,  though  not  subject  to  severe  frost  or  intense  cold,  is  chill  and 
damp ;  and  the  land  consists  in  a  great  measure  of  sand  and  marsh.  Every  part  of  the  king- 
dom, however,  is  capable  of  some  cultivation,  and  occasional  tracts  of- luxuriant  fertility 
occur.    Such  are  the  islands  of  Zealand  Laaland,  and  Falst^r ;  and,  in  a  still  greater  degree, 


179 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PART  in. 


the  aea-coast  of  Slesv/ick  and  Holatein ;  for  the  interior  is  arid  and  sandy.  The  industry 
of  the  peasant  in  Denmark  Proper  Buffers  many  severe  checks ;  he  has  been  but  recently 
emancipated  from  personal  bondage,  a.nd  is  still  subjected  to  many  feudal  usages.  Life- 
leases,  under  which  the  payment  is  made  in  produce  or  personal  services,  are  common.  The 
proprietors  arc  generally  embarrassed,  and  unable  to  expend  much  on  the  improvement  of 
their  lands.  The  farmers  of  Holstein  and  Sleswick  carry  on  the  process  of  cultivation  with 
great  skill  and  activity.  The  chill  moisture  of  tlie  climate  is  less  favourable  to  the  cultiva' 
tion  of  wheat  than  of  barley,  rye,  and  oats ;  all  of  which  afford  a  large  surplus  for  exporta- 
tion. The  rearing  of  cattle  is  also  an  extensive  branch  of  industry,  though  too  little  atten- 
tion has  been  paid  to  the  improvement  of  the  breeds,  unless  on  the  west  coast  of  Sleswick, 
on  whose  moist  and  rich  meadows  is  produced  what  bears  a  high  reputation  under  the  name 
of  "  Hamburg  beef."  Over  all  Denmark,  the  produce  of  the  dairy  rorms  the  basis  of  a  large 
export  trade. 

The  manufactures  of  Denmark  are  extremely  rude,  and  consist  chiefly  in  working  up  tiie 
flax  and  wool  of  the  country  in  a  coarse  form  for  domestic  use.  A  great  proportion  also  of 
the  wool  is  exported.  Government  have  employed  ^eat  efforts  to  raise  Denmark  to  tlie 
rank  of  a  manufacturing  country ;  and  some  fabrics  m  the  diflTeront  kinds  of  clotli,  brandy, 
sugar-refining,  &c.,  have,  under  its  patronage,  been  set  on  foot  in  the  large  towns;  but  these 
are  all  languishing,  and  with  difficulty  support  foreign  competition. 

The  commerce  of  Denmark  is  in  a  more  active  state  than  the  other  branches  of  industry ; 
though  it  is  still  not  such  as  to  give  her  a  prominent  place  among  the  powers  of  Eiiro|)(>. 
The  basis  consists  in  the  exportation  of  its  raw  produce.  The  grain  exported  from  Jutlu^id 
and  the  islands,  at  an  average  of  seven  yeors  to  1827,  amounted  to  20,000  quarters  of  wheat ; 
141,000  quarters  of  rye ;  190,000  quarters  of  barley ;  43,000  quarters  of  oats.  The  rye 
was  chieQy  exported  to  Norway,  to  be  used  as  bread-corn,  and  tlie  barley  to  be  employed  in 
distillation.  The  value  of  these  articles  amounted,  in  1825,  to  $2,300,000.  That  of  butter 
and  cheese  exported  was,  in  the  same  year,  $1,300,000.  Holstein  and  Sleswick,  called  the 
duchies,  exported  at  an  average  also  of  seven  years,  78,000  quarters  of  wheat ;  55,000  of 
rye ;  75,000  of  barley ;  180,IKK)  of  oats.  The  value  of  butter,  cheese,  and  salted  meat,  is 
still  greater.  Denmark,  from  its  situMion  between  the  northern  and  middle  states,  has  a 
considerable  carrying  trade  of  the  bulky  articles  produced  by  the  former ;  and  has  also  a 
good  deal  of  ship-building.  Both  the  whale  and  herring  fisheries  are  likewise  carried  on  to 
some  extent 

Sect.  V, — Political  Oeography. 

The  constitution  of  Denmark,  originally  founded  on  the  basis  of  the  most  complete  feudal 
inrlependence,  to  the  extent  of  rendering  the  monarchy  itself  elective,  underwent  a  com- 
plete change  in  1660,  when  Frederick  III.  had  the  address  to  obtain  an  act  by  which  the 
crown  was  declared  hereditary,  and  himself  invested  with  supreme  and  absolute  power. 
The  sway  of  the  Danish  princes  has,  however,  been  exceedingly  mild  and  popular,  and  their 
despotic  power  exerted  in  a  manner  beneficial  to  the  people,  as  it  limited  the  oppressive 
rights  exercised  by  thp  noble».  These,  however,  continue  to  be  extremely  obnoxious; 
and  it  is  only  within  a  very  few  years  that  the  body  of  the  people  were  emancipated  from 
a  state  of  personal  slavery.  The  nobles  are  few  in  number,  consisting  only  of  one  duke, 
nineteen  counts,  and  twelve  barons.  The  king  himself  presides  at  the  supreme  national 
tribunal. 

The  revenue  amountstofrom  abc^t  $7,500,000  to  $8,000,000.  There  is  a  nominal  debt  of 
$75,000,000 ;  but  the  interest  paid  upon  it  is  small. 

The  military  and  naval  establishments  are  on  a  scale  suited  to  a  greater  country  than 
what  remains  of  Denmark.  The  army  is  kept  up  to  nearly  40,000  regular  troops  and  60,(H)C 
militia.  The  navy  has  not  recovered  from  the  severe  shock  which  it  received  during  tht 
last  war:  at  present  it  consists  of  six  ships  of  the  line,  six  frigates,  and  four  ^rvettes,  besides 
smaller  vessels.  The  sailors  being  all  registered,  no  difficulty  is  ever  found  in  manning  the 
navy. 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 

The  population  of  the  Danish  dominions  in  1832,  amounted  to  2,049,000;  of  which 
1,540,000  were  in  its  ancient  domain  of  the  islands  Jutland  and  Sleswick ;  404,000  in  Hol- 
stein; 40,000  in  Lauenburg ;  51,000  in  Iceland;  14,000  in  Greenland  and  the  Faroe  IslandH.* 

National  character.  The  Danes  are  generally  quiet,  tranquil,  and  industrious.  Tlie 
inhabitants  of  the  towns,  who  are  cliiefly  engaged  in  trade,  have  a  great  share  of  the  patient, 
thrifty,  and  persevering  habifi?  of  the  Dutch.  The  peasantry,  pc>or  and  oppressed,  are  bpirin- 
ning,  however,  to  raise  their  heads ;  and  the  nobles,  no  longer  addicted  to  those  rude  aiid 

*  The  Danish  culoiiipi)  art  Christiangliori;  anti  other  Rtatinns  in  Oiiinea,  with  44,000  inhabitants;  Santit  Crux 
Bt.  TliomaE.  and  Sl.Jnhii  in  iho  Went  Indies,  with  47.000:  and  Tranaucbar  and  factoriea on  the Coruiuaniielcoul. 
in  liM  East  Indies,  with  UO.OOO.— Am.  Ed. 


Book  1. 


DENMARK. 


478 


AtLTing  purmiits  which  rendered  thorn  once  so  formidable,  live  much  in  the  style  of  opulent 
proprietors  in  other  European  countries. 

The  Lutheran  religion  was  early  and  zealously  adopted  in  Denmark,  to  the  extent,  indeed, 
of  granting  toleration  to  no  other ;  but  the  liberal  principles  now  diflbfled  throughout  Euruixj, 
have  mode  thoir  way  fully  into  that  country.  Science  was  at  one  era  nomewhat  brilliantly 
(MtroniHed  in  Denmark.  The  cbaervatory  at  Orienbaum  was  the  theatre  of  many  of  tho 
most  important  modern  observations;  and  Tycho  Bralie  ranks  as  one  of  the  fathers  if 
modern  oBtronomy.  (Elenschiagcr  and  other  writers  have  introduced  a  school  of  poetry  and 
dramatic  literature,  founded  upon  that  of  the  modern  German.  Tho  government  luis 
bestowed  a  laudable  attention  on  the  general  education  of  its  people,  and  has  even  passed  .i 
law,  requiring  every  child,  of  a  certain  age,  to  be  sent  to  school.  The  schools,  on  the  plan 
of  mutual  instruction,  ammmted,  in  1820,  to  2500,  and  more  were  in  progress ;  there  are  also 
3000  grammar  and  parish  schools. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Oeography. 
Tho  local  divisions  of  continental  Denmark  present  little  variety  in  consequence  of  the 
uniformity  of  its  surtiice,  and  the  small  number  of  considerable  cities.  Its  divisions  are  Zea- 
land  and  the  other  islands;  Jutland,  Sloswick,  Ilolstein,  Lauenburg ;  with  the  remote  terri* 
lories  of  Iceland,  Greenland,  and  the  Faroe  Islands. 

Zealand  is  a  flat,  fertile,  and  extensive  island,  separated  from  Funen  by  the  Great  Belt, 
and  from  Sweden  by  the  Sound.  Including  the  capital,  and  chief  seats  of  trade,  it  forms  the 
most  important  part  of  the  Danish  dominions. 

Copenhagen,  (Jig.  233.),  (in  Danish,  Kiobenhaffa,  or  the  "  merchant  port,")  the  capital 

of  Denmark,  is  situated  on  the  east 
coast  of  Zealand,  with  the  island 
of  Amak  oppposile  to  it,  and  seve 
ral  little  lakes  in  its  vicinity.  Its 
walls  enclose  a  circuit  of  five  miles, 
a  great  part  of  which,  however,  is 
covered  with  open  spaces,  and  with 
the  harbour  and  docks.  The  houses, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  are  built  of 
brick,  plastered  over,  and  painted 
in  different  colours.  The  number 
of  inhabitants  is  about  115,000; 
the  houses  are  lofly,  and  contain 
many  families  in  each.  The  city 
is  divided  into  three  parts;  the  old  town,  which  contains  the  greater  part  of  tiie  population; 
the  new  town,  in  which  are  all  the  finest  edifices;  and  the  prt,  or  Christian's  Haven.  In 
the  midst  of  the  principal  square  is  the  bronze  statue  of  Frederick  V.,  weighing  45,0(X)  lbs. 
This  square,  with  the  adjoining  one  called  the  King's  Mark  Place,  surrounded  by  the  palace 
of  Charlottcnborg,  the  theatre,  the  principal  hotel,  and  other  stately  buildings,  forms  the 
handsomest  part  of  Copenhagen.  The  cathedral  was  destroyed  during  the  bombardment  by 
the  English,  and  is  left  in  ruins ;  but  the  Frue  Kirke  is  an  elegant  Grecian  edifice,  215  feet 
by  180,  with  a  Doric  portico,  and  for  which  Thorwaldsen  is  preparing  statues  of  the  apostles 
and  evangelists.  The  palace  of  Rosenborg,  though  now  unoccupi^,  contains  an  extraor- 
dinary display  of  jewels,  precious  stones,  and  porcelain.  The  collections  in  science  and  ort 
are  equal  to  those  of  the  greatest  capitals.  The  king  has  a  library  of  400,000  volumes,  with 
numerous  manuscripts  illustrative  of  the  history  and  literature  of  the  North,  as  well  as  those 
brought  by  Niebuhr  from  the  East ;  an  extensive  museum  of  northern  antiquities :  a  gallery 
of  pictures,  comprising  some  fine  specimens  of  the  greatest  masters,  and  a  numerous  collec- 
tion of  engravings.  The  University  of  Copenhagen,  a  highly  respectable  institution,  has  a 
valuable  library  of  about  100,000  volumes,  and  an  excellent  collection  of  northern  manu- 
scripts. The  arsenal  is  said  to  equal  that  of  Vetiice  in  beauty,  and  to  surpass  it  in  extent 
The  mint  throws  off  200  pieces  in  a  minute. 

The  other  towns  in  Zealand  and  the  islands  are  of  comparatively  small  magnitude.  Ros- 
child,  the  ancient  capital  of  Denmark,  which  containea  once  thirty  convents  and  thirty 
churches,  is  now  remarkable  only  for  its  Gothic  cathedral,  in  whose  vaults  are  deposited  the 
remains  of  the  kings  of  Denmark.  Several  of  the  monuments  are  fine.  Elsinore,  with  its 
castle  of  Cronborg,  is  important  from  its  situation  on  the  Sound,  which  being  commanded 
by  the  castle,  the  government  is  enabled  to  levy  what  are  called  the  Sound  dues.  The  pas- 
sage to  Helsinborg,  in  Sweden,  may  be  made  in  half  an  hour.  Elsinore,  from  its  &vourable 
situation  and  good  roadstead,  carries  on  a  considerable  commerce,  and  contains,  among  its 
inhabitants,  many  British,  Jews,  and  even  Mahometans.  It  has  a  handsome  cathedral,  with 
Mome  fine  tombs.  Population  7000.  At  Cronborg  is  shown  the  chamber  in  which  the 
unfortunate  Matilda  was  confined.  This  castle  commands  a  noble  view  over  the  sea,  tho 
Vol.  L  40*  3K 


Coponhsgen. 


m 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


Pakt  IIL 


idanda,  and  tho  opposite  coast  of  Sweden.  The  terrace  from  which  these  are  viewed 
recalls  to  the  English  reader  the  first  scenes  of  Hamlet,  the  tradition  of  whoso  story  is  still 
prevalent  here.  Soroo,  in  the  interior,  surrounded  by  a  fine  country,  has  a  noble  academy ; 
and  contains  the  tombs  of  Eric,  Canute,  and  other  princes.  Odeiisec,  the  capital  of  Fiinnn, 
has  a  college,  and  is  rather  a  thriving  town,  with  manufactures  of  woollen  and  Honp.  Nyo> 
borg,  in  Funen,  and  Corsoer  in  Zealand,  derive  some  impr^rtance  from  their  nituution  on  the 

Eossage  of  the  Great  Belt;  and  Middelfarth,  in  the  former  island,  from  the  iJUBsage  of  the 
little  Belt. 

The  towns  of  Jutland  are  of  small  interest,  and  have  been  little  observed,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  those  which  lie  on  the  high  road  from  Hamburg  to  Copenhagen.  Aalborg,  near  the 
northern  extremity,  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the  four  bishoprics;  and,  being  situated  on  a  narrow 
arm  of  the  sea,  with  a  good  harbour,  carries  on  some  trade.  Aarhuus,  on  the  eastern  const, 
is  the  seat  of  another  bishopric ;  and,  being  in  the  midat  of  a  fertile  country,  exports  gome 
grain.  Population,  5,000.  Colding  derives  some  importance  from  its  vicinity  to  the  passage 
of  the  Little  Belt     Wiborg  and  Ripen  are  alw  deserving  of  mention. 

In  Sleswick,  the  city  of  that  name  is  agreeable,  though  irregularly  built.  Its  cathedral, 
with  numerous  monuments  of  ancient  dukes,  is  viewed  with  interest.  Flemsborg,  on  a  deep 
and  winding  haaf,  or  bay,  with  an  excellent  harbour,  possesses  a  much  greater  commercial 
importance,  while  it  carries  on  the  communication  with  the  Baltic :  it  has  16,000  inhabitants. 
Tonningen,  on  the  other  side,  near  the  mouth  of  tho  Eyder,  communicates  with  the  coun- 
tries situated  round  the  Gennan  Ocean ;  and,  by  the  canal  of  Holstein,  it  has  now  a  water 
communication  with  the  Baltic. 

Holstein,  the  most  southern  province  of  Denmark,  ranks  as  a  part  of  the  German  empire, 
to  which  it  once  belonged,  and  gives  to  the  king  of  Denmark  a  vote  in  the  diet.  Reaching 
to  the  Elbe,  and  being  more  in  the  commercial  circle,  it  has  a  considerably  brisker  trade  than 
the  northern  or  peninsular  territory.  Altona,  a  few  miles  below  Hamburg,  is  a  repetition  of 
that  city  on  a  smaller  scale ;  having  25,000  inhabitants,  busily  employed  in  the  commerce 
of  the  Elbe,  in  ship-building,  and  in  several  manufactures.  Gluckstadt,  about  twenty  miles 
lower,  though  inferior  in  extent,  is  a  handsome  and  regular  town,  with  considerable  naval 
establishments.  Kiel,  on  the  eastern  or- Baltic  coast,  has  an  excellent  harbour,  and  ^derives 
importance  from  its  situation  at  the  extremity  of  the  canal  which  connects  the  eastern  and 
western  seas.  It  contains  an  university.  Lauenburg,  a  level  tract,  intersected  with  several 
small  lakes,  though  it  rounds  the  Danish  borders,  does  not  possess  much  importance,  either 
in  itself  or  its  little  capital,  with  3,000  inhabitants. 

Iceland,  an  appendage  of  the  Danish  crown,  unimportant  in  a  political  view,  tmt  interest- 
ing fix)m  its  physical  and  moral  aspect,  is  situated  in  the  Northern  Ocean,  on  the  border  of 
the  arctic  circle,  and  at  the  farthest  verge  of  the  civilized  world.  It  is  a  large  island,  220 
miles  in  length,  and  210  in  breadth;  containing  about 40,000  square  miles.  Iceland  belongs, 
by  its  situation,  to  the  polar  world  ;  and  the  mountain  chains,  from  3000  to  6000  feet  high, 
with  which  it  is  everywhere  intersected,  give  it  a  still  more  severe  and  stem  character. 
Barley  is  the  only  grain  that  can  be  raised,  and  this  only  in  patches ;  cabbages,  and  a  few 
other  imported  vegetables,  may  be  produced,  but  by  no  means  in  perfection.  The  dependence 
of  the  inliabitants  is  chiefly  upon  the  abundance  of  fish  which  the  surrounding  seas  afibrd ;  so 
that  the  interior,  comprising  about  half  of  the  island,  is  a  desert  of  the  most  dreary  character. 

The  mountain  phenomena  of  Iceland  are  very  striking.  According  to  Glieman,  the 
jokuls,  or  hills  covered  with  ice,  rise  to  the  following  heights:  Oerefe,  6240  feet ;  SnafeJi, 

4672;  Findfall,  5368;  Hecla,  5210;  Eya- 

894"'      ^^^1^^  fiall  Oester,  5794.     All  these  mountains 

'   ^  '^  .-1...  j^j.g^  ^^  jjjg  Bame  time,  glaciers  capped 

with  ice  which  never  melts;  but  these 
glaciers  consist  not,  like  those  of  Switzer- 
land, of  great  masses  sloping  down  from 
upper  regions  of  the  mountains  to  the  val- 
leys ;  they  are  the  snows  of  winter  melted 
and  frozen  where  they  fall.  Beneath  this 
•mantle  of  ice  and  snow  bums  a  perpetual 
fire,  which  in  every  part  of  the  island 
bursts  forth  in  the  most  strange  and  fear- 
ful phenomena.  Hecla  (Jig.  234.),  with  its  flaming  volcano,  is  the  most  celebrated ;  but  its 
eruptions,  of  which  six  have  occurred  in  the  course  of  a  century,  are  at  present  suspended. 
There  are  six  other  volcanoes,  which,  in  the  course  of  a  century,  have  emitted  twenty 
emptions. 

The  Geysers  form  a  phenomena  strikingly  characteristic  of  Iceland,  and  rank  with  the 
most  extraordinary  that  are  produced  on  any  part  of  the  globe.  They  consist  of  fountains, 
which  throw  up  boiling  water,  spray,  and  vapour,  to  a  great  height  into  the  air.  The  erup- 
tions are  not  continuous,  but  announce  their  approach  by  a  sound  like  that  of  subterraneoufl 


^^^^■if^ffif^ 


Hecla. 


BboKl. 


DENMARK. 


47a 


tliunder;  immediately  after  which,  a  cohimn  of  water,  accompanied  with  prodigious  vohiiiies 
235  of  steam,  burgts  fortli,  and  rushcH  up  to  the  height  uf  htly, 

■ixty,  ninety,  or  oven  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  Tlie  water 
soon  ceaeefi ;  but  tiie  spray  and  vapour  continue  to  play  in 
the  air  for  several  hotirM,  and,  when  illuminated  by  the  sun, 
produce  the  most  brilliant  rainbows.  The  Inrgovt  stones, 
when  thrown  into  tlic  orifice,  are  iiiKtantly  prup'iUed  to  an 
amazing  height,  and  remaining  often  for  some  minutes 
within  the  influence  of  the  steam,  rise  and  lull  in  singular 
alternation.  Stones  thrown  into  the  fountain  have  the 
remarkable  eflfect  of  acting  as  a  stimulus  to  the  erup- 
tion, and  causing  it  to  burst  from  a  state  of  tranquillity. 
The  basin  of  the  Great  Geyser  {fig.  235.),  is  of  an  oval 
form,  with  diameters  of  fifty-eight  and  sixty-four  feet. 
Every  spot  around  the  Geysers  is  covered  with  variogn- 
ted  and  beautifiil  petrifactions.  Leaves,  grass,  rusiics, 
are  converted  into  white  stone,  preserving  entire  every 
fibre. 

The  Sulphur  Mountains,  with  their  caldrons  of  boihng 
Oraat  Oejriet.  mud,  present  another  phenomenon  which  the  traveller  be- 

holds with  the  utmost  astonishment.  These  consist  chiefly  of  clay,  covered  witii  a  crust, 
which  is  hot  to  the  touch,  and  of  sulphur,  from  almost  every  part  of  which,  gas  and  stcum 
are  perpetually  escaping.    Sometimes  a  loud  noise  guides  tlie  traveller  to  a  spot  where  cul- 

drons  of  black  boiling  mud  {fig. 
236     ^_.  236.),    largely    impregnated    with 

this  mineral  substance,  are  throw- 
ing up,  at  .short  intervals,  their 
eruptions.  That  on  the  Krabla, 
observed  by  Mr.  Henderson,  had  a 
diameter  equal  to  that  of  the  Great 
Geyser,  and  rose  to  the  height  of 
thirty  feet.  The  situation  of  the 
spectator  here  is  not  only  awful,  but 
even  dangerous;  standmg,  ns  Sir 
George  Mackenzie  observes,  "  on  a 
support  which  feebly  sustains  him, 
over  an  abyss  where  fire  and  brim- 
stone are  in  dreadful  and  incessant 
Caldron  of  Boilinc  Mud.  action  " 

The  civil  and  social  state  of  Iceland  presents  features  no  less  interesting.  It  was  dig. 
covered  about  the  year  840,  by  Nadod,  a  Danish  pirate.  After  its  settlement  it  became  n 
little  independent  republic ;  and  the  arts  and  literature,  driven  before  the  tidr  ..f  barbarisni, 
which  then  overwhelmed  the  rest  of  Europe,  took  reftige  in  this  remote  anJ  >  ^en  clime. 
Iceland  had  its  divines,  its  annalists,  its  poets,  and  was  for  some  time  the  most  e  -lightened 
country  then  perhaps  existing  in  the  world.  Subjected  first  to  Norway,  in  1261,  and  after- 
wards to  Denmark,  it  lost  the  spirit  and  energy  of  an  independent  republic.  Yet  the 
diflusion  of  knowledge,  even  among  the  lowest  class,  which  took  place  during  its  pros- 
perous period,  still  exists  in  a  degree  not  paralleled  in  the  most  enlightened  of  other 
nations.  Men  who  seek,  amid  the  storms  of  the  surrounding  ocean,  a  scanty  provision 
for  their  families,  possess  an  acquaintance  with  the  classical  writings  of  antiquity,  and 
a  sense  of  their  beauty.  The  traveller  finds  the  guide  whom  he  has  hired  able  to  hol.d  a 
conversation  with  him  in  Latin,  and  on  his  arrival  at  his  miserable  place  of  rest  for  the  nipht, 
is  addressed  with  fluency  and  elegance  in  the  same  language.  "The  instruction  of  his  cliil- 
dren,"  says  Dr.  Holland,  "ff-rms  one  of  the  stated  occupations  of  the  Icelander;  and  while 
the  little  hut  which  he  inhabits  is  almost  buried  in  the  snow,  and  while  darkness  and  deso- 
lation are  spread  universally  around,  the  light  of  an  oil-lamp  illumines  the  page  fi*om  which 
he  reads  to  his  family  the  lessons  of  knowledge,  religion,  and  virtue." 

The  Faroe  Islands  compose  a  group  in  the  Northern  Ocean,  between  61°  15'  and  62°  20' 
N.  lat.,  to  the  N.W.  of  Shetland,  which  they  resemble.  The  principal  are  Stromsoe,  Osteroe, 
Suderoe,  and  Norderoe,  with  the  smaller  islands  of  Nalsoe,  Vagoe,  and  Sandoe.  'Their  only 
wealth  is  produced  by  the  rearing  of  sheep,  fishing,  and  catching  the  numerous  birds  which 
cluster  round  the  rocks.  With  the  surplus  of  these  articles  they  supply  their  deficiency  of 
grain.    Thorsharn,  on  Stromsoe,  is  the  only  place  that  con  be  called  a  town. 


476 


,M 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 
^ ,         CHAPTER  VL 

■WEDBN  AND  NORWAY. 


Past  III 


Sweden  and  Norway,  now  united  into  one  kingdom,  fbrai  an  extensive  region,  stretchinff 
flrom  the  utmost  verffe  of  the  temperate  zone  far  into  the  fVozen  range  of  the  ^rctic  circle. 
Along  the  north  ancTwest  stretch  the  wide  shores  of  the  Frozen  Ocean,  so  far  as  yet  known. 
The  south-west  point  of  the  kingdom  borders  on  the  North  Sea  or  German  Oi-ean.  Tlie 
Baltic  and  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  encloHe  it  on  the  south  and  east;  so  that  it  forms  an  immense 
peninsula.  The  isthmus  by  wliich  it  is  joined  to  Russia  is  above  200  miles  broad,  but  ho 
closely  barred  by  mountains  and  frozen  plains,  that  the  kingdom  is  nearly  inaccessible, 
Dxcopt  by  sea. 

Sect.  I. — OenertU  Outline  and  Aspect. 

This  kingdom  is  of  vast  extent.  Its  length,  from  the  extreme  point  of  Scania  to  the  Nortli 
Cape,  is  ISBO  miles.  Its  breadth,  from  the  extreme  points  of  the  provinces  of  Stockholm 
on  the  east,  and  Bergen  on  the  west,  will  little  3xceed  350  miles.  Its  area  is  207,000  square 
miles.  Of  this  large  territory,  scarcely  a  half  can  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  civi- 
lized world.  The  Laplander,  who  derives  his  whole  subsistence  from  the  rein-deer,  can 
hardly  be  included  within  the  pale  of  civilized  society.  Even  the  southern  districts  have  a 
rugged  and  repulsive  aspect,  when  compared  to  almost  any  other  European  state.  Forests 
of  tall  and  gloomy  pine  stretch  over  the  plains,  or  hang  on  the  sides  of  the  mountains ;  tlie 
ground  for  hve  months  in  the  year  is  buried  undpr  snow ;  cultivation  appears  only  in  scat- 
tered patches,  and  was  long  (j^uite  insufficient  to  furnish  bread  to  the  inhabitants. 

The  mountains  consist  chiefly  of  tlie  dark  and  lot\y  chain  of  the  Dofrines,  which  were 
for  ages  a  barrier  between  the  two  separate  and  hostile  states  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  but 
are  now  included  within  the  united  kingdom.  It  commences  near  Gottenburg,  on  a  low 
scale,  and  becomes  mueh  more  elevated  in  passing  through  Norway,  where  some  of  its  pin 
nacles  exceed  8000  feet  Chains  of  secondary  elevation  run  through  Lapland ;  but,  in 
approaching  the  North  Cape,  thoy  again  rise  as  high  as  before,  and  face  the  polar  seas  with 
ciifls  of  prMigious  magnitude. 

The  rivers  are  numerous,  Sweden  being  a  country  profbsely  watered ;  but,  as  they  rise  in 
the  Dofrines,  and  traverse  the  divided  breadth  of  the  peninsula,  they  seldom  attain  any 
material  length  of  course.  The  largest  is  the  Dahl,  which  crosses  Dafecarlia,  and  falls  into 
the  sea  at  Geffle,  after  a  course  of  260  miles.  The  most  important  as  to  navigation  are  those 
which  form  the  outlet  to  the  lakes,  particularly  the  Gotha,  reaching  from  Uie  lake  Wener 
to  Gottenburg.  The  Glomme  and  Uie  Dramme  are  pretty  considerable  rivers,  running 
from  north  to  south,  and  down  which  considerable  quantities  of  timber  are  floated.  Lapland 
pours  a  number  of  large  streams  into  the  head  of  tho  Gulf  of  Bothnia ;  but  these  are 
usually  chained  in  ice,  and  at  no  time  can  be  subservient  to  the  purposes  of  agriculture  or 
navigation. 

Lakes  form  the  grand  depository  of  the  surplus  waters  of  Sweden.  The  Wener  bean 
almost  the  character  of  an  inland  sea,  and  the  completion  of  the  canal  of  TrOlhiktta,  by 
enabling  its  coasts  to  communicate  by  the  Gotha  with  Gottenburg,  has  given  them  almost 
the  full  advantages  of  a  maritime  site.  The  Wetter,  though  equal  in  length,  covers  not 
nearly  so  great  an  extent  of  ground.  Mftler,  or  Malar,  is  a  narrow,  winding  loch,  cgr,  more 
strictly,  a  bay,  running  sixty  miles  into  the  interior  from  Stockholm,  to  whose  environs  its 
variegated  and  rocky  shores  give  a  beautiful  wildness.  Small  lakes,  enclosed  between  hills, 
are  of  very  frequent  occurrence,  both  in  Norway  and  Sweden. 

,     ,      .    ,    .  Sect.  n. — Natural  Oiography, 

SuBSECT.  1. — Oeology, 

(1.)  Geoloot  or  Sweden. — I.  Primitive  rocks.  Granite  occurs  In  the  mountains  of 
Jiimtland,  in  Herjeadalen,  in  Lulea  Lappmark,  in  Pitea  Lappmark.  It  occurs  also  in  the 
plains,  without  any  covering  of  other  rocks,  as  in  Upland,  Westmanland,  Sudermanland,  and 
a  part  of  East  and  West  (kithland.  It  passes  into  gneiss  and  syenite.  Gneiss  occurs  in 
many  places  in  Sudermanland,  East  Gothland,  &c.,  with  beds  of  copper  and  iron  ore.  Mica 
slate  abounds  not  only  in  the  principal,  but  also  in  the  subordinate  chains,  and  contains  the 
greater  number  of  the  metalliferous  beds  met  with  in  Sweden.  It  often  alternates  with  vast 
beds  of  primitive  limestone,  quartz,  &c.  In  the  high  mountain  ridges,  the  strata  of  this 
rock  are  generally  disposed  at  an  angle  of  4-5°;  while  in  the  subordinate  chains  they  uie 
vertical.  In  many  places  it  abounds  in  gamete,  when  it  is  known  under  the  name  noorka, 
or  murkstein,  the  garnet  rock  of  geolowists.  Clay  slate  occurs  sparingly :  talc  slate,  in 
several  quarters,  occurs  in  considerable  abundance.  Porphyry  occurs  only  in  Smaland, 
where  the  basis  is  a  quartzy  hornstone  (halhjlinta)  with  embedded  crystals  of  felspar,  and 
grains  of  quartz.    Primitive  limestone  occurs  generally  in  tljc  secondary  mountain  chainsi 


Book  I. 


SWPJDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


4T7 


but  snldnm  in  the  neififhhniirhood  nf  the  central  chnina.  It  is  mixoil  up  with  hornblnniie 
tromolite,  quartz,  serpentine,  i^arnat,  mai^netic  ironHtone,  and  mica.  It  w  uflcn  inotiiillt*>roiiii 
containing  ffalena,  copper,  and  iron  pyrites.  Horpentine,  with  the  exception  of  mawcH  in 
Bomo  metalliferous  boilM,  seldom  occurs  pure :  it  is  otlon  mixed  with  limeHtoiin,  whtui  it 
occurs  in  primitive  limestone.  Quartz  rock  occurs  either  pure,  and  in  whole  mountainn,  us 
in  Dahlsland,  Smaland,  and  many  other  places;  or  it  alternntes  with  mica  slate,  as  in  Diiiil-i- 
land,  and  also  in  the  mctullit'erous  beds  of  I'ersberg  and  Klackn.  The  limestone  of  Diine- 
mora  contains  mica  slate.  It  also  occurs  in  veins  in  granite  and  mica  slate,  &c.  Porphyri- 
tic  quartz,  a  granite  rock,  with  embedded  grains  and  crystals  of  felspar,  occurs  in  Hmaland, 
Turnca  Ivippmark,  &o.  Primitive  trap.  Of  this  interesting  group  of  rocks,  the  following 
kinds  are  met  with ;  viz.  hornblende  rock,  hornblende  with  felspar,  and  hornblende  with 
mica. 

II.  Trangition  rockt.  Conglomerate  and  sandstone,  which,  in  some  places,  are  covered 
with  transition  limestone,  occur  in  J&mtland,  Tomea  Lappmark,  Angermanland,  Dalecarlia, 
Schdnen,  islands  in  the  Lake  Wetter,  East  and  West  Gothland,  Nerika,  Dalamia.  Transi- 
tion porphyry :  in  the  pariah  of  Elfdal,  in  Dalamia.  The  basis  is  of  the  nature  of  horn- 
stone.  It  rests  upon  transition  sandstone,  and  is  covered  by  syenite,  porphyry,  and  transition 
greenstone.  Greywacke  slate  lies  upon  sandstone,  and  is  covered  by  transition  limestone. 
It  sometimes  contains  coal,  and  then  passes  into  a  kind  of  shale.  It  also  contains  fossil 
remains  of  marine  animals.  Transition  limestone  occurs  in  Gothland,  CEIand,  Schdnen, 
East  and  West  Gothland,  Nerika,  Dalamia,  and  J&mtland.  In  the  regular  succession,  it  lies 
immediately  upon  alum  slate,  but  in  Gothland  directly  upon  sandstone.  It  is  seldom  covered 
oy  other  rocks,  excepting  in  West  Gothland,  where  it  is  covered  by  clay  slate  and  green- 
stone.  It  contains  many  different  petrifiictions,  as  orthoceretites,  ammonites,  anomites,  cchi- 
nites,  corallites,  and  entrochites.  Its  colour  is  commonly  gray,  or  bluish  gray,  and  reddish 
brown,  often  varied  with  veins  of  a  green  colour.     Transition  trap  is  the  youngest  rock  of 

he  transition  class  in  Sweden.  In  Elfdal  it  rests  upon  porphyry ;  upon  transition  clay  slate 
and  alum  slate  in  Kennekulle,  BiHongen,  the  Hunne  and  Halleberge,  and  others,  in  West 
Sothland. 

III.  Secondary  rocka.  The  mountain  chain  around  Helsin^borg,  in  Schfinen,  is  composed 
of  secondary  sandstone.  It  contains  beds  of  slate  clay,  bitummous  shale,  and  black  bitumi- 
nous coal.  This  sandstone,  which  belongs  to  the  black  bituminous  coal  formation,  is  covered 
with  other  secondary  deposits,  as  limestone,  the  age  of  which  is  not  well  known.  The  only 
one  of  these  newer  secondary  deposits,  the  geognostical  history  of  which  has  been  made 
out,  is  Chalk.  This  interestmg  formation  occurs  at  Limhamn,  near  to  Malmo.  It  encloses 
balls  of  common  flint,  and,  at  its  lower  part,  passes  mto  a  more  solid  chalk  and  secondary 
limestone. 

rv.  Tertiary  rocks.  The  tertiary  deposits  seem  to  occur  in  some  points  of  the  land  not 
far  distant  from  the  sea-coast ;  but  they  have  not  been  carefully  explored. 

V.  Alluvial  rocks.  Many  traets  njore  or  less  deeply  covered  with  gravel,  sand,  and  clay, 
occur  in  Sweden. 

Mines.  The  mines  of  Sweden  have  been  long  celebrated  all  over  the  world,  and  have 
been  frequently  described  by  travellers.  Oold  and  silver  mines.  The  Adelfors  mine,  which 
formerly  yielded  thirty  or  forty  marks  of  gold  annually,  now  furnishes  only  three  or  four ; 
those  of  Fahlun,  where  copper  predomiiiHti-j,  return  aimually  four  marks  of  gold  and  fifty 
marks  of  silver.  The  silver  mme  of  HMa,  which,  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Christina, 
yielded  annually  20,000  marks  of  silver,  does  not  at  present  afford  annually  more  than  2000 
or  3(K)0  marks.  Copper  mines.  The  most  considerable  copper  mines  are  those  of  Fahlun, 
which  is  also  known  under  the  name  of  Kopparberff.  The  mines  of  Atwidaberg,  in  East 
Gotland,  furnish  about  a  sixth  part  of  all  the  copper  which  the  Swedes  obtain  annually  from 
mines ;  those  of  Fahlun  yield  more  than  the  half  of  the  copper  raised  in  Sweden.  The  ore 
at  Fahlun  is  copper  pyrites,  disposed  in  an  immense  irregular-shaped  mass,  in  mica  slate : 
10,200  quintals  of  copper  are  yielded  by  it  annually.  Iron  mines.  The  greatest  iron  mines 
are  those  in  the  province  of  Upland :  of  these  the  most  important  are  those  of  Skebo,  of 
CEsterby,  not  far  from  Danemora,  of  Gimo,  of  Ronaes.  Iron  is  mined  as  far  north  as  Gell- 
vara,  which  is  200  leagues  to  the  north  of  Stockholm.  The  island  of  Uto,  on  the  east  coast 
of  Upland,  al«)  affords  a  considerable  quantity  of  iron.  The  whole  mines  afford  annually 
1,800,000  quintals  of  iron.  Cobalt  mines.  The  principal  mines  of  this  metal  are  those  of 
Tunaberg,  near  to  NykSping,  and  at  Awed,  in  East  Gothland.  These  mines  afford  excel- 
lent cobalt,  but  the  quantity  is  not  great.  Coal  mines.  Coal  mines  have  been  worked  for 
some  time  in  Scania,  two  leagues  from  Helsinborg,  and  are  affording  a  considerable  return. 
Sulphur  and  vitriol.  The  pyritical  minerals  of  Dylta  afford  annually  1050  quintals  of  sul- 
phur, and  those  of  Fahlun  about  100  quintals  of  the  same  substance.  The  vitriolic  waters 
of  Fahlun  afford  annually  about  600  quintals  of  gieen  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  iron,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  blue  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  copper.  Alum.  The  annual  produce  of  alum  in 
..        -»         .         ^      .  jsHes  besides  its  regular  mines,  also  valua» 

The  porphyry  quarries  of  Elfiial  are  tha 


fUi 


4\irofion  TV^QOoaaoa 


ole  quarries  of  granite,  porphyry,  and  marble. 


47R 


MAP  OF  SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


Flo.  m 


r.  .    » 


LnvttiM 


Bdoil 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY 


"1*W 


\nrgfiA  nnd  moit  celebratod  in  Europe.    Nearly  all  the  Ane  modern  worki  in  porphyry  arc 
in  tht'  norphyry  of  ElfUal. 

(2.)  (ianuioY  or  Norway  and  Laplamd. — I.  Primilivt  roekt,  Theae  wild  but  hiffhiy 
intorimtini;  cotintriea  are 'principally  compoiied  of  primitive  and  trannition  rocka;  lecondary 
mckfl  (x-,ciir  but  rarnly,  and  alluvial  dopoiiitH  aro  not  ao  abundant  aa  in  many  other  Iom  oxtcn* 
■ive  rei;i<)iis.  Oramte  is  a  raro  mck  in  Norway  and  Ijapland,  and  may  bo  coniiderod  one 
of  tho  loa«t  abundant  rocks  in  Scandinavia.  The  pranito  fronunntly  appeara  in  voini  tra- 
vorainff  thn  primitivn  atratiflcd  rockH,  or  runninif  rmrallol  with  dmIh  or  strata ;  and  sometimca 
it  can  bo  soon  spread  over  the  surikce  of  mica  slate,  aa  at  Forviff,  or  irregularly  associated 
with  clay  slate  and  diallago  rock,  as  in  the  island  of  Mageroe.  Qneiit  seoms  to  be  by  thr 
tho  moHt  frequent  and  abundant  rock  in  Scandinavia,  all  the  other  primitive  rocks  appearing 
to  be  in  somo  degree  subordinate  to  it.  Mica  slate  rests  upon  and  alternates  with  tho  gneiss, 
hut  is  far  from  being  so  generally  distributed  as  that  rock.  Clay  ilale  along  with  the  mica 
slate  is  not  of  frequent  occurrence.  Quartz  rock,  varioug  hornblende  rock»,  and  limettone, 
occur  in  beds  suhordinatn  to  the  gneiss  and  mica  slate.  Gabhro,  or  dialluife  rock,  one  of  the 
moNt  bcnutiflil  of  the  older  rocks,  occurs  in  great  quantity,  connected  with  clay  slate,  in  th 
'sland  of  Mageroe,  and  other  parts  of  Norway. 

11.  Transition  rocks.  This  class  contains,  besides  ffreywacke,  alum  slate,  and  limestone 
(which  contains  much  tremolite),  and  other  rocks  well  known  to  mineralogists  as  members 
of  this  class,  the  following: — 1.  Oranite,  which  sometimon  contains  hornblende.  8.  Syenite, 
which  contains  a  beautimi  Lahradoric  variety  of  common  felspar,  and  numerous  crystals  of 
the  gem  named  xircon.  8.  Porphyry,  and,  associated  with  it,  various  trap  rocks  allied  to 
basalt  and  amygdaloid. 

in.  Secondary  rocks.  The  great  primitive  land  of  Scandinavia  continues  onward  to  the 
extreme  northern  point  of  Norway ;  but  in  this  high  latitude  some  new  formations  make 
their  appearance  among  the  older.  The  sandstone  ouartz  of  Alton  has  been  known  since 
the  publication  of  the  travels  of  Von  Buch.  On  tho  East,  towards  the  Russian  dominions, 
there  is  a  considerable  tract  which  differs  more  from  tho  primitive  formations  tlinn  the  sand- 
stone quartz  of  Alten.doe8.  Sandstone  and  conglomerate  extend  across  the  subjacent  gneisa 
in  a  horizontal  position.     These  rocks  probably  fclong  to  the  old  red  sandstone.    , 

IV.  Alluvial  rocks.  Old  alluvium  occurs  on  the  coast,  and  in  the  interior  in  many  of  the 
valleys,  and  the  new  everywhere  in  greater  or  less  quantity. 

Mines,  The  only  silver  mines  in  Norway  are  those  of  KOngsberg,  situated  in  mica  alate, 
which  formerly  afforded  rich  returns,  but  of  late  have  yielded  no  profit.  The  gold  mine  of 
Edswold,  and  the  mines  of  lead  and  silver  in  Jarlsberg,  have  been  but  feebly  worked.  The 
.opper  mines  are  principally  situated  in  the  northern  division  of  the  kingdom.  The  most 
onsiderablo,  near  Rjnraos,  were  discovered  in  1644.  They  have  afforded  considerable  qutin- 
ities  of  copper :  in  1805,  the  annual  return  was  7860  (juintals  of  copper.  The  other  minea 
of  copper  arc  fVom  15  to  20  leagues  of  Drontheim,  at  Quikne,  Loikkcn,  St'lboe,  and  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Christiania,  at  Predericksgave  or  Foledal.  The  principal  iron  mines  are  those  of  Aren- 
dal  and  Krageroe,  in  southern  Norway.    The  mit)e  of  lAurwig,  near  the  town  of  that  name, 


NORTH  PART. 

I.  Kiharc 
9.  Nlnwbjr 

3.  Tiinii 

4.  Labiibijc 

5.  HtimiiK'rrent 
0.  Alienianrd 

7.  Jokiliy 

8.  Almpnhtii 
U.  Pi'ivmsknnta 

10.  Kniitiikdno 

11.  KiiMiunurM 

12.  Fiiilnnd 

13.  Orralun 

14.  Ank>!n(>i 
l.V  Kiirrnriitira 
ID.  RncitvHri 

17.  8nll|XTil 

IP.  Siriinvo 
10.  riullivare 
ai).  Kipiii 
31.  (liiickJMck 
2).  Riintiv  iro 
SI.  SalKlnlen 
'J4.  I.i>in(>« 
2.V  Slipfici 
9«.S«l«iea 
27.  ailh"jnck 
2H.  Kindijaur 
VS>,  Waimat 

30.  Liilna 

31.  Ora« 

32  S..nijenrrl 

m.  Pulla 

34.  Riijala  Kcnf  li 

a.-!.  Pnlli. 

35. 1'np.T  Turiioa 

37   Tirnna 

iw  Kiiix 

3!»  Rnnoa 

40.  ri.lr:icls 

»l.T.ura 


Referenees  to  the  Map  of  Sweden  and  Norwiy. 


Aijeplos 

Henna 

pnlalid 

Hofhulm 

Tarn* 

Bonele 

Lumifcte. 

ArvMi 

Noraio 

Gumdtruken 

liulea 

Piiea 


Albya 
Bu 


84.  Drtnnund 

85.  Mariaiby 
HB.  Hcrndnl 
87.  pronUraim 
w.  I^iniivii 
80.  Garbert 
00.  Havna 

SOUTH  PART. 
1.  Sundiwall 
9.  Rraeke 

3.  Lanaa 

4.  8ve« 


..urtraik 

Ijo  ranger 

ITinca 

Nrbr 

Jekroaele 

Lyckiele 

Rnika 

Ruwio 

Ormiijo 

Oaddiidatt 

P.>ld>Tnid 

Hiriiin 

I  >ldi>riitiu 

ffiindtud 

H'llnunt 

Unilereuker 

Knlliijiin    I 

Foliniifl 

Slroni 

Aaeln 

Jiinspip 

.Aoitrnd 

NMPlinnling 

Pii'Vikcn 

NMriJinifrt! 
Mi'rniwoiid 

Fnrs 


5.  Lindaalla 

6.  Hade 

7.  Snitac 

8.  Tridal 
0.  iivnite 

10.  Qpdnl         I 

11.  Itotnidal    ' 
lit.  Oraknus 

13.  Bcindelv 

14.  SiHTum 
19.  Fncde 
1(i.  Sua  nodal 
17.  liom 

IH.  Rinaubo 
10.  Ovum 

90.  Gnilie 
31   Eniicdal 

91.  Aabrn 
S3.  Hegpn 
24.  I.inrdel 
9.1.  Arbra 

2fi.  Riiileihamn 
27.  IFimrnnue 
Sa,  (!.  flc 
an.  P.hlin 

30.  >i   ti 

31.  M,>lrmg 
39,  Diiihy 
3:1.  ^..i.,-l 


34.  Moa         • 
aa.  F'latheo 
30.  Plaa 
37.  Hod 
3P.  Kleivon 
.39.  Reraen 

40.  Anravif 

41.  Oddnn 

40,  Tuaauncdal 

43.  Nnre 

44.  Chrlitiania 
4.V  Prykaande 
4fl.  Narrni 
47.  Nnrrbarko 
4fl.  Tuna 

40.  Hedmnra 
90.  Forneb 
.11.  Loral  a 
W.  lo-na 
.ij.  Waddo 
.14.  Upaal 
63.  i^tiickhnlm 
.VI.  Mrtriarrol 
.W.  Fnknp'nc 
.V.  \V.-i.i.Tai 
.W.  Orohro 
fiO.  niilip>lad 
«'.  rnrloind 
63.  Hnlmodal 

fin.  Mois 

«4.  Tontbert 
ftl.  Ovamen 
fi«.  Rnnland 
fi7.  Hfllann 
fiP  E'-'ctgund 
fin.  II  ikki! 
70.  ('I>rii>iinniiund 
7'    Tt'.nffitc 
7^.  V  I  111' 
7X  Mi.kl.ind 
74.  .Arrnilal 
7.1.  Sir.'i; 


70.  HnMen 

77.  Prcdcrickftad 

78.  r'ri<dcrirkihall 

79.  yddevalln 
gO.'Wcnerlmrg 
81.  r.idkoplnf 

ra!  Maripatad 
B4.  Raana 
81.  Nykoping 
88.  Norkuping 
87.  WfMlerwiok 
88. 1.inkopint 

80.  Baby 
DO.  KKiwjo 
01.  Jonkoping 
99.  Hjo 

03.  Oreryd 

04.  flartOiem 
9.1.  (iiittenburg 
80.  Kptkjoy 
S7.  Halmalad 
98.  Ndttebaok 
90.  Mnrlundo 

ino.  Miiti-rbult 
lOI.Wiaby 

103.  Nan 

10:1.  Itiimpekulla 

104.  rolmai 
10.1.  nnrRhiilm 
lOa  (^nrlsemna 
107.  Carlghnmm 
IQR.  I.>ilh<ilm 
ion.  I'lndmrnna 
lin.  rhriminniitad 
III.  P..nim 

II-.'.  FKM.Tbo 
113.  MHltno 

Kivers. 
a  Tnriu 


b  Allen 

SRonnena 
Namaea 
7Tiirria 
Nidelvon 
Relna 
UlommeB 
"'lar 

Qiirrina 

)ahl 
m  IJiiana 
n  Nijurunda 

0  Indal 

p  Angermaiw 
q  Umea 

1  Windel 
a  filea 

t  tiutea 
u  Lina 
V  Kalix 
wTornea 
X  Lainin 
f  Muiinio 

Lttkti. 
ar  Hoin 
b*  Bti.ra 
c*  Avo 
d*  Pmea 
e*  Walgnma* 
f*  Apunua 
(T*  Knila 
!.♦  ."lora 
I*    P'lpmnnd 
i*    Mi»><'ll 
k*   IMnlfP 
|»    IMi'Irnar 
n-,*  W.^irsr 
n»  Winer 
u*  Bill  men 


480 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  IIL 


afTords  annually  26,000  quintalu  of  bar-irun  and  diVM)  quintals  of  cast-iron.  The  eBtablisli- 
iiK.-nt  uf  the  same  kind  at  Mosa  alfords  annually  1(),0(K)  quintals  of  iron  in  bars  and  cast. 
The  same  annual  quantity  is  afforded  by  the  mines  of  Bmrum,  Bolvig.'Ulfoss,  Eidfoss,  Em- 
land,  NacR,  Dikkeniarken  Fossuni,  and  Oudalcn.  lastly,  the  mines  of  Hassel,  Froeland, 
Le88oe,  and  Mostmarken,  furnish  from  ;}0()()  to  5U0()  quintals  of  iron  annually.     The  anniml 

Jroduce  of  the  iron  minss  of  Norway  is  estimated  by  a  well-known  statistical  writer  at  abnut 
50,000  ((uintals.  The  mines  of  cobalt,  which  are  worked  at  Modum  and  Fossum,  ure 
,  extensive  but  not  deep.  In  the  year  1792  they  yielded  2917  quintals  of  ore.  There  is  a 
mine  of  plumbago  and  black  lead  at  Engledal.  The  mines  of  alum,  which  are  worked  in 
tlie  mountain  of  Egeberg,  near  to  Christtania,  afford  not  only  a  sufficiency  for  the  consump- 
tion of  the  Danish  states,  but  also  a  considerable  quantity  for  exportation.  Norway  possesses 
quarries  of  granite,  marble,  millstone,  whetstone,  slate  and  clay.  Granite  is  exported  to 
Holland ;  the  marble  and  other  minerals  supply  the  Danish  states. 

SuBSEOT.  2. — Botany. 
The  Botany  of  these  countries  has  been  noticed  under  that  of  Denmark. 

SuBSEOT.  3. — Zoology. 

The  Zoology  of  Sweden,  the  native  country  of  the  celebrated  Linneus,  is  so  well  known 
to  naturalists,  by  the  writings  of  that  great  inan,  that  to  them  the  subject  is  familiar.  Nor 
does  it  prefient  any  thing  very  different  in  its  general  character  from  that  of  Denmark.  The 
bleak  and  inhospitable  regions  of  Norway  and  Lapland,  to  which  nature  ban  denied  the  rich 
and  verdant  pasturage  of  Britain,  and  the  consequent  abundance  of  grazing  animals,  are, 
however,  the  chief  metropolis  of  the  Rein-Jeer,  whose  diversified  qualities  are  beautifidly 
adapted  for  supplying  such  deficiencies. 

The  Rein-deer  (Rangifer  Tarandus  H.  Smith)  (Jig.  238.)  forms  the  sole  riches  of  the 

Laplander,  and  its  care  is  almost  his  only  occu- 
pation. According  to  the  season,  he  migrates 
to  the  sea  shore,  the  plains,  or  the  mountains. 
The  rich  oflen  possess  2000  head;  and  the 
poorer  seldom  less  than  100.  The  adult  male, 
in  a  wild  state,  is  even  larger  than  a  stag ;  but 
the  domesticated  races  are  somewhat  smaller : 
the  sight  and  scent  of  these  creatures  are  aston- 
ishing, and  guide  them  with  wonderful  precision 
through  the  most  dangerous  passes  and  in  the 
darkest  stormy  nights  of  an  arctic  winter.  To 
this  sagacity  the  Iiaplander  trusts  his  life  with 
confidence;  and  accidents  rarely  happen :  they 
draw  his  sledge  with  such  amazing  rapidity, 
that  in  twenty-four  hours  a  pair  of  Rein-deer  have  been  said  to  perform  a  journey  of  100 
P'iles.  In  a  wild  state  they  are  gregarious ;  and,  when  domesticated,  evince  an  excessive 
attachment  to  each  other.  During  summer  they  are  much  tormented  by  a  species  of  gad-fly; 
but  tlie  old  account  of  the  glutton  falling  upon  them  from  a  tree,  and  then  devouring  them, 
is  now  considered  fabulous.  During  life  this  useful  animal  supplies  its  master  with  labour  and 
milk;  and,  when  dead,  eyery  part  becomes  serviceable,  the  skin  for  clothing,  and  for  boots; 
the  horns  to  make  utensils ;  the  sinews  for  thread,  and  the  flesh  for  food :  the  intestines  are 
also  used ;  and  the  tongue  is  a  well-known  article  of  commerce. 

The  Birds  are  not  numerous,  and,  with  few  exceptions,  diflfer  not  from  those  of  Denmark 
and  the  other  northern  kingdoms.  The  Iceland  Falcon  {Falco 
islandicus)  (^g.2S9.)  rarely  wanders  to  more  temperate  climes;  and 
a  gigantic  Owl  (Slrix  lapponica  Lin.)  is  a  peculiar  inhabitant  of 
the  dreary  solitudes  of  Lapland :  to  these  we  may  add  two  other 
species ;  the  large  Ural  Owl,  and  the  Great  Snowy  Owl.  These 
formidable  birds  prey  tpon  numerous  ptarmigans  and  grouse,  great 
numbers  of  which  inhabit  the  confines  of  the  arctic  circle.  The 
Curruca  suecica  Sto.  or  Blue-throated  Reed  Warbler,  one  of  the 
most  elegant  birds  of  Europe,  is  n(  t  peculiar,  as  its  name  would  im- 
ply, to  Sweden,  being  common  in  France  and  Switzerland. 

The  insects  of  Sweden,  during  its  short  summer,  are  very  numer- 
ous; and  many,  enumerated  by  Acerbi,  very  beautiful;  but,  in 
autumn,  nearly  the  whole  country  is  terribly  infested  by  Musqui- 
toes,  these  tormenting  little  animals  being  beyond  calculation  more 
numerous  in  high  northern  latitudes  than  in  the  woods  of  tropical 
America. 


The  Rein-Deer. 


leehnd  Falean 


Book  L'i 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY 


481 


.f:,  -.n  '.-M) 


Sect.  III. — Historical  Geography 


The  early  history  of  Scandinavia  ia  deeply  involved  in  fable  and  imcertainty.  Ptolemy 
and  Pliny,  the  beat  informed  of  ancient  (^^cogfraphcrs,  aeem  to  distinguish  it  from  "QreatGer- 
muny,"  off  the  coast  of  which  they  represent  Basilia,  or  Baltia,  as  a  large  is.and,  ttiough  not 
nearly  approaching  to  the  real  dimensions.  The  Goths  were  found  in  early  possession  of 
Svvcdon,  and  its  southern  provincer  have  been  denominated  Gothland ;  but  the  question, 
vviiRthor  they  were  the  native  possessors,  or  entered  it  rs  conquerors,  is  one  which  can 
icarcely  be  now  decided.  Scandinavia  has  been  called  the  "  storehouse  of  nations ;"  and 
"  the  blue-eyed  myriads  from  the  Baltic  coast"  are  supposed  to  have  been  among  the  most 
numerous  of  those  who  spread  war  and  desolation  throughout  Europe.  Dr.  Clarke  ridicules 
this  idea,  as  inapplicable  to  a  country  of  unbroken  forests,  and  a  slowly  advancing  popula- 
tion, making  the  fir^t  essays  of  agriculture  ;•  yet,  though  the  population  could  never  be  great, 
the  simple  and  pastoral  habits  of  Uie  people  might  dispose  emigrants  to  seek  subsistence  with 
Uie  sword  in  happier  climates. 

Scandinavia,  first,  by  a  series  of  formidable  expeditions,  made  a  figure  in  history  at  the  end 
of  the  ninth  century.  Harold  Hariager,  or  the  Fair-haired,  the  first  of  the  great  sea-kings 
of  tiie  North,  having  united  the  formerly  independent  districts  of  Norway  under  his  sway, 
undertook  triumphant  expeditions  against  Shetland,  Orkney,  and  the  Hebrides.  For  several 
centuries  thp  Danes  and  Norwegians  held  full  possession  of  those  islands ;  gave  a  king  to 
En^'land,  and  formed  a  permanent  establishment  in  Normandy.  The  defeat  of  Haco  in  Got- 
land, and  of  Harold  HI.  in  England,  during  the  eleventh  century,  put  an  end  to  this  maritime 
dominion :  and  the  northeni  nations,  notwithstanding  their  immense  supply  of  naval  stores, 
iiave  never  since  attained  to  more  than  a  secondary  rank  among  the  maritime  powers. 

The  union  of  tlie  kingdoms  of  Scandinavia,  in  ]  odd,  under  Margaret,  called  the  Semiramis 
of  the  North,  forms  a  memorable  era.  Immediaioiy,  however,  afler  the  death  of  that  able 
princess,  tlie  Swedes  began  to  struggle  for  independence.  But  their  repeated  attempts  to 
ef^tablish  a  separate  kingdom  were  always  defeated,  till  the  cruel  and  tyrannical  reign  of 
Christian  H.  drove  matters  to  extremity,  and  brought  on  a  new  revolution. 

Gustavus  Vasa,  in  1520,  iioisted  agam  the  national  standard  in  the  province  of  Dalecarlia, 
and,  in  three  years  subsequently,  entered  Stockholm  in  triumph.  Afler  a  long  struggle,  the 
Danes  were  compelled  to  recognise  the  independence  of  Sweden. 

The  reign  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  formed  a  glorious  era  for  Sweden.  The  Protestant  reli- 
gion having  been  established  under  Gustavus  Vasa,  Sweden  began  to  be  looked  to  as  its  sup- 
port when  assailed  by  a  formidable  confederacy.  In  1630,  Gustavus  took  the  field  at  the 
head  of  only  ten  thousand  Swedes ;  but  around  this  gallant  band  rallied  all  the  Protestant 
powers  of  Germany.  The  splendid  victory  of  Breitenfeld  humbled  the  house  of  Austria,  and 
re-established  the  civil  and  religious  liberties  of  the  empire.  Even  afler  his  fall,  in  the  glori- 
ous field  of  Lutzen,  his  generals  continued  to  wage  that  desperate  war  of  thirty  years,  which 
was  necessary  to  compel  the  Catholic  league  finally  to  renounce  its  pretensions.  Sweden, 
at  tiie  peace,  obtained  Pomerania,  and  other  important  possessions  in  Germany ;  and  con- 
tinued, till  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  to  exercise  a  powerful  influence  on  the  affairs 
of  Europe. 

The  victories  and  reverses  of  Charles  XII.  threw  a  wild  and  romantic  lustre  around 
Sweden,  which  terminated,  however,  in  the  loss  of  her  station  and  greatness.  Being  de- 
feated at  Pultowa,  by  the  Czar  Peter,  and  driven  to  seek  shelter  from  the  Turks  at  Bender, 
he  was  obliged  to  purchase  peace  by  the  sacrifice  of  Livonia,  and  others  of  his  finest  provinces. 
The  influence  of  Sweden  was  thenceforth  confined  within  its  own  barren  limits,  and  it  ranked 
with  difficulty  as  a  power  of  the  second  order.  The  only  remarkable  change  in  the  course 
of  tlie  century  was  produced  by  the  revolutions  of  1772  and  1769,  when  Gustavus  III.  suc- 
ceeded in  converting  the  government  into  an  absolute  monarchy,  though  in  other  respects 
his  reign  was  advantageous  to  Sweden. 

The  election  of  Bernadotte,  one  of  Bonaparte's  commanders,  to  fill  the  throne,  left  vacant 
through  the  rash  conduct  of  the  legitimate  monarch,  made  a  great  change  in  the  relations 
of  Sweden.  To  conciliate  his  new  subjects,  he  restored  in  full  plenitude  the  representative 
constitution,  which  had  been  reduced  to  a  mere  shadow.  Having  joined  the  confederacy 
against  his  former  master,  he  received  Norway  in  compensation  for  the  loss  of  Finland,  and 
had  thus  a  more  compact  and  defensible  territory.  The  Norwegians  exclaimed,  not  without 
reason,  against  this  compulsory  transference ;  yet  Denmark  had  deprived  them  of  their  firee 
constitution,  which  they  now  regained,  and  had  in  so  many  respects  depressed  the  country, 
with  the  view  of  concentrating  every  thing  at  Copenhagen,  that  the  connection  now  termi- 
nated has  been  considered  the  bane  of  Norway. 

Sect.  IV. — Political  Geography. 

The  constitution  of  Sweden  is  one  of  the  few  in  Europe,  which  has  always  preserved 
BOfiie  portion  of  that  representative  system  which  had  been  rbrmed  in  remote  ages.  Toward* 
tiio  close,  indeed,  of  the  last  century,  it  was  reduced  by  Gustavus  III.  to  little  more  than  a 

Vol.  1  41  3L 


483 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  III. 


form.  Bemadotte,  however,  an  elected  monarch,  without  any  national  claim,  woa  obliged 
to  court  the  favour  of  the  nation,  and,  with  that  view,  to  re-establish  the  rights  of  its  ancient 
diet  This  is  now  rather  an  antique  and  cumbrous  form  of  legislature,  consisting  of  four 
orders ;  the  nobles,  the  clergy,  the  peasants,  and  the  burghers ;  who  sit  and  vote  in  separate 
houses. 

Of  these  houses,  that  of  the  nobles  consists  of  about  1300  members ;  the  head  of  each 
fitmily  being,  by  inheritance,  its  legal  representative.  They  are  divided  into  three  classes  :— 
kerra,  counts,  barons,  &c. ;  reddar,  knights ;  and  aivena,  or  gentlemen  who,  though  without 
any  title,  have  received  letters  patent  of  nobility.  The  house  of  clergy  consists  of  the  arch- 
bishop and  all  the  bishops ;  while  the  rest  of  the  ecclesiastical  body  is  represented  by  depu- 
ties. The  burghers  are  chosen  by  the  towns,  every  freeman  who  pays  taxes  having  a  vote : 
*hey  form  an  independent  Ixxly,  partly,  perhaps,  because  the  honour  of  a  seat  is  not  eagerly 
contested.  The  peasants  do  not  exactly  correspond  to  our  idea  of  that  Aerm :  they  consist 
jf  a  body  of  little  proprietors,  or  lairds,  who  cultivate  their  own  ground,  and  who  are  numer- 
ous in  iSwe<lcn.  Their  allowance  of  a  dollar  a  doy  is  provided  by  a  subscription  among 
their  constituents;  and,  in  some  cases,  two  or  three  districts  m\i8t  combine  to  furnish  out  one 
deputy.  The  nobles  have  bestirred  themselves  much  to  keep  down  the  attempts  made  by 
ihis  class  to  rise  in  society.  They  have  procured  regulations,  according  to  which  no  person 
could  sit  hi  the  house  who  allowed  himself  to  be  called  Herr  (or  Mr.),orwhoworeacoatof 
tine  cloth.  Notwithstanding  a)l  their  eiforts,  however,  this  house,  and  that  of  the  burghers, 
are  daily  increasing  in  strength. 

In  the  division  of  powers,  the  royal  prerogative  is  ample.  The  king  appoints  to  all  offices 
civil  and  military,  and  he  is  obliged  to  convoke  the  diet  only  once  in  Hve  years,  and  to  con- 
tinue its  sittings  three  months ;  but  he  may  make  the  meetings  more  frequent,  and  longer. 
He  had  also  a  negative  upon  the  laws  proposed  by  the  diet.  In  regard  to  the  diet  itself,  tlie 
division  rests  with  a  majority  of  the  houses;  but  if  they  be  two  against  two,  the  balance  is 
struck  by  the  committee  of  state,  a  body  composed  of  a  certain  number  of  members  from 
eacli.     No  tax  can  be  levied,  or  loan  obtained,  without  the  consent  of  the  diet. 

The  storthing  of  Norway,  restored  by  Bemadottc,  is  possessed  of  much  higher  privileges 
than  the  Swedish  diet  It  assembles  more  frequently,  and  at  its  own  time,  without  any  con- 
trol from  the  king ;  and  it  allows  to  him  only  a  suspensive  veto,  obliging  him  to  accept  any 
project  which  has  been  three  times  presented  by  the  storthing.  These  rights  having  been 
once  granted,  Bemadotte,  who  found  them  pressing  somewhat  hard  against  his  prerogative, 
has  in  vain  made  several  attempts  to  abridge  them.  A  highly  republican  spirit  prevails  in 
Norway,  and  the  influence,  and  almost  existence,  of  the  nobles  is  nearly  annihilated. 

The  revenue  of  Sweden  arises  from  a  poll-tax ;  the  produce  of  the  royal  demesnes,  duties 
on  exports  and  imports,  mines  and  forges,  distilled  spirits,  and  some  monopolies.  The  whole 
produce  is  about  $.'5,000,000  a  year,  exclusive  of  lands  assigned  to  soldiers  and  sailors,  and 
by  which  these  classes,  in  time  of  peace,  are  chiefly  supported.    The  military  force,  is  at 

present- 
Sweden.  Norway.  Total. 

'  '          Infawtiy 26,221  ....  9,642  .  -  -  85,803 

Ciivalfy 4,580  -    -    -    .  1,070  -  -  .  5,650 

ArtHleiy      ....  2,400  ....  1,278  -  -  .  3,678 

Landwehr    ....  83,368  ....  10,000  -  -  .  93,868 

The  troops  are  raised  by  conscription :  they  only  receive  pay  when  on  actual  service ;  re- 
maining,  at  other  times,  in  the  provinces,  where  they  employ  themselves  in  cultivating  lands 
assigned  to  them  for  their  support 

i  Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry. 

Sweden  seems  doomed  by  nature  to  be  a  poor  country.  Her  most  southern  districts  are 
beyond  the  limits  of  that  zone,  in  which  alone  the  finer  and  more  valuable  kinds  of  grain, 
and  the  richer  fruits,  come  to  maturity.  Her  scanty  harvest  consists  solely  of  rye,  bigg,  and 
ootfi,  scarcely  accounted  as  food  in  more  favoured  climates.  Scandinavia  is  described  gene- 
rally 08  one  unbroken  boundless  forest  varied  only  in  its  aspect  by  little  patches  of  cultivated 
land. 

Agricultural  industry  till  of  late  had  not  done  much  to  remedy  natural  deficiencies.  Ac- 
cording to  the  valuable  statistical  details  collected  by  Dr.  Thomson,  the  arable  land  in  Swe- 
den amounts  to  1,818,450  English  acres,  which  is  only  a  sixty-second  of  the  entire  surface, 
:  or,  tlM»wing  out  the  Norrland  deserts,  a  thirty-second.  Of  this,  1,383,(KK)  acres  are  returned 
as  under  rultiviition.  But  the  average  size  of  a  Swedish  farm  is  only  twenty-seven  and  a 
•  half;  the  a?inunl  nvenige  of  grain  sown  on  each  farm  does  not  amount  to  a  Winchester 
busliol ;  fmi  the  atmuiil  produce  of  the  whole  country  was  only  5,700,(H)0  spanns,  or  about 
7t,000  qufuters.  Honrc  Swe<len  wf>s  obliged  to  import  grain  to  a  great  extent ;  and  such  is 
the  scarcity,  that  the  peasantry  often  grind  the  hark  or  even  wood  of  the  fir-tree  into  floui 


Book  I. 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


488 


-^Sai' 


u  nutnmcnt  equally  scanty  nrd  •■  -holesomo.  These  statements  ere  ^iven  in  1612;  since 
which  time  we  find  it  menlic.f  &t  agriculture  lias  made  a  very  rapid  progress;  that  ini> 
proved  processes  have  been  inti  ;ijed  from  other  countries  ;  and  that,  in  the  most  southern 
provinces,  a  great  extent  of  moving  (and  before  entirely  barren)  sand  has  been  rendered  solid, 
nnd  covered  with  plantations  and  grain.  The  consequence  has  been,  that  in  1827,  Sweden  even 
exported  :)9,000,  and,  in  1828, 164,000  tons  of  grain  of  every  description.  Every  fkrm  has  a  tract 
of  forest  of  about  1000  acres  attached  to  it,  on  which  cattle  are  fed :  these  are  reported  as 
only  amounting  to  403,000  horses,  1,475,000  cows,  and  1,212,000  sheep.  The  most  valua- 
ble product  of  land  is  tbrnied  by  the  vast  forests  with  which  nature  has  covered  the  whole 
24<t  country.    The  trees  over  all  Scandinavia  are 

small,  and  consist  chiefly  of  the  birch,  the 
pine,  the  spruce  and  Scotch  flrs.  Wooden  in- 
closures  (Jig.  240.)  of  a  peculiar  form,  are  uni- 
versally employed.  The  poplar  and  the  willow 
are  also  indigenous.  The  timber  of  these  trees, 
as  well  as  the  tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine,  drawn 
from  them,  forms  the  chief  objects  of  Scandi- 
navian exports.  Those  on  the  hills  of  Nor- 
way are  in  much  demand  for  masts.  Accord- 
SwedUhModeoriocioiurf-.  j^^  ^  j^  Hegelstamm,  not  more  than  the 

115th  part  of  the  surface  of  Norway  is  under  cultivation,  chiefly  in  oats;  a  space  which 
might  be  greatly  extended ;  yet  the  annual  production  is  stated  at  2,650,000  tons. 

The  manufitctures  of  Scandinavia  are  inconsiderable,  unless  we  should  class  their  mines 
OS  such.  Even  in  the  common  trades  the  work  is  lazily  and  ill  performed,  and  charged  at  a  high 
rate,  which  renders  this  the  most  expensive  country  in  Europe  for  those  who  live  luxuriousfy. 
It  is  a  curious  fact  that  some  great  merchants  in  the  western  towns  send  their  linen  to  be 
washed  in  liondon. 

The  mines  of  Sweden  are  peculiarly  rich  in  important  pwvlucu.  Tto  •»«•»>  fi>«nJ  cKicfljr 
in  primitive  rocks,  is  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  is  widely  diffused.  In  1812,  there  were 
176  mines;  624  smelting-hniiBoa »  764  fttrges;  producing  in  all  1,293,411  cwt  of  iron.  The 
exportation,  in  1891,  amounted  to  340,000  skippund,  and  m  1824  had  risen  to  373,000,  of  which 
;M5,000  were  in  bars,  and  28,000  in  ruder  forms.  There  are  also  some  valuable  mines  in  the 
southern  provinces  of  Norway.  A  most  extensive  deposit  of  copper  occurs  in  the  province 
of  Dalecarlia,  particularly  at  Fahlun.  Gold  occurs  at  Adelfors,  in  Sweden,  to  no  great 
amount;  but  the  silver  mines  of  Kflngsberg,  in  Norway,  are  the  richest  in  Europe.  The 
metal  occurs  in  masses,  of  which  there  was  once  found  one  weighing  600  lbs.  There  are 
also  lead  mines  of  some  importance  at  Scola,  and  in  other  parts  of  Sweden. 

Fishery  appears  a  pursuit  peculiarly  appropriate  to  the  extensive  coasts  of  Scandinavia. 
Vet  the  Swedes  are  not  much  addicted  to  it,  probably  because  the  Baltic  during  a  gfeat  part 
of  the  year  is  frozen.  Gottenburg  had  once  a  herring  fishery,  now  nearly  lost,  the  shoals 
having  taken  another  direction.  The  Norwegian  fishery  is  considerable,  though  bearing  only 
a  small  proportion  to  the  almost  unlimited  opportunities  afforded  by  its  wide  seas,  and  its 
deep  and  commodious  bays.  Its  chief  theatre  is  far  to  the  north,  off  the  Isles  of  IjoflToden. 
The  season  lusts  only  for  seven  or  eight  weeks  in  the  year,  when  fishermen  crowd  thither 
from  all  quarters.  Codfish  is  the  chief  object :  it  is  cut  into  pieces,  and  spread  on  the  rocks 
to  dry,  whence  it  receives  the  names  of  stockfish  and  clipfish.  According  to  Mr.  Brooke,  the 
number  taken  in  a  year  was  700,000,  which  may  be  worth  nearly  $600,000;  they  are  sent 
chiefly  to  Germany,  Spain,  and  Italy.  The  roes  are  also  salted  and  barrelled  for  exportation 
also  the  fish  oil  to  the  amount  of  about  30,000  barrels. 

The  comtncrce  of  Scandinavia  is  greater  than  its  unimproved  agriculture  and  total  want 
of  manufactures  might  lead  us  to  suppose.  But  nature  has  gifled  these  bleak  regions  with 
an  almost  inexliaustible  store  of  timber  and  iron,  two  of  the  prime  necessaries  of  human 
life;  the  main  implements  in  ship-building  and  in  the  construction  of  houses,  machinery,  and 
furniture.  These  articles  are  indeed  also  the  produce  of  North  America;  nnd  Britain,  which 
affords  the  best  market,  has  lately  sought  to  favour  her  colonies  in  that  quarter  by  a  great 
inequality  of  duties.  Yet  the  superior  quality  of  the  Scandinavian  commodity  always  secures 
it  a  sale.  The  entire  exports  of  Norway  ore  estimated  by  Dr.  Clarke  at  1,8()0,000/.  sterling; 
but  we  believe  that  this  is  very  much  beyond  the  mark.  The  commerce  of  Sweden  is  not 
on  BO  great  a  scale ;  her  surplus  timber  being  not  nearly  so  ample,  though  her  iron  is  superior. 
She  has  suffered  much  injury  from  the  absurd  prejudices  of  the  peasantry,  vvho  obtained  the 
prohibition  of  colonial  produce,  and  of  almost  all  foreign  articles  ofcon.«\imption  ;  and  though 
these  were  regulnrlv  imported,  and  in  daily  use,  the  trade  wnp  greatly  fettered  by  bcinj: 
carried  on  only  as  contraband.  In  1828,  however,  commercial  treaties  were  coiiclnded  on  a 
more  liberal  footing.  The  total  n«unbcr  of  merchant  vessels  belonging  to  the  diflerent 
towns  of  Sweden,  in  1829,  was  1178,  of  the  burthen  of  61,000  tons. 


49i 


.  <tr4>f  -»s 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  Slate. 


PabvUI, 


a!l..~v-    ..tt^ 


The  populatbn  of  Sweden,  according  to  tlie  latest  census,  made  in  1825,  amounted  to 
2,771,252;  of  wliom  2U,499  were  nobles;  13,977  ecclesiastics;  66,604  citizens;  the  remain- 
der belonged  to  the  class  of  peasants.  Of  these,  1,:332,970  were  males,  and  1,438,282 
females;  2,489,973  resided  in  the  country,  281,279  in  the  cities.  This  was  a  rise  of 
186,.562  since  182U.* 

The  population  of  Norway,  by  a  census  made  in  November  1826,  amounted  to  l,()>'iO,132 ; 
of  whom  105,021  inhabited  cities,  934,414  the  country.  This  was  a  rise  of  164,662  since 
1815. 

The  national  character  of  the  Swedes  is  usually  painted  under  favourable  colours.  Their 
honesty  is  described  as  proverbial ;  and  Dr.  Clarke  considers  the  contrast  between  them  and 
the  Russian  people,  in  this  respect,  as  most  striking.  Highway  robbery,  though  it  has  been 
known,  is  exceedingly  rare ;  and  charity  boxes,  which  are  often  set  up  on  the  public  roads, 
have  never  been  plundered.  "The  nation,"  says  Mr.  James,  "has  its  singularities:  there 
exists  something  of  a  reciprocity  between  the  moral  and  political  constitution  of  Sweden. 
Rigidly  ceremonious,  they  make  their  stiff  and  measured  courtesies  the  essentials  rather 
tlian  the  forms  of  life ;  and  seem,  in  a  stranger's  eye,  a  people  cold  in  their  nature  as  the 
very  snows  they  dwell  upon.  Their  characteristics,  a  passive  courage,  not  unmixed  with 
indolence;  a  pride  not  free  from  ignorance;  a  disposition  that  is  not  ill-humoured,  fi-om  hav- 
ing no  humour  at  all,  from  indifference,  from  apathy.  But  a  Swede  is  never  in  extremes ; 
even  these  traits  are  not  deeply  marked ;  and  if  we  review  the  more  favourable  side  of  his 
character,  we  shall  find  in  him  an  undaunted  spirit  of  perseverance,  and  an  honest  love  of 
freedom,  to  which  the  feelings  of  every  one  do  homage."  The  same  writer  mentions  a 
cold-blooded  obduracy,  connected,  perhaps,  with  a  sanguinary  turn  of  mind,  displayed  in 
those  frequent  assassinations  which  have  stained  the  pages  of  Swedish  history.  The  man- 
ners of  the  higher  ranks,  in  consequence,  perhaps,  of  political  Connexion,  have  been  studi- 
o^mIji  £>rmoH  an  thft  French  iqodel,  which  does  not  accord  very  happily  witli  the  somewhat 
rude  simplicity  of  the  Swedes,  who  find  it  easier  to  imitate  the  frivolity  and  dissipation  of 
that  people,  than  their  easy  and  careless  grace.  Boveml  habits  are  enumerated  as  preva- 
lent even  among  the  higher  classes  in  Scandinavia,  which  seem  to  negative  its  pretensions 
to  any  high  pitch  of  refinement  Among  these  are,  spitting  even  oa  handsome  carpets,  blow- 
ing the  nose  with  the  fingers,  and  recording  games  on  the  table  with  chalk. 

The  religion  of  Sweden  is  Lutheran,  and  the  church  Episcopal.  This  coimtry,  which 
stood  long  at  the  head  of  the  great  Protestant  confederacy,  is  animated  with  an  ardent  zoal 
for  the  reformed  religioa  The  Catholics,  till  of  late,  scarcely  enjoyed  common  toleration, 
and  they  arc  still  excluded  from  the  diet  and  the  higher  offices  of  state.  The  Swedish  people 
are  commended  for  their  regularity  in  performing  the  duties  of  their  religion :  at  the  same 
time  it  has  been  remarked  that  the  dissenters  from  the  established  church  are  much  fewer 
than  in  6ther  Protestant  countries ;  which  has  been  imputed  to  the  want  of  any  peculiar 
fervour  upon  the  subject  The  wide  extent  and  thin  population  of  the  northern  districts 
must  often  render  the  provision  for  their  religious  instruction  very  defective.  The  dncese 
of  Torneo,  in  Lapland,  is  750  miles  in  circumference ;  and,  what  is  more  blameable,  the 
small  number  of  clergy  employed  are  not  required  to  understand  the  language  of  the  natives. 
The  income  of  the  largest  bishopric  in  Sweden  is  about  $5000  a  year. 

In  science,  the  Swedes,  considering  their  poverty  and  remote  situation,  have  made  a  very 
distinguished  figure.  Gustavus  Adolphus  favoured  the  interests  of  literature  with  a  degree 
of  ardour  not  generally  known.  Of  tlie  spoils  of  places  conquered  by  him,  he  set  a  particular 
value  upon  books  which  he  transmitted  to  Sweden,  in  order  to  form  the  foundation  of  several 
large  libraries.  The  Swedes  cultivated  with  peculiar  ardour  botany  and  mineralogy,  which 
some  of  their  countrymen  mainly  contributed  to  raise  to  the  rank  of  sciences.  In  botany,  the 
name  of  Linnaeus  is  yet  without  a  rival ;  and  Cronstadt  and  Bergman  were  in  their  day  little 
inferior,  though  they  now  yield  to  Werner  and  other  great  names  which  have  arisen  in  other 
countries.  Bergman  and  Scheele  made  also  large  contributions  to  chemistry,  which  is  still 
ably  pursued  by  Ekeberg,  Berzelius,  and  Afzelius.  Although  history  and  poetry  have  been 
cultivated,  they  have  not  produced  any  writers  whose  reputation  has  spread  throughout 
Europe.  From  the  limited  sphere  of  the  Swedish  language,  few  works  of  science  are 
written  in  it,  or  translated  into  it :  hence  the  literati  of  Sweden  are  particularly  well  versed 
m  tlie  languages  of  foreign  nations.  One  of  the  subjects  in  which  Sweden  may  most  justly 
exult  is,  the  general  spread  of  education  among  the  lower  orders,  which  seems  to  equal  or 
exceed  that  which  Scotland  enjoys ;  and  to  this  may  probably  be  in  a  great  measure  ascribed 
llieir  generally  meritorious  conduct  Norway  is  not  nearly  so  literary  a  country  as  Sweden ; 
Dr.  Clarke  even  states  that  there  is  not  m  the  whole  country  a  single  bookseller's  shop. 
This  was  in  a  great  measure  owing  to  the  jealousy  of  Denmark,  which  would  not  allow  an 
university  to  be  founded  even  in  Christiania,  which  used  to  be  a  rival  to  that  of  Copenhagen. 


cap, 
and 


*  Tbe  on!v  Swediih  colony  is  St.  Bartholomew  in  tbe  W.  Indies,  with  about  MOO  inhabitant!.— An.  Ed. 


DOOK  I.  ' 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


4te 


Yet  Norway  can  boast  of  literary  names ;  Holberg,  Pontoppidan,  Vahl  the  botanist,  Torfirns, 
and  Snorro  Sturleson,  the  old  historians.  A  vein  of  bold  and  rude  poetry  is  cultivated  wjth 
peculiar  ardobr ;  and  Dr.  Clarke  exhibits  a  roll  of  names  unknown  to  Europe,  whose  claima 
to  .listmction  appear  to  be  somewhat  justified  by  a  specimen  giv  :!n  to  us  by  Mr.  Wilson, 

Of  the  learned  establishments  of  Sweden,  the  most  eminent  is  the  university  of  Upsal, 
tlic  chief  nurse  of  ail  the  great  men  who  have  distinguished  her  literary  records.  This  cele- 
brated seat  of  northern  learning  was  founded  in  1478,  by  Steno  Sture,  was  enlarged  by 
Gustavus  Vasa  and  Gustavus  Adolphus,  but  reached  its  highest  eminence  in  the  last  century, 
when  it  was  adorned  by  Linnicus,  and  all  the  men  of  science  who  have  been  distinguished 
as  reflecting  glor^  on  Sweden.  Since  that  time  its  lustre  has  been  somewhat  diminished, 
tlioujrh  statements  on  this  subject  vary  considerably.  The  professors  have  salaries  of  about 
$5()0  a  year;  and  are  left  thus  almost  wholly  dependent  on  their  students,  whoiive  in  private 
lodgings.  They  attend  what  and  whom  they  please ;  and  their  exertions  are  not  stimulated 
nr  tried  by  any  public  examinations.  The  mineralogical  collection  is  one  of  ^he  most  com- 
plete in  Europe ;  and  the  library  contains  50,000  volumes.  Its  most  precious  tre^ure  is  the 
Codex  Argenteus,  a  manuscript  of  the  four  Gospels,  written  in  silver  characters,  and  sup- 
posed to  date  as  for  back  «(s  the  fourth  century.  The  garden  of  Linneeus  has  been  neglected 
for  a  larger  onelately  founded,  but  whicli  scarcely  corresponds  to  the  botanical  feme  of  Upsal. 
Tlie  royal  library  at  Stockholm  is  still  more  extensive.  It  is  particularly  rich  in  manuscripts, 
in  sagas,  and  otiier  historical  works,  and  in  original  drawings  by  the  great  masters.  This 
collection  is  open  to  the  public.  The  Swedish  academy  of  sciences,  founded  in  1739,  by 
learned  private  individuals,  has  published  above  100  volumes.  It  is  considered  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  in  Europe,  and  the  greatest  men  in  other  countries  have  viewed  it  as  an 
honour  to  be  enrolled  among  its  members.  In  the  college  of  mines  are  preserved  copious 
specimens,  drawn  from  a  country  so  rich  in  metallic  productions.  The  cabinet  of  models, 
presenting  the  various  mechanical  contrivances  employed  through  the  different  parts  of  Swe- 
den, is  also  considered  very  interesting. 

The  fine  arts  in  Sweden  have  been  cultivated  amidst  considerable  difficulties.  The  opera 
is  conducted  with  splendour  and  taste;  Lergell,  as  a  sculptor,  has  been  ranked  second  to 
Canova,  and  even  called  the  Miciiael  Angelo  of  the  North.  Breda  in  portrait,  and  Fulerantz 
in  landscape,  enjoy  reputation. 

The  habitations  of  Scandinavia  are  very  simple  and  uniform.  "  Having,"  says  Dr.  Clarke, 
"  once  figured  to  the  imagination  a  number  of  low  red  houses,  of  a  single  story,  and  each 
covered  with  turf  and  weeds,  a  picture  is  presented  of  the  oppidan  scenery  of  Sweden." 
The  houses,  however,  are  well  finished  within,  and  elegantly  furnished ;  and  by  means  of 
stoves,  double  windows,  and  close  doors,  they  are  kept  comfortably  warm,  even  during  the 
most  rigorous  winter.  Swedes  have  even  complained  that  they  sufiered  much  more  from 
cold  in  Jjondon  than  in  their  native  city. 

The  dress  is  described  by  Dr.  Clarke  as  equally  uniform  with  the  habitations.  "  A  skull- 
cap, fitting  close  to  the  crown,  edged  with  a  little  stiff  lace,  the  hair  ijeing  drawn  as  tight 
and  straight  as  possible  beneath  the  cap  fi"om  all  parts  of  the  head,  as  if  to  start  from  the 
roots ;  add  to  this,  a  handkerchief  thrown  over  the  cap  when  they  go  out ;  a  jacket ;  short 
petticoat ;  stockings  of  coloured  or  white  woollen ;  and  high-heeled  shoes :"  this  is  the 
2^1  ,.^  general  costume  of  the  Swedish  women.   Mr,  Wilson  thus 

••v..*^  i"*^  describes  the  dress  of  the  representatives  of  that  class  of 
peasants : — "  White  worsted  stockings,  iialf-boots  extend- 
mg  above  the  calf  of  the  leg,  yellow  leather  small-clothes 
with  knee-buckles,  a  short  brown  coat  and  waistcoat,  and 
a  plain  handkerchief  tied  round  their  necks."  The  an- 
nexed cut  (Jig.  241.)  may  give  an  idea  of  the  attire  and 
aspect  of  the  Norwegian  peasantry.  In  winter  these  gar- 
ments must  be  reinforced  to  the  utmost  ability  of  the 
wearer,  as  a  fence  against  the  excess  of  the  cold.  The 
peasantry  wear  a  sheepskin  cloak,  with  the  wool  towards 
the  body,  and  close  fur  caps.  Dr.  Clarke  mentions  as  a 
travelling  d.ress,  thick  yarn  stockings  covered  by  stout  lea- 
fT.-.-  M».."fti  «3W3hBcg:8gg.-sg£5Bg-  ^'"^^  '^ots,  aud  over  these  again  boots  made  of  the  \mW.a 
---'  ■=*wi«4*i^S^S«f^i^S'^S7     of  rein-deer,  with  the  hair  on  the  outside,  and  doubly  lined 

with  sheepskin  covered  with  black  wool.  The  people  wear, 
besides,  fur  caps  on  the  head,  bearskin  pelisses  over  the 
Ixxly,  besides  several  flannel  waistcoats,  and  on  the  hands,  gloves  of  sheepskin  covered  by 
double  gloves  of  fur  and  w.ool.  Yet  these  accumulated  guards  are  insufficient  to  prevent 
I  iio  tcciing  of  the  most  intense  cola,  which,  in  ti 
uroduces  dtaih,  and  frequently  a  frost-bitten  limb, 

41* 


Norwegian  PrnaantB. 


„..i..  r__„„,i 

llUl  uuijr   iciiv>cu 


ogiiuioi.  ii,  sometimes 


486 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOORAPHYi 


Pabt  hi 


.T 


.  ,4.  j< 


IV*/'l   tf  JW«-»r.' 


SioT.  VII. — Local  Geography. 

This  section  naturally  divides  itself  into  three  subordinate  parts : — 1.  Swedent;  2.  Norway 
and  3.  Lapland ;  which,  though  accounted  partly  Swedish  and  partly  Norwegian,  has  a  dis- 
tinct character  of  its  own. 


"'  SuBBECT.  1. — Sweden. 


.:)   i.Jl- 


Sweden  is  formed  into  three  great  divisions :  Svealand,  or  Sweden  Proper ;  (Sotaland,  or 
Gothland ;  and  Nordland,  or  Norrland,  In  the  following  statistical  table,  the  extent  and 
arable  produce  are  from  materials  collected  in  1812,  since  which  time  cifltivatiou  has  been 
greatly  extended ;  but  tlie  population  is  from  the  census  of  1825. 


MMUani. 

Norrbotten 

Vesterbotten  . . .  ■ 
Vester  Norrland  • 
Jnmtland 


Stockbolm 

Upsala 

VestertM 

Nykoping 

Orehro 

Carlatadt 

Stora  Kapparberg. 
Gefleborg 


Oothland. 

Linkoping 

Calmar 

Jonkoping 

Rrononerg 

Blekinge  

Skaraborg 

ElfBhorg 

Gottenborg  . . . . 

Halmstadt 

Chriatianitadt  ■ 

Malmohus 

Oothland 


Stockholm  city. 


'Arable  Onuod, 
TuniUuidi. 
(1  3  4  acre.) 

Deinl  10  th« 
wholaul 

10 

3,151  ' 

Number  of 
Funu. 

Onentin 
nnnen. 

Grain  produced 

ID  Spauii. 
(l-iOlb  buibel.) 

I^uUimh,. 

8,060 

532 

39,894 

37,570 

40,(!iM 

10,530 

1,465 

604 

9H,870 

5«,57« 

44.M] 

2a,780 

830 

1,563 

36,819 

103,509 

ri,'£n 

10.790 

917 

945 

90,981 

48,348 

39,  IS 

33,110 

915 

3,734 

103,787 

245,908 

105,894 

71,410 

29 

4,056 

58,649 

316,087 

10:i,095 

84,364 

13 

3,548 

48,657 

385,356 

81,897 

S5,5I5 

87 

8,853 

49,063 

211,100 

8H.fil8 

54,011 

84 

3,376 

59,791 

335,006 

106,7113 

46,823 

36 

2,774 

61,730 

198,379 

10i»,254 

^1 

88,473 

43 

1.708 

93,599 

377,514 

103,372 

."11,547 

189 

1,793 

79,313 

940,781 

]80,;i88 

38,367 

140 

3,089 

50,034 

153,996 

96,736 

473,916 

45 

38.096 

499,809 

3,009/)17 

879,153 

104,061 

91 

5,458 

94,194 

360,044 

182.380 

66.181 

34 

3,347 

83,404 

330,£66 

160,?J0 

53,684 

40 

3,905 

76,115 

333,346 

ISH.OiW 

37,695 

48 

2,8,37 

56,010 

175,839 

102.709 

31.715 

27 

1,069 

31,532 

1:«),I43 

85,314 

143,103 

13 

4,804 

89,910 

425,864 

]59(il4 

73,808 

37 

4,30i) 

103,715 

334,383 

187,021 

43,458 

39 

8,783 

66,400 

215,757 

140,)!!)] 

43,983 

33 

3,033 

47,485 

167,130 

85,0.57 

80,344 

13 

3.003 

79,331 

306,037 

]45.:»i0 

983,609 

4 

4.033 

95,637 

548,334 

192,10!! 

30,064 

20 

1,098 

17,560 

83,583 

38.151 

038,734 

30 

39,487 

840,363 

3,304,184 

l,625,r.'.t2 

•• 

70,473 

1,454,760 

63 

65,309 

1,443,858 

5,708,835 

2,771,252 

Sweden  Proper  occupies  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  and  includes  the  capital,  and  the 
great  mining  districts.  It  consists  of  an  immense  plain,  covered  by  almost  boundless  forests, 
intermixed  with  patches  of  cultivation ;  only  a  few  hills  of  moderate  height  breaking  its 
vast  uniformity.  Three  great  lakes,  like  inland  seas,  the  Wener,  the  Wetter,  and  the  Malar, 
form  almost  a  continuous  chain  across  its  centre.  Besides  these,  there  is  an  immense  num- 
ber of  smaller  lakes,  especially  towards  the  north,  communicating  by  river  channels  with 
the  greater.  These  lakes  do  not  display  the  grandeur  which  belongs  to  those  of  Switzer- 
land ;  but  their  wide  and  winding  shores,  broken  with  rocks,  and  fringed  with  a  profusion  of 
wood,  present  many  romantic  scenes. 

The  division  into  provinces,  of  Sweden  Proper,  as  well  as  of  Grothland,  as  given  in  the 
preceding  table,  was  made  recently  by  government,  and  is  the  only  one  upon  which  statisti- 
cal details  have  been  collected.  But  there  is  another  and  earlier  division,  which  remains 
still  fixed  in  the  Swedish  mind ;  and  corresponds,  in  fact,  both  to  the  aspect  of  nature  and  to 
the  peculiarities  ip  the  people.  These  are  Sudermanland,  the  province  which  contains  the 
capital,  and  is  situated  on  tiie  south  side  of  the  lake  Malar ;  Upland,  a  high  territory  on  the 
northern  side  of  that  lake ;  Westmanland,  to  the  west  of  Upland ;  Nerike,  a  beautiful  little 
region,  completely  enclosed  between  the  three  great  lakes ;  Warmeland,  to  the  north  of  the 
Wener,  covered  with  a  multitude  of  little  lakes ;  and,  lastly,  Dalecarlia,  called  also  Dalarne, 
or  the  Plains,  a  province  which,  of  all  others,  presents  the  most  striking  and  peculiar  fea- 
tures. It  is,  abi>ve  all,  distinguished  by  the  energetic  character  of  its  peasantry,  whose 
exertions  at  one  time  reared  the  fallen  monarchy,  and  who  continue  to  form  its  most  power- 
fiil  defence.  They  still  hold  as  a  maxim,  that  one  Dalecarlian  is  equal  to  two  of  any  other 
Swedes.  Their  diet  is  poor  in  the  extreme,  consisting  in  a  great  measure  of  bark-bread , 
yet  their  health  and  vigour  do  not  suffer;  and  a  number  of  them,  who  were  quartered  as 
troops  at  Stockholm,  were  affected  with  fevers  in  consequence  of  the  repletion  caused  by 


.■»»^. 


Book  L 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


4W 


Htookholm 


eating  whcaten  bread.    The  memory  of  tlie  great  Gustavus  Vasa,  the  founder  of  the  Swe- 
dish monarchy,  iu  cherished  in  this  province  with  the  utmost  warmth ;  and  many  memorialn 
of  him  arc  preserved  in  difibrent  places. 
Stockholm  {Jig.  242.),  witli  which  we  shall  commence  our  details,  is  finely  situated,  at  the 

junction  of  the  extensive  aiul  beau- 
242  tiful  lake  of  Malar,  or  Mftlcr,  with 

the  sea.  It  stands  partly  on  tome 
small  islands,  and  two  peninsulod, 
presenting  a  view  as  beautiful  and 
diversified  as  imagination  can  con- 
ceive. Innumerable  craggy  rockm 
rise  from  the  water,  partly  covered 
with  houses,  anjd  partly  planted 
with  wood ;  wnile  vessels  of  all 
forms  and  descriptions  are  seen  passing  to  and  fto.  White  edifices,  consisting  of  public  and 
private  palaces,  churches,  and  other  buildings,  rising  from  on  expanse  of  waters,  produce  an 
efiect  of  incomparable  grandeur.  When  Ihe  lake  and  sea  are  fi-ozen,  thev  are  covered  with 
sledges  of  all  kinds,  and  exhibit  one  of  the  gayest  scenes  imaginable.  If  external  appear- 
ance were  alone  to  be  relied  on,  Stockholm  might  bo  deemed  the  most  magnificent  city  in 
the  world.  This  impression  is  not  sustained  by  any  beauty  or  convenience  in  the  interior. 
Except  the  great  square  of  Norden  Malm,  the  streets,  though  of  very  considerable  length, 
arc  neither  broad  nor  handsome.  There  is  no  foot  pavement ;  the  houses  are  lofty,  all  white- 
washed, and  the  shops  are  extremely  poor.  The  difierent  families  reside  in  separate  floors 
or  stories,  one  above  another,  the  ground-floors  being  usually  occupied  as  shops.  The  royal 
palace,  however,  begun  by  Charles  XL.,  and  finished  by  Gustavus  III.,  may  vie  with  any 
structure  of  the  kind  in  Europe.  It  is  in  the  Grecian  style,  quadrangular,  four  stories  high, 
built  of  brick  only,  but  faced  with  stone-coloured  cement.  Its  situation,  facing  the  quay, 
and  commanding  a  view  of  all  parts  of  the  city,  adds  greatly  to  its  beauty.  It  contains 
some  fine  specimens  of  sculpture  and  painting,  cirio^ities  connected  with  Swedish  history, 
and  a  ran^e  of  small  apartments  embellished  by  Gustavus  III.  in  a  fancifiil  manner.  This 
palace,  with  the  finest  buildings  of  the  city,  stands  on  one  of  the  islands.  The  kings  of 
Sweden  have  in  the  country  other  palaces :  that  of  Drottningholm  is  a  handsome  stuccoed 
building,  roofed  with  copper,  and  having, side  wings;  but  the  gardens  are  barbarously  laid 
out  in  the  old  fashion,  with  trees  and  hedges  clipped  into  fanciful  shapes. 

Nykdping  is  the  only  tract  of  Sweden  Proper  which  is  south  of  the  lakes.  The  town  of 
that  name,  though  small,  has  an  air  of  magnificence.  The  houses  are  of  wood  painted 
yellow. 

The  provincesof  Westeros,  Orebro,  and  Carlstadt,  along  the  north  side  of  the  lakes,  reach 
across  Mae  kingdom.  Enkdping,  on  a  branch  of  the  Malar,  is  the  first  town  which  occurs 
westward  from  Stockholm,  but  it  is  not  of  great  consequence.  Westeras,  on  the  same  lake, 
has  more  commercial  importance,  as  a  link  between  the  capital  and  the  northern  and  western 
provinces.  There  is  only  one  principal  street,  about  two  miles  in  length ;  the  houses  are 
only  of  one  story,  and  often  roofed  with  turf  It  is  the  see  of  the  richest  bishopric  in  Swe- 
den. The  cathedral  is  a  simple  edifice ;  but  one  of  the  most  elegant  in  Sweden,  adorned 
with  a  very  elegant  porphyry  monument  erected  to  Eric  IV.,  who  died  by  poison  in  1577. 
Next  comes  Koping,  small  and  poor ;  but  celebrated  as  having  been  the  residence  of  Scheele. 
It  lies  at  the  extreme  interior  point  of  the  Malar.  Quitting  that  lake,  and  proceeding  south- 
west, we  come  to  Arboga,  a  beautiful  little  town  on  a  river  which  falls  into  that  lake,  and 
near  a  canal  which  connects  it  with  the  lake  Hjelmar.  A  steam-packet,  established  by  an 
Englishman,  npw  enables  it  to  communicate  with  the  capital.  Nearly  due  west  is  Orebro, 
a  more  considerable  town,  and  the  occasional  place  of  meeting  for  the  Swedish  diet.  It  is 
reckoned  the  fifth  town  in  Sweden,  containing  about  40U0  people,  and  the  streets  are  broad 
and  spacious,  though  the  houses,  as  elsewhere  in  Sweden,  are  low,  and  of  painted  wood. 
The  stadthus,  or  governor's  residence,  which  includes  also  the  prison,  is  a  huge  shapeless 
edifice.  The  church,  which  forms  also  the  place  of  meeting  for  the  diet,  is  an  ancient  struc- 
ture, originally  Gothic,  and  built  ,of  stone,  but  patched  with  brick,  and  in  various  styles. 
Proceeding  westward,  we  enter  Carlstadt,  or,  as  anciently  called,  Wanneland,  a  region 
entirely  of  mines,  forests,  and  lakelets,  and  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  extended  shores  of 
the  Wener  lake.  Carlstadt  is  situated  near  the  point  where  this  lake  receives  the  Clara,  a 
considerable  river,  which  traverses  these  wooded  regions,  and  down  which  immense  quanti- 
ties of  timber  are  floated ;  advantage  for  this  purpose  being  taken  of  the  floods  to  which  i 
is  occasionally  subject.  One  company  from  Gottenburg  has  saw-mills,  at  which  are  annually 
cut  upwards  of  .^,000  planks.  Carlstadt  is  a  place  of  from  2000  to  3000  people,  presenting 
the  ordinary  aspect  of  Swedish  towns.  It  collects  the  vast  produce  of  the  mines  and 
forests  of  Warmeland,  and  transmits  them  across  the  Wener  to  Wenersberg,  whence 
they  find  their  way  to  Gottenburg.  Considerably  in  the  interior  is  Philipetadt,  in  th* 
vory  heart  of  the  iron  mines,  by  which  it  is  supported. 


4fl8 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  in 


Ati^if 


The  raoflt  remarkable  are  thoae  of  Persberfr  (fig,  243.)i  a  few  miles  tx>  the  eut 

ward.  They  are  thirteen  in  number,  i\ag 
into  a  mountain  entirely  compoeed  of  vtiins 
and  beds  of  iron  ore.  Dr.  Clarke,  aflcr 
having,  in  the  couiso  of  ten  years'  tnivui, 
inspected  many  of  tlie  principal  works  of 
this  kind  in  diflercnt  countries,  declares,  timt 
he  had  never  beheld  any  thing  equal  to  this 
fcMT  grandeur  of  eflect,  and  tor  the  tremon- 
dou»y  striking  circumstances  under  which 
human  labour  is  here  performed.  In  tlio 
wide  and  open  abyss  suddenly  appeared  a 
vast  prospect  of  yawning  caverns  and  prodi- 
gious machinery.  Immense  bucketH,  buh- 
pended  by  rattlmg  chains,  were  passing  up 
apd  down ;  ladders  were  souling  all  tho  in- 
ward precipices;  upon  which  the  work- 
people, reduced  by  their  distance  to  pigmies, 
were  ascending  and  descending.  Tho  clan  k- 
ing  of  chains,  the  groaning  of  the  pumps, 
the  hallooing  of  the  miners,  the  creakinfv 
of  the  blocks  and  wheels,  the  tramplinif  of 
horses,  the  beating  of  the  hammers,  and  the 
loud  and  fre<iuent  subterruneous  thunder 
from  the  blasting  of  the  rocks  by  gunpowder, 
in  the  midst  of  all  this  scene  of  excavation  and  vapour,  produced  an  effect  that  no  stranger 
could  witness  unmoved. 

Dalecarlia,  or  Dalarno,  extends  to  the  north-east  of  Warmeland.  It  is  covered  witii  nn 
extraordinary  profusion  of  mosses  and  fungi,  so  that  it  is  termed  by  Dr.  Clarke  Uie  supreme 
court  of  the  cryptogamia.  We  have  already  remarked  the  peculiar  character  of  the  people, 
who  preserve  entire  the  dress,  habits,  and  the  daring  energy  of  the  ancient  Swedes.  The 
most  important  branch  of  productive  industry  consists  in  the  mines,  particularly  the  great 
copper  mine  at  Fahlun  (Jig.  244.).     It  is  immedia,tely  adjoining  to  the  town,  and  consists  of 

an  enormous  conical  mass  with  the  top 
downwards.  The  bottom  of  the  cone,  be- 
ing the  top  of  the  mine,  was  the  tir!<t 
worked;  and  the  galleries  being  made 
through  it  without  due  precaution,  tlie 
whole  fell  in,  producing  an  immense  open 
crater  which  still  remains.  Regular  stair- 
cases of  easy  descent  traverse  this  im- 
mense crater  or  basin,  from  its  outer  lip 
to  tho  lowermost  point,  whence  arise  vast 
volumes  of  smoke  and  vapour,  giving  it 
the  appearance,  on  a  greater  scale,  of  the 
Neapolitan  Solfatra.  It  is  divided  into  no 
less  than  1200  shares  or  sections,  among 
which  the  ore  is  divided  immediately  on 
being  brought  up,  and  it  is  then  smelted 
on  a  small  scale  by  the  different  indivi- 
duals. The  ore  is  not  rich.  In  1600,  this 
mine  is  said  to  have  yielded  8,000,000 
pounds  of  copper;  in  1660,  .5,500,000;  but 


!<  W/l» 


K^y-i  li'^nhii  'i 


Fahlun  Mine. 


at  present  only  1,120,000  pounds.  The  workmen  have  now  reached  the  bottom,  or  the  sur 
fecc  of  the  cone,  and  are  still  working  through  the  ground,  in  the  fond  hope  of  coming  to  the 
top  of  another  cone,  reaching  downwards.  Unless  this  chimera  should  be  realised,  tho  minr;, 
it  is  said,  will,  in  a  few  years,  cease  to  be  productive.  Fahlun  is  a  regularly  built  but  old- 
fiishioned  and  dirty  town,  subsisting  solely  by  the  mine.  It  has  two  churches,  one  covered 
with  copper,  but  this  has  not  a  handsome  appearance,  the  colour  of  that  metal  being  converted 
into  a  whitish  green  soon  afler  exposuro  to  the  weather.  Near  Fahlun  is  the  house  where 
Cfastavns  Vasa  lay  concealed,  the  proprietor  of  which  has  studied  to  preserve  in  its  pristine 
state  this  asylum  of  the  Swedish  king.  His  chamber,  bed,  and  clothes  are  still  shown;  hib 
shirt  of  worsted  mail  fitted  similar  to  those  made  by  the  Circassians,  and  his  other  weapons. 
Sijla,  which  is  properly  in  Westmanland,  may  be  mentioned  hero  as  another  minmg  town 
on  a  smaller  scale,  neat,  regular,  but  ill-paved.  The  otily  importimt  mine  is  one  of  galena, 
which  yields  2000  marks  of  silver,  and  32,000  pounds  weight  of  lead.     There  is  also  ii  cop* 


Book  I.  ^ 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


4MI 


per  mine,  which  produces  little;  and  one  of  iron,  which  is  not  considered  worth  the  oxpenM 
of  working. 

Upland,  coinciding  nearly  with  the  modem  Upsala,  ia  an  intoreeting  province,  extending 
ftum  a  part  of  the  laKC  to  the  river  Dal.  Il  is  flat,  but  diversified  with  numerous  little  round 
knolls,  which,  with  the  small  lakes  and  the  numerous  fino  forests,  render  it  picturesque.  It 
contains  Upsala,  the  scat  of  the  great  northern  university,  and  Danemora,  the  most  valuable 
of  the  iron  mines. 
Upsala,  or  Upsul  (Jig.  245.),  is  the  place  in  Sweden  most  venerable  for  its  antiquity.     It 

was  long  the  residence  of  the  kinjifs, 
►u«n-^t»i  i;  ^Hi  I  Ki  i.ii  ;.-JU  *,tu,j  I  and  has  always  been  the  chief  seat 
:T  •»  (,.,11  3j'«irtwi«  auiJ  i.>  w  of  religion  and  learning.  Even  in 
111.;.-!  of  Mimtjfto;)  j«t;rM  (f,  pag^n  times  it  was  the  residence  of 
<m  .V.  ->;  (i  1  :• ,  :m;  the  highpriest  of  Odin ;  and  in  W2ti, 
----i-;i^iii3&-^ '  EverinuH,  a  bishop  from  England, 
'y^Tt^r.i'Z'ZH'-  was  placed  tliere,  for  the  purpose  of 
converting  the  natives  to  Christianii 
ty.  The  cathedral  is  the  largest  and 
finest  ecclesiastical  monument  in 
Sweden,  a  country  not  eminent  tiir 
such  structures.  The  exterior  is  in- 
deed only  of  brick,  and  there  is  an 
injudicious  mixture  of  the  Gothic 
with  the  Doric  towers.  But  the  in* 
terior  is  very  striking,  adorned  with  a  double  row  of  fourteen  fluted  columns,  a  magnificent 
altar,  and  above  all  by  many  monuments  of  the  kings  and  heroes  of  Sweden.  Particular 
notice  is  attracted  by  that  of  Gustavus  Vasa,  and  the  three  Stores,  successively  regents  of 
the  kingdom,  who,  in  that  station,  earned  the  title  of  fathers  of  their  country.  The  shirt  \J 
mail  of  Margaret,  the  Semiramis  of  (he  North,  is  also  kept  as  a  warlike  relic.  Upsala  con- 
tains also  a  palace  founded  by  Gustavus  Vasa,  now  half  burnt  down.  It  is  at  present  sup* 
ported  solely  by  the  university,  of  which  an  account  has  already  been  given.  It  is  destitute 
of  all  trade  or  industry.  It  is  therefore  small,  but  very  regular  and  neat,  having  a  large 
square  in  the  centre,  where  all  the  streets  converge. 

The  mine  of  Danemora  is  situated  near  the  small  town  of  Osterby.  Swedish  iron  is  the 
best  in  the  world,  and  the  iron  of  Danemora  is  the  best  in  Sweden.  Dr.  Thomson  was  told 
at  Sheffield,  that  cast  steel  could  not  be  made  with  any  other.  Danemora  was  first  wrought 
as  a  silver  mine,  but  this  was  soon  exhausted.  The  iron  then  began  to  be  wrought,  and  soon 
established  the  high  character  it  now  holds.  The  great  opening  is  fifly  fathoms  deep,  and 
the  mine  has  been  wrought  thirty  fathoms  lower  down.  The  ore  is  blasted  with  gunpowder. 
At  short  intervals  are  heard  tremendous  explosions,  like  the  discharge  of  the  heaviest  artil- 
lery, which  are  echoed  through  the  caverns,  and  shake  the  earth  like  a  volcano,  v/hile 
volumes  of  smoke  burst  forth  afler  each  crash.  From  the  mouth  of  the  cavern  enormous 
masses  of  iron  are  raised  up  by  machinery.  The  mine  belongs  to  a  number  of  private  indi- 
viduals, who  have  erected  a  steam-engine  at  an  expense  of  36,000  rix-dollars.  The  produce 
is  estimated  at  4000  tons.    There  are  twenty-seven  other  mines  in  the  province  of  Upsala. 

Gothland,  or  Gotaland,  the  southern  division  of  the  kingdom,  forms  a  large  peninsula,  with 
a  wide  circuit  of  shores.  It  enjoys  a  considerably  milder  climate,  and  is  the  only  part  of  the 
kingdom  where  wheat  is  raised  in  any  considerable  quantity.  It  is  here  also  that  the  recent 
improvements  in  agriculture  have  Been  chiefly  observable.  There  is  thus  more  land  in  cul- 
tivation, and  trees  will  not  grow  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  coasts;  so  that  Gothland  is 
not  so  thoroughly  covered  with  wood,  as  the  provinces  to  the  north  of  the  lakes.  If  we 
except  the  capital,  this  division  contains  almost  all  the  sea-ports  and  naval  arsenals ;  and 
consequently  engrosses  nearly  all  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  kingdom. 

The  modern  and  official  divisions  of  Gothland  have  been  exhibited  in  the  statistical  table. 
The  ancient  divisions  are  into  Eastern  and  Western  Gothland,  divided  fVom  each  other  by 
the  long  line  of  the  lake  Wetter ;  Smaland,  an  extensive  but  barrert  tract,  to  the  south  of 
that  lake ;  and  Scania,  or  Schftnen,  the  southern  peninsular  extremity  of  Sweden,  a  better 
peopled,  and  better  cultivated  district  than  any  other  in  the  kingdom. 

Eastern  Gothland  comprises  chiefly  the  modem  provinces  of  Nykfiping  and  Linkoping. 
The  town  of  Nykftping  is  agreeably  situated  at  the  extremity  of  a  small  bay  of  the  Baltic, 
and  though  small  has  an  air  of  magnificence;  but  it  carries  on  little  or  no  trade.  It  is  now 
much  outstripped  by  Norkciping,  the  largest  of  all  the  kiipinffs  (i.  e.  markets),  and  the  fourth 
town  in  Sweden.  Norkoping  lies  upon  the  large  river  Motala,  which  communicates  between 
the  lake  Wetter  .ind  tb.o  Baltic,  and  which  is  here  broken  into  numerous  rocky  channels. 
The  chief  branch  of  industry  consists  in  the  mannfecture  of  broadcloth,  which  is  producis!  so 
fine  na  to  sell  at  twenty-seven  shillings  per  ell,  of  one  yard  and  three  quarters  broad.  The 
brood  of  shoep  in  the  neiglibourhood  has  been  considerably  improved  by  the  introducti')n  of 
merinos.  The  town  is  regularly  built,  of  neat  wooden  houses.  Linkoping  is  another  pro. 
Vol.  I.  3  M 


490 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


vincial  capitnl,  ham'.Kinnr  in  iU  aspect,  though  much  amaller,  than  Nnrkiiping.  'J'he 
cathedral,  robuilt  tour  hundred  years  a);o,  in  ono  of  the  flneat  ecclesiaatical  Htructurei  in  the 
kinjnlom,  and  near  it  ia  a  very  hnndiiuino  theatre. 

The  district  ofSmaland  tiaa  for  itti  chief  town  JonkApinff,  situatiul  at  the  extremity  of  tlie 
Wetter,  and  commanding  grand  and  beaulitui  viowa  over  that  immenNO  lake,  which  hua  here 
a  wide  border  of  low  but  flnely  wooded  roAii.  The  town  has  been  entirely  rebnilt  since 
1790,  when  it  waa  burnt  to  the  ground.  Though  built  chiefly  of  wood,  like  'other  Swediah 
town^  it  contains  many  good  ai^  commodious  houses,  the  reoidence  of  wealthy  inhabitants, 
who  have  been  attracted  by  the  amenity  of  the  site.  A  high  court  of  appeal  for  this  part  of 
Sweden  is  established  here.  About  ten  miles  distant  is  Tuberg,  a  long  round-backed  hill, 
composed  wholly  of  one  unbroken  mass  of  fine  magnetic  ironstone.  It  presents  such  a 
colossal  mass  as  in  Hausmann's  opinion  must  continuo  to  afford  a  source  of  riches  to  the 
remotest  posterity.  The  upner  bed,  370  feet  thick,  has  been  wrought  for  250  years.  It  is 
merely  blasted  with  gunpbwder,  when  the  fVagments  fall  to  the  bottom,  and  are  conveyed  to 
neighbouring  furnaces.  The  ore  is  not  very  rich,  the  proportion  of  pure  iron  varying  from 
21  to  32  per  cent ;  but  it  is  very  tractable,  and  ftee  fh)m  any  hurtful  ingredients.  The  hill, 
though  only  400  feet  high,  commands  an  almost  boundless  view  over  tne  vast  wooded  flats 
of  Smalond.  This  district  contains  also  a  considerable  quantity  of  bog  iron  ore  of  inferior 
quality,  and  some  copper  mines. 

The  aea-coost  of  Smaland,  consisting  of  the  modem  provinces  of  Calmar  and  Bleking,  is 
of  a  naked  and  unpromising  aspect,  but  contains  some  havens  of  importance.  Calmar  ia 
noted  in  Swedish  history  as  a  strong  fortress,  and  still  more  because  in  one  of  the  apartments 
of  its  castle  waa  signed  the  celebrated  treaty  which  united  the  three  crowns  of  the  north  on 
the  head  of  Margaret.  Carlscrona  ia  the  chief  naval  arsenal  and  one  of  the  largest  towns  in 
Sweden.  It  is  built  on  three  small  islands  connected  with  each  other  and  with  the  coast  by 
long  wooden  bridges,  while  other  islands  serve  for  the  erection  of  works  for  the  defence  of 
the  harbour.  These  are  square  batteries  of  stone,  well  mounted  with  ordnance,  which  appear 
formidable  enough,  though  probably  not  capable  of  coping  with  a  ship  of  tlie  line.  Separate 
establishments  exist  for  the  large  vessels,  and  for  the  flotilla;  but  one  of  tlic  most  remarkable 
features  consists  of  the  covered  docks,  partly  excavated  out  of  the  vast  masses  of  solid  rock. 
The  want  of  tides  in  the  Baltic  is  supplied  by  sluices,  which  open  into  the  port,  and  are 
emptied  again  at  pleasure.  Carlshamn  is  a  smaller  town,  romantically  situated,  like  a  cluster 
of  nests,  on  the  tops  of  cliffs.  During  war  it  enjoyed  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  neutral 
trade,  which  it  has  since  lost  Christianstadt  is  a  fortress  of  considerable  celebrity,  the  cap- 
ture of  which  formed  the  first  military  achievement  of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  Some  fragments 
of  the  fortifications  remain,  and  the  approach  to  them  is  defended  by  an  extensive  swamp 
which  surrounds  the  place. 

Scania  begins  here,  a  flat  and  fertile  peninsula,  forming  the  most  southern  part  of  Sweden. 
There  are  numerous  German  residents  in'  Scania,  supposed  to  have  sought  refuge  there 
during  the  Protestant  persecution  in  Germany ;  and  some  Scotch  farmers  have  also  sought  to 
introduce  an  improved  system  of  agriculture.  In  the  centre  of  Scania  is  Lund,  tlie  scut  of 
the  second  university  in  Sweden,  containing  30,000  volumes,  a  good  observatory  and  botanical 
garden,  and  a  noble  cathedral  in  the  Norman  style  of  architecture.  Malmo,  formerly  one  of 
the  Hanseatic  towns,  is  the  chief  seat  of  trade.  Helsenving  and  Ystadt,  neat  little  ports,  are 
the  chief  places  of  embarkation  for  Denmark  and  Germany.  All  these  towns  command 
magnificent  views  of  the  Sound,  enlivened  by  the  crowds  of  shipping  that  are  continually 
passing. 

Having  turned  the  southern  point  of  Sweden,  we  come  to  the  coast  of  West  Gothland, 
situated  on  that  great  gulf  of  the  German  Ocean  called  the  Cattegat.  Being  the  part  of  the 
kingdom  nearest  to  the  great  states  of  Europe,  it  carries  on  a  principal  part  of  the  commerce 
of  Sweden.  Laholtn  and  Halmstadt  are  ports  of  some  consideration,  in  the  gloomy  and 
heathy  province  of  Halland,  but  almost  the  whole  of  the  western  commerce  of  Sweden  centres 
at  Gotten  burg. 

Gottenburg  is  built  in  the  interior  of  a  bay  set  round  with  rugged  and  naked  rocks,  and 
the  whole  country  round  is  sterile  and  desolate.  It  is  supported  by  its  situation  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Gotha,  the  broadest  and  most  navigable  of  the  rivers  of  Sweden,  which  by  means  ot 
the  canal  of  Trdlhatta  affords  a  full  communication  with  the  great  interior  lake  of  Wener, 
and  the  opportunity  of  bringing  down  those  immense  stores  of  wood  and  iron  produced  around 
its  shores.  The  prosperity  of  Gottenburg  was  also  greatly  promoted  by  the  French  anti- 
commercial  system,  under  which  this  port  remained  one  of  the  few  channels  by  which  British 
goods  could  force  their  way  into  the  Continent.  It  is  a  very  handsome  city,  built  entirely  of 
stone,  the  use  of  wood  having  been  prohibited  since  the  last  great  conflagration,  the  second 
which  had  occurred  in  the  course  of  ten  years.  A  magnificent_church,  lately  built,  is  con- 
structed, in  a  great  measure,  of  stone  imported  ftom  Scotland.  The  principal  street,  which 
is  long  and  wide,  has  a  canal  running  through  it ;  the  others  strike  off  from  it  at  right 
angles.     The  principal  merchants  are  Scotch,  who  live  in  a  style  of  great  magnificence. 

West  Gothland  presents  still  some  other  striking  features.    Among  these  rank  foremost 


M^ 


BoobL 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 


tlio  cataract!  and  canal  ot'TrolhAtta.  Above  the  former  tho  rivor  »  a  mile  brnnd ;  but  being 
nunilned  between  two  lotly  rocks,  it  poiini  down  ita  watora  witli  prrNliffiouii  tiirci;.  The  de- 
Kent,  however,  ia  only  a  hundred  t'eot  in  tiio  cuurne  ot'  two  ntilea,  mulling  thiiii  a  rapid  ratiier 
than  a  tkll ;  tho  water  runhinff  along  witli  inconceivable  rapidity,  boiling  uo,  and  covered 
with  tbam.  The  noiiio  is  prudigiouH,  and  cloudH  uf  va|M)ur  are  thrown  up.  'rhune  catiiracta 
oppcMod  a  complnte  obiitruction  to  the  navigation  of  the  (iotha,  which  the  kings  of  Sweden 
expunded  iminonne  huiuh  in  endeavouring  to  overcome;  but  tlirir  workit  worn  Umi  iiniwrfect 
to  reniHt  the  impotucwily  of  tho  current.  At  length,  in  17»!J,  tiio  onterprifo  wan  tukon  up 
by  a  company  of  private  merchanta,  who  in  seven  yean  brought  it  to  a  happy  completion, 
'i'lie  canal  is  twenty-four  teet  wide,  and  eight  feet  deep.  It  extends  only  two  miles;  but 
being  cut  through  a  granite  rock,  soroetimea  to  the  depth  of  one  hundred  and  fitly  feet,  it 
proved  a  work  of  very  great  labour.  Wenerborg,  at  the  junction  of  tho  Uotha  with  the 
Wener,  is  the  channel  by  which  the  products  of  tho  interior  are  brought  down  the  rivor; 
yet  it  doen  not  derive  from  this  trade  much  prosperity  or  importance.  Uddevalla  and  Htron- 
Blodt,  are  small  sea-ports,  with  some  trade  and  fishery,  but  thev  have  auflerod  since  the 
herrings  deserted  the  coast.  8kara  and  Fahlkoping  are  places  ot  some  consequence  in  the 
interior  of  West  Gothland. 

Norrland  forms  a  third  division,  which,  if  considered  as  including  Lapland  (and  it  is  m 
considered  politically),  would  be  much  more  extensive  than  all  tho  rest  of  the  kingdom  put 
together.  It  is,  however,  our  intention  to  roHcrve  for  a  particular  section  the  vunt  and 
peculiar  region  known  under  the  name  of  Lapland.    Norrland,  in  a  restricted  scnit^  cnni- 

S rises  the  four  provinces  named  in  the  table,  but  is  better  known  under  the  divisionn  of 
amtland,  Angernmnland,  Medelpad,  and  lielsihgland.  Jamtland,  where  it  bonlorn  on 
Norway,  includes  some  of  the  highest  mountains,  several  of  them  rising  to  60(M)  or  7(KH) 
feet.  The  rest  of  Norrland  is  flat,  and  the  climate  moist  and  variable,  like  that  cA'  Jamt- 
land, but  colder.  Wheat  scarcely  ripens  beyond  Sundswall ;  near  to  tho  northern  border, 
barley  and  rye  ripen  with  difficulty.  Almost  the  only  fruits  are  cherries  and  gooseberries. 
The  land  under  cultivation  did  not,  in  1812,  exceed  52,000  acres,  which  is,  in  proportion  to 
the  whole,  only  as  1  to  915.  Yet  tho  people  are  industrious ;  and  Von  Buch  ob8erve<l  u  greater 
air  of  prosperity  here  than  in  the  rest  of  the  kingdom.  The  woods  which  cover  almost  the 
whole  country,  are  infested  by  numerous  herds  of  wolves.  Of  the  entire  population,  amounting 
to  159,100,  only  (W18  live  in  the  towns,  which  of  course  must  be  very  unimiiortiint.  Siinds- 
wall  and  Hemosand  are,  however,  sea-ports  of  some  little  consequence,  as  is  Umea;  but  this 
last  properly  belongs  to  Lapland. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Norway.  "> 
This  extensive  portion  of  the  Swedish  monarchy,  recently,  by  compulsion,  but  in  all  like- 
lihood permanently,  united,  comprises  a  very  long  line  of  maritime  territory,  facing  the 
boundless  expanse  of  the  Northern  Ocean.  Throughout  its  whole  length,  in  un  obli<iiie 
line  parallel  to  the  sea,  runs  the  chain  of  the  Dofrines,  presenting  many  bold  and  lolly 
summits  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  Sneehatta,  the  highest,  is  8100  feet.  These  moun- 
tains throw  out  numerous  chains,  sloping  downwards  to  the  sea,  which  form  romantic  valleys 
and  deep  and  winding  bays.  Norway  produces  some  corn,  not  nearly  suflRcient,  however, 
for  its  own  consumption ;  but  exports  large  quantities  of  timber  and  fish,  receiving,  in  return, 
those  commodities  of  which  it  stands  most  in  need. 

The  southern  Norwegian  provinces  of  Aggerhuus,  Christiania,  and  Christiansund,  include 
a  considerably  greater  proportion  of  level  territory  than  the  otherc.  They  have  tho  groat 
range  of  mountains  to  the  north  and  west,  and  are  not  separated  from  Sweden  by  these 
natural  barriers.  Through  these  provinces  flow  southward  into  the  bay  of  Christiania  the 
Drammen  and  tiie  Glommen,  the  two  greatest  rivers  of  the  Nofth,  and  bring  with  them  an 

immense  quantity  of  timber,  which 
246  is  cut  into  deals,  and  exported  to  ull 

parts  of  Europe.     The  export  of  iron 
is  also  considerable. 

Christiania,  (Jig.  246.),  capital 
of  all  this  district,  with  a  population 
of  20,581,  now  ranks  as  the  capital 
of  the  whole  kingdom.  It  is  situnted 
at  the  head  of  a  long  interior  bay  or 
fiord,  ond  enjoys  a  situation  which 
Von  Buch  considers  as  altogether 
wonderful.  The  bay,  its  islands, 
the  crowds  of  sails  spread  among 
them,  with  the  view  of  majestic  hills 
rising  over  hills  in  the  distance,  appeared  to  him  equalled  only  on  the  lake  of  Geneva,  which, 
however,  has  not  the  vessels  and  islands.  Christiania  is  chiefly  supported  by  the  trade  in 
deals ;  and  those  cut  in  ita  saw-mills  are  considered,  by  the  traders  in  this  article,  to  be 


l^'hriitianiii. 


40B 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOORAPHY. 


PA«Tm. 


Swimund  Ferry. 


■uparkjr  Ui  nil  othan.  t<.  f  iti  merchanU,  particularly  the  Anknra,  maintain  the  xtnto 
*>♦' princoH,  I  i  urc  '■nnsKlerod  «<junl  'u  wmlth  and  liboml  viewii  to  any  in  Eumpn.  (Ilinif 
liHoia  conwh       tt  'iitact  Uian  tU^rfrvn  with  the  more  ailvancoii  couiitriea  of  Ktirnim, 

aiitl  I       (uloptod  aliiu  'iiaivofy  th<nrii|)i>)V)>ni«mtii  which  <liHtini;iiiMh  them.    'I'he  hiiil(|iii)m 

are  reffiilar,  and  nuMlly  ot  .-satfK';  ho  that  in  thn  oitirMu  ul'  24M>  ycarK,  while  otlier  HnaiidiiiK- 
vian  towim  huvu  b«>('ii  rojiontfldly  roduceti  tooHlifi^,  ('lirivtiania  haa  Mutt«r<Ni  only  alif^ht  injury 
frn-M  fire  Hinco  the  union  with  Bwcdfo,  it  haii  rtoiii  I  an  univcraity,  with  two  proftwhors 
9        lave  iiioderato  incomcM,  cliit'Ay  d«)rivo<l  from  (fraiii. 

itwTO  av-  (ither  havnna  of  auiii<  importance  in  this  tiouthcrn  tract  of  Norway.  On  ili.: 
weatern  coaat  ot'fliriatiania  fiord,  tli>  two,  Hraf^itneRa  and  HtromNoe,  unito  in  furmmf;  wliai 
ia  calli  '>rammen,  fit  thu  mouth  of  llic  important  river  of  tliat  name.  Tonabcrff,  at  ihu 
bottom  oi  thi>  ')(^  aide,  ia  a  town  of  Hume  anciuii  i-olubrity,  but  now  a  (food  deal  (Iccayod. 
On  the  naMtern  hn  •<  of  tho  Haiiie  bay  in  Momi,  wature<l  by  a  atreiim,  turning  twenty  wiw-inillH, 
by  which  an  immciwo  quantity  of  doala  are  pre)>ared  tor  ex|H)rlation.  FrodurickMhuil,  h\\ 
ancient  aud  atill  important  fVontier  town,  is  boautitblly  aituatod  in  an  interior  bay,  windinfr 

ainon((  mountuina.  Near  it  ia  the  Htmn^r 
fortroHH  of  Frud(trir:lutadt,  tho  aoene  of  tlm 
death  of  Charloa  XII.  Tho  paaa  of  tlii> 
Swinsund  {,fiff.  247.),  on  the  immediate 
fhmtier,  preaenta  ono  of  the  most  romantic 
and  picturesque  Hconea  in  ticandiiiavm. 
ChriHtiiitiMund,  tho  moat  aouthcrn  prf)vinri> 
of  Norway,  haH  a  capital  of  the  Humo  nanid, 
the  fourth  town  in  tho  kinf(dom,  whicii, 
fh)m  itfl  Mituation  on  tlio  Hknf^errack,  \h 
viaitctl  for  ahelter  and  aupplioa  by  numn. 
rouH  veaaela  entcrinff  and  Inavinfif  the 
Baltic.  Tho  interior  from  Christiaiiiii, 
thoujo^h  it  incliiduH  Hndemarken,  and  other 
larae  poatoral  valloyR,  and  thoufafh  itH  communicationrt  are  fiicilitatod  by  the  larj^c  lake  of 
Mio.-«*n,  does  not  contain  a  sinf^le  town.  That  of  Hammer  atteMta  ittt  former  maffnilicnncp, 
by  the  runminH  of  a  palace,  and  of  Hevoral  churches  now  restored.  The  whole  ot  thiu  terri- 
tory is  hemmed  in  on  the  west  and  north  by  tho  (irigantic  ranges  of  tiie  Doyerfield  and 
Fillefiehl,  which  separate  it  from  Drontheim  and  Bt-rrren. 
The  province  of  Bergen  is  rude,  rocky,  and  m  h  ruinous,  consisting  of  the  slope  down- 

wards  to  the  son  of  tho  highest  part 
**^  ^"^^ — »^  '*         of  tho  Dofrine  range.    Tho  town  of 

Bergen,  (Jiff.  848.),  at  the  head  of  a 
long  interior  bay,  was  formerly  ac- 
counted tho  capital,  and  contains  n 
population  of  18,511.     Its  commerce, 
which  is  considerable,  is  founded  on 
tho  exportation,  less  of  tho  produce 
of  the  country  behind  it,  than  of  the 
northenj  fishery  at  DafFoden,  of  which 
the  produce  is  brought  to  Bergen  by 
numerous  barks.     Its  merchants  hiul 
long  the  monopoly  of  this,  and  still 
retam  much  the  greatest  share.     They  are  chiefly  Dutch,  and  send  a  ,  v.*;l   A.elly  to 
Amsterdam  for  a  supply  df  the  garden  stuffs  whii  r  their  own  soil  does  not  viA\      U  -^eu 
is  built  of  large  masses  of  wooden  houses,  amid  rocks,  and  has  suffered  sc-  <.ir[,'  hn  *\i 
The  province  of  Drontheim,  to  tlie  north  of  Bergen  and  Christiania,  a..L;  .  <  jj^ratea  from 

them  by  vast  mountains,  cor- 
responds in  latitude  with  the 
Swedish  Jamtland.  The  capital 
(Jifr.  249.),  of  the  same  namn 
is  situated  on  the  shore  of  ii 
winding  fiord,  but  subsists  Icsh 
by  foreign  commerce  than  hy 
the  internal  communication  be 
tween  numerous  valleys  and 
districts  jto  which  it  forms  a  cen- 
tral point  of  union.      Of  these 

..nlln....     «l 4.    »<<<U„    ri..1J-1     :_    .1.. 

vuti\.:jrD,  tlltll.  KJl    tliC  VJUlUill    IP    IlItT 

most    extensive  and   beautiful. 

Here,  it  is  boasted,  dwelt  the 

mighty  Haco,  the  noble  and  wise  Olaf  Tryggvason.     The  society  of  Drontheim  is  always 


—Tcci^ 


flcrson. 


Dronilicim. 


and  singularly  celebrated  in  Swedish  story  and  tradition 


HookI. 


SWEDRN  ANT)  NORWAY. 


4fl8 


liclil  liirth  ••  r^prnMntinff  undor  thii  happiimt  litflit,  tlin  f^unuino  Norwnffian  chartctor ;  il« 
wuriiiUi  ot'kiudiD'iM,  uiiti  ^luiuroiu  licwpiliility.  '  Clurkt'  |iraiHi!ii  cliiiifly  lU  truly  Nurwo< 
giun  Riiii|)li<;ity ;  but  Voi>  Uiicli  cuimiilorH  it  iin  iim.lo-il  by  rnoro  ri'tiiitid  taitto,  iiiuru  gracdiil 
»ii(l  uttractivu  inaniuirN,  than  tiio  w)ciiity  uf  (<hrit<tiaiiiu.  in  ii<)  diittricl  of  Norway  m  tlii>ro 
Miiil  to  \»\  Muoli  a  foi'lint;  of  |Nitruitiitiii  uitd  |iiil)lic  spirit  |lri>nlhfiin  in  built  wholly  of  wo'kI, 
ami  hu  ill  conanqiieiicn  txiiin  mivoti  tiiui'ii  burnt  l(>  !  '^  ffTuund;  yi:l  the  houwfM  aro  hnralHonut, 
and  urnuiniMitud  with  tuittu.  Thoru  im  a  it|Mt-iuUK  ^ilm  '•,  built  wholly  of  thiM  nintttrmi,  uiid 
partaking  itN  ini|)erli-ction,  I)ronthf.<iin  aUi  i  i.n'  iuih  tint  ninMin!)  of  a  cuLlit-dral,  tho  lurKcsl 
cdi/icc  in  tlii^  country,  und  tu  which  thn  wholr  pulatioii  ol  liic  Nortli  caiiiu  once  in  |>il- 
griuinDfo.  Tlio  onvironH  are  vury  b<>autiful,  with  niiiniToua  couutry-ncMK-..  and  lolly  tinuw- 
crowni'd  iiillH  in  tho  diatanco.  Chriatianaund  ia  alao  a  anmll  aea-port  and  holiiru'  town  in 
tiiia  |>rovinco. 

Buyond  Drontheim  commencoa  Norrland,  a  diatrict  ratlmr  than  a  provincp,  th«;  initne 
buin^  vuffuuly  appliiNl  to  all  tho  north  of  Scandinavia.  Roliitivoly  to  Norway,  it  ia  markod 
by  an  incruaMi'igr  irienf'ty  of  cold ;  the  mountaina,  ovon  at  3(NH)  feet  high,  boing  capped  w  ith 
puriKBtual  Hn  •  ni<  \  voat  tablo-pluina  or  fi«hla  remaining  covorod  with  it  during  tho  wh(>l'> 
Huintnor  «.  v.i:  «'  n  of  thn  coarHOHt  dcHcriptiona,  ripena  only  in  a  few  favoure<l  apotit.  'I'h<» 
apru'  flt  i(ittu:  1i'  Jianppoara,  and  ahnltor  ia  ncccaaary  to  allow  the  Hootch  nr  and  th<> 
b  re!,  <^  apt.n^  up.  The  climate,  however,  ia  aomewhat  mildt^r  than  that  of  rof^ionn  und«>r 
'iie  I  "0  '  I  'lule  on  the  Baltic;  ao  that,  while  the  jwrta  of  Htockholm  and  Curlacn>m  are 
' '  ut  during  rfovoral  montha  of  tlio  year,  thoao  of  Norrland  remain  contiiuially  open.     Vet 

thia  dreary  region  occura  a  buHy  acone  of  human  action  and  exiatenco.  Tne  numonma 
lol'inda,  anil  the  deep  baya  between  them  und  the  land,  afford  apota  to  which  ithoala  of  tiah 
come  fv-on'  tho  farthoat  deptha  of  tho  North  Sea  to  depoait  thoir  apawn.  Duriri)(  the  whole 
year,  the  herring  afforda  a  regular  occupation  to  the  Norrland  boatman ;  but  tW)in  Kcln-imry 
to  April,  the  ahoala,  migrating  from  thence,  and  from  all  the  surrounding  coaata,  cnwA  to 
tlio  Liolfoden  lalanda,  tht;  central  aent  of  the  northern  flahery.  Thcae  ialanda  fi)rni  i<  chiun 
parallel  to  the  land,  nnd  aeparated  by  narrow  clumncla  through  whicii  the  tidca  <  the 
Northern  Ocean  ruali  with  trcmtindoua  rapidity.  Thcaeaflowaaainthe  moat  rapid  rivtM  ,  nnd 
tiic  name  of  atroam  ia  employed : — MalalrJim,  the  famoua  whirlpool,  GrimatrJitn,  Sumini  '«im, 
which,  when  tho  tide  ia  high,  produco  the  effect  of  a  mighty  cataract.  Wavea  are  '-en 
struggling  ogainat  waves,  towcrmg  aloft,  or  wheeling  about  in  whirlpoola;  the  doshin^r  md 
roaring  of  which  are  heard  many  miloa  out  at  aea.  The  produce  of  the  flahery,  whicii  w 
boon  rondernd  much  more  abundant  by  tho  introduction  of  large  neta  instead  of  hooki  is 
conveyed  to  Bergen  in  a  groat  number  of  little  barka.  The  Danish  govermnent  endeavouri-d 
to  fonn  at  Stromaoe  a  commercial  dcpdt  for  the  produce  of  Norrland ;  but  in  thia  bleak  ailim- 
tion  it  has  not  flourished.  The  Ruaainna  come  with  numcroua  veasels  fhim  Archaxig<'l, 
bringing  meal  and  provisions,  which  they  give  in  exchange  for  the  fiah  caught. 

SiTBaKCT.  3. — Lapland. 

The  vast  region  of  I^pland  ia  divided  from  tho  rest  of  Scandinavia  b^  a  line  drawn  acroa?) 
it  nearly  coinciding  with  the  I'olar  Circle,  ao  as  to  render  it  almoat  entirely  an  arctic  region. 
It  consists  partly  of  great  chains  of  mountp"  •  »"me  of  which  are  40U0  feet  high,  while 
other  extensive  tracts  are  level.  Througl  ^.cae  roll  the  Tornea,  the  Lulca,  the  Pitea,  and 
other  rivers  of  long  course,  and  navigable  for  the  few  boats  which  have  any  occasion  to  pass 

along  them.  The  Laplanders  are  a  peculiar  race, 
short,  stout,  brown,  with  black  hair,  pointed  'liin, 
and  eyds  rendered  weak  by  exposure  to  tho  smoke 
and  snow.  They  are  divided  into  the  mountain 
or  wandering  I^planders,  and  those  who  dwell  in 
what  are  called  villages;  but  Kautokeino,  which 
forms  a  sort  of  Lapland  capital,  wlien  visited  by 
Acerbi,  was  found  to  contain  not  more  than  four 
families  and  a  priest  The  swift-footed  rein-deer, 
which  they  tram  to  draw  them  in  sledges  over  the 
snow,  form  their  riches ;  the  flesh  and  milk  of 
these  animals  compose  their  food,  and  the  skins 
their  furniture.  The  tents  of  the  Laplanders 
{fig.  a'iO.)  are  formed  by  six  beams  of  wood 
meeting  nearly  at  top,  covered  with  cloth,  a  flap 
of  which,  left  between  two  of  the  beams,  serves 
as  the  da.  The  floor  is  spread  with  rein-deer 
akina,  having  the  hair  upwards,  and  which  thus 
serve  for  either  lying  or  sitting,  the  tent  being  too 
low  to  stand  in,  except  in  one  place.  A  stone 
frame  is  made  m  the  middle,  for  the  fire ;  and  there  is  a  bole  at  the  top,  to  which  the  smoke 
Vol.  I  42 


Musntsin  LsnIanHar'i  Tent. 


494 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtIII 


Luplanders  Tcavellini. 


must  find  its  way ;  but  this  it  does  not  effect  till  it  has  thickly  imprefrnated  the  whole 
tent  with  its  fumes ;  which,  however,  are  valued  as  afTordiner  a  protection  in  winter  a^inst 
the  cold,  and  in  summer  against  the  swarms  of  musquitoes  with  which,  during  a  period  of 
short  and  extreme  heat,  the  air  is  infested.  The  herds  of  rein-deer  vary  from  300  to  up. 
wards  of  1000,  according  to  the  wealth  of  the  possessor.  AH  day  they  wander  over 
the  hills,  and  in  the  evening  are  driven,  not  without  some  occasional  resistance,  into  an  en- 
closed park,  where  they  are  milked.  Each  yields  only  about  a  tea-cupful  of  mjlk ;  but  rich, 
aromatic,  and  of  exquisite  taste.  Linneeus  mentions  nineteen  farms  in  which  milk  is  pre- 
pared for  food :  but  cleanliness  does  not  preside  over  their  cookery ;  and  the  use  of  the  hand, 
without  knife  or  fork,  to  carry  every  thing  to  the  mouth,  and  of  the  tongue  to  lick  the  dishes, 
prevents  an  European  from  joining  these  meals  with  any  relish.    The  Laplanders  travel 

from  place  to  place,  and  move 
251  ,k^  their  families,  usually  at  the  be 

ginning  of  winter  and  summer, 
m  sledges  made  in  the  form  of  a 
boat,  and  drawn  by  rein-deer 
(Jig.  251.).  These  animals  are 
tamed  and  trained  with  con- 
siderable  difficulty,  and  they  are 
sometimes  restive ;  but,  in  gene- 
ral, they  bound  over  hill  and 
dale  with  surprising  celerity. 
The  natives  have  also  a  species 
of  snow-shoe ;  not  a  broad  flat  board,  like  that  of  America,  but  somewhat  in  the  form  of  a 
skate,  with  which  they  glide  rapidly  along  the  sur&ce  of  deep  snow,  and  even  up  and  down 

the  steep  sides  of  the  hills  (jig,  252.). 
Their  dress  is  carefully  contrived  for 
the  purposes  of  warmth.  The  under 
part,  or  shirt,  is  composed  of  sheep's 
skin  with  the  wool  inwards ;  while  the 
exterior  coat  is  formed  by  the  skin  of 
the  rein-deer,  or  some  other  animal, 
having  the  fur  outwards.  They  add 
fiir  gloves,  and  a  woollen  pointed  rrd 
cap  (Jig.  253.). 

The  entire  population  of  Lapland, 
spread  over  a  surface  of  150  miles  square, 
is  stated  by  Dr.  Thomson  not  to  exceed 
60,000,  or  one  inhabitant  to  every  three 
square  miles.  Even  this  scanty  mea- 
sure is  supported  only  on  the  sea- 
coasts  by  a  supply  of  fish.  The  parish 
of  Kautokeino,  in  the  interior,  extending  200  miles  in  length  and  96  in  breadth,  was  re- 
ported to  Acerbi  as  containing  not  more  than  ninety  fiimilies,  of  whom  twelve  only  are 
fixed.  Th:5  Laplanders  arc  a  harmless  race,  among  whom  great  crimes  are  unknown.  Only 
one  murdjr  has  been  heard  of  in  twenty  years;  and  the  absence  of  thefl  is  proved  by  that 
of  bars,  bolts,  and  other  safeguards.    They  do  not  show  that  open  hospitality  and  warmth 


Laplander  descending  s  Snow- Flake. 


253 


254 


Munntain  Laplander. 


Laplander  with  Magic  Dram. 


of  heart,  for  which  nide  nations  are  po  oflen  colfibratod.  They  are  cold,  shy,  miBtriistt'iil, 
iiiifl  (iiffic\ilt  to  lrr';it  with,  nt  least  iinlosH  fohaccn  or  Imindy  1)p  brousrht  in  as  mediators.  Tlu'y 
wpro  I'drmerlv  vory  sii|»cr.-titi(ms;  nml  the  Lnpliind  wiirlics  wrre  fninous  for  tlirir  cmiiire 
iner  the  winds,  which  irit'y  enclosed  in  hags,  and  sold  to  the  mariner.     The  magic  drum 


Book  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM 


495 


255 


^SmMt 


{fig.  254.)  and  the  enchanted  chain  (Jiff.  255.)  are  still  in  occasional  use.  Yet  the  Laplanders 
have  been  converted  to  Christianity,  and  are  attentive  to  its  duties,  coming 
often  from  vast  distances  to  attend  divine  service,  though  the  instnictions  are 
conveyed  to  them  only  through  the  broken  medium  of  an  interpreter. 

The  sea-coast  of  Lapland  presents  a  continuation  of  the  same  bold  and  rocky 
features  which  distinguish  that  of  Norway.  Here,  too,  the  finery  is  carried  on 
with  activity.  It  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  a  Finnish  race,  called  Quans,  who 
have  pusheci  across  Lapland,  and  exert  an  activity  unknown  tu  the  natives  of 
that  region.  The  Russians  firom  Archangel,  also,  not  only  bring  their  meal  to 
exchange  for  fish,  but  carry  on  the  fishery  themselves  to  a  great  extent.  In 
July  and  August  they  cover  with  their  small  three-masted  vessels  all  the  fiords 
and  sounds,  and  throw  out  lines  that  are  sometimes  two  miles  long,  and  contain 
600  or  700  hooks ;  so  that  their  vessels  are  filled  with  the  utmost  rapidity.  The 
government  has  founded,  on  the  large  island  of  Qualoe,thetownof  Hammcrfest, 
the  most  northern  in  the  world,  and  destined  as  a  rival  to  Archangel ;  but  the 
settlement  has  never  taken  root  in  this  ungenial  climate,  and  continues  also, 
with  one  exception,  to  be  the  smallest  that  exists.  On  the  other  side  of  the 
North  Cape,  on  the  extreme  frontier,  the  fort  of  Wardhuus,  defended  by  twenty 
men,  forms  the  only  barrier  to  prevent  the  Russians  from  taking  possession  of 
the  whole  country.  Mageroe,  the  most  northerly  of  the  islands,  consists  of 
steep  rocks  rising  perpendicularly  from  the  sea,  and  ascended  as  if  by  stairs.  In 
a  rocky  recess  stands  Kielvig,  with  four  or  five  families,  on  a  level  spot,  barely 
Magic  Cham,  affording  a  site  for  the  houses,  and  exposed  to  the  perpetual  war  of  the  elements. 
The  tempests  here  rage  with  such  fury,  that  it  is  often  impossible  to  leave  the  house  without 
danger  of  being  blown  into  the  sea.  At  the  northern  point  of  this  island  is  formed  by  the 
North  Cape  the  grand  boundary  of  the  European  continent,  facing  the  depths  of  the  Polar 
Ocean.  It  consists  of  an  enormous  moss  of  naked  rock,  parted  by  the  action  of  the  waves 
mto  pyramidal  cliffs,  down  which  large  fragments  ore  contmually  &lling. 


CHAPTER  VIL 

HOLLAND   AND   BELGIUM. 


The  Netherlands,  comprising  now  the  two  kingdoms  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  form  a 
maritime  territory,  which,  situated  almost  in  the  centre  between  the  north  and  the  south  of 
Europe,  and  penetrated  by  the  Rhine  and  its  tributaries,  possesses  great  natural  advantages 
for  industry  and  commerce.  It  has,  accordingly,  from  a  very  early  period  of  modem  history, 
ranked  as  one  of  the  most  prosperous  and  flourishing  parts  of  Europe.  The  union  of  the 
Batavian  and  Belgic  Netherlands  into  one  kingdom,  though  in  &ct  only  a  renewal  of  that 
which  subsisted  at  a  former  period,  was  suddenly  terminated,  in  1830,  by  a  revolution  of  the 
Belgians.  The  separate  existence,  however,  of  Holland  and  Belgium  being  yet  recent,  and 
llie  statistical  information  respecting  them  having  for  a  number  of  years  been  collected  with 
reference  always  to  the  entire  Netherlands,  they  will  be  still  treated  most  advantageously 
in  combination.  It  may  be  suflUcicnt  to  observe,  that,  since  the  revolution  of  1830,  Mgium 
has  been  erected  into  a  separate  monarchy,  through  the  mediation  of  the  five  great  powers 
of  Europe ;  and  the  crown,  with  their  consent,  has  been  conferred  on  prince  Leopold,  formerly 
of  Saxe-Coburg. 

Sect.  I. — Oeneral  Outline  and  Af^pect. 

Holland  and  Belgium  may  be  regarded  as  a  large  corner  or  segment  cut  off  from  France 
and  Germany,  which  form  round  it  a  species  of  irregular  arc.  Arbitrary  lines,  drawn  con- 
formably to  treaties,  mark  all  except  its  maritime  boundaries ;  for,  though  several  of  the 
greatest  rivers  of  Europe  cross  its  territory,  none  of  them  have  any  limitary  character.  The 
maritime  boundary,  which,  like  the  inland,  extends  from  north-east  to  soutli-west,  is  the 
North  Sea,  or  German  Ocean,  which  is  formed  here  into  a  species  of  large  gulf  by  the  oppo- 
site coast  of  part  of  the  English  Channel.  Holland  is  also  penetrated  by  the  deep  inlet  of 
th<j  Zuyder  Zee.  Tlie  whole  territory  extends  between  49°  30'  and  53°  34'  N.  lat.,  and 
2°  30'  and  7°  12'  E.  long. ;  making  about  280  miles  in  length,  and  220  miles  in  breadth. 
The  entire  extent,  according  to  the  best  calculations,  amounts  to  24,870  square  miles,  or 
15,900,000  English  acres. 

In  respect  to  surface,  this  country  includes  the  lowest  portion  of  the  great  low  land  of 
the  European  continent.  The  northern  parts,  composing  the  new  kingdom  of  Holland,  are 
mostly  belov."  the  level  to  wliich  the  bordering  sea  rises  dnring  high  tides  or  swells.  Hence 
originated  an  imminent  danger  of  inundation,  till  the  Dutch  constructed  those  mighty  dikes, 
by  which  the  sea  is  excluded,  and  which  form  so  extnordin.iry  a  monument  of  tht^ir  iiulii.-fry. 
Ilcillniid  is  liuiii(iroi..sly  dcHrrilirMl  by  HiitltT  n^;  a  cim:itry  that  draws  filly  loot  of  water." 
The  Belgif  i>roviuces  arc  also  flat,  but  not  lower  tluiii  t'le  s^"urfacc  of  llie  sea,  nor  iinich  exposed 


408 


5ii.',4f..ii}>.  ,;•:.-.■    .■-    w:  •.    ,i-«<f-    -'I    !-i't.  .V.'.. 


MAP  OF  HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM.  Fia  256. 


6P 


4      LaofMDM  Eat 


iVoig  OtMswlcli        8 


Book  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM 


497 


to  river  inundation.  In  the  south-eastern  district  of  Lio^o  and  Namur,  branches  of  tiie 
RhoiiiHh  mountains  render  the  surface  irregular,  and  sometimes  hilly,  (Hirticularly  in  the 
tract  fonning  part  of  the  ancient  forest  of  Ardennes. 

Snveral  rivers,  which  rank  among  the  greatest  in  Europe,  and  are  derived  from  distant 
eoiircns,  pass  through  this  territory ;  and,  separating  into  numerous  channels,  tbrm  broad 
esttiiirins  at  their  entrance  into  the  ocean.  Thoy  all  imite  in  the  channel  of  the  majestic 
Khinc ;  yet,  by  a  singular  fortune,  this  great  name  is  not  retained  by  the  main  branch  of  the 
rivor,  which,  in  turning  to  the  westward,  receives  the  name  of  Waal,  and  afterwards  that 
of  its  important  tributary  the  Maese,  under  which  designation  it  flows  into  the  sea  below 
Rotterdam.  The  Yssel,  another  considerable  branch,  runs  northward  into  the  Zu^der  Zee ; 
while  the  name  of  Rhine  is  retained  by  ajiother,  comparatively  a  rivulet,  which  passes 
through  the  provinces  of  Gueldres  and  Utrecht.  The  Maese  or  Mouse  is  the  only  great 
river  which  has  the  larger  part  of  its  course  through  the  Netherlands,  traversing  the  mterior 
of  Belgium  fVom  south  to  north.  Its  main  tributaries,  the  Sambre  on  the  west,  and  the 
Roer  on  the  east,  have  only  a  portion  of  their  course  through  Belgium.  The  Scheldt  has 
not  nearly  so  long  a  course ;  but  this  river,  and  its  tributaries,  the  Lys,  the  Dyle,  the  Dender, 
and  the  Neethe,  water  the  most  improved  districts,  and  visit  the  greatest  cities  of  Belgium. 
When  united  under  their  main  branch,  they  form  a  brood  navigable  channel,  opening  into 
an  estuary,  which  affords  to  Antwerp  the  means  of  carrying  on  an  extensive  {naritime  com< 
merce. 


Reference*  to  the  Map  of  Holland  and  Belgium. 


HOLLAND. 

I.  hViesland. 

I,  P'tllBRnB 

3.  Kuiienpoit 

3.  Dohkum 

4.  Leiiwarden 
S  Si.  Jncob 

6.  Pranokor 

7.  Harlingen 

8.  K"riiwurt 

9.  I<<ili>ward 

10.  Workiinn 

11.  Kindulopen 

12.  PnivDren 

13.  Sl..l.;n 

14.  Kiiiniler 
1,5.  T<>rknppel 

16.  (iniuw 

17.  Sohniit 

18.  Nciordwelde 

19.  nccitar  Zwang 

50.  Doiikeibook 

II.  Oroniniten, 
31.  Mnriiin 
3'i.  (Irypitkorke 
9.1.  y.olikiimp 
34.  UskiTt 
S.'i.  I.oppenum 
26.  n^lfzyi 
37.  VVinichoton 
3R.  Port  llourtanie 
3!l.  Ter  Ape! 
:iO.  Tit  Maarich 
;i1.  Kolhom 
33.  Groiiingen 

III.  Drmtlu. 

33.  Riiiin 

34.  Riistercn 

3.'».  As'icn 
3fi.  Sniilde 
37    DBverblirg 
tH  WoiitcrborK 
m.  (1ilu(,rii 
411.  .•^c'liooi.eboek 
41.  Knnvnrden 
ii.  Riiliii'n 
43  Mcppel 

IV.  Oneriiuel. 
44.  S'pt'tiwyk 
4.'>.  Bliickzyl 
4fi.  Volli'iihoven 
47.  8«afio«luii 
4''.  KiiiDpun 
4U  lliittKin 
.■tO.  '/.Willi 
.11   (Jinnmuiden 
.5*J.  Ominen 
.W.  ll:irdi'iiber« 
5*  lliMi  Ham 
5.5.  .Alnidlo 
.5ti.  Ontmiiraiiin 
.57.  ni,l(.n7,aal 
,5^.  Fnanhede 

51.  DnitiRn 

00  Hnnxbargen 
6l.(5iior 

fi.  Rymnn 
1.  Iliilten 

Vol.  I. 


64.  Wcsepe 
6.5.  Heyno 

76.  Devontur 

V.  Ouelderland. 

66.  Elburg 

67.  PiiBthuii 

68.  Harderwyk 
09.  Leuvunum 
7U.  Nykerk 
79.  Barnevoid 

73.  Kootvyk 

74.  Apelduoin 

75.  Vaascn 

77.  Zutphcn 

78.  Lflchoin 

79.  Burkulo 

80.  Rucrlo 

81.  Bifldevort 

82.  Huerenberg 

83.  Dcuiichem 

84.  Dneahurg 

as.  Do  Wocft  Hoer 

86.  ArnhKlm 

87.  Huiuen 

88.  Herveld 

89.  Wageningen 
go.  Thiel 

91.  Kuilenhurg 

VI.  Utrecht 
93.Wyk 

93.  Venendaal 

94.  iKtelitein 

95.  Moniroort 
g6..Ulrecht 

97.  NIeuweraluh 

98.  Naarden 
71.  Anienroort 

VII.  JVor«»  Hot- 
land. 

99.  Amflerdain 
100  Do  Ki.i.n 
101.  Monnikendain 
i(H  Piirmerend 
1113.  F.ilam 
104.  Honrn 
10.5.  Knkhuisen 
ion.  Mflilenbllck 
107.  Kolhnrn 
10^.  The  Helder 

109.  Calandaoog 

110.  Pflttcn 

111.  Brnek 
113.  Alkmaar 

113.  Egmondaan 

Zos 

114.  ReTOrwyk 
lis,  Zandvoort 

116.  Haarlem 

VIII.  South  Hol- 
land. 

117.  Llae 

118.  Leimuden 
J  iw.  ijijyiitrri 

130.  The  Hague 

131.  Grnveznnde 
133.  Wllaveen 
133.  Gouda 


134.  Bchnonhuven 
135    liiteilnm 
1-Ji.  Gorciim 

137.  Kolliirdam 

138.  C^harloi 

139.  Stryen 
l:t0.  Ilelviieuluyi 

131.  Gueree 

IX.  Zealana. 

132.  Zierlkzee 

133.  Guei 
IM.  Veoro 

135.  MIddleburg 

136.  Sluyi 
i:<7.  Blervllet 

138.  Axel 

139.  Hultt 

140.  Tholon 

141.  Steenbergen 

IX  JfnrlhBrahant. 
143.  Hfligen  up  Zoum 

143.  RnzeiHJnal 

144.  Willianutad 
14,5.  Brcdu 

146.  Chnam 

147.  Tiiburg 

148. c  iriruidenberg 
140.  iii'iudon 
1.50.  IliimincI 
151.Fnrt8l.Andriea 
1.53.  Grave 
1.5:1  Vei-hel 
154.  Biiia  le  Duo 
1.5.5.  Hiiuvel 
15f>.  Rhiibi'I 

1.57.  l.iiikBGeilel 

1.58.  Eerzisl 
1,50.  Levnde 
HiO.  Astrn 
llil.  liHlmonl 


180.  .\.  Anwen 
187.  Miirtch 
I8H.  Rtrnlbruek 
IHy.  Diuklrch 

190.  Kchtenach 

191.  Orovenma- 

cheren 


BELGIUM. 

I.  Antaei'p. 

Arendiinck 

Tiirnhuul 

MinilerhdUt 

<ioiinir 

OdbI  Malle 

Sam  Vliet 

Flirt  I.illn 

Port  St.  Philip 

Antwerp 

Bergenhout 

Berchem 

Biimn 

Mechlin 

liior 

ViiMloncken 

Hnrunlhali 

GiiBtel 

Lummel 


Ifii.  WiinroL 

163.  Verlingheck 

X.  lAmbuig. 

164.  VhIio.1 
I6i.  Peliirwerth 
1H6.  ViMiln 
107.  H«lden 
168.  Mnyel 
IfiO.  Wi'prt 

170  Riiremnnde 
171.  Wuiison 
173.  Oimbmick 

173.  Rollduo 

174.  MnoBtricht 

175.  Gulpen 

XI.  Luxemburg. 

176.  Wlea  Wani- 

pach 

177.  Clervaux 

178.  Vianden 

179.  Etehdorf 

180.  Marteliinge 
1H!.  .Vider  Piiflen 
183.  Luxemburg 

183.  Kach 

184.  Friaange 

185.  Canach 


42 


19. 
20. 
31. 
23. 
2:1. 
24. 
25. 
36. 
27. 
38. 

Ill 

30. 
31. 
33. 
33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 
37. 
38. 


41. 
43. 
4.1. 
44. 

IV, 
45. 
46. 

47. 
48. 
49. 
50. 
.51. 
S3. 
.53. 
54. 
55. 
* 


II.  Ijmburg. 

Heick  Turen 

Peer 

Hamnnt 

Maseyck 

ABch 

Reckem 

Hanelt 

PiUeu 

Tiingrea 

Manahovon 

.  South  Brabant. 

Tirli'miint 

Incniirl 

MiiUBiicr 

Nivelica 

La  Bulle  Alliance 

llnlle 

Waterloo 

Briiseela 

Vinnden 

Limvnln 

Haerleii 

nieal 

Ai^ricbot 

F.cluie 

Dnndenecl 

Aaclie 

.  East  ftandert. 

Aloat 

Ninove 

Grammont 

Parieke 

Oudenarde 

Leeuwcrghem 

Denenoei 

Deinae 

Ghent 

Weteran 

Caleken 


56.  Hainme 

57.  Burcht  Town 

and  Flirt 

58.  Tete  de  Flandrtis 
SO.  Duel 

60.  Bnveldo 

61.  St.  Laurena 

V.  fTett  Fianders. 
63.  Cuiinke 

63.  Blankenburg 

64.  Brugei 

65.  OBtcnd 
«6.  Nieuport 

67.  Thorout 

68.  Dixmuide 
09.  Loo 

70.  Rouatbrugga 

71.  Popoiingne 
73.  Wurnetoo 

73.  Yprea 

74.  Menin 

75.  (^uuriray 

76.  Rnuaselaeie 

77.  Tbiolt 

VI.  Hainault. 

78.  Pottet 

79.  Depret 

80.  Temp  Leuve 

81.  Tournay 
83.  Fontenoy 

83.  Peru  vela 

84.  Quivrain 

85.  Sura 

86.  Mona 
H7.  Lena 

88.  Aih 

89.  Enghien 

90.  Roeulx 
OLGuDBeliea 

93.  Charlcroi 
93  MerbeB  le 

Chnieau 

94.  Beiiumunt 
9,5.  Rnnaan 
96.  Chiniay 

VII.  JVamitr. 

97.  Marlenbourg 

98.  Phillpville 

99.  Ligny 

100.  Thil  Raudian 

101.  Graux 
103.  Numur 

103.  Gembloux 

104.  Eghezec 
10.5.  AnrienncB 

106.  Naltiire 

107.  PesBoulx 

108.  Dinant 
1U9.  .lambeline 

110.  Beau  Raing 

111.  Gedinne 

VIII.  /.!>«. 
113  Si.  Hubert 

113.  l!6sussiRt? 

114.  Marche 

115.  Harcout* 


116.  Grand  Menil 

117.  Tohogno 

1 18.  Mierau 

119.  Huy 

130.  NeuviUe 

131.  Omal 
133.  Landen 

133.  Pleraalla 

134.  Liege 

135.  VUe 

136.  Liniburc 

137.  Heron 

138.  Baufayi 

139.  Spa 
1:10.  Solvnitre 
131.  Dnuflame 
133.  Sikvvliit 

133.  'I'lienioD 

134.  Vieil  Salm 

IX.  Luxemburg 

135.  Tralllea 
K<6.  lliiBtogne 
137.  Neuville 
1.38.  Ch»u  de  Bo- 

logno 

139.  Arfon 

140.  Virion 

141.  Belle  Fontaine 
143,  Pcrenaart 

143,  Bouillon 

144,  Orehiinont 
14.5.  Anhiy 

146.  Recogne 

147.  Meuf  Chateau 


Rivtrt, 
a  Schoyten 
b  Huorn 
c  Kuindar 
d  ReeBt 
e  Dinkel 
f  Vecht 

ERcg«e 
YBeel 
i   Chipbeech 
J  Berkel 
k  Rhine 
1   Waa. 
m  Meuaa 
n  Groat  Aa 
o  Dnminel 
p  Mork 
q  Scheldt 
r  Yperlee 
a  Lyi 
t  Sonne 
u  Haine 
V  Sambie 
wDyle 
X  Dermei 
y  Little  Lethet 
z  Great  LeOiei 
a*  Ourt 
b*  Our 
c*  Surt 
d*  Semor 
n*  Lnaas 
r*  AlaetU 


(oaelle 

8N 


488 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  m. 


The  only  considerable  lake  in  Holland  is  Haerlem-Meer,  a  wide  shallow  expanse ;  which, 
however,  was  of  great  service  to  the  Dutch  during  their  grand  struggle  for  independence, 
by  giving  them  the  means  of  laying  the  surrounding  country  under  water.  There  are  several 
smdler  lakes  of  the  same  character  in  Friesland. 

Sect.  IL — Natural  Oeography. 
SinnEOT.  1. — Oeciogy. 

The  higher  parts  of  this  country  are  composed  of  strata  oftrantition  slatea  and  quartzes 
more  or  less  inclining  to  sandstone,  generally  directed  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.,  and  traversed 
by  numerous  veins  of  quartz.  These  slates  are  clay  slate,  whet  slate  or  hone,  drawing  slate 
or  black  chalk.  Resting  upon  the  transition  irocks  occur  various  secondary  deposits.  The 
first  formation  is  the  old  red  sandstone,  upon  which  rests  the  mountain  limestone.  Asso- 
ciated with  these  rocks  are  various  slate  clays,  and  beds  of  anthracite  or  glance  coal.  Mines 
of  brown  iron  ore,  or  hydrate  of  iron,  and  of  red  iron  ore,  or  oxide  of  iron,  occur  among 
these  rocks.  A  great  field  of  the  coal  formation,  resting  upon  ttiis  mountain  limestone, 
extends  from  Aix-la-Chapelle  to  Douay.  The  coal  formation  in  this  tract  of  country  forma 
a  series  of  irregular  basins,  of  which  the  most  considerable  are  tliose  of  Lidge  and  Charleroi, 
which  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  small  ridge  of  limestone.  The  chief  rocks  of 
these  coal-basins  are  sandstone,  slate,  clay  ironstone,  and  coal.  The  most  important  coal 
mines  ore  those  in  the  neighbourliood  of  Mons  and  Charleroi ;  but  the  mines  oi  Liege  are 
remarkable  on  account  of  the  difficulties  the  miners  meet  with  in  their  workings ;  the  number 
of  beds  of  coal  being  reckoned  as  high  as  eighty-three  by  M.  Dumont.  From  Aix-la-Cha^ 
pelle  by  Maestricht  and  Br,u88els,  the  country  is  composed  of  chalk,  with  occasional  displays 
of  green  sand,  gault  and  Shanklin  sand,  rising  from  under  it. 

The  tritonian  or  lower  tertiary  rocks  form  in  the  Netherlands  a  very  considerable  basin, 
in  which  is  situated  the  city  of  Brussels.  It  is  composed  principally  of  sands,  ferriferous 
sandstones,  white  sandstones,  flint,  limestone,  and  clayey  marl.  These  tertiary  deposits  are 
observed  more  or  less  deeply  covered  with  diluvium ;  and  at  the  mouths  of  the  Scheldt, 
Meuse,  and  Rhine,  there  ore  vast  deposits  of  river  alluvium,  which  alluvium  forms  also  the 
islands  of  Zealand,  and  the  greater  part  of  Holland. 

Sdbsbot.  2. — Botany. 

The  Botany  of  this  country  is  noticed  under  that  of  Germany. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Zoology. 

The  Native  Zoology  offers  nothing  peculiar.  The  Dutch  horses  (Jig.  257.)  ore  only  valu- 
able for  draught:  those  of  Friesland,  Berg,  and  the 
country  of  Juliers,  are  the  best ;  but  their  feet  are  gene- 
rally  large,  they  eat  much,  and  have  little  endurance. 
This  race  appears  to  have  been  derived  from  Den- 
mark, and  to  have  produced  the  Holstein,  which  was 
the  parent  of  the  old  unimproved  English  breeds  of 
horses.  The  Flemish  sheep  are  of  a  breed  common  to 
France  and  the  Netherlands,  being  in  general  horn- 
less, high  on  the  legs,  and  derived  firom  an  intermix- 
ture with  the  Barbary  long-legged  sheep.  The  Dutch 
oxen  are  of  an  immense  size,  sometimes  weighing  2000 

Dutch  Hone.  pounds. 

Sect.  HI. — Historical  Oeography. 

The  Netherlands  formed,  in  ancient  times,  the  principal  part  of  Gallia  Belgica.  Tht 
BelgBB  were  the  rudest,  the  bravest,  and  the  fiercest  of  the  three  nations  of  Gaul.  A  despe- 
rate struggle  was  maintained  before  they  yielded  to  the  genius  of  Ccesar,  and  tiie  stiperioi 
discipline  of  the  Roman  armies.  At  length  the  country  within  the  Rhine  was  reduced  to 
the  condition  of  a  Roman  province ;  but  the  Batavi  the  ancient  Hollanders,  united  them- 
selves to  Rome  rather  as  allies  than  subjects. 

During  the  middle  ages  the  Netherlands  passed  through  a  series  of  vicissitudes.  So  early 
as  the  era  of  Charlemagne,  they  had  acquired  distinction  in  the  pursuits  of  industry ;  and 
some  of  their  fabrics  were  sent  by  that  monarch  to  the  caliph  Haroun  Alraschid,  as  speci- 
mens of  the  arts  and  industry  of  Europe.  When  the  empire  of  Charlemagne  fell  to  pieces, 
these  states  were  divided  into  a  number  of  separate  principalities,  all  successively  united,  by 
marriage  contrnct  or  inheritances,  under  the  sway  of  the  house  of  Burgundy.  It  was  at  this 
time  that  the  Flem'«h  provinces  rose  to  tlie  highest  pitch  of  manufacturing  and  commercial 
prosperity.  They  receiv  d  all  the  raw  materials  of  France  and  England,  countries  then 
rude  and  agricultural,  and  returned  them  in  a  manufactured  stnte.  Ghent  alone  is  said  to 
b»ve  eninlovod  4(),()()0  looms  :  thoujrh  tliis  is  most  probably  nuicli  exaggerated.    Bruges  first, 


DOOK  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


190 


xnA  then  Antwerp,  formed  the  grand  depdt  for  the  commerce  of  the  northern  and  middlo 
states  of  Europe. 

The  house  of  Austria,  by  the  intermarriage  of  Maximilian  L  and  Mary,  the  heiress  of 
Burgundy,  succeeded  to  the  rich  dowry  of  the  Seventeen  Provinces,  They  formed  one  of 
the  chief  sources  of  the  power  of  Charles  V.,  who  transmitted  them,  with  Spain  and  his 
Italian  dominions,  to  his  son  Philip  II. 

The  Reformation  was  early  introduced  into  the  Netherlands,  and  had  a  most  powerful 
influence  upon  their  destiny.  Being  suited  to  the  sober  and  thinking  habits  of  a  manufac- 
turing population,  it  was  soon  embraced  by  a  majority  of  the  people,  who  were  thus  placed 
in  direct  collision  with  the  fierce  and  gloomy  bigotry  of  Philip  II.  The  Inquisition  being 
introduced,  in  its  most  unrelenting  severity,  with  a  view  to  the  suppression  of  the  new  doc- 
trine, drove  the  people  into  open  rebellion ;  and  a  contest  of  fifty  years'  duration  arose,  the 
most  fierce,  bloody,  and  important  in  its  consequences,  of  all  those  to  which  differences  of 
religion  have  given  rise.  The  duke  of  Alva,  who  boasted  that,  during  his  government  in 
the  Iiow  Countries,  18,000  persons  had  perished  on  the  scaffold,  was,  however,  unable  to 
subdue  the  independent  spirit  and  determined  enmity  to  Spanish  dominion  which  he  had  been 
instrumental  in  kindling.  The  more  moderate  conduct  of  his  successors,  and,  above  all,  of 
Alcx-mder  Famese,  succeeded  in  re-establishing  the  Spatiish  sway  over  the  Belgic  provinces 
which  were  not  defended  by  any  natural  barriers.  Even  the  Dutch  were  r^uced  to  the 
disastrous  necessity  of  opening  their  dikes,  and  allowing  a  great  part  of  their  territory  to  be 
inundated.  Their  courage  and  perseverance,  however,  the  great  talent  of  the  first  two 
princes  of  the  house  of  Orange,  and  the  aid  afforded  by  Elizabeth,  enabled  them  finally  to 
achieve  their  independence.  The  union  of  Utrecht,  when  they  constituted  themselves 
into  an  independent  state,  by  the  title  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces,  was  concluded 
in  1597. 

From  this  period  the  destiny  of  the  United  Provinces,  called  more  commonly  by  the  name 
of  Holland,  the  chief  province  among  them,  was  entirely  different  from  that  ot  Belgium. 
They  speedily  attracted  many  of  the  manufactures,  and  all  the  commerce,  which  had  raised 
the  Flemish  cities  to  prosperity.  The  Dutch  conquered  from  Portugal,  at  that  time  under 
the  dominion  of  Spain,  the  finest  of  her  possessions  in  the  East  Indies;  obtained  a  temporary 
(beting  in  Brazil ;  and  rendered  Amsterdam  the  centre  of  a  flourishing  trade  with  India : 
they  carried  on  the  fisheries,  especially  those  of  herrings,  upon  an  unprecedented  scale ;  and 
became  the  first  maritime  people  in  the  world.  The  commercial  greatness  of  Holland  pre- 
sents so  remarkable  a  phenomenon,  that  we  cannot  forbear  availing  ourselves  of  some  part 
vf  that  luminous  illustration  of  it,  which  has  been  afforded  by  the  researches  of  Mr.  M'Cul* 
loch.    That  able  writer  observes : — 

"  Between  the  years  1651  and  1672,  when  the  territories  of  the  republic  were  invaded  by 
the  French,  the  commerce  of  Holland  seems  to  have  reached  its  greatest  height  De  Witt 
estimates  its  increase  from  the  treaty  with  Spain,  concluded  at  Munster  in  l^iiS,  to  1669,  at 
fiilly  a  half.  He  adds,  that,  during  the  war  with  Holland,  Spain  lost  the  greatest  part  of 
her  naval  power ;  that  since  the  peace,  the  Dutch  had  obtained  most  of  the  trade  to  that 
country,  which  had  been  previously  carried  on  by  the  Hanseatic  merchants  and  the  English ; 
that  almost  all  the  coasting  trade  of  Spain  was  carried  on  by  Dutch  shipping ;  that  Spain 
had  even  been  forced  to  hire  Dut(fli  ships  to  sail  to  her  American  possessions ;  and  that  so 
Ifreat  was  the  exportation  of  goods  from  Holland  to  Spain,  that  all  the  merchandise  brought 
from  the  Spanish  West  Indies  was  not  sufficient  to  make  returns  for  them. 

"iJ^  this  period,  indeed,  the  Dutch  engrossed,  not  by  means  of  any  artificial  monopoly,  but 
by  the  greater  number  of  their  ships,  and  their  superior  skill  and  economy  in  all  that  regarded 
navigation,  almost  the  whole  carrying  trade  of  Europe.  The  value  of  the  goods  exported 
from  France  in  Dutch  bottoms,  towards  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  exceeded 
40,000,000  livres ;  and  the  commerce  of  England  with  the  Low  Countries  was,  for  a  very 
long  period,  almost  entirely  carried  on  in  them. 

"  The  business  of  marine  insurance  was  largely  and  successfully  prosecuted  at  Amster- 
dam; and  the  ordinances  published  in  1.551, 1563,  and  1.570,  contain  the  most  judicious  regu- 
lations for  the  settlement  of  such  disputes  as  might  arise  in  conducting  this  difficult  but 
highly  useful  business.  It  is  singulHr,  however,  notwithstanding  the  sagacity  of  the  Dutch, 
and  their  desire  to  strengthen  indiistrious  habits,  that  they  should  have  prohibited  insurance 
upon  lives.  It  was  reserved  for  England  to  show  the  advantages  that  might  be  derived  from 
this  beautiful  application  of  the  science  of  probabilities. 

"  In  1690,  Sir  William  Petty  estimated  the  shipping  of  Europe  at  about  2,000,000  tons, 
ivhich  he  supposed  to  be  distributed  as  follows: — viz.  Enjriand,  fiOO.OOO  ;  France,  100,0(t(»;| 
Hamburg,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Dantzic,  250,000;  Spain,  PortuffHl,  und  Italy,  250,000 
.iiii.ii)f  tiie  Seven  United  Provinces  arnountintr,  according  to  him,  to  900,(K)0  tons,  or  to  nearly 
me  half  of  the  whole  tonnage  of  Europe!  No  great  dependence  can,  of  course,  be  placed 
«lX)n  these  estimates;  but  the  probability  is,  that,  had  they  been  more  accurate,  the 
()re!iondprnnce  in  fiivour  of  Holland  would  have  been  greater  than  it  appears  to  lie;  for 
till!  ofiicial  returns  to  tlie  circulars  addressed  in  1701  by  the  commissioners  of  customs 


500 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  II  L 


to  the  officers  at  the  different  ports,  sliow  that  the  whole  mernantile  navy  of  England 
amounted  nt  thut  period  to  only  '2(il,'2!22  tons,  carrying  27,196  men.  (Mucphemon't  Aii- 
nals  of  Commerce,  anno  1701.) 

"  It  may,  therefore,  be  fairly  concluded,  that,  during  the  seventeenth  century  the  foreign 
commerce  and  navigation  of  Holland  was  greater  than  tlmt  of  all  Europe  besides;  and  yet 
the  country  which  was  the  seat  of  tliis  vast  commerce  had  no  native  produce  to  export,  nor 
even  a  piece  of  titnber  fit  for  ship-building.  All  had  been  the  fruit  of  industry,  econurny 
and  a  fortunate  combination  of  circumstances. 

"  Holland  owed  this  vast  commerce  to  a  variety  of  causes :  partly  to  her  peculiar  situa- 
tion, the  industry  and  economy  of  her  inhabitants,  the  comp.iratively  liberal  and  enlightened 
svfitem  of  civil  as  well  as  of  commercial  policy  adopted  by  tiie  republic ;  and  partly  also  to 
the  wars  and  disturbances  that  prevailed  m  most  European  countries  in  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries,  and  prevented  them  from  emulating  the  successful  career  of  the 
Dutch. 

"  Many  dissertations  have  been  written  to  account  for  the  decline  of  the  commerce  of 
Holland.  But,  if  we  mistake  not,  its  leading  causes  may  be  classed  under  two  prominent 
heads,  viz.  first,  the  natural  growth  of  commerce  and  navigation  in  other  countries ;  and 
second,  the  weight  of  taxation  at  home.  During  the  period  when  the  republic  rose  to  great 
eminence  as  a  commercial  state,  England,  France,  and  Spain,  distracted  by  civil  and  reli- 
gious dissensions,  or  engrossed  wholly  by  schemes  of  foreign  conquest,  were  unable  to  apply 
their  energies  to  the  cultiva'.ion  of  commerce,  or  to  withstand  the  competition  of  so  indus- 
trious a  people  as  the  Dutch.  They,  therefore,  were  under  the  necessity  of  allowing  the 
greater  part  of  their  foreign,  and  even  of  their  coasting  trade,  to  be  carried  on  in  Dutch 
Bottoms,  and  under  the  superintendence  of  Dutch  factors.  But  afler  the  accession  of  Louis 
XIV.  and  the  ascendency  of  Cromwell  had  put  an  end  to  internal  commotions  in  France  and 
England,  the  energies  of  these  two  great  nations  began  to  be  directed  to  pursuits  of  which 
the  Dutch  had  hitherto  enjoyed  almost  a  monopoly.  It  was  not  to  be  supposed  that,  when 
tranquillity  and  a  regular. system  of  government  had  been  established  in  France  and  Eng- 
land, their  active  and  enterprising  inhabitants  would  submit  to  see  one  of  their  most  valu- 
able branches  of  industry  in  the  hands  of  foreigners.  The  Dutch  ceased  to  be  the  carriers 
of  Europe,  without  any  fault  of  their  own.  Their  performance  of  that  function  necessarily 
terminated  as  soon  as  other  nations  became  possessed  of  a  mercantile  marine,  and  were  able 
to  do  for  themselves  what  had  previously  been  done  for  them  by  their  neighbours. 

"  Whatever,  therefore,  might  have  been  the  condition  of  Holland  in  other  respects,  the 
natural  advance  of  rival  nations  must  inevitably  have  stripped  her  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
commerce  she  once  possessed.  But  the  progress  of  decline  seems  to  have  been  considerably 
accelerated,  or  rather,  perhaps,  the  efforts  to  arrest  it  were  rendered  ineffectual,  by  the 
extremely  heavy  taxation  to  which  she  was  subjected,  occasioned  by  the  unavoidable  expenses 
incurred  in  the  revolutionary  struggle  with  Spain,  and  the  subsequent  wars  with  France 
and  England.  The  necessities  of  the  state  led  to  the  imposition  of  taxes  on  corn,  on  flour 
when  it  was  ground  at  the  mill,  and  on  bread  when  it  came  from  the  oven ;  on  butter,  and 
iisli,  and  fruit ;  on  income  and  legacies ;  the  sale  of  houses ;  and,  in  short,  almost  every 
article  either  of  necessity  or  convenience.  Sir  William  Temple  mentions  that  in  his  time 
— and  taxes  were  greatly  increased  afterwards — one  fish  sauce  was  in  common  use,  which 
directly  paid  no  fewer  than  thirty  different  duties  of  excise;  and  it  was  a  common  saying  at 
Amsterdam,  that  every  dish  of  fish  brought  to  the  table  was  paid  for  once  to  the  fisherman, 
and  six  times  to  the  state. 

"  In  consequence  principally  of  the  oppressiveness  of  taxation,  but  partly,  too,  of  the 
excessive  accumulation  of  capital  that  had  taken  place  while  the  Dutch  engrossed  the  carry- 
ing trade  of  Europe,  profits  in  Holland  were  reduced  towards  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  have  ever  since  continued  extremely  low.  This  circumstance  would  of  itself 
have  sapped  the  foundations  of  her  commercial  greatness.  Her  capitalists,  who  could  hardly 
expect  to  clear  more  than  two  or  three  per  cent,  of  net  profit  by  any  sort  of  undertaking 
carried  on  at  home,  were  tempted  to  vest  their  capital  in  other  countries,  and  to  speculate 
in  loans  to  foreign  governments.  There  are  the  best  reasons  for  thinking  that  the  Dutch 
were,  until  very  lately,  the  largest  creditors  of  any  nation  in  Europe.  It  is  inipossible, 
indeed,  to  form  any  accurate  estimate  of  what  the  sums  owing  them  by  foreigners  previously 
ti  the  late  French  war,  or  at  present,  may  amount  to ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  at  the 
former  period  the  amount  was  immense,  and  that  it  is  still  very  considerable.  M.  Demeunier 
(Dictionnaire  de  VEconomie  Politique,  tome  iii.  p.  720.)  states  the  amount  of  capital  lenl 
by  the  Dutch  to  foreign  governments,  exclusive  of  the  large  sums  lent  to  France  during  the 
American  war,  at  seventy-three  millions  sterling.  According  to  the  author  of  the  Richesse 
de  la  Hnllande  (ii.  p.  9920;  the  sums  lent  to  France  and  England  only,  previously  to  1778, 
amounted  to  1,.500,000  livres  tournois,  or  sixty  millions  sterling.  And  besides  these,  vast 
Bums  were  lent  to  private  individuals  in  foreign  countries,  both  regularly  as  loans  at  interest, 
and  in  the  shape  of  goods  advanced  at  long  credits.  So  great  was  the  difficulty  of  finding 
an  advantageous  investment  for  money  in  Holland,  that  Sir  William  Temple  mentions,  that 


BOOE  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


601 


Ine  payment  of  any  part  of  the  national  debt  was  looked  upon  by  the  creditora  as  an  evil  of 
ihe  first  magnitude.  '  They  receive  it,'  says  he, '  with  tears,  not  knowing  how  to  dispose  of 
it  to  interest  with  such  safety  and  ease.' 

"  Among  the  subordinate  causes  which  contributed  to  the  decline  of  Dutch  commerce,  or 
whicii  have,  at  all  events,  prevented  its  growth,  we  may  reckon  the  circumstance  of  tlie 
commerce  witii  India  having  been  subjected  to  the  trammels  of  monopoly.  De  Witt 
expresses  his  firm  conviction,  that  the  abolition  of  the  East  India  Company  would  have 
added  very  greatly  to  the  trade  with  the  East;  and  no  doubt  can  now  remam  in  the  mind 
of  any  one  that  such  would  have  been  the  case.  The  interl'erence  of  the  administration  in 
regulating  the  mode  in  which  some  of  the  most  important  branches  of  industry  should  be 
carried  on,  seems  also  to  have  been  exceedingly  injurious.  Every  proceeding  with  respect 
to  the  herring  fishery,  for  example,  was  regulated  by  the  orders  of  government,  carried  into 
ellect  under  the  inspection  of  officers  appointed  for  that  purpose.  Some  of  these  regulations 
were  exceedingly  vexatious.  The  period  when  the  fishery  might  begin  was  fixed  at  five 
minutes  past  twelve  o'clock  of  the  night  of  the  24th  of  June !  and  the  master  and  pilot  of 
every  vessel  leaving  Holland  for  the  fishery  were  obliged  to  make  oath  that  they  would 
respect  the  regulation.  The  species  of  salt  to  be  mode  use  of  in  curing  diflerent  sorts  of 
htM  rings  was  also  fixed  by  law ;  and  there  were  endless  regulations  with  respect  to  the  size 
of  tiie  barrels,  the  number  and  thickness  of  the  staves  of  which  they  were  to  be  made ; 
the  gutting  and  packing  of  the  herring ;  the  branding  of  the  barrels,  &c.  &.c.  {Histoire  des 
Pcches,  <^c.  dans  les  Mers  du  Nord,  tom.  i.  chap.  24.)  These  regulations  were  intended 
to  secure  to  the  Hollanders  that  superiority  which  they  had  early  attained  in  the  fishery,  and 
to  prevent  the  reputation  of  their  herrings  from  being  injured  by  the  bad  faith  of  individuals. 
But  their  real  eft'ect  was  precisely  the  reverse  of  this.  By  tying  up  the  fishers  to  a  system 
of  routine,  they  prevented  them  from  making  any  improvements ;  while  the  facility  of  coun- 
terfeiting the  public  marks  opened  a  much  wider  door  to  fraud,  than  would  have  been  opened 
liad  government  wisely  declined  interfering  in  the  matter. 

"  In  despite,  however,  of  the  East  India  monopoly,  and  the  regulations  now  described,  the 
commercial  policy  of  Holland  has  been  more  liberal  than  that  of  any  other  nation.  And  in 
consequence,  a  country  not  more  extensive  than  Wales,  and  naturally  not  more  fertile,  con- 
quered indeed,  in  a  great  measure  from  the  sea,  has  accumulated  a  pop<ilation  of  upwards 
of  two  millions ;  has  maintained  wars  of  unexampled  duration  with  the  most  powerful  mon- 
archies ;  and,  besides  laying  out  immense  sums  in  works  of  utility  and  ornament  at  homO; 
has  been  enabled  to  lend  hundreds  of  millions  to  foreigners." 

The  French  revolution  produced  a  movement  so  great,  and  with  which  Holland  was  in 
such  close  contact,  that  it  acted  powerfiilly  upon  her  political  destinies.  The  revolutionary 
armies,  after  having  defeated  those  of  all  the  allied  powers  on  the  plains  of  Belgium,  advanc- 
ed into  Holland ;  where,  meeting  with  support  from  a  powerful  internal  party,  they  had  no 
ditficulty  in  subverting  the  dynasty  of  the  house  of  Orange.  In  its  stead  was  formed  the 
Batavian  republic,  virtually  united  to,  and  ruled  by,  the  republican  government  of  France. 
A  vigorous  attempt,  made  in  1799,  by  Britain  and  Russia,  to  re-establish  the  old  order  of 
things,  was  baffled ;  and  no  sooner  had  Napoleon  been  made  emperor  of  France,  than  he 
bestowed  Holland,  formed  into  a  kingdom,  on  his  brother  Louis.  This  prince,  of  a  mild 
and  amiable  temper,  was  disposed  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  Dutch ;  but  he  was  allowed 
only  to  act  as  viceroy  to  his  brother,  and  was  obliged  to  assist  in  forwarding  those  measures 
by  which  Napoleon,  in  the  vain  hope  of  ruining  Britain,  endeavoured  hermetically  to  seal  all 
the  ports  of  the  Continent  against  foreign  commerce.  This  system  was  most  distressing  to 
all  countries  subjected  to  it;  but  to  Holland  it  was  peculiarly  ruinous:  that  maritime  com- 
merce on  which  her  whole  greatness  had  rested,  received  a  blow  from  which,  perhaps,  it  will 
never  recover. 

The  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  grew  out  of  the  measures  adopted  by  that  great  coalition 
which,  after  a  long  series  of  triumphs,  totally  overthrow  the  colossal  fabric  that  had  been 
raised  by  the  genius  of  Napoleon  and  the  bravery  of  the  French.  After  its  fall,  Austria 
niiorht  have  advanced  a  claim  to  the  Netherlands,  so  long  a  portion  of  her  extended  dominion. 
BiMiig,  however,  so  remote,  and  so  mucli  detached  from  her  other  territories,  it  was  likely 
to  jtrove  a  dependency  inconvenient  and  difficult  to  defend.  She  tliereforo  consented  to 
nrccut  indemnification  in  anotJier  quarter,  and  to  allow  Belgium,  with  Holland,  to  be  formed 
inl'.i  a  representative  kingdom,  under  the  house  of  Orange;  believing  it  might  serve  jis  a 
Iwrrier  against  any  future  encroachment  of  France.  The  kingdom  of  the  Net.hcrlands,  thus 
formed,  was  divided  into  two  dietinct  parts,  Holland  and  Belgium ;  but  tiie  latter,  differing 
ill  rnligion,  language,  pjid  manners,  was  always  discontented  at  this  union,  and  considered 
itself  as  a  subject  state.  Inspired  by  the  example  of  France  in  1830,  the  people  rose  in 
anns,  nnd,  after  a  short  but  desperate  strucffle,  succeeded,  with  the  ultimate  consent  of  the 
great  powers,  in  forming  themselves  into  a  separate  kingdom,  under  the  name  of  Belgium. 
It  comprises  the  provinces  of  South  Brabant,  East  and  West  Flanders,  Antwerp,  Hainault, 
Namur,  Liege,  the  greater  part  of  Limburg,  and  a  ".nvftU  part  of  Luxemburg.     Holland^ 


509 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


PARtni 


oeaidoR  the  ten  United  Provinces,  has  nearly  all  Luxemburg,  and  a  small  part  of  Limburff 
containinjr,  however,  Maestricht,  its  largest  town.  .    ...  . 


H  >' 


Sbot.  IV. — Political  Oeography. 

A  limited  monarchy  was  the  constitution  established  for  the  new  kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands, and  continued,  with  some  modifications  in  Belgium,  in  both  the  parts  into  which  it  has 
been  separated. 
The  legislative  power  in  Holland  is  vested  in  the  States-General ;  a  popular  assembly, 
xlified,  however,  somewhat  differently  ftom  those  either  of  Britain  or  France.    Each  pro^ 


modified 


pro. 


vincc,  as  under  the  ancient  Dutch  system,  has  an  assembly  of  its  own,  which  regulates  local 
affairs,  and  has  even  the  power  of  imposing  local  taxes.  It  cannot,  however,  injure  com- 
merce by  imposing  heavier  duties  on  the  produce  of  other  provinces  than  its  own.  The 
members  of  these  provincial  assemblies  are  chosen  by  electoral  colleges  formed  in  every 
ffreat  town ;  not  by  public  meeting,  or  open  election ;  but  by  the  police  officers  going  from 
house  to  house,  and  collecting  billets  signed  and  sealed.  The  members  of  the  second 
chamber  of  the  States-General  are  chosen  for  three  years,  one-third  of  the  number  being 
annually  renewed.  The  upper  chamber  does  not  consist  of  hereditary  nobles,  but  of  a 
council  of  tirom  forty  to  sixty,  named  by  the  king  for  life.  [The  Belgian  chambers  are  both 
elective ;  the  Senate  or  upper  house  being  chosen  for  the  term  of  eight,  and  the  Represent- 
ative chamber  for  that  of  four  years. — Am.  Ed.] 

The  revenue  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  amounted  to  about  $35,000,000,  raised 
by  the  usual  expedients  of  land-tax,  excise,  customs,  stamps,  postoffice,  and  by  a  tax  on 
patents.  These  are  required  to  be  taken  out  by  all  persons  exercising  trades  or  professions ; 
and  partake  of  the  character  of  an  income  tax,  inasmuch  as  their  magnitude  is  detennuied 
by  the  extent  of  the  sales  made  by  the  parties  during  the  preceding  year. 


rrodun  of  Ibe  principal  bnnchM  of  the  Ravuiiw  of  Ibe  NellMrUadi. 
la  riurin. 


DiractTkia 

8*  imps,  ReiMnlioo,  tc.   •  • ' 

Import  ud  Eiport 

DuUm  ud  ExcM 

Wamntj  on  Oold  and  Silnr  ' 


Lottery  of  the  Netherludi  • 

Lotterr  cf  Bruaeli 

Hi(b  iloada 


1816. 


a$.363,1t)0 
13,316,266 

U,l»,999 

ISI,786 
1,066,306 

l,4TS,(M7 
1,846,060 


IBM. 


ii,50i,goi 

31,131,666 

188,909 

1,984,476 

S84,44S 

l,0g9,M7 

1,106,823 


Frlaelpel  brudue  of  the  Bipenditure  of  the  Nolherlanle. 
lo  Flortoi. 


»■('•  Houshold 

OrMi  OfSces  of  State 

Foreign  Aflain  •    ••- ••• 

Ju»iire 

Interior  and  Waterataat* •  .  •  . 

Religiou,  eicepi  the  Catholic 

Catholic  Religion •■ 

Educatiou,  Arti,  Commerce,  and  Coloaiea  • 

Finance!   

Navy • 

Army 


1816. 


2,600,000 
l,46S,«3S 
S87,KN 
3,394,»ll 
7,24»,9I0 
1,261,261 
1,92>,I76 
3,S9J,736 

23,314,342 
6,354,631 

27,l2a,.'i74 


1826. 


2,100,000 
l,0<><,430 


2,191,049 
6,159,2(9 
1,327,311 
1,631,413 
73.0l9tl 

S8,707,'>(fl 
6,382,M] 

18,444J35 


The  total  average  annual  produce  of  the  revenue,  during  this  period,  was  88,044,152 
florins. 

The  article  finances  means  chiefly  the  interest  of  the  public  debt  This  amounted,  in 
1826,  to  upwards  of  four  per  cent,  on  a  capital  of  832,834,500  florins.  The  debt  was 
almost  wholly  contracted  by  the  Dutch,  principally  during  their  protracted  and  glorious 
struggle  for  independence,  and  partly  during  the  period  that  Holland  was  connected  with 
Prance. 

The  total  annual  average  expenditure,  during  the  above-mentioned  years,  was  98,106,820 
florins. 

[It  has  been  settled  that  Holland  should  assume  six-thirteenths  of  the  Netherlandish  debt, 
and  Belgium  the  remaining  seven ;  but  the  latter  has  not  hitherto  paid  any  part  of  the 
interest.  The  expenditure  of  the  Dutch  kingdom  in  1833  was  49,385,849  florins,  exclusive 
of  44,000,000  for  extraordinaries  on  account  of  the  war  establishments.  The  former  sum 
includes  the  interest  on  the  whole  debt,  amounting  to  21,621,484  florins. 

The  expenditure  of  Belgium  was  73,000,000  francs,  comprising  no  charges  on  the  debt ; 
but  nearly  three-fifl;hs  of  this  sum  was  absorbed  by  the  military,  which  it  has  been  necessary 
to  keep  on  the  war  establishment. — Am.  Ed.] 

The  military  force  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  was  in  a  somewhat  laige  propor- 
tion to  its  resources.  This  was  supposed  to  be  rendered  necessary  by  the  proximity  of  so 
great  a  power  as  France,  whose  attack,  or  at  least  whose  dictation,  there  might  be  room  to 
apprehend.  The  army,  before  the  late  changes,  amounted  to  about  62,000  men.  Thu 
Belgic  provinces,  having  been  long  the  principal  theatre  of  hostility  between  France  and 
Austria,  were  guarded  by  a  line  of  strong  fortresses.  These  had  been  allowed  to  fall  some- 
what into  decay ;  but  the  allies,  having  brought  their  contest  with  France  to  a  triumpliant 
conclusion,  determined  to  strengthen  ttiem  as  a  barrier  against  the  future  encroachments  of 
that  power ;  and  the  large  contributions  levied  upon  her  were,  in  a  great  measure,  employed 
in  restoring  the  fortresses  to  their_ original  condition.  Several  of  these,  however,  by 
an  agreement  made  between  the  FYench  and  English  governments,  have  been  recently 
dismantled.     Both  powers  have  kept  up  large  forces  since  the  revolution ;  btit  will  soon  re- 

*  The  expenses  of  canals,  dfkes,  and  navigation  in  general. 

t  The  charges  for  education  are  now  included  under  the  head  of '  interior." 


BooE  L 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


tMrlwdi. 

1      .«.■   - 

oo 

2,I00,01X) 

B 

l,0<i-.,J*) 

JM 

^mM» 

II 

a,l9l,M9 

II) 

8,159^9 

111 

1,327,311 

7« 

I,SII,4I3 

'M 

73.01911 

142 

S8,707,')«! 

lUI 

6,6«a,>il3 

74 

18^4335 

duce  them  to  a  ref^ular  peace  eatablishinent,  of  which  it  is  imponible  at  present  to  give  any 
account 

In  naval  affairs,  Holland,  no  longer  the  maritime  rival  but  the  close  ally  of  Britain,  mad* 
only  faint  attonipts  to  raise  her  navy  (h>m  the  low  state  to  which  it  was  reduced  by  tS 
diMatiters  of  the  revolutionary  war. 

[It  consists,  at  present,  of  six  ships  of  the  line,  sixteen  large  class  and  seven  •mall  class 
ftijfatus,  thirty  corvettes  and  brigs,  four  steam  vessels,  and  about  eighty  armed  barks,  of  live 
guns,  for  the  defence  of  the  interior  waters. — Am.  Ed.] 

The  foreign  possessions  of  Holland,  after  being  entirely  wrested  from  her  during  the  war, 
were,  with  the  exception  of  Ceylon,  the  Cape  ofGood  Hope,  Demerara,  and  Berbice,  restored 
in  1814  In  the  East  Indies,  she  possesses  the  Moluccas,  the  extensive  and  fertile  island  of 
Java,  with  settlements  on  Sumatra,  Celebes,  and  Borneo ;  and  some  factories  on  the  coast 
of  Malabar  and  Coromandel.  In  Africa,  she  retains  £1  Mina,  and  other  factories  on  the  Gold 
Coast.  Her  West  India  colonies  are  not,  and  never  were,  very  considerable,  imless  as  com- 
mercial depdta.  Both  the  navy  and  the  colonial  possessions,  in  the  separation  of  the  tws 
kingdoms,  remain  with  Holland. 

Sect.  V. — Productive  Indmlry. 

There  is  no  country,  perhaps,  which  in  proportion  to  its  extent  and  original  resources, 
produces  so  great  an  amount  of  valuable  and  useful  commodities  as  Holland  and  Belgium. 

The  agriculture  of  the  Belgic  provinces,  though,  contrary  to  the  usual  course,  it  was  founded 
upon  their  manufactures  and  commerce,  being  exempted  from  the  vicissitudes  which  befell 
them,  continues  to  form  the  most  ample  source  of  wealth.  The  whole  territory  of  Flanders 
is  cultivated  like  a  garden.  A  great  proportion  consisted  originally  of  harsh,  barren  sands, 
producing  nothing  but  heath  and  fir ;  yet  by  the  application  of  manure  these  were  gradually 
reclaimed,  and  brought  into  their  present  state  of  high  fertility.  The  culture  of  artificial 
grasses,  and  especially  of  clover,  is  the  characteristic  process  of  Flemish  husbandry,  which 
it  has  taught  to  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  care  of  the  Flemish  formers  in  collecting  manure 
was  early  conspicuous,  and  as  naturally  grew  out  of  the  use  of  artificial  grasses,  and  conse- 
quent stall-feeding.  The  use  of  liquid  manure,  collected  m  large  reservoirs,  is  common  to 
this  country  with  China,  and  not  known  in  any  other  part  of  Europe,  except,  perhaps 
Norway.  Turf  ashes,  especially  those  iimx>rted  from  Holland,  are  in  high  estmiation, 
and  are  said  to  produce  an  almost  magical  effect  on  the  vegetation  of  clover.  In  general, 
the  Flemish  agriculture  is  conducted  on  a  careful,  economical,  antique  practice ;  the  formers 
not  having  adopted  many  modem  imprpvements  ui  the  arrangements  of  husbandry,  such  as 
the  crossing  of  the  breeds  of  cattle,  and  the  use  of  machinery,  which  have  been  adopted  in 
England  with  such  happy  efiecL  But  this  system  of  agriculture,  after  supplying  the  most 
dense  population  in  Europe  with  the  standard  productions  of  the  soil,  yields  several  articles, 
such  as  madder,  rape,  clover,  and  mustard-seeds,  hope,  &c.,  for  exportation. 

The  objects  of  culture  in  the  Dutch  provinces,  in  consequence  of  their  humid  climate, 
and  of  the  demand  for  animal  food  for  the  great  cities,  are  almost  entirely  connected  with 
pasturage.  Holland  is  as  it  were  one  great  meadow,  intersected  by  canals,  and  traversed 
by  rows  and  groups  of  trees.  The  cattle  are  stalled  in  the  winter,  and  fed  on  hay,  turnips, 
&c. ;  but  in  summer  they  are  kept  constantly  grazing  in  the  open  air.  The  produce 
of  the  dairy  has  been  brought  to  such  a  state  of  improvement  as  to  be  an  object  of  export- 
ation ;  Dutch  butter  enjoys  a  high  reputation,  and  the  cheese  is  in  good  repute  over  aU  Europe. 

Horticulture,  which  elsewhere  is  only  a  recreation,  has  in  the  Netherlands  attained  such 
importance,  as  to  become  a  national  object.  Besides  amply  supplying  its  own  markets  with 
culinary  vegetables,  Holland  exports  them  in  large  quantities  to  Norway,  and  other  districts, 
where  the  growth  is  prevented  by  the  rigorous  climate.  Ornamental  gardening  has  been 
cultivated  with  peculiar  ardour,  especially  in  its  floral  department.  When  the  tulipo-niania 
reigned  in  Holland,  it  was  carried  to  such  an  excess,  that  lots  of  120  tulip-roots  sold,  in  1637, 
for  100,000  florins ;  and  particular  specimens  have  brought  from  8,000  to  10,000.  In  point 
of  fact,  however,  these  roots  formed  a  kind  of  imaginary  currency,  or  medium  for  a  sys- 
tematised  species  of  gambling.  They  were  never  actually  transferred  from  one  individual 
to  another;  but  were  a  sort  of  stock  whose  whole  value  was  derived  from  caprice.  The 
government  at  length  put  down  this  species  of  gambling,  and  the  prices  of  tulips  fell  to  their 
natural  level. — Careful  enquiries  carried  on  by  the  government  of  the  Netherlands  are  con- 
sidered as  having  proved  that  the  agricultural  capital  of  the  whole  country  amounted  to 
10,395,000,000  francs.     The  following  estimate  was  made  of  the  growth  and  produce : — 


llectires.  Value  in  Fnncf. 

Whcnt  350,000 154,000,000 

Rye  700.000 168,000,000 

BiiekwhBat  200,000 32.000,000 

Barley 280,000 84,000,000 

Pulao...., 110,000 48,000000 

Potatoes     131,000 41,000,000 

Oatt   300,000 84,000,000 


Hectares.  Value  in  Fnncs. 

Orchards 54,000 3,000,000 

Vegetables 02,000 55,000,000 

Hemp  and  flax 210,000 126,000.000 

Mariiler 30,000 21,000,000 

Cattle  and  animals 150,000.000 


166,000,000 


fi04 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOQRAPHY 


PabtIU 


Manufkctiiring  industry  is  the  branch  in  which  the  Belfric  provincet  formerly  nioel 
excelled,  and  in  which  their  decay  has  been  mo8t  conHpicuous.  Throe  conttirieti  ajjo,  tlie 
linens  and  woollens  of  Ghent,  Louvain,  Brussels,  and  Mechlin,  clothed  tlio  higher  ranks  ir 
all  the  surrounding  countries.  Since  that  time,  the  fabrics  of  Franco  and  Enfflanil,  huvo 
attained  such  an  astoiii.shinjf  superiority,  and  are  at  once  so  cheap,  and  so  welladaptod  to 
the  taste  of  the  ago,  that  the  Low  Country  manufacturers  can  witli  dilTiculty  maintain  th<!ir 
((round  even  in  internal  consumption.  In  cottons,  especially,  they  are  (luitc  unable  to  witli- 
Htiind  British  competition.  There  are  still,  however,  some  fine  linen  tabricc,  laces,  lawnn, 
cambrics,  in  which  the  manufacturers  of  Mechlin,  Brussels,  &c.  continue  unrivalled,  and 
which,  thou(rh  so  much  superseded  by  muslin  and  Nottingham  lace,  still  enjoy  a  cfrtnin 
demand  thmu(rhout  (iUrope.  The  fine  laces  hove  been  sold  tor  seventy  or  eigfhty  Napolooiig 
a  yanl.     The  Flemish  breweries  are  also  very  extensive. 

Tho  manufacturing  industry  of  Holland  is  not  on  so  great  a  scale  as  her  commerce.  The 
pottery  ware  of  Delft  has  lost  most  of  its  ancient  reputation,  and  even  in  Holland  is  super- 
seded by  the  earthenware  of  England.  The  spirit  calle<1  gin,  geneva,  or  hollands,  is  pro- 
duced at  Scliiodani,  Amsterdam,  and  other  towns,  of  an  excellence  which  is  universally 
acknowledged.  The  refining  of  sugar,  and  the  manufacture  of  snuff,  are  continued  on  a 
jyreat  scale,  cliiefly  in  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam,  and  tho  making  of  tobacco-pipes  at  Gor.iia 
IS  said  to  employ  50(K)  persons.  Silk,  leather,  and  woollens,  are  still  manufactured,  thoufrli 
not  to  sucii  an  extent  as  formerly,  nor  much  with  a  view  to  exportation.  The  general  value 
of  Dutch  and  Bolgiari  manufactures  has  been  estimated  as  Ibllows: — Iron,  48,0(M),(KX)  francs; 
copper,  rj.WKMKK);  woolhms,  80,000,0(K);  linens,  95,00(),(KK) ;  lace,  2r>,(KKMHM» ;  cott/)ii-., 
50,000,000;  refined  sugar,  14,(K)0,000;  salt.lO.CKKMHK);  spirita,40,0(K),000;  beer,110,0(KVHK); 
tobacco,  a8,0(K),000;  oil,  JW.OOO.IHK) ;  soap,  1(MH)(),0C0;  leather,  28,000,000;  eartlienwaio, 
4,000,000 ;  bricks,  6,000,000 ;  books,  15,000,000 ;  bleaching,  10,000,000 ;  dyeing,  10,0<M>,l^>() ; 
paper,  8,000,(HK):  in  all,  075,000,000  francs. 

The  commerce  of  the  Netherlands  has  declined,  both  absolutely  and  relatively,  but  in  a 
less  remarkable  degree.  The  causes  have  appeared  in  tlie  historical  survey.  Tlie  total  sus- 
pension of  all  maritime  intercourse  witii  other  countries  during  the  subjection  of  Holland  to 
France,  and  the  conquest  of  the  Dutch  colonies  by  England,  rendered  it  necessary,  as  it 
were,  to  begin  every  thing  afresh  at  the  restoration  of  peace  in  1815.  But  the  large  c;ii)i- 
tals  in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch  merchants,  their  commodious  situation  in  the  centre  of  tho 
most  improved  states  of  Europe,  the  recovery  of  some  of  the  most  valuable  of  their  foreiffii 
possessions,  and  the  considerable  surplus  of  native  commodities  whic\i  their  country  utTorda 
for  exportation,  secured  for  them,  as  soon  as  the  ports  were  open,  a  con  'i  Hmble  trade.  Since 
the  peace,  it  has  been  continually  increasing ;  ainl,  previously  to  the  late  revolution,  was 
more  equally  distributed  than  before  among  the  Belgic  as  well  as  the  Dutch  ports.  Holhmd 
exports,  of  its  own  produce,  butter,  cheese,  geneva,  tobacco-pipes ;  of  the  produce  of  its 
fishery,  herrings,  stockfish,  whalebone,  whale  oil ;  from  its  foreign  possessions,  coffee,  sngui, 
rum,  cotton  wool,  cloves,  nutmegs,  mace,  pepper;  with  linens,  wool,  and  various  articles 
from  Germany  and  the  Baltic.  Belgium  exports  madder,  vegetable  oils,  lace,  lawn,  and  fine 
linen. 

There  are  no  official  returns  of  imports  and  exports  published ;  but  a  venr  able  writer  in 
the  Foreign  Quarterly  Review,  to  whose  researches  we  have  been  much  indebted,  has 
given  from  original  sources  the  following  account  of  the  importation  of  the  principal  articles 
of  merchandise  into  the  Netherland  ports  during  the  year  1827 : — 


ARTICLE*. 


Cnffeo,  bnles 

Ditto,  tniia 

Siis«r,  clipgW 

Ditto,  mut8 

Ditto,  tons 

Tobacco  of  America,  tons. 

Rice,  bales 

Ditto,  tons 

Cotton,  bales 

IniliifO.  chests 

Ditto,  seronns 

Ten,  quarter  chests 

Skins,  pieces 

Pepper,  bales 

Wlicat, lasts 

Rye,  ditto 

Barley. <li«o 

Potash  of  RiiKsia.  pnds*. . . 
Iiiiis(!f(l  Oil  iifrto.  do. . . . 
TiilliMV  nfdiTio  do. .. . 
Henipofdilto  do  — 


FORTS. 

Amsterdam. 

Rotterdam. 

Antwerp. 

Middleburir. 

2,678 

lll,n.VJ 

07,3;i7 

370,102 

3,fin3 

ism 

3,.'S30 

117 

12,l<i0 

7,508 

56,3.'>0 

2,n27 

8.145 

50,030 

71) 

i8,fs5a 

3,820 

4,028 

2,609 

15,905 

13,034 

1,331 

1,980 

13,802 

16,350 

8,412 

5.301 

14,035 

12,0(12 

10,007 

22,8,50 

1S3 

m 

476 

1,332 

128 

88 

GU 

15,124 

9,.'527 

1.407 

4,300 

9,271 

34,.'i01 

215,044 

31 

5,247 

21,847 

]2,4!t4 

i,r.n-.' 

2(i 

7,8:?5 

5.  irwi 

00 

87H 

1.412 

50..5R1 

24,701 

100,920 

l.SJfi 

!>,4I(i 

83.1 

l,lOi 

in,no 

4,.V55 

8,372 

_ ^1 

*  A  Russian  weight  of  36  lbs. 


PAmxin 

lerly  nuMt 
I'H  lig,),  the 
rankH  ir 
land,  hiivo 
tulaptcii  fo 
Jtaiii  tJKMr 
le  to  vvitli- 
:o8,  Ihwiih, 
ailed,  and 
a  certiiiu 
Nupoleoim 

roe.  The 
is  super- 
ids,  in  pro- 
iniversully 
nued  on  a 
at  GoKila 
id,  thoii/jii 
leral  vulno 
00  francs ; 

0,0(XVK»0; 
rtlieri  win  o, 
D,0(M),l)vt(); 

y«  but  in  a 
e  total  tjiis- 
Holland  to 
sary,  as  it 
arge  c;ipi- 
itro  of  the 
eir  foreiifii 
itry  afforda 
de.    Since 
ution,  WHS 
Holland 
luce  of  ita 
fee,  siiffui, 
js  articles 
[),  and  fine 

i  writer  in 
jbted,  hiis 
Ell  articles 


Book  I    . 


HOLI^ND  AND  BELGIUM 


<(• 


The  herrin(f  fishery,  which  once  formed  so  ample  a  wMirce  of  Dutch  wealth,  (thou)||i,  ni 
lliitt  TftHpoct  its  im)K)rtanco  has  been  greatly  exaggerated,)  was  almont  annihilated  during  the 
war;  nn<i  the  ground  having  since  been  occupied  by  neighbours  and  rivals,  Holland  has  lircn 
able  to  recovor  only  a  small  portion.  Instead  of  lo(M)  herring  busses,  in  IHIH  she  sent  out 
only 'i(N).  Not  more  than  sixty  ships  go  annually  to  the  vvhule'"  and  cod  Hshtirins;  iuhI, 
(luring  the  Inte  war,  the  English  undertook  the  task  of  supplying  their  own  markets  with 
troNJi  tiHh ;  in  which  buHiness,  however,  the  Dutch  still  employ  about  (HMK)  boats. 

For  "other  commercial  particulars,  M.  do  Cloet  stnten,  that  on  an  average  of  twenty  years, 
between  177")  and  1795,  the  number  of  vessels  entered  inwards  in  all  the  Dutch  ports  was 
4140,  and  outwards  the  same;  making  a  tr)tal  of  H'28()  a  year.  The  entries  inwards  in 
lK2"i,  for  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam,  and  Antwerp,  were  4()51 ;  which,  adding  500  for  I  lar- 
lingon  and  Dort,  becomes  4551.  The  number  outwards  for  the  same  three  ports  was4(VI5, 
which  wo  may,  with  a  similar  addition,  call  4545;  making  a  total  of  IXHJH  ships.  In  lMti7, 
the  number  entered  inwards  was  5203,  outwards  454H,  making  9751  altogether.  Taking 
the  average  number,  however,  at  10,(HH)  (instead  of  9751),  so  ad  to  cover  ihe  trifling  tnido 
of  Ostond  and  Nieuport,  and  valuing  ea<;h  cargo,  with  M.  de  Cloet,  at  40,000  francs,  a  sum 
nuxlerato  enough,  the  amount  of  the  trade  by  sea  will  be  4(K>,(HM),(KM>  francs.  The  trade  by 
land  with  Franco  and  Germany,  which,  in  1814,  was  estimated  at  152,000,000  francs,  may 
now  be  taken  at  lt'K),(K)0,(KK) ;  so  that,  if  the  calculations  bo  at  all  correct,  the  annual  valua 
of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  Netherlands  is  altogether  about  500,000,0(K)  francs. 

Mines.  The  south-eastern  provinces  in  the  neighl)ourhood  of  iMons,  Charleroi,  and  Li^fre, 
are  said  to  contain  H.^O  mines  of  coal,  employing  20,000  men ;  but  this  number,  we  should 
think,  must  Ix?  a  gcxxl  deal  exaggerated.  Turf  is  the  fuel  chiefly  used,  especially  in  Hol- 
land. There  are  also  in  the  southern  district  ironworks,  supposed  by  Mr.  Jacob  to  yield 
about  1000  tons.  Clay  suited  for  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  is  found  in  Holland,  and 
there  are  stone  quarries  in  the  south. 

Canah  form  one  of  the  most  remarkable  features  in  the  economical  arrangements  of  Hol- 
land, and  a  leading  source  of  her  pros{)€rity.  From  the  structure  of  the  country,  these  are 
formed  with  peculiar  facility,  and  it  is  everywhere  intersected  with  them;  every  town, 
every  village,  being  coimocted  by  canals  of  greater  or  less  dimensions.  They  run  through 
the  streets  of  the  cities,  enabling  vessels  to  load  and  unload  under  the  eye  of  the  merchant. 
When  frozen,  they  serve  as  highways,  on  which  the  Dutch  females,  heavily  laden,  convey 
theruselves  along  on  skates  with  surprising  rapidity.  In  general,  from  the  flatness  of  tiie 
co»mtry,  and  the  abundance  of  water,  canals  may  be  made  without  much  exertion  of  art  or 
skill.  There  is  an  exception,  however,  in  the  canal  of  Pannerden,  constructed  with  the 
view  of  draining  off  the  superfluous  water  of  the  Rhine,  by  which  a  great  extent  of  ground 
was  converted  mto  a  marsh.  It  is  two  miles  long,  and  200  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea, 
the  waters  being  received  into  three  difterent  sets  of  sluices.  It  is  considered  a  master- 
piece, and  completely  answered  its  object.  Another,  on  a  most  magnificent  scale,  connect- 
ing Amsterdam  with  the  Holder,  was  commenced  in  1819,  and  finished  in  1825,  at  an 
expense  of  10,000,000  florins.  It  is  50  miles  long,  125  feet  wide  at  the  surface,  36  feet 
wide  at  the  bottom,  and  21  feet  deep.  It  is  calculated  to  admit  ships  of  war  of  46  guns,  and 
merchantmen  of  1000  tons  burden.  It  was  constructed  to  avoid  the  troublesome  navigation 
to  and  from  Amsterdam  through  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and  the  necessity  of  lightening  large  ves- 
sels  before  crossing  the  Pampus. 

The  canals  in  Belgium  are  spacious  and  commodious,  connecting  all  the  great  cities, 
though  not  nearly  in  equal  number,  nor  uniting  every  village,  as  in  Holland. 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State, 

The  population  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  though  not  comparable,  as  to  absolute 
amount,  with  that  of  any  of  the  great  states,  is  superior  to  them  all  in  one  highly  important 
particular,  that  the  country  contains  a  greater  density  of  population  on  the  same  surface 
than  any  other  in  Europe,  or  perhaps  in  the  world.  This,  in  the  Belgic  provinces  at  least, 
is  the  more  remarkable,  as  they  are  inhabited,  not  by  a  manufacturing  populntion,  drawing 
subsistence  from  agricultural  countries,  but  by  a  population  subsisliufj  exclusivply  on  the 
produce  of  the  land  itself  The  census  of  1816  gave  a  total  population  of  5,491,945 : 
2,476,159  for  the  northern  provinces;  3,249,841  for  those  of  Belgium;  and  225,945  for  the 
duchy  of  Luxemburg.  This  gives  an  aggregate  average  density  of  about  212  to  the  square 
mile ;  but  the  rate  rises  much  higher  in  certain  provinces.  Throughout  Belgium  the  pro- 
portion is  296  to  the  square  mile ;  in  the  province  of  East  Flanders,  however,  it  is  as  hich 
as  .560.  In  the  United  Netherlands  the  average  density  is  only  180  per  square  mile;  and  in 
Luxemburg,  which  has  much  of  a  German  character,  it  is  as  low  as  66.  The  census  of 
1925  gives  a  population  of  6,013,.578;  and  some  further  augmentation  has  taken  place  since. f 

♦fill  1^27,  only  one  sliip  sailwl  to  the  wlmlo-flHliery  from  llollnnd,  which  in  IflcO  iiad  out  SflO  ships  manned  by 
.»,000  sailors,  eii|.'aL'od  in  that  brnnch  of  industry.— .^M.  En.) 

tfThe  population  of  the  two  kingdoms  in  1833,  wap  n.,53e,0(M),  of  which  3,791,000  belonged  to  Belgium,  ana 
2  7J.'i,n00  to  Holland.— Am.  Ed.J 

Vol  I  43  30 


006 


DESCRIITIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pjk»T  in. 


Th«  fbllowinff  ilntnili  with  roapoct  to  the  population  of  the  Netherlandu  arc  oxtrHclml  tVom 
the  publication*  of  M.  Quetclot,  one  of  the  abieat  itatiatical  writuni  of  the  ('oiititiont  :— 


Pra«(MM 


Zcalond 

UuelUvrland . . . 
North  BraUnl . 
Nurlh  Ilollniiil . 
South  Holland. 

Ulrscht 

Friedand 

OvaryMol 

Oroningen  .... 

Diviithe 

limburg 

Li*Bt   

Namur 

Luumburg  ... 

llalnAiilt 

South  Brehant . 
RastPlanden.. 
WmI  Klanden. 
.Antwerp  


l^lp«llllkM. 


till. 


111,108 

vA,wn 

i«H,0H7 
37a.l»7 
3H8Ma 
107,»47 

n6,aM 

147.289 
135,043 
46.409 
S87.613 
368,180 
164,400 
813.697 
488,.'i06 
441.M9 
r)l.V>H9 
616.384 
891,666 


II 


189.389 
884,363 
386,617 
393,916 
4:)8,8()8 
117,406 
808,630 
160,937 
166,046 
63,368 
381,846 
331,101 
189,393 
898,610 
646,190 
496,4.'» 
687,867 
«)3,8a6 
383,678 


■IrtlH. 

90,H('>8 

100,8('>3 

146,744 

166,741 

41,038 

66,666 

61,961 

61.673 

16,783 

101,781 

113,683 

68,690 

98,843 

183,198 

169,181 

818,830 

191,139 

101,471 


6.484,608      6,013,478      8,015,646      1,431,600  I      430,847         605 


TabU  qfthe  Movtment  qfthe  Pnjndation  in  IloUand  and  Belgium  for  Ten  Yean. 

;-        -| 

OMlhs       I      MarrHm.  Dttimn, 


48.436 

69,H1H 

69,807 

181.736 

143.800 

89,988 

38.819 

37,479 

30,6«9 

9,868 

70,549 

63,696 

34,134 

68,690 

118,889 

119,109 

168,834 

141,310 

70,633 


lU,t°>46 
19,337 
8I),:)H0 
34,789 
34,948 

8,9H3 
10,387 
11,689 
11,493 

3,964 
88,960 
34,387 
18,093 
18,740 
39,091 
36.483 
43,180 
37,883 
83,076 


The  births  and  marriages  in  the  Netherlands  are  proportionally  more  numerous,  while  the 
deaths  are  about  equal  to  those  of  France,  and  exceea  those  of  Gruat  Britain  in  the  ratio 
of  three  to  two.    The  account  stands  thus : — 


Naltoriiiidk  Tnaf, 

100  births  to  9.807  inbiMtanU 3,1«8. 

ItX)  (tenth* 3,081 4,IX)0  . 

lOOinarrlQgM 13,IA0 13,400. 


On>l  Brililn 
. .  .3.334 
...8,780 
■  .13,333 


There  has  been  a  very  material  increase  in  the  healthiness  of  the  people  of  the  Nether* 
lands,  and  particularly  of  Holland,  during  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years. 

The  provision  for  the  support  of  the  poor  of  the  Netherlands  is  pretty  ample,  and  it  is 
applied  with  great  economy  and  skill ;  forming,  indeed,  an  important  branch  of  tlie  public 
administration.  The  following  table,  compiled  Smm  authentic  sources,  by  M.  Quetelet, 
cannot  fail  of  being  interesting : — 

Charitable  Institutions  of  the  Netherlands 


-V 

Nttura  or  IMilullon. 


Adminifitnition*  for  relieving  the  Poor  at  home 

CommiRsiona  ibrdifltribiiting  Food,  &c 

Soeinties  of  Maternal  Chanty 

H(M|)iial8 

Funds  foi  Military  Service 

Royal  Hospital  of  Meaiine* 

Poor  Schools 

Workhouse*  of  Charity 

Depots  of  Mendicity 

Societies  of  Beneflcence  <br  the  Colonies .... 
EstablUhments  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb 


Monts  de  Piiti. 
Savings  Itanks .  ■ 


Totals. 


Nuintvr  of 
Imtllutkini. 


5,189 

30 

4 

784 

1 

1 

886 

34 

8 

3 

4 


6,888 

184 

50 


IndivliJuaU 
relievad. 


EiMnwa 
of  ticlief. 


745.6.'iS 

28,006 

1,448 

41,178 

8,277 

156 

147.296 

6.169 

2,598 

8,553 

839 


977,616 


18,035 


riorin. 

6,448,740 

82,434 

13,493 

4.091, 1.W 

110,942 

23,290 

247,176 

400,704 

229,.587 

353,.529 

41,994 


11.049.036 

4,208.068 
2,771,608 


EipcnK  fnr 
each  liidlvldual. 


rinrlni. 

7.31 

3.73 

9.32 

99.37 

48.73 

149.30 

1.67 

65.92 

88.:^- 

41.33 
175.70 


Average  11.30 
Avoragel53.93 


The  national  character  of  the  Dutch  has  been  long  moulded  into  the  form  natural  to  a 
highly  commercial  people ;  solid,  steady,  quiet,  laborious,  eagerly  intent  on  the  accumulation  of 
wealth,  which  they  seek  rather  by  economy,  steadiness,  and  perseverance,  than  by  speculation. 
They  carry  the  virtue  of  cleanliness  to  an  extreme.  Outward  decorum  of  manners,  at  le(i.st, 
is  better  observed  than  among  the  neighbouring  continental  nations.  Yet  the  gpiel  houses 
in  the  great  towns,  where  the  most  respectable  citizens  used  to  mingle  with  persons  entirely 
destitute  of  character,  presented  in  this  respect  a  strange  anomaly.  But  at  present  these 
can  hardly  be  said  to  exist ;  and  are  frequented  only  by  the  very  dregs  of  the  populace.  A 
traveller  in  Holland  will  rarely  meet  with  a  drunken  person :  or  with  a  man,  woman,  or 
child,  in  rags.  Every  class  of  people  seems  comfortable,  the  result  of  their  great  frugality 
and  unwearied  industry.     Were  a  young  sturdy  beggar  discovered  teasing  passengers  for 

*  In  West  Flanders,  for  the  dausbters  of  soldiers  invalided  or  killed  in  service 


p^nT  m. 


Book  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BEU3IUM. 


007 


almM,  hfl  would  iniitantly  b«  ar^nt  to  the  workhotine;  where,  if  he  irfliMx.  to  p<>rtonn  hi*  allot* 
ti'd  tBik,  he  would  b«  conip«>ll<Hl  tn  mve  hiniMcir  fVom  drowniiifif  liy  workin^r  nt  tli(<  pump  I 
lloiiiind  ill,  and  alwnyii  hiui  been,  a  country  of  iihort  credit,  bankruptcy  is  rnro.  Notwitn- 
■tnndinif  the  invnHion  of  tlif  French  in  \TWS,  and  the  conH(H|uent  intorfuiition  to  nil  norta  of 
oii^inosB,  the  ImiikruptcieH  wore  not  comparatively  ho  numeroua  aa  in  Kn^land  in  ordinary 
ycnra.  Tlin  B»»lpic  proviiiron,  long  Hubjncte<l  to  a  foTrngn  yoke,  and  in  conxtimt  inlrrcourafl 
with  foroiffnrrH,  nnem  to  hnve  i(mt  m  a  threat  meaaure  the  ori|;inal  Flomiah  character,  and  to 
prt'Mrnt  no  very  dirtinctivi-  features. 

It  ia  not  very  oaHy,  lW)ni  ili'  diflbrencrm  of  their  Judicial  orgnnlxation,  to  compare  the  ittate 
of  crime  in  diflcrent  coum  jut.  In  thia  respect,  however,  the  Netherlands  would  have 
nothing  to  fear  tVom  a  comparison  with  France  and  England.  In  Holland,  tlie  police  ia  ex< 
rcllent,  and  robberies  very  rare. 

The  prevailing  reliffion  of  Holland  is  Calvinism,  while  that  of  Bclghim  is  almoHt  exclu< 
lively  Catholic;  a  diflercnce  which  contributed  not  a  little  to  that  rooted  dislike  entertained 
by  the  inhabitants  of  the  latter  to  those  of  the  former.  The  Dutch  have  the  honour  of 
being  the  first  people  who  established  a  system  of  unrestrained  toleration.  Even  popery, 
notwithstanding  the  grounds  which  the  nation  had  to  dread  and  hate  it,  was  allowed  to  be 
professed  with  the  utmost  fVeedom.  The  government  allows  salaries,  of  a  greater  or  Ich« 
amount,  to  the  clergy  of  every  persuasion,  only  making  thoee  of  the  Presbyterian  miniHtnm 
higher  than  the  others,  The  latter  retain,  bcHides,  the  old  parinh  churches,  and  the  exclusive 
privilege  of  using  bolls.  They  amount  to  almit  16()(),  and  are  all  paid  and  ap|)ointed  by 
government,  which,  however,  respectH  the  wishes  of  the  leading  parishioners.  Their  salurica 
are  very  moderate ;  300()  florins  in  the  great  cities ;  800  to  I0()(),  with  house  and  glelie,  in 
the  country.  They  are  divided  into  moderate  and  high  Calvinistic  parties;  the  former,  which 
are  said  to  be  the  moot  numerous,  having  the  command  of  tlie  univeraity  of  Utrecht,  while 
that  of  Leyden  is  attached  to  the  oppoflite  interest  There  are  about  800  or  400  Catholic 
congregations,  in  general  very  smoll.  The  Armenians  or  Remonstrants,  who  originated  in 
Holland,  have  only  about  forty  or  flfty  ministera ;  but  their  tenets  are  preached  in  many  of 
the  presbyterian  churches.  The  Anabaptists,  called  here  Mennoniste,  have  about  100  con- 
gregations, composed  of  many  opulent  and  rcBpectable  members.  The  Lutherans  have  ftHy 
or  sixty  churches;  and  the  French  Protestants  about  thirty.  [By  the  budget  of  lH.'};i, 
L330,000  florins  were  voted  for  the  support  of  the  Protestant  worahip,  and  400,000  tor  the 
Catholic. — Am.  Ed.] 

In  Belgium,  the  Catholic  clergy  have  shown  a  very  rooted  spirit  of  intolerance,  with  the 
bishop  ot  Ghent  at  their  head,  and  vehemently  objected  to  the  'indulgent  treatment  of  the 
other  sects.  The  bishop  was  imprisoned  for  two  years  by  Napoleon,  on  account  of  his 
obstinacy  in  this  particular.  The  great  possessions  of  the  church,  however,  have  been  for- 
feited, and  the  clergy  receive  very  moderate  salaries  from  government.  The  monasteries 
have  been  rooted  out,  and  generally  also  the  nunneries,  though  that  of  Ghent  still  rota  ins 
all  its  pomp.  [There  is  an  archbishop  of  Mechlin  with  a  salary  of  2L000  francs,  and  tlie 
five  bishops  have  each  14,700  francs  a  year.  These,  with  64  vicars  general  and  canons, 
246  curates,  and  4,288  inferior  officere,  form  the  body  of  the  Catholic  clergy.  There  ore 
only  about  5000  Protestants  in  Belgium,  with  19  ministers,  clerks,  &.C.,  who  are  paid  by 
government. — Am.  Ed.] 

Ijcarning  in  the  Netherlands  no  longer  boasts  such  names  as  Erasmus,  Grotius,  and  Boor- 
haave ;  but  the  institutions  for  its  diflbsion  continue  to  be  very  ample.  Holland  retains  its 
two  famous  universities  of  Leyden  and  Utrecht.  The  former,  which,  under  Boerhaave,  Imd 
once  the  reputation  of  the  first  medical  school  in  Europe,  is  still  highly  respectable.  The 
professors,  who  are  twenty-one  in  number,  receive  salaries  of  3000  florins,  independent  of 
fees;  and  this  being  a  better  income  than  any  of  the  ecclesiastical  livings,  the  university 
draws  from  the  church  its  moat  learned  members.  The  medical  education,  however,  can- 
not be  completed  unless  at  Amsterdam,  which  affords  the  advantage  of  hospitals  and  otiier 
accommodations  peculiar  to  a  large  city.  The  university  of  Utrecht  is  not  so  considerable 
as  that  of  Leyden ;  and  that  of  Groningen  is  still  inferior.  In  1833,  the  number  of  students 
was,  in  Leyden  684 ;  in  Utrecht  476 ;  in  Groningen,  284. 

The  universities  of  Belgium,  of  which  the  most  celebrated  were  Ghent  and  Jjouvain,  were 
partially  stripped  of  their  ample  endowments,  first  by  Joseph  IT.,  ond  then  by  the  French, 
who  in  their  room  substituted  lyceums,  which  are  now  continued  nearly  on  the  same  footing, 
under  the  name  of  colleges.  Only  the  languages,  and  some  general  brancheSj  are  taught; 
education  for  professional  purposes  being  received  in  separate  appropriate  seminaries.  Ghent 
and  Brussels  have  the  highest  reputation ;  but  the  salary  of  professors  in  th«»  former  does  not 
exceed  1500  francs.  The  three  universities  of  Louvain,  Liege,  and  Ghent  have  lately 
been  restored ;  and  in  1827  the  first  was  attended  by  678  students ;  the  second  by  506 ;  and 
Jhe  third  by  404  students.  Besides  athenroums,  which  are  only  colleges  on  a  smaller  scale, 
Holland  has  primary  schools  in  every  village,  by  which  the  benefits  of  education  are  com- 
municated to  the  lowest  ranks.    Belgium  is  at  present  very  deficient  in  inatitutions  for 


506 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  in. 


popular  education.*  But  at  an  average  of  the  Netherlands,  the  proportion  of  children  at 
school  to  the  entire  population,  in  1827,  was  as  high  as  1  to  9.5 ;  a  proportion  not  exceeded 
in  any  European  country,  with  tiie  exception,  perhaps,  of  Prussia. 

The  fine  arts  were  cultivated  with  zeal  and  success  in  both  parts  of  the  Netherlands. 
Wealthy  merchants  liJerally  patronised  the  arts  of  design;  and  the  gentry  and  landholders 
being  induced  by  the  constant  wars,  of  which  the  Low  Countries  were  the  theatre,  to  live 
much  in  towns,  acquired  more  refined  tastes  than  could  have  been  formed  in  a  country  re.si- 
dcnce.  Antwerp,  during  its  prosperity,  became,  in  some  measure,  a  Belgic  Athens,  ^'ut 
tlie  Flemish  and  Dutch  painters  never  attained  that  grandeur  of  design,  and  that  pure  and 
classic  taste,  which  were  formed  in  Italy,  by  the  study  of  the  antique,  and  the  refined  taste 
of  its  nobles.  The  Flemish  school,  under  its  great  masters  Rubens  and  Vandyke,  displayed, 
however,  may  excellences  in  a  degree  not  inferior  to  any  other  in  modern  times ;  splendour 
of  colouring,  grandeur  of  composition,  and  force  of  expression.  The  Dutch  school  has  been 
eminently  successful  in  a  lower  sphere.  Under  Rembrandt  and  his  disciples,  subjects  of 
common  life  and  vulgar  humour  were  treated  with  a  native  force,  which,  being  aided  by 
brilliant  effects  of  light  and  shade,  have  rendered  this  school  exceedingly  popular,  though  it 
has  failed  in  all  attempts  at  high  and  heroic  delineation.  The  landscape  painters  have 
seldom  employed  their  pencils  upon  the  grand  scenery  delineated  by  Claude  and  Poussin ; 
but  Berghem,  Cuyp,  Ruysdael,  Hobbima,  Vandevelde,  and  others,  have  represented,  in  the 
most  natural  and  pleasing  colours,  the  pastoral  scenery  of  their  country ;  its  meadows,  its 
woods,  and  the  banks  of  its  seas  and  rivers. 

Amusement  is  far  from  being  a  primary  object  with  the  Dutch.  They  have  most  of  the 
diversions  of  the  neighbouring  nations,  though  they  do  not  follow  them  with  much  ardour. 
A  great  portion  of  their  time  is  passed  in  smoking ;  the  Dutchman  having  seldom  the  pipe 
out  of  hifl  mouth.  The  rivers  and  canals  passing  through  the  streets,  afford  the  opportunity 
of  fishing  fVom  the  windows.  The  great  Flemish  kermes,  or  fairs,  though  no  longer  sub- 
servient to  commerce,  exist  still  as  festivals,  at  which  there  is  a  great  dispV-'.y  of  humour 
and  character,  such  as  we  find  happily  illustrated  in  the  works  of  tlie  Flcinish  painters. 
There  seems  nothing  peculiar  in  the  Dutch  style  of  cookery.  The  peasantry  botli  of  Holland 
and  Flanders  have  their  peculiar  local  costume ;  as  the  huge  breeches  of  tlie  men,  and  the 
short  jacket  of  the  females;  but  the  higher  classes  dress  in  the  French  or  German  style. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography. 

The  following,  according  to  recent  official  statements,  are  the  extent  and  population  of 
Belgium  and  Holland,  respectively : 


.... 

BEr,GIUM. 

Pioviaces. 

F.xlenI  m 
Heclaret. 

Population  in 
Dec.  IN7. 

Priociin'  Town, 

South  llrnbant. 

.Antwerp 

Knat  Flanders  . 
West  Plunders 

Hainault 

Namur 

LiSge  

338  000 
283,000 
282.000 
310,000 
372,000 
347,025 
288,000 
400,000 

499,728 
338,394 
708,705 
.575,807 
367,300 
194,845 
347,035 
338,334 

Brus-eis 72,800                                          Louvain 18,580 

Antwerp 05,000  Mechlin 16,000 

Ghent 81941  St.  Nicholas. ...  10  980 

nriiirpii 30  000  OKtpnd 10  .500  Ynres 15  150 

Mons 18,400 

Wnmiir 15  100  Vprviera 10  070  Sna 3  00O 

Lifige 45,300 

Tongres 4,000 

Limburg 

3,076,000 

3,560,538 

HOLLAND. 
I  Rotterdam ...     63  033  Haarue 45  144  Levden 29  045 

Holland,  South 

Holland,  North 

Zealand 

Utrecht 

North  Brabant 
Oneldcrland  . .. 

nrcntlii! 

Frieslnnd 

Ovcrysci!! 

(irc)nirii.'itn 

part  <if. ...  1 
Luxemburg. .. . 

287,000  f 

345,000 

158,000 
13:i.000 
501,000 
509,000 
32a,000 
303,000 
.■K8,0(H) 
204,000 

uncet 

050,000 

453,HIH 

391,586 

ia3,932 
133,313 
3.33,551 
3n3,.3!M) 
59,915 
200,332 
l(!5,9;i0 
153,982 

lain. 

3il8,()55 

J  Dort 18  400  Delft 13  385  Gouda in,.5fl8 

Amsterdam..  201,000  Haarlem 18.4.53  Zaandam 9,016 

j  Alkmnar  . .. .      8  4:15  Hoorn 8155 

Middlchurg..    30,800  Flushing 6,380 

Utrecht 34,087  Amersfoort 9,395 

Bnis  le  Due  . .     T3,:<40  Breda 13  000  Bergen-op-Zoom 

Niinegucii  . . .    13,780  Arnheim 10,050 

Assen 1,100 

Trf'uwarden  . .     18,.380 

Deventor 9,530 

Groniiigeii  .. .    28,851 

Mnestriclit...    31,000 

Luxemburg . .     10,!:50 

3.0.54.000 
2,07l>,000 

3,000.000 
3,51)0,538 

6,330,000 

6,100,354 

*  [In  1832  there  were  5.229  primnrv  schools  in  ncleiuni,  with  370,990  pupils,  beside  1,318  in  the  Athensumi,  and 
788  in  the  universities.  Annual  expense,  743,200  fVancs.— Am.  Eo.J 


Book  I. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


609 


BruBMUr. 


iieumi,  and 


SuBSECT.  1. — Belgium, 

South  Brabant,  ".'hi»5h  nearly  coincides  with  what  was  former!)'  the  Austrian  part  of  that 
large  province,  forms  a  rich  plain  in  the  heart  of  Belgium,  and  is  tlie  seat  of  the  finest  manu- 
factures carried  on  in  that  country. 

Brussels  (Jig.  358.)  is  the  capital  of  Belgium.  Considered  as  such,  it  is  small,  yet  it  is 
one  of  the  gayest  and  most  elegant  cities  of  Europe.    Its  situation  is  fine,  in  a  valley  watered 

by  the  Senne  and  the  canal  to 
Antwerp.  The  AUee  Verte,  con- 
sisting of  three  rows  of  trees  bor- 
dering the  canal,  makes  a  beauti- 
ful approach.  The  market-place 
and  the  park  are  the  two  great 
ornaments  of  Brussels.  The  former 
is  of  great  extent,  and  surrounded 
by  the  town  hall,  one  of  the  most 
elegant  Gothic  structures  in  Eu- 
rope, adorned  with  a  tower,  348 
feet  high,  and  by  the  old  halls  of 
the  different  corporations.  The  park  forms  an  extensive  range  of  pleasure  ground,  inter- 
spersed with  rows  of  lofty  trees,  and  pleasing  lawns,  ornamented  with  fountains  and  statues , 
and  it  is  surrounded  by  all  the  most  spacious  and  sumptuous  edifices.  The  church  and  chapel 
of  St.  Gudule  are  also  distinguished  for  the  elegance  of  their  ornaments.  Brussels  has  an 
academy  of  painting,  attended  by  400  or  500  students ;  and  in  the  palace  there  is  a  library 
of  12,000  volumes,  and  a  small  but  valuable  collection  of  paintings.  It  was  on  the  plains  of 
Brabant,  near  the  little  villages  of  Quatre  Bras,  St.  Jean,  La  Belle  Alliance,  and  Waterloo 
a  few  leagues  from  Brussels,  that  the  fate  of  Europe  was  decided  in  1815. 

Another  ancient  and  important  city  is  Malines,  or  Mechlin  (now  in  the  province  of  Ant- 
werp), still  retaining  traces  of  the  prosperity  derived  from  the  lace  bearing  its  name,  which 
is  considered  the  strongest,  though  not  the  finest,  made  in  the  Netherlands.  Another  branch 
of  industry  consists  in  the  making  of  excellent  brown  beer.  The  houses  are  ancient,  and 
very  spacious,  often  constructed  in  a  curious  and  grotesque  manner,  and  most  nicely  white- 
wasiied.  The  tower  of  the  cathedral  is  highly  finished,  and  rises  to  the  height  of  348  feet. 
The  other  churches  contain  many  of  the  masterpieces  of  Rubens  and  Vandyke.  Louvain  is 
equally  fallen  from  the  period  when  its  extensive  cloth  manufactures  and  its  university,  one 
of  the  first  in  Europe,  gave  it  a  population  of  150,000.  It  is  a  large  ill-built  town,  whose 
bulky  walls,  seven  miles  in  circumference,  are  now  falling  to  decay.  Its  Catholic  university, 
an  attendance  on  which  was  once  required  as  a  qualification  for  holding  any  office  under  the 
Austrian  government,  perished  in  the  French  revolution,  and  was  replaced  by  what  could 
only  be  called  a  lyceum ;  but  the  ancient  institution  has  since  been  restored.  The  town  hall, 
enriched  by  numerous  carved  figures,  and  the  collegiate  church,  whose  spire,  before  its  fall, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  rose  to  the  height  of  500  feet,  are  the  chief 
ornaments  of  Louvain. 

Antwerp  (Jig.  359.),  formerly  the  port  of  Brabant,  has  now  a  province,  to  which  it  gives 
its  name.    This  territory  is  situated  along  the  Lower  Scheldt,  and  is  covered  to  a  great 

extent  with  pleasure-grounds  and 
359  1^  houses,  erected  by  the  rich  mer- 

chants during  the  period  when 
Antwerp  was  in  its  glory.  That 
city,  down  to  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  was  almost  with- 
out a  rival  among  the  commercial 
states  of  Europe.  In  the  great 
struggle  which  then  arose,  Ant- 
werp embraced  with  ardour  the 
reformed  cause,  in  support  of 
which  it  suflfered  the  most  dread- 
ful calamities.  In  1.576  it  was 
Backed  by  the  Spaniards ;  and  being  afterwards  wrested  fi-om  them,  surrendered  on  favour- 
able terms,  after  being  besieged  for  more  than  a  year,  to  the  Prince  of  Parma,  Subjected 
to  the  bigoted  and  tyrannic  sway  of  Spain,  and  oppressed  by  the  active  rivalry  of  Holland,  it 
lost  all  its  commerce,  and  presented  the  mere  shadow  of  its  former  greatness.  Its  renewed 
prosperity  dates  from  its  occupation  by  the  French.  Bonaparte  made  it  one  of  his  errand 
naval  arsenals,  and  erected  immense  works,  in  the  vain  hope  of  creating  a  fleet  which  might 
rival  that  of  Great  Britain.  Since  the  peace,  Antwerp,  having  been  placed  on  an  equal 
footing  with  the  ports  of  Holland,  has  availed  itself  of  the  advantages  of  its  situation,  and 
regained  •».  considerable  commerce.    Having  a  ready  navigation  into  the  interior,  and  com  • 

43* 


Antwerp. 


filO 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  ni. 


Book  I. 


municating  by  canals  with  the  principal  seats  of  manufacture,  it  is  destined  by  nature  to  be 
the  chief  emporium  of  Belgium.  In  1828  there  entered  its  port  955  vessels.  Antwerp  is 
still  a  noble  city,  containing  numerous  stately  buildings,  both  private  and  public,  which 
include  some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  existing.  The  cathedral,  which 
occupied  100  years  in  building,  is  celebrated  over  Europe.  It  is  500  feet  long,  230  wide, 
and  800  high.  The  spire  is  4(^  feet  high,  of  extreme  beauty,  and  from  its  summit  is  obtained 
a  magnificent  view  of  the  windings  of  the  Scheldt,  with  the  distant  towers  of  Ghent,  Malines, 
and  Breda.  The  interior  is  adorned  with  the  greatest  masterpieces  of  Rubens  and  Vandyke, 
which,  after  being  carried  off  to  Paris,  have  been  again  restored.  Numerous  fine  specimens 
of  the  Flemish  school  are  found  in  the  other  churches,  as  well  as  in  private  mansions.  Ant- 
werp has  always  been  the  centre  of  Flemish  art;  the  birth-place  of  Rubens,  Vandyke,  Jor- 
daens,  Teniers,  and  all  its  greatest  masters.  Zealous  patronage  is  still  bestowed  upon  the 
art;  an  academy  is  supported,  at  which  400  or  500  students  are  almost  r/ratuitously  tauglit: 
annual  prizes  are  given,  and  crowns  placed  on  the  heads  of  the  succes8''il  candidates.  This 
encouragement  has  called  forth  some  respectable  talents,  though  nono,  as  yet,  to  rival  the 
&me  of  the  old  masters. 

East  Flanders  is  chiefly  an  inland  district,  and  is  the  part  of  Belgium  in  which  culture  has 
been  carried  to  the  highest  perfection.  It  displays  an  aspect  of  uniform  luxuriant  fertility, 
resulting  altogether  from  the  application  of  art  and  capital.  Even  in  journeying  along  the 
road,  the  traveller  finds  the  wheels  of  his  carriage  sinking  in  the  sand,  while  beyond  the 
hedge  on  each  side,  the  soil  consists  of  the  ricliest  black  mould.  The  most  fertile  district  is 
called  the  Waes,  or  St  Nicholas. 

Ghent,  even  in  its  fallen  state,  is  still  one  of  the  noblest  of  the  old  cities  of  Europe.  That 
vast  circuit  of  walls  which,  according  to  the  boast  of  Charles  V.,  could  contain  all  Paris 
within  them,  may  still  be  traced.  It  is  built  on  twenty-seven  islands,  most  of  them  bordered 
by  magnificent  quays,  and  connected  by  three  hundred  bridges.  The  sticets,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  are  spacious  and  handsome,  and  there  are  many  fine  old  churches :  but  the  great 
cathedral  does  not  display  the  architectural  grandeur  of  that  of  Antwerp,  though  the  interior 
is  rich  in  the  extreme,  adorned  with  numerous  pillars  of  white  marble.  This  and  the  other 
churches,  as  well  as  the  academy,  contain  numerous  paintings  by  the  old  Flemish  masters. 
Ghent,  though  it  can  no  longer  send  its  40,000  weavers  into  the  field,  is  still  one  of  the  most 
manu&cturing  cities  of  Belgium.  Prior  to  the  revolution,  its  staple  was  sorted  lace ;  but 
since  the  great  improvements  in  the  cotton  manu&cture,  several  large  fabrics  have  been 
established  at  Ghent  The  society  is  good,  this  being  a  favourite  residence  of  the  old 
Flemish  nobles,  and  now  frequented  by  a  considerable  number  of  English  families. 

The  other  towns  in  E^ast  Flanders  are  Dendermonde,  a  small  but  strong  place,  which  has 
stood  repeated  sieges ;  Alost,  on  the  eastern  fi"ontier ;  St  Nicholas  and  Tokerem,  two  large 
villages,  of  more  than  11,000  inhabitants  each,  in  the  centre  of  the  Waes,  flourishing  by 
means  of  corn-markets  and  of  some  considerable  manufactures.  Sas-van-Ghent  is  the  centre 
of  the  sluices  on  the  canal  to  the  Scheldt,  by  which  the  whole  country  can  be  laid  under 
water.    Hulst  is  a  strongly  fortifiied  little  town. 

West  Flanders  is  a  continuation  of  the  same  richly  cultivated  plain  which  has  now  been 
described ;  yet,  being  partly  mixed  with  sand  and  marsh,  and  exposed  to  the  blighting  influ- 
ence of  fogs  and  sea  breezes,  it  does  not  display  altogether  the  luxuriant  aspect  of  the  Pays 
de  Waes.  It  has  no  place  comparable  to  Ghent,  yet  it  comprises  an  extraordinary  number 
of  ancient  cities,  which  still  retain  a  portion  of  their  former  prosperity. 

Bruges,  formerly  the  residence  of  the  counts  of  Flanders,  and  one  of  the  factories  of  the 
Hanscatic  league,  was  the  greatest  commercial  city  in  the  Low  Countries,  and  perhaps  in 
the  north  of  Europe,  till  it  was  first  surpassed  by  Antwerp,  and  then,  from  the  same  causes, 
shared  its  fall.  Its  situation  in  the  midst  of  so  fertile  a  country,  and  its  communications  by 
spacious  canals  with  the  sea  and  with  the  interior,  still  secure  to  it  a  considerable  trade. 
Bruges  has  the  character  of  an  old  town,  the  streets  being  narrow,  and  the  houses  lofly. 
The  town  hall  is  its  most  conspicuous  edifice,  and  it  is  adorned  also  with  many  noble  churches, 
containing  some  of  the  finest  works  of  the  great  Flemish  painters.  The  invention  of  paint- 
ing in  oil  has  been  ascribed  to  this  city. 

Ostend  is  an  ancient  town,  early  celebrated  for  its  fortifications.  The  siege  by  Spinola. 
which  began  in  1601,  and  lasted  two  years,  was  one  of  the  most  memorable  in  modern  his- 
tory; .and  upon  its  issue  the  destiny  of  the  Low  Countries  was  considered  to  depend.  Bii' 
though  it  ultimately  fell,  the  exhaustion  of  the  Spanish  army,  and  the  time  which  had  been 
afibrded  to  Holland  for  collecting  her  energies,  prevented  its  capture  from  having  tlie  ruinous 
effects  anticipated.  Under  Austrian  sway,  Ostend,  which  has  one  of  the  few  good  harbours 
in  Flanders,  became  the  chief  theatre  of  the  limited  trade  of  tiie  Belgic  provinces.    Napo- 


Inch  wore  stiH  fkitner  Btrerigtiieriucl  by  the  nuios.     ii  nna 

on  a  brisk  intercourse  with 


mt  now  above  a  tliinl  of  its  former  populutioii,  but  still  ^-arries 

England,  and  has  almost  tlie  appearance  of  an  English  town.     In  1828,  574  vessels  entered 

its  port. 

Otiier  large  fortified  places,  celebrated  in  the  military  annals  of  Europe,  are  found  in  West 


Book  I. 


HOLLAND  A^  )  BELGIUM. 


511 


Flanders.  Courtray,  Ypres,  and  Menin  have  the  usual  character  of  Flemish  towns.  They 
arc  large,  rather  well  built,  with  handsome  churches  and  town  halls ;  fallen  from  their 
ancient  prosperity,  yet  retaining  considerable  manufactures  of  linen  and  beer;  and  having,  in 
the  long  course  of  the  Low  Country  wars,  been  repeatedly  taken  and  retaken.  Courtray  is 
noted  tor  the  very  fine  flax  grown  in  its  neighbourhood.  Oudenarde,  the  scene  of  one  of 
Marlborough's  victories,  Dixmuide,  and  Fumes,  present  the  same  characters  on  a  smaller 
Ecale.  Nieuport  is  rather  a  noted  fishing  and  tradiag  town,  surrounded  by  sluices,  by  means 
of  which  the  country  can  be  inundated. 

Hainault,  to  the  east  of  Flanders  and  the  south  of  Brabant,  presents  a  long  range  of  mili- 
tary frontier  to  the  once  hostile  border  of  France.  It  is  watered  by  the  upper  courses  of  the 
Scheldt  and  the  Sambre ;  and,  instead  of  presenting  the  same  dead  level  with  Flanders,  is 
varied  by  gentle  undulations,  still  highly  cultivated,  yet  not  with  the  same  extreme  care  or 
ample  expenditure.  In  this  province  are  rich  mines  of  coal,  a  mineral  not  found  in  any 
other  part  of  the  Low  Countries ;  and  though  Hainault  never  formed  any  of  the  great  seats 
of  manufacture,  it  is  by  no  means  deficient  in  this  branch  of  industry. 

Mons,  Tournay,  and  Charleroi  are  the  chief  towns  of  Hainault.  The  description  given 
of  the  secondary  cities  of  Flanders  may  apply  to  them.  Mons,  called  once  Hannonia,  is  very 
ancient ;  it  is  well  built,  but  appears  often  almost  buried  under  the  smoke  of  the  steam- 
engines  employed  in  working  the  neighbouring  coalmines.  It  has  a  very  extensive  found- 
ling hospital.  Tournay,  a  fine  large,  ^d  city,  with  a  handsome  cathedral,  has  stood  many 
sieges.  Charleroi,  besides  its  military  reputation,  has  that  of  making  very  fine  nails,  with 
which  it  supplies  all  Belgium.  In  front  of  Mons  is  Gemappe,  and  eight  miles  east  of  Char- 
leroi is  Fleurus,  both  celebrated  for  signal  victories  gained  by  the  French  during  the  revolu- 
tionary war.  The  large  and  strong  cities  of  Conde  and  Valenciennes  are  now  annexed  to 
France. 

Namur,  to  the  east  of  Hainault,  presents  a  striking  variety  from  the  tame  and  flat  surface 
which  covers  the  greater  part  of  the  Low  Countries.  Consisting  of  the  valley  of  the  Mouse, 
which  traverses  the  whole  province  flrom  north  to  south,  it  contains  numerous  rugged  emi- 
nences, which  give  to  it  a  varied  and  picturesque  character.  The  banks  of  the  river,  from 
Namur  to  Liege,  overhung  by  wooded  rocks,  and  opening  into  deep  valleys,  abound  in  the 
most  romantic  scenes. 

Among  the  cities,  Namur  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  in  the  Low  Countries,  its  origin  being 
traced  to  the  time  of  the  ancient  Germans.  It  lies  in  a  beautiful  valley  bordered  by  high 
mountains,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Sambre  and  Mouse.  The  castle,  on  a  high  rock,  was 
formerly  considered  almost  impregnable,  and  stood  many  sieges,  till  Joseph  II.  dismantled, 
and  the  French  afl.erwards  almost  demolished  it.  The  cathedral  and  the  Jesuits*  church 
are  fine  edifices,  and,  unlike  the  other  churches  of  the  Low  Countries,  of  Grecian  architec- 
ture. Namur  has  in  its  neighbourhood  extensive  iron  mines,  which  employ  many  of  the 
inhabitants ;  the  manufactures  of  the  city  consist  in  working  up  this  metal  mto  fire-arms, 
cutlery,  &.c.  Ascending  the  Mouse  towards  the  French  fix)ntier,  we  come  to  the  small  forti- 
fied towns  of  Dinant  and  Charlemont. 

The  provinces  of  Liege  and  Limburg,  which  are  much  intermingled  with  each  other, 
form  the  eastern  frontier  of  Belgium.  They  run  from  north  to  south  along  the  Meuse,  flout- 
ing Germany,  and  are,  indeed,  half  German.  On  the  banks  of  the  Meuse,  and  in  some  par- 
ticular districts,  the  territory  is  broken  and  rocky ;  but  most  of  it  consists  of  an  extended 
and  highly  cultivated  plain.  The  eastern  district  is  distinguished  by  the  peculiar  richness 
of  its  pastures,  which  produce  butter  and  cheese  of  great  value.  Its  manufactures,  also, 
especially  those  of  fine  woollens,  are  very  flourishing. 

Of  the  cities  in  these  two  provinces,  Liege,  once  flie  seat  of  a  sovereign  bishop,  is  ancient 
and  large,  but  upon  the  whole  ill  built  and  gloomy ;  and  though  some  of  its  buildings  are 
large,  they  do  not  display  the  taste  conspicuous  in  other  Belgic  cities.  The  church  of  St. 
Paul  is,  however,  admired,  as  was  that  of  St.  Lambert,  till  it  was  destroyed  during  the  revo- 
lution.  Liege  has  a  manufiicture  of  fine  woollen  cloths,  which  sell  at  a  high  price.  The 
town  of  Limburg,  now  included  in  Liege,  has  lost  much  of  its  population  and  industry;  and 
a  great  part  of  its  precincts  is  in  ruins.  Spa,  situated  amid  romantic  rocks,  is  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  watering  places  in  Europe.  The  resort,  though  much  diminished,  is  still 
considerable,  and  composed  of  persons  of  distinguished  rank.  The  inhabitants  work  the 
beechwood,  which  grows  in  the  neighbourhood,  into  a  variety  of  toys,  for  which  they  find  a 
ready  sale  among  the  visitors.  St.  Tron  and  Tongres  are  ancient  towns,  the  former  having 
R  celebrated  Benedictine  abbey.  Eupen,  like  Verviers,  has  flourishing  manufactures  of  cloth. 
Herve  is  the  chief  market  for  the  Limburg  cheese,  which  goes  by  its  name.  Stavelot  is 
noted  for  its  leather.    ■ 

SuBSBCT.  2. — Holland. 

The  province  of  Holland  is  of  paramount  importance,  including  all  the  great  cities  and 
principal  scats  of  commerce;  .«o  that  its  name  was  most  Ui<ually  given  to  the  whole  republic. 
It  formd  a  long  narrow  strip,  ulniort  ovorywhere  enclosed  and  penetrated  bv  water;  on  one 


512 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


side  it  is  washed  by  the  North  Soa ;  on  the  otiior,  by  the  Zuyder  Zee;  in  its  centre  it  litis 
.ho  larnfe  liike  colled  Hiiiirlein-Mcer,  while  the  Rhine  and  the  Lech  intersect  its  numerous 
channels.  The  whole  country  is  so  low,  that  it  is  habitable  only  by  means  of  enormous 
dik(!s,  which  exclude  the  sea  :  when  these  ijivo  way,  the  waters  rush  in,  and  inundate  the 
whole  territory.  The  country  forms,  in  fact,  one  vast  well-watered  meadow  scarcely  any 
where  subjected  to  the  plough,  thoujjh  extensive  gardens  are  cultivated,  both  for  use  and 
ornament.  But  the  chief  products  are  cattle,  butter,  and  cheese,  for  the  supply  of  the  popu- 
lation of  the  cities,  and  for  export. 

Amsterdam  (Jig.  390.),  the  capital  of  the  province  and  kingdom  of  Holland,  is  situated  at 
the  point  of  confluence  of  the  river  Amstel  with  the  Y,  an  arm  of  the  Zuyder  Zee.    It  was 

a  considerable  town  in  the 
fourteenth  century ;  but  it  was 
not  until  the  sixteenth  cen- 
*ury,  when  the  persecutions 
of  the  Spaniards  in  Belgium 
proved  fatal  to  the  trade  and 
navigation  of  Antwerp  and  the 
southern  provinces,  that  Am- 
sterdam attained  to  the  dis- 
tinction which  she  enjoyed 
till  about  the  middle  of  the  last 
Anmcrdam.  century,  of  being   the  first 

commercial  city  of  Europe.  It  is  but  justice,  however,  to  state  that  her  extraordinary  pro- 
gress depended  as  much,  or  more,  on  the  liberal  and  enlightened  policy  of  her  rulers,  as  on 
external  events.  Every  individual,  whatever  might  be  his  country  or  his  religion,  was 
received  with  open  arms  at  Anistenlam ;  and  acquired,  by  means  of  a  trifling  payment,  the 
right  of  citizenship,  and  the  enjoyment  of  all  the  privileges  of  a  native.  All  the  public  insti- 
tutions were  calculated  to  promote  commerce ;  and  at  a  time  when  trade  and  industry  in 
other  cotmtries  were  oppressed  by  prohibitions,  in  Holland  they  were  comparatively  free. 
When  most  prosperous,  Amsterdam  is  supoosed  to  have  contained  about  240,000  inhabitants; 
but  at  present  the  population  is  not  supposed  to  exceed  200,000.  Being  built  in  a  marsh,  the 
foundations  of  the  city  are  laid  on  piles;  and  it  is  a  common  complaint  that  a  house  costs 
as  nuicli  below  as  above  ground.  The  three  principal  streets  are  parallel  to  each  other,  and 
are  not  easily  to  be  matched  for  length,  breadth,  and  the  magnificence  of  the  houses ;  many 
of  which,  though  antique,  are  splendid,  and  are  kept  in  the  best  possible  repair.  The  city 
is  intersected  by  an  immense  number  of  canals,  communicating  by  draw-bridges,  and  having 
sluicos  for  the  purpose  of  regulating  the  level  of  the  water:  these  canals  are  for  the  most 
part  bordered  by  fine  trees.  The  expenses  incurred  in  keeping  the  sluices  in  order,  and  in 
clearing  the  canals  and  port  of  mud,  are  very  heavy.  The  matchless  industiy  and  perse- 
verance of  this  wonderful  people,  are  in  nothing  so  signally  displayed  as  in  their  works  and 
contrivances  for  conquering  the  difliculties  incident  to  their  situation,  and  making  the  waters, 

which  threaten  to  overwhelm  them,  con- 
361  tribute  to  their  comfort.     The  stadl- 

house  {fig.  361.),  now  the  royal  palace, 
is  the  finest  building  in  the  city ;  and  is, 
indeed,  one  of  the  noblest  anywhere  to 
be  met  with :  it  is  of  large  dimensions, 
and  is  adorned  with  pillars,  and  with 
sculptures  emblematical  of  commerce 
and  navigation.  Above  13,000  piles 
are  said  to  have  been  employed  in  form- 
ing its  foundation.  The  harbour  is  in- 
convenient, large  ships  being  obliged  tc 
lighten  before  they  can  pass  the  Pam- 
pus  or  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  Y,  and  the  navigation  of  the  Zuyder  Zee  is  also  difficult.  To 
remedy  these  inconveniences,  the  large  canal  to  the  Helder,  already  alluded  to,  bus  been 
constructed.  The  trade  of  Amsterdam  has  increased  considerably  within  the  last  few  years ; 
and  about  2200  ships  now  annually  clear  out  for  foreign  countries.  None  of  the  water  from 
the  canals  is  made  use  of  for  culinary  purposes ;  the  town  being  supplied  with  fresh  water, 
conveyed  in  carts  from  the  Vecht,  about  five  or  six  miles  distant ;  but  most  of  the  houses 
have  cisterns,  where  the  rain-water  is  collected.  There  is  p  national  museum  of  pictures, 
which  contains  many  fine  specimens  of  the  Dutch  school.  The  various  prisons  and  houses 
of  correction  and  industry  at  Aiiisterdairi  are  said  to  be  managed  on  more  approved  princi= 
pies  than  similar  institutions  in  most  parts  of  Europe.  The  police  is  excellent;  crimes  rare; 
and  no  beggars  to  be  ston  in  the  streets.  The  inhabitants  seem  vigorous  and  healthy ;  but 
the  mortality,  thov.gh  materially  diminished  within  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years,  is  still  greater 


Stadt-Houao,  Amsterdam. 


Part  III. 


Book  t 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


513 


enjoyed 


thun  in  most  European  cities ;  a  consequence,  probably,  of  the  humidity  of  the  climate,  and 
of  tlie  effluvia  arising,  in  summer,  from  the  canals. 

Kotterdam  (Jiff.  362.)i  the  second  city  in  Holland,  is  more  conveniently  situated  for  com- 
Dierce  than  Amsterdam,  having  a  readier  access  to  the  sisa ;  and  the  Maese  on  which  it  is 
situated,  being  so  very  deep  as  to  admit  vessels  of  the  largest  draught  of  water  to  lie  clut<e 


Botlerdani. 


Statue  of  Eroimtu. 


The  Haiiue. 


U)  the  quays.  Its  commerce  is  rapidly  increasing.  Its  principal  exports  are  geneva  and 
madder ;  and  it  carries  on  the  busmcss  of  sugar-refining  on  a  large  scale.  It  has  all  the 
cbaracteristics  of  a  Dutch  town ;  being  neat,  clean,  uniform ;  the  houses  high,  and  built  of 

very  small  bricks.  Thp  canals  inter- 
secting it  are  numerous,  deep,  and, 
unless  in  a  few  of  the  most  crowded 
streets,  connected  by  draw-bridges. 
Rotterdam  boasts  of  being  the  birth- 
place of  Erasmus;  to  perpetuate 
whose  memory,  she  has  erected  a 
handsome  statue  {Jig.  363.). 

The  Hague  (fg.  364.),  though 
ranking  only  as  a  village,  is,  in  fact, 
one  of  the  handsomest  cities  in  Eu- 
rope. The  streets  and  squares  are  well  built,  bordered  with  fine  walks  and  avenues  of  trees. 
Neither  the  old  nor  the  new  palace  can  boast  of  any  splendid  architecture;  but  the  former 
is  large,  and  contains  some  valuable  collections.  An  avenue  of  two  miles  leads  to  the  neat 
6sliing  town  of  Scheveling,  whence  the  dealers  are  daily  seen  bringing  their  commodities 

in  little  carts  drawn  by  large  dogs. 
Leyden  C/fg-.  365.)  is  a  fine  old  city, 
situated  in  the  heart  of  the  Rhine- 
land,  where  this  ancient  bed  of  the 
river  is  cut  into  an  infinity  of  canals, 
which  render  this  the  richest  mea- 
dow land  of  Holland.  The  beer, 
the  butter,  and  the  bread  of  this  dis- 
trict are  held  in  the  highest  estiina^ 
tion.  Leyden,  during  the  war  with 
Spain,  was  the  most  important  city 
in  Holland,  and  on  the  r  vent  of  its 
siege  the  fate  of  that  country  was 
supposed  to  depend.  The  Spaniards, 
by  a  lengthened  and  strict  blockade, 
reduced  it  to  the  last  extremity ;  while  the  Dutch  could  muster  no  force  adequate  to  its 
relief.  It  was  then  that  they  formed  the  magnanimous  resolution  of  breaking  down  their 
dikes,  and  admitting  the  ocean.  It  was  some  time  before  the  full  eflfect  was  produced ;  but 
at  length,  impelled  by  a  violent  wind,  the  sea  rushed  in,  overwhelmed  all  the  works  of  the 
besiegers,  and  forced  them  to  a  precipitate  flight.  The  little  fleet  of  boats  which  had  been 
prepared  for  the  relief  of  Leyden,  immediately  sailed  over  the  newly  formed  expanse,  and 
triumphantly  entered  the  city.  The  Prince  of  Orange  offered  to  Leyden  the  option  of  two 
benefits, — an  immunity  from  taxes  for  a  certain  perial,  or  the  foundation  of  a  university  in 
the  city.  The  citizens  crowned  their  former  glory  by  choosing  the  latter  alternative,  and 
a  university  was  accordingly  founded,  which  speedily  became  one  of  the  most  eminent  schools 
iu  Europe ;  and>  thoi\,  h  much  injured  by  the  numerous  rivals  which  have  since  sprung  up, 
it  continues  to  mainiain  a  high  eputation,  particularly  as  a  classical  school.  Leyden  is  still 
a  handsome  and  flourishing  town ;  carries  n  the  woollen  manufacture  with  success,  though 
on  a  diminished  scale ;  and  is  a  great  mark  t  for  butter  and  cheese.  Haarlem  (Jig.  366.)  is 
another  city  of  ancient  importance.  In  the  great  struggle  for  independence,  it  stood  a 
Vol.  I.  3  P 


Leyden. 


'it 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  111. 


Haurlum. 


267 


memorable  siege  of  seven  months;  when  it  surrendered  upon  honourable  terms,  which  were 
basely  violated  by  the  Duke  of  Alva.  Haarlem  is  still  spacious  and  flourishing,  and  excels 
peculiarly  in  the  bleaching  of  lin«n  and  cambric,  which  it  performs  for  all  the  neighbouring 

ogg  provinces.      The    matchless 

and  brilliant  whiteness  of  the 
Haarlem  linens  has  boon  im- 
puted to  a  peculiar  quality  in 
the  water,  but  is  more  pro- 
bably the  remit  of  the  ex- 
treme skill  of  the  inhabitanta, 
acquired  by  long  practice. 
Flowers  are  principally  raised 
for  sale  in  the  vicinity  of  Han  r- 
lem.  Delft,  en  ancient  gloomy 
town,  was  formerly  celebrated 
for  the  manu&cture  of  the  ware  which  bears  its  name ;  but.  this,  as  alreadv  observed,  has 
been  almoe:  entirely  supplanted  by  English  earthenware.  Dort  or  Dordrecht,  enclosed  by 
branches  of  the  Maese,  was  the  ancient  capital  of  Holland,  while  the  main  commerce  of  that 
country  continued  to  centre  in  this  its  most  natural  quarter.  It  still  retains  very  considera- 
ble traces  of  tiiis  early  importance.  The  town-hall  and  great  church  are  magnificent  struc- 
tures. There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  goods  coming  down  the  Rhine,  particularly  floats  of 
limber,  so  large  that  one  of  them  has  been  valued  at  360;000  florins.  Gouda  is  a  largo 
flourishing  village,  in  a  rich  country,  and  carries  on  an  extensive  manuflictory  of  tobacco- 
pipes.     It  is  celebrated  for  the  excellence  of  its  cheose. 

North  Holland  forms  a  considerable  peninsula,  almost  entirely  encircled  bv  the  Zuyder 
Zee  and  the  North  Sea,  and  bordered  by  sand-hills  of  some  elevation ;  but  the  interior  is 
covered  with  rich  pastures,  on  which  are  fed  large  herds  of  cattle.  The  ancient  and  not 
ungraceful  costumes  (Jig.  267.)  of  the  Dutch  peasantry  are  preserved  with  greater  exact- 
ness in  this  sequestered  part  of  Holland, 
than  in  any  other;  and  the  fishery,  for 
which  their  situation  is  peculiarly  adapted, 
is  carried  on  with  great  activity.  Alk- 
maar  is  an  agreeable  town,  with  a  great 
traflic  in  butter  and  cheese,  and  a  manu- 
fiicture  of  nets.  The  most  important 
places  in  North  Holland  are  the  Helder 
and  the  Texel,  two  grand  naval  stations; 
the  one  a  strong  fort,  commanding  the 
entrance  of  the  Zuyder  Zee ;  the  other  an 
PesianirT  in  Holland.  island  opposite,  in  which  the  Dutch  fleets 

used  to  rendezvous,  from  the  ftcility  it 
aflorded  for  their  getting  to  sea.  Along  the  coast  of  the  Zuyder  Zee  are  the  considerable 
towns  of  Hoorn  and  Enkhuisen,  and  the  smaller  ones  of  Edam  and  t*urmerend. 

Zealand  is  a  region  more  completely  enclosed  by,  and  sunk  below,  the  level  of  the  water, 
than  any  other  part  of  the  United  Provinces.  It  consists  of  nine  islands,  formed  and  envi- 
roned  by  branches  of  tlie  Maese  and  the  Scheldt,  as,  passing  from  the  state  of  rivers  into  friths, 
they  unite  with  the  ocean.  The  mariner,  in  approaching,  sees  only  points  of  the  spires 
peeping  above  the  immense  dikes  which  defend  them  from  inundation.  The  soil  is  moist 
and  rich,  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  madder.  The  damp  air,  however,  and  the 
exhalations  firam  the  waters,  render  these  islands  unhealthy,  and  even  fttal  to  foreigners,  as 
was  dreadfiiUy  experienced  by  the  British  troops  while  quartered  at  Walcheren ;  but  the 
natives  do  not  experience  the  same  pernicious  effects.  Middleburg  is  a  considerable  city, 
with  a  town-hall  and  several  churches,  which  aflTord  fine  specimens  of  Gothic  architecture. 
Flushing  is  an  eminent  naval  station,  and  has  a  considerable  tt&Ae  and  fishery.  The  island 
of  Schowen  has  Zierikzee,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  counts  of  Zealand;  and  South  Beve- 
land  has  Goes,  or  Tergoes,  with  a  considerable  trade  in  salt. 

Utrecht,  a  more  inland  province  than  Holland,  forms  a  continuation  of  the  same  tract  of 
flat  meadow  land,  interspersed  with  gfardens  and  country  residences.  Utrecht,  the  capital, 
is  a  remarkably  agreeable  city,  and  being  a  little  elevated,  the  view  from  its  ramparts  and  the 
top  of  its  cathedral  over  the  vast  plains  and  broad  waters  of  Holland  is  extensive  and  de- 
lightful. The  Romans  called  it  Ulpii  Trajectum,  as  commanding  an  important  passage  over 
the  Rhine ;  and  in  the  middle  ages  it  was  held  by  the  warlike  bishops  of  Utrecht.  In  this 
citv  was  cnnchided  the  treaty  of  confoderation,  in  l.'i97,  by  which  the  United  PnjvincRa 
were  constituted,  and  also  the  celebrated  treaty  of  1715,  which  terminated  the  long  war  of 
the  Spanish  succession.  Amersfoort,  pleasantly  situated  on  the  Erne,  and  noted  as  the 
:birth-place  of  Barneveldt,  has  considerable  fiibrics  of  dimity  and  bombazeen,  and  extensive 


BOOE  1. 


HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM. 


516 


Noarden,  a  small  towiii  forms  the  key  of  all  the  water  communicatioM 


ren;  but  the 


bleaching^  {prounda, 
of  IIollHtid. 

North  Brabant,  comprisinff  that  which  was  the  Dutch  part  of  the  province,  is  a  flat,  sandy, 
marshy  tract,  not  distinguished  by  either  the  natural  fertility  or  manufacturing  industry  so 
conHpicuuuH  in  the  rest  of  Holland  and  Belj|[ium.  Forming,  however,  tlie  barrier  by  which 
tho  J)utch  maintained  tlioir  independence,  it  contains  several  of  the  strongest  fintresses  in 
Europe,  wiiich  have  indeed  the  reputation  of  being  almost  impregnable.  Breda  is  one  of 
tlio  most  conspicuous.  Atler  Prince  Maurice  of  Nassau  took  it  by  surprise,  in  1500,  ita 
fortifications  were  greatly  extended,  and'  the  surrounding  country,  being  intersected  by 
rivers  and  marshes,  con  be  laid  under  water.  It  is  an  agreeable  city,  commanding  from  tlie 
ramparts  a  fine  view,  and  both  its  church  and  its  town-hall  are  admired  Gothic  edifices. 
Bois  le  Due,  or  Herzogenbosch,  on  the  Dommel,  so  named  from  an  old  hunting-wood  of  the 
Dukes  uf  Brubant,  is  a  large  town,  and  equally  strong.  It  is  so  intersected  by  canals,  that 
eighty  bridges  are  rcq'ired  to  cross  them ;  in  winter  tlio  place  is  entirely  surrounded  by 
water,  nnd  can  be  approached  only  in  boats.  Bergen-op-Zoom,  farther  to  the  west,  is  similar 
as  to  strength,  and  was  esteemed  the  masterpiece  of  the  celebrated  Cohom.  The  disastroui 
attack  made  upon  it  by  the  British  in  the  last  war  is  well  remembered. 

Tlie  outer  provinces  of  Guelderlanr*,  Friealand,  Overyssel,  Drenthe,  and  Gronin^en, 
which  lie  between  the  Zuyder  Zee  and  t.i  Ems,  are  rather  appendages  than  integral  portions 
of  Holland,  and  form  by  their  ntuation  part  of  the  great  level  plain  of  northern  Germany. 
The  country  is  similar  to  Hollaad,  however,  in  its  aspect  and  the  general  state  of  eultivap 
tion,  thougli  a  somewhat  greater  proportion  of  the  land  is  employeuin  the  raising  of  grain. 
Friealand.  has  a  very  fine  breed  of  horses  and  horned  cattle ;  and  the  linen  manu&cture 
flourishes  to  a  considerable  extent  In  these  provinces,  particularly  in  Guelderland  and 
Overyssel,  there  is  a  large  extent  of  sandy  and  marshy  ground,  which  is  not  forced  into  cul- 
tivation with  the  same  minute  care,  as  in  the  central  provinces.  Much  benefit,  however,  is 
expected  fhim  the  pauper  colonies  lately  established  there. 

The  towns  of  this  region  are  pretty  numerous  and  considerable,  though  none  are  of  the 
first  class.  Nimeguen,  in  Guelderland,  is  ancient,  strong,  and  handsome,  commanding  a 
noble  view  over  tlie  Rhine.  Zutphen  is  an  old  imperial  city,  dreadfully  pillaged  in  1572  by 
tlie  Duke  of  Alva.  It  has  a  magnificent  church ;  and  the  reus  around  it  have  been  so  odm- 
pletely  dramcd,  as  to  render  the  air  no  longier  unwholesome.  Amheim  is  a  large  and  beau- 
tiibl  town,  at  the  fbot  of  the  hills  of  Veluwe,  and  forming  a  great  thoroughfare  into  Ger- 
many. Deventer,  in  Overyssel,  is  an  ancient  member  of  the  Hanseatic  league,  and  has  a 
venerable  cathedral.  Zwdll,  on  the  Yssel,  is  strong,  large,  and  well  built  Assen,  though 
capital  of  the  new  province  of  Drenthe,  is  only  a  village.  In  Friesland,  Leuwarden,  on 
the  Ee,  is  a  large  and  populous  town,  in  a  country  surrounded  and  intersected  with  canals, 
which  enable  it  to  communicate  with  the  sea,  and  to  carry  on  a  considerable  trade.  Cam- 
pen,  an  ancient  Honse  town,  has  lost  its  importance,  the  harbour  being  now  choked  up. 
Harlhigen,  Franeker,  Dokkum,  Bolsward,  are  ports  on  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and  manufacturing 
places  of  some  importance.  Groningen,  capital  of  the  provinces  of  tho  same  name,  is  the 
most  important  of  all  the  towns  east  of  the  Zuj^der  Zee.  It  is  well  built  and  adorned  with 
noble  edifices ;  and  its  university  was  once  distinguished  among  Dutch  seminaries.  Large 
vessels  can  ascend  the  Hunse  from  the  Zuyder  Zee. 

Luxemburg,  an  extensive  province,  though  political  rcvt>lutions  attached  it  to  the  Nether- 
lands, and  now  to  Holland,  forms  part  of  Germany,  entitling  the  king  to  a  vote  in  the  Ger- 
manic diet  Its  character  is  every  way  in  decided  contrast  to  the  rest  of  Holland  and  Bel- 
gium. Instead  of  a  dead,  rich  flat,  traversed  by  navigable  streams  and  canals,  Luxemburg 
presents  almost  throughout  high  mountains  and  woods,  forming  scenes  of  savage  grandeur, 
similar,  though  on  r  smaller  scale,  to  those  of  Switzerland.  The  country  is  destitute  of 
water  communications,  is  imperfectly  cultivated,  and  does  not  contain  a  population  of  more 
than  sixty-six  to  the  square  mile.  Its  breeds  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  of  smal.  size ;  but  o^ 
usual  in  mountain  pastures,  of  delicate  l^^^/our.  The  horses  are  active  and  hardy ;  and  the 
tract  which  borders  on  the  Moselle  pF>duces  valuable  wine. 

The  cities  and  towns  are  by  no  means  on  the  same  scale  as  those  in  the  rest  of  the  king- 
dom. Luxemburg,  the  capital,  situated  on  two  rocks,  whose  steep  sides  form  a  glacis,  while 
the  river  Else,  at  their  feet,  serves  as  a  wet  ditch,  is  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in 
Europe.  The  horse  and  cattle  markets  are  considerable.  Theux  has  in  its  neighbourhood 
mines  of  a  beautiful  black  marble.  Maestricht,  the  principal  town  of  Limburg,  has,  along 
with  all  the  part  of  that  province  east  of  the  Meuse,  been  assigned  to  Holland  It  is  large, 
Imndsomp,  and  well  fortified.  Rurcmoude  and  Venlo,  okojeat  towni  of  some  strenglJi,  are 
included  in  the  same  district.        - -- ^     .^„.^^  ..•;,,-«,:.,  jiui.  ,,**...  ■;.«■. . 


•10 


MAP  OF  FRANCEr— wm  wmx. 


Fw.  909. 


6  LoogilviM  Wm  4  Itaa  Onmrkii 


Fn.  90B. 


tm.  980i 


MAP  OF  FRANCE--BA«r  vae-v. 


1 


ftA'4 


14N|3 


Hi>:;i."f 


p(«i ' 


l«,     N 


-7,N       E 

^-'^■'•-jd.. 


in, 

FO 


V^ 


rf» 


Ln^tudeEut 


DE8CRIPTIVB  OBOORAPHY. 


PAnnt 


p-STtr 


SOT 


■ 


'Ci'-ftT!:" 


CHAPTER  VIIL 


■  iiai'iMWiiMliyii 


FRANCE.  ' 

Framob  is  a  mat  and  poworftil  kingdom,  placed,  aa  it  were,  in  the  centre  of  the  ciri- 
liied  world,  and  for  several  centuries  distinguished  by  the  conspicuous  part  which  it  has 
acted  on  the  theatre  of  Europe.  lis  population,  military  power,  central  situation,  vast  re- 
■ources,  and  active  industry,  render  it  peculiarly  deserving  of  an  attentive  survey. 


Re/eimeti  to  the  Map  of  France, — Wetl  Part, 


NORTH  PART. 

Priivint!*  of 

artuTb. 


Dtipartmrntef 
.g«raTturCt|«ii. 


n 


uuloiM 


lontnuU 
Z>««rlmc«(  ef 


at.  I/Aiila 
6U.  MnriaiM 
64.  BflotnM 
69.  Aleneon 
u6.  Uomrrant 
67.  Tinchf  brtr 
W.  Murtsin 

69.  Avnnchci 

70.  Pontonoa 

Dtpartmtnti. 

X.  Ille  ud  Vi- 

liilne 
I.  Nurth  Coul 

JI.  Finiilem 

7t.  Antiain 
n.  8t.  Mala 


DepartmenU. 
XVI.  Mar«na« 
XVII.  BoiUui. 

IW.  Craon 

VM.  ChatMU  Oon- 

llvr 
Ml-  9il>le 
Is.  La  Flecha 
131  Chaluu  de 

IjQir 
lM.BtjDflaii 
135.  Le  Maui 

m.  VHiiM 

yjn.  (.aval 


r  Loin 


"i.  Siiian 
Brieux 


15:  Hamb 
14.  Houd 


ieine  and  Oii*. 


10.  GrandTlllan 
'1.8l.0lair 

Maulao 

tambouiUet 
- ,  Jloudan 
lS.lliwtea 

noSman?)y. 

DefartmtnU. 
^.^owarBauH, 

VII.  Qrna 
VIII.  Calra-loa 
IX.  Tha  Channel. 
(La  Manche.) 

16.  Vernon 

17.  Andeleyi 

18.  aoiirnajr 
10.  Neurehatal 

«'  &■■«<■ 
91.  £u     - 

93.  Dieppe 
p.gt.vriery 
Ml  Fecamp 
B.  Hnvre  de  Grace 
90.  Kiilbec 

97.  YTotot 

98.  Rouen 
».  Elboiar 
30. 1..ouvieca 
3).  Brionne 

XL  Pont  Aiidener 

33.  Pont  rEvequa 

34.  Lialeux 
IS.  Caen 
3A.  Bayeuz 

30.  Carentan 

40.  Vainf  naa 

41.  Barfleur 
43.  Cberbourg 

43.  \m  Pieux 

44.  Bameville 

45.  Creance 

46.  Coutancea 

47.  Granville 

48.  Villediea 

49.  Vire 

50.  Thoriimr 

51.  St.GemiiJn 

52.  Pnnt  d'OuUlr 
S.1.  Falain 

54.  ArgentaD 
SIS.  Guce 
S6.0rbee 

57.  Bernay 

58.  Rugiea 

55.  r^vritux 

00.  Ivrr 

01.  VerneuU 


76.^f;ir 

77.  lianaion 

78.  Bella  lie 

79.  Morlaix 

80.  Lannilii 

81.  Broat 

83.  Landemaai) 

83.  Chateaulin 

84.  Andierne 
BS.  Qiilmper 

86.  Qiilmperle 

87.  Gnurin 

88.  Cnrhaix 

89.  Riwlronen 
00.  Uzel 

91.  Lnudeac 
93.  Broona 

93.  Montfort 

94.  Hede 

95.  Rennea 

96.  Bt.  Aubin 

97.  FouKctM 
9a  Vitre 

99.  La  Guerche 

100.  Chateaubriaat 

101.  Cervin 
103.  Oatentoire 

103.  Rcdon 

104.  Malelroit 

105.  Ploermel 

106.  Band 

107.  Ponlivv 

108.  Hnnnnbon 

109.  L'Orient 

110.  Vannea 

111.  Roche-Bernard 
113.Nozar 

113.  Ancenia 

114.  Naiitea^ 
1 1.V  Savenay 

116.  Guerrande 

117.  Pnimbffiuf 

118.  Bnurineuf 

119.  Cliaaon 

Province  of 
ANJOU. 

Departmenl  of 

XV.  Msyenne  and 
Loire. 

ISO.  Beaupreau 
131.  Chollel 
133.  Chnlonne 

133.  Vihiera 

134.  Snuraur 
135  Bauge 
130.  Aniiere 

iZ7-  Lncrande   v 
K.  Scire 

Province  of 

MAINE  AND 

PERCHE. 


.  jurlina 
.  May( 


\Ms, 


141.  Piea  en  PaU 
149.  flrenay 

144!  La  Fena  Bar- 

14S.  »{oDimlraU 

Provlnca  of 
ORLEANAIS. 
DapardRmU. 
XVIIi.  Eura  and 

Loir 
XJX .  Luiret 
XX.  Loir  and  Char. 
;ou 

loceollaBo- 
trau 

148.  Alliera 

149.  Dreuz 

150.  Mainienon 

151.  Chartrea 

153.  Bonneval 
153  Toary 

154.  Arlonay 

155.  Chsleaudun 

156.  Mondoubleaa 

157.  Vendome 
198.  Bloia 
ISO.  Melun 

160.  Orluana 

161.  Coaion 

163.  Ghambord 
16.3.  Roinorantin 

164.  St.  Aiitnan 
169.  Chaumont 

Province  of 

TOURAINE. 

Dmarlntnt  of 

XXI.  Indra  and 

Loire. 

106.  Chateau  Ref- 

naull 
lri7.  Toura 

168.  Savigne 

169.  Langeaif 

170.  Chinon 

171.  La  Haye 
179.  Monlbazon 

173.  Lochea 

174.  Beauliea 


XXV.  Vnndea. 

184.  U  RoetM 

Pnaay 

\m.  Cbatafleraull 

186.  Loudun 

187.  Moneontour 

188.  f  houara 
180.  Braaiure 
100.  Challlloa  ear 

Scvra 
191.  Pouiania 

fefaii,- 

104.  Bi.GUIeaiat 

Vie 
19S.Bablead;Olom« 

II 


33.  Unroba 
.34.  Ti 


.  'raifoao 
Julia 
Turenna 
DoDieDae 

Province  of 
GUIKNNE. 


& 


7.  BoutboD- Ven- 
dee 
ISe.  Lueon 
190.  Fonlenay 

900.  Chalainneraye 

901.  Parihenay 

903.  Ylvnnne 
9ffi.  Poiijera 

904.  St.  Bavin. 

905.  Manlmordlon 
OiO.  L'lale  Jourdaio 

907.  Civray 

908.  Halle 

910.  MauM 

911.  Bauxe 


lartaiMU. 

ol 

'arn  and  Ga- 

VIII.  lloT  and  Oa- 

IX.  Dorduina 
X.  Bordeaux 

a8.ThiTlen 
30.  Nnmron 
41  Brariloma 
41.  Peti(ue,ux 
49.  MareuU 

43.  Riberao 

44.  Mvonau 
luma 


46.  Coulraa 

47.  Blaya 

48.  Bourc 
W-  Medoe 


Province  of 

BERRI. 

Dtpartment  cf 

XXII.  Fndre. 

175.  Chalillon  aui 

Indre 

176.  Levroux 

177.  Valencay 

178.  Valan 

179.  Chaleauroux 

180.  La  Chaire 

181.  Argenton 
im.  St.  Benolt 
183.  he  Blanc 

Province  of 

POITOU. 

Depnrtmentt. 

XXIirVienno 

XXIV.  Two  Sevres 


BOIITH  PAR'l. 
Province  of 

Dtparlmatt «/ 

I,  Lower  Chatanto. 
I.  Marana 

9.  La  Roohelle 
3.  Koeheflirt  . 

1.  SI.  Jean  d'An- 

Hely 
5.  Painlea 

?.  Marennea 
.  R(iyan 
8.  Pona 
£.  Joniac 

10.  Mirumbeau 

II.  Monlieu 

Province  of _ 
ANOOUMOIS. 
Departmint  n 
II.  Charenle 
13.  Aubuterre 

13.  Barbi'xieux 

14.  Cognac 

15.  Angouleme 

16.  La  Rochefou- 

cauld 

17.  Manale 

18.  Ruffcc 

19.  Cunfulena 

Provincea  of 
HARCHR  AND 
LIMOUSIN. 
VtviirtmenU, 
III.  IJpper  Vienna 
II V.  Curiuxe 
V.  Creuae. 
90.  Reltao 
31. 1.e  Dornt 
93.  Soularraina 
9:).  Gueret 
34.  Bourganeuf 
3.V  Gymontiera 

96.  Si.  Leonard 

97.  Limogea 

98.  St.  Junien 

99.  Roohechonart 
30.  Chalua 
Sl.St.Vrieix 

70.  Pierre  Buflieie 


56.  Cn 

57.  La  Heolle 

58.  Marmand* 


A.TetedeBueh 

le^Barp 

aMiee 

lordeaux 

57.  LnUMll( 

.larman— 

Caitillonez 
50.  Beraerao 
61.  liX  Linda 

69.  Miremont 

63.  Harlat 

64.  Domma 
6.1.  Calue 
06.  Gourdon 
67.  Martel 
68. 8t:  Cere 
60.  Figeao 

70.  Concota 
71. 9l.  Antonin 

79.  Cahora 

73.  CauMada 

74.  Moniauban 

75.  Verdun 

76.  Caatetaaraain 

77.  Mniitae 

78.  Moneuq 
70.  Fumel 

80.  Villeneuve- 

d'Agen 

81.  Agen 
89.  Nerao 

83.  (!aitel-Geloax 

84.  Bazaa 
89.  Captieux 


101.  Aire 

|<S  M.intdeMaraai> 
1(0.  Hi.  Hcvcr 
Miinl'url 

Sllvinciinl 

08.  gi.  Km)ni 

110.S..!uann«dd« 
Peirl 
II.  Mauleiin 
i  gleron 
13.  Nnvarreina 

114.  Oillna 

lis.  Garlin 

116.  Pau 

117.  Arudl 
lia  Nai 

Province  of 
BiyRJJ^AND 

nt'ca 
XV.  Arriege 

119.  Taibea 

190.  Argfliaz 

191.  Luz 
193.  Bngneroa 
193.  SarrBAcolin 
134.  Bayneroa  du 
.„     Lui;hon 

195.  81.  Girona 

196.  Taraacoa 

197.  Ax 


ii:F; 


nix 
'amieia 


M 


Province  of 

GA8C0NY. 

PepttrtmenU. 

.1.  Lnndea 

I.  Lower  Py- 


XIII.  Gera. 

80.  Sore 

87.  Miirat 

88.  Mimixan 

89.  La  Bouliere 

90.  Roquefort 

91.  Eauze 
03.  Condom 

93.  Lectoure 

94.  Fleurance 

95.  laleenJourdam 

96.  Lombez 

08.  Miranda 
99.  Vic  Ferenxas 
100.Noiaro 


Province  of 
LANGITEDOC 

XVl.  Uppi^r  Ga- 
ronne 
XVII.  Tani. 

130.  Cnaiclniiudary 

131.  Villorranche 
133.  Iittvaur 

133.  Si.  Suluice 

134.  Grfnaile 

135.  Toulouae 

136.  St.  Ly> 

137.  Muret 
1.38.  Rioux 

139.  Cazerpa 

140.  St  Giiudeni 

141.  SL  Beat 

Rivers. 
a  Seine 
b  Divei 
c  Dure 
d  Vire 
e  Ouat 
f  Vilaine 

e  Loire 
Maynnne 

Saithe 

Loire 

HRanvron 
.   Le  Cher 
m  Iniiro 
n  Crense 
0  Vienne 
p  Charenia 
q  Dronne 
r  lale 

a  Dordogna 
t  Vezare 
u  Lot 
V  Gnrcnne 
w  Aveyroo 
X  Tarn 
y  Adonr.  . 
xGavedaPaa 


f 


|B()OkI«  ,,m 
Francs  la 


Avi'tiie 
liiiiiilri' 


«iiei 
cy 


4.  LeCateau 

5.  Cambrai 

i  Valvncienna 
7.  Douay 
i  8t.  Amand 

»  !{>"• . 

10.  Hazobruuck 

IJ.  Dunkirk 
13.  Oravallna*. 


OtrallofCl 
14.  Ardrea 
li,  St.  Omer 
ID.  Aire 

17.  fauquemb* 

18.  Hnadin 
W.  |i.  Pol 
go.  Baibuna 
SI.  Artaa 

^.  Bapaume. 


a,  Doulena 
J4,  Amiena 
'".  Pnronna 


K.  Puix. 


PAwnt    ^Booil.  ^><T  y^M^  PRANCE      .MK,  v^-^lfl  6IW 

Swrr.  l.—Qeneral  Outlitie  and  Atpeot. 
France  m  bounded  on  the  North  by  the  Channel,  which  aeparstes  it  fWim  Enifland,  and 


of  the  ciri- 
vhich  it  haa 
ion,  vast  r«- 

'y.     -••;, 


Hi 

■  M 


In 

Hi.  Hijvcr 
Mnnlurl 
•kji 

'••yrjihiiriiil* 
[I.  Kaprit 
Bli'iimH 

«ul«im 
JImoii 

?A 


EAI 


r^S?"'"^ 


^Tp 


PP«r  Pyrr 
nt'n 
Arrie«« 
Tiibw 

Lui 

Biifnerot 
giiraAciilin 
Hnvneroi  ilu 

?liun)inn 
I.  Gironi 
, araacoB 

&' 

Foix 

Pimien 

ProvincB  of 
^NOUEDOC 
ftpartmniu 
1.  Uppflr  Oi- 

I.  Tani. 

Cailclnnudaif 
yillefranctie 
liavaur 
91.  Sulpice 
grpnaJe 
roulouae 
St.  Lm 
SJuret     V    ' 
Rieux 
Jnzerni 
Jt  Onudeof 
)LBaat 

Riveri. 

line 

VM 

Jrc 

Iru 

nt 

laina 

lire 

■ynnna 

iths 

lire 

aiirron 

I  Cher 

Ire 

Biise 

Diine 

aienla 

inue 

ilogna 
lere  i 

tine 
jyroo 
m 

ledaPui 


1 


NOB'I'H  PART. 

IV.tVIIH'll  ilf 

ki.andkkd, 

Diitnrt.iu-nt  uf 
T.  Tliu  Niirlh. 

I.  MaulMiifa 

i,  Avi'iiiua 

;i,  i,iiM(lri"cr 

4.  La  Cnlatiu 

5.  Cmnbrnl 

i,  Viilcnclenma 
7.  Uouay.      , 
8  8i.  Amand 

10.  Haxobrauok 

|i  Dunkirli 
U,  OruvaliiMi. 

arVoi 

n.  Strait  of  Ctltii. 

14.  Ardroa 

15.  St.  Omai 
IS,  Aire 

17.  f  auaiMmbarc 

18.  fiiwrin 
lU,  Si.  Pol 
go,  B«thuna 
31.  Arraa 

93.  Bapauma. 

Djva'rtmint  af 
111.  Sumina. 
O.  Doulena 
]4.  Amiena 
".  Puroana 


?fl.  Vnuilan 
I.  Vitlxnr 
i  Hatlia 
7:i.  Alfa  Id 
74.  Khnlma 
7A.  CourUf  Don 
™.  Yiilin/ 

77.  Bt,  Menahoud 

78.  Chttluna 
7».  Bparnar 
HO.  iJurmana 

1.  Miinimirail 
,  Haiaona 
Vnriua 

Vltrjf  anr  Marna 
.  Bt.  Kemr 
.  Kamnru 
Vraiaaur  Auba 
ianiilr 
(oieniaiir 
Jalna 
,  Triiirea 
,  Chaourea 
Bar  aur  Saioa 
.  Clatrvaux 
SH,  Bar  aur  Aub« 
93.  Montletandar 

iiiinvilla 

Chaumonl 

Aubarlva 


R^fermeeg  to  th»  Map  qf  Franet.—EoM  Part. 


M± 


uba 


m.  Lura 
M.  Luxauil 

•U.  Juaatiy 

E.Vaauul 
.  (.'hamplitta 
.  Itamplarra 
iHI.  (Srax 
tO.\if 
HI.  Jlauma 
Oa.  Muatbalianl 

tn.  Bi!HrpuiTta 

64.  U  Ruaaay 
to.  Ptuavani 
do.  Qmuna 

67.  BaaanooD 

68.  Uuinfoy 


74.  C'laira vaux 
7,1  LumloSaulnier 


in 
aude. 


laanirei 

SarleBi 
iiurbuniia  lea 


K.  Ruira 

ST.  Muntdidier 

ie.  Puix. 

Prnvince  of 

THE  iSl.R  OP 

FRANCE. 

DepartminU. 
IV.  Oiw 
V.  Heine 

VI.  S>'inaand01ao 
/II.  Snino  and 

Marna 
VIII.  Alane. 
SO.  Rretauil 
3(L  Beauvala 
31.  Clermont 
S.  Nofun 
Xi.  Compief  na 
34.  Croapr 
35.Si!naa 

36.  Moru 

37.  PontoJM 

38.  St.  Dunii 
30.  I.uiarchea 

40.  Diimmartin 

41.  Menux 

ki.  ('iiuliimmier 
4!!.  Marollea 
44.  Paria 
4.5.  Sceaux 

46.  Veraaillaa 

47.  Ciubeil 

48.  F.iRmpef 
4n.  Mflun 

SO.  Fontalnebleau 

51   Nemniirs 

St!.  .Monterenu  Fault 

Yiinna 
5.1.  R<ian7 
54.  Provina 
.W.  ChntRBU  Thierr 
S6  La  Fiirin  Miloii 
yt.  Villcra  Colere|| 
.v.  Biiiiiaona         * 
59.  I. mm 
m.  l,nFi>re 
61.  Si.  Quentin 
6-.'.  'Jiiisn 
Kl.  SiLsonne 
64  Viirvina. 

I'liivincn  of 
CHAMPAGNE. 

limiirtmmtt. 
IX.  Ardennoa 
X.  Mama 

Y»      *  ■■' 

J\\t  nuwa 

XII.  Upper  Marna 
6.').  Rncroy 
ae.  Charlerille 
BT.  Mciierca 
ffi.  Sedan 
».  Grand  Pra 


Bnina 
103.  Bourmoot. 

Provinoa  of 
LORRAINE. 

IJtparlmtHtl. 

_     I.  Mnurme 

XV.  Meuia 

XVI.  :'..uaelle. 


Province  of 
BURGUNDY. 
Dtpattmtntt. 
XXII.  AIn 

XXIII.  Baoneand 

Loire 

XXIV.  Cole  d'Of 
XXV.  Yonna. 

178.  Nanlua 

179.  Fort  d< 
li«.  Bayaaa 
181.  Bolley 


90.  Hniiocira 
XM  Vierzun 
US.  Bouriaa 
9M,  Chalaauneuf 
Vfl.  Chalaau  MaU- 

lant 
XK.  St.  Amand 
S30.  Dial 
MO.  Sanoariuaa. 

Province  of 
NIVKRNAIB. 

:fMtn5:eM 

941.  Nevera 
m  La  Charita 
ail.  Coane 
844.  Clamaey 
343.  Champleini 

946.  Corl)iiiiy 

947.  ChaleauChlnon 
9J8.  Moulina  en  Qil- 

bert 
940.  Declzo 
Si.  Pierre  la 
Moutlar. 


M^ 


lorn 
hiera. 


Provinca  of 
JRnONNAIH. 
DtadTtrntnt  of 

xxi: 


BOl 


991, 

•m.  Mouiin 
3.t.1.  nonjon 


19.  Fortdal'Eelnao 


IDS.  Plon 

106.  Epii 

107.  Ron 


104.  Sir.  ivillo 
"^lombieraa 
'pinal 
oinlremont 
lUS.  Uerardmer 
too.  St.  Dio 
no.  Kcmbervillor 
111.  nfirecourt 
113.  Neiifbhatoau 

113.  Oondrooourl 

114.  RnrleDuo 

115.  Vaucouleura 

116.  Coniinorcy 

117.  Toulon 
n8.  Nancy 
110.  Lunovllle 

190.  Raon 

191.  Biirri'biiurc 


183.  Ponein 
18:<.  Mount  Luel 

184.  Trovoux 
183.  ChalamoDt 

186.  Aouri 

187.  Macon 

188.  Port  de  Vaux 
180.  Cluny 

100.  Seinur  an  Bri- 

onnnia 

101.  Charollaa 

103.  BourbonLancy 
103.  M.  St.  Vincent 
1U4.  Tournua 
IM,  Romenay 

106.  Louhana 

107.  ('halonna 

108.  Chalona 
m.  Nolay 

900.  Monlcenia 

901.  Antun 


.-..  _ , .,  ..      309.  Saulieii   _ 

139.  Chateau  Salina  903.  Arnayle  Dun 


193.  Nomeny 

134.  florzo 

135.  Fronea 

136.  Sj.  Mihiel 
127.  Vaubeeourt 

138.  Verdun 

139.  Varennea 

130.  Katain 

131.  Montmedy 
139.  Lonf  wy 

133.  Brioy 

134.  Metz 
133.  Thionville 
130.  St.  Avoid 

137.  Sarrogueminea 

138.  Bitohe. 
Province  of 
ALSACE. 

XyiK  Lower  RhJB. 23,  3^,h«-''«- 

™"339.  Pont  lur  Yonna 


304.  Beauna 
m.  Nuili 
a06.  Dijon  „ 
307.  la  aur  Til 
3(IH.  Semar 
900.  Avalon 

310.  CoiilanRe  let 

Vinoea 

311.  Auxorra 
919.  Vormanton 

313.  Ravierei 

314.  Montbaid 
313.  Haigneux 

316.  Chntillonaur 

Seinn 

317.  Tonnerre 
918.  St.  Florcntin 
910.  Joigny 


IX.  Allier. 

Bourbon-l'Ar- 

chainbauU 

g-ll.  Donjon 
Varennaa 
La  Paliaao 
Caaaat 
lannat 
I.  Poureain 
^eriaann 
ont  Lucon. 

SOUTH  PART. 

Provinnn  of 

MARCHB. 

Dtpartment  nf 

I.  Creuaa. 

1.  Bouaaao 

9.  Jarnaxa 
3.  ChaniDon 

i.  Auianco 
.  Aubuaaoo 
0.  Fellatin 
7.  Courtine. 

Province  of 
LIMOUSIN. 

Dnartment  of 
It.  Correze. 

aUiael 
0.  Hort 

10.  Egletona. 

Province  of 

GUIENNE. 

Department  of 

111.  Avoyroo. 

11.  Fiaeac 
19.  Liviicnao 

13.  Villefrancha 

14.  St.  Sernin 
I.S.  Bt.  Afiiqua 

16.  8l.  Roma 

17.  Milhau 

18.  Rndei 

10.  Bovcrnc 
90.  St.  Oeniu 
31  Ouiolla 
i-l.  Kntrniguea 


Prnvince  of 
LYON  N  A  IS. 
lUpaTtmenti. 

\\\.  khoSa. 
44.  L'Houlial 
43.  I'ni'udwre 
4(1   KoHiinn 

47.  AiKuoperao 

48.  Th;*/ 

40.  Villefrancha 

50.  Lyiina 

51.  ueriin 

99.  Montbriaon 
3J.  Ht.  Riimbert 
M.  St.  Eilonnn 
95.  St.  Clliamund 

56.  Brignaw. 

Province  of 
DAUPHINY. 
l)rpnrlmtnt§  of 
VIII.  Imire 
IX.  Viipi.r  Alpa 
X .  Drome. 

57.  Vienna 


(lie  St.  Andra 


LA''fi'('!teAc. 
hijimtmnti, 
\V  (J.ii  ■ 


i 


l.iril 


AV.I: 


|.  .Niili-cti 
LMai're 


J'pix-r  Loir* 


38.  Pnago 
30.  C,      - 


60.  Bourgoin 

61.  r 


64 


67. 


CreiTiien 
63.  t,aTourduPio 
6;i.  Voiron 

Si.Barraux 

Grenoble 

Marrellin 
,  .  La  Mure 
68.  llourgd'Oyiana 
60.  Briancon 

?0.  Montdauphin 
1.  St.  Bonnet 

79.  Die 

73.  Renufort 

74.  St.  JeaodeRol 
73.  laare 

76.  St.  Vallier 

77.  Valence 

78.  Croat 
70.  Montelimait 

80.  Niiina 

81.  Liirgu 
83,  Argencon 

83.  Gap 

84.  Emlinin. 

Province  of 
PROVENCE. 
OfBiirtmmtt. 
XI.  Vniicluao 
.  Lower  Alpa 
Var 
,  Mouihi  of  the 
Rhone. 


Ai.  vn 

XII.  Lo 

JCin.  Va 

XIV.  Mo 


XIX.  Huliiull 
XX.  Tarn 
XXI.  Aiiiie. 
199.  Alguaa-ninrtaa 

133.  Homniiuiua 
I'M.  Nlaniea 
133   Umi 

196.  Pont  St.  Eapril 

137.  Marjae 
1^.  Alaia 

J 30.  Genollhac 
W.  Vllleiort 
131.  L'Argenliert   , 

139.  Viviata  i 
l.'KI.  Aubeiiaa         ^. 

134.  Privet  "^ 
i3.V  Tuumun 

136.  Annonay 

l:n.  St.  AitrKva      v 

138.  Ytainieaux 
130  St.  JuTien  3«  ' 

Chap 

140.  Lu  Puv 

141.  Brioud 
143.  l/nnuuac 

143.  Chely  9'Ap      < 

144.  Jnvula 
143.  Langogne 

146.  Matvejula 

147.  Mende 

148.  Canourgue 
140.  Flotao  n 
1.W.  Moyrueia 

I.M.  LeViian 

133.  Anduie 
I.M.  Ganglia 

134.  Montpeliar 
13.3.  Rnlarue 

1.Vi.  Peunaa    >  ^.i 

137.  Lodeve        * . 

138.  Bedarrieus 
ISO.  La  Cauiia 
ISO.  Alby 

161.  Ciiatrea 
103.  Piiia  Lauraoi 
16:1.  Mazamet 
164.  HI.  Pont  1, 

1M.  Reziora 

166.  Narb«inne 

167.  Ciiunea 

168.  Carcaaunna  ' ' 
160.  St. Papoul     .., 

170.  Fanjeaux         ' 

171.  Alet  I 

172.  Kodorae 

173.  aulllan  ■'> 

174.  La  Graato 


XViil.  Upper  Rhin 

139.  Weiaaombutg 

140.  Haguenau 

141.  Biiuquenon 
143.  Saverno 

143.  Siratburg 

144.  Moliheim 
143.  Schelatat 

146.  Si.  Marie  aux 

Minna 

147.  Colmar 

148.  NeufBriaach 
14!l.  Miilhauaen 
130.  Altkirch 

ISI .  Chann 
153.  Giromagny. 

Province  of 
FRANCJfE- 

cc — 


Sa  Eapalinn 

930.  VijIcnimvel'Ar  34.  Vilio  Contal. 

Province  of 

AirVP.RGNE. 

Devartmentt. 

IV.  Cnntnl 

V.  Dome. 

33.  Mount  Salvy 

36.  Maura 

37.  Aurillac 


50MTE 
XlX-ffpner  Baone  339.  Aubigny 


33:<.  Sl.Julien. 

Province  of 
ORLEANAIS. 
Drpnrtment  of 
XXVLLoiret. 
994.  CouriBnay 
2'.>3.  Chatillon 
336.  Montargia 
?27.  Bnyne 
938.  Pithiviera 
930.  Comhreux 
930.  Sully 
231.  Gion. 

Province  of 

BERRI. 

/>niar(ir;«it  of 

XXVII.  Cher. 


83.  Barcolonnetta 

86.  Oilmart 

87.  Oii'nn 

88.  Siateron 
80.  Forcalquier 
SO.  Snult 

01.  Vaiaiin 
99.  Ore  n  tie 
03.  Carpentrai 

94.  Avitnon 

95.  Oigon 

96.  Cavnillon 

97.  Lambete 

98.  Apt 

00.  Mnnnaque 

100.  Lna  Meea 

101.  Riex 

109.  Caatellane 

103.  Enlrcvnux 

104.  St.  Auben 
10.1.  Vence 

106.  Aniilica 

107.  GrB»»p 


38.  Chniulea  Aiguea  10^.  nniKuiKnan 


39.  St.  Flour 

30.  Maaaiac 

31.  Murat 

32.  Mauriac 

33.  Heignea 
34.Rofm 

35.  laaoire 

36.  Amberi 

37.  Billom 

38.  Clermont 
30.  Rochefort 

40.  Pont  Gibaud 
41  Montaigu 


109.  Freiiia 

110.  gt.Tropex 
111   I.e  I.uc 

112.  Hiered 

113.  BrifoollB 

114.  Si.  Mn.ximi 

115.  Toulnn 

•  !S.  I.rs  Ci^lst 

117.  MHraeiliot 

118.  Aix 

119.  Marliguea 
190.  Salon 
131.  Arlea 


Province  of 

ROUSSILLON 

Vepartment  of 

XXll.  EaslurnPy- 

reneet. 
173.  Riverallea 

176.  Priidea 

177.  Ml.  Lnuia_ 

178.  Praia  de  Molo 
17U.  Oa«M 

180.  Pcitiignan. 

Rieert. 

a  Rhino 

b  Moaella    .•«     >  < 

c  Mcuso 

d  Aitiie        _  .   .. 

e  F.acaut  or  Seholdi 

f  Snmme 

g  Oiao 

h  Mnrna 

i  Seine         :  '.    ■ 

tAube 
Pcrain 
1   Yonna 
m  Loire 
n  Alllor 
o  Le  Char 
p  Lot 
q  Tarn 
r  Aude 
a  Rhone 
t  Durance 
u  lairc 
V  Ain 
wSaona 
X  QiKnon 
y  pouba 
z  Loue. 


:Y-i 


JW 


AM 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOORAPHV. 


Pa«t  in. 


by  |M<^  of  the  fironlier  of  the  Netherlands  On  the  eaat  it  ii  bounded  by  Oermtny,  from 
whiel.  t  is  divided  by  the  Rhine,  and  by  Bwitserland  and  Italy,  which  lie  on  tlie  other  hkIs 
of  Uio  niifhty  barrier  ot  the  Wfm  lUt  Mouthern  liniita  are  the  Mediterranean  and  the  brmul 
iathmiia  Hlletl  by  the  I'yronnea,  nn  the  other  aide  of  which  extemli  tho  HpaiiiRh  pcniiiMila. 
On  the  woat  in  tho  Atlantic,  and  more  enpeciaily  that  voat  ^If  called  the  Bay  of  DiMcity, 
Tho  Bouthorn  oxtroniity,  on  Uiu  line  of  tlie  Pyrennua,  fklhi  in  42"  'MY  N.  lat.  tho  nortliorn 
b<^yund  Dunkirk  in  51°  10',  making  in  Unffth  niifht  and  a  half  do||(roea  of  latitude.  The 
broadth  may  bo  tVom  8°  W  R.  lun^.,  to  4?  40'  W.  lunif.  makinff  thirteen  degreei  of  loniri 
tudo.  Thia  will  give  dimeittiona  nearly  square  of  000  inilea  thjin  nortli  to  wiuth,  and  -VjO 
tV<itn  east  to  woat  Tho  superticial  extent  is  about  200,000  English  8C|uare  milea,  or  enmewhat 
above  130,000,000  acres. 

The  lurlkco  of  tliia  very  extensive  territory  is  In  general  level,  although  it  borders,  nnd 
is  encroached  upon  by  tho  groatcNt  mountain  ranf^ea  of  Europe.  The  A^m  covor  the  full 
half  of  itaeaatom  tVontior,  nnd  their  branches  extending  intoDauphiny  and  Provonce,  render 
tlienk  very  rugged  and  romantic  regions.  Tho  Pyrenees,  which  rank  second  among  the 
chaina  of  the  Continent,  range  along  the  southern  border,  and  covor  with  their  branclii!!) 
R.>ii88illon  and  Gascony.  On  the  east,  whore  France  reaches  to  tho  Rhine,  are  the  \(mnet 
and  other  chains  of  moderate  height,  parallel  to  that  river.  The  only  range  exclusively  French, 
is  that  of  Auvergne,  in  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  which  not  only  includes  all  that  proviixe 
where  it  rises  to  tho  height  of  5000  or  6(KM)  feet,  but  stretches  by  a  winding  line  along  the 
left  bank  of  the  Ailier  to  lianguedoc,  parallel  to  the  coast  of  the  Mediterrunean,  where  it  is 
called  the  CuvennoH.  But  by  far  the  greater  part  of  France,  including  tho  whole  north  und 
the  whole  west,  is  one  widely  extended  plain,  which  yields  in  very  high  portbction  all  the 
fruita  and  prtxlucts  of  tho  temperate  zone. 

The  riverfl  of  France,  though  not  of  the  first  maffnitude,  are  noble  and  commodioutt. 
Traversing  almoet  every  part  ot  tho  kingdom,  thoy  affi)ru  ample  means  of  internal  navigation ; 
and  the  broad  plains  which  border  on  them  yield  the  most  luxuriant  harvests.  The  lytirn, 
which  is  the  principal,  rises  in  the  south,  on  the  borders  of  I^rovence,  and  flows  for  Rome  time 
nearly  north,  parallel  to  the  course  of  tiie  Rhone  and  the  SoAne,  though  in  an  opposite  direc- 
tion. Near  Nevers  it  receiveb  the  Allicr,  which  in  a  parallel  and  nearly  equal  Htream  has 
hitherto  accompanied  it;  it  now  grndunily  bends  round  into  a  wcHterly  course,  which  it  fol- 
low* through  the  plains  of  Orleunais  and  Touraine,  the  garden  of  France,  till  after  a  course 
of  700  miles,  it  falls  into  the  sea  a  little  below  the  c^reat  commercial  city  of  Nantes.  I'iio 
Rhone  is  not  at  firnt  a  French  river  :  it  rises  in  the  heart  of  Switzerlantl,  amid  the  eternal 
snows  and  glaciers  of  the  Grimsel  and  the  Hhrcckhorn,  and  rolls  its  earliest  course  beneath 
the  mighty  mountain  walls  of  St.  Oothard,  Monte  Rosa,  und  the  Simplon.  It  now  expondg 
into  the  Leman  lake,  from  whence  it  emerges  near  Geneva,  where  it  soon  enters  France, 
and  rolls  direct  towards  Lyons.  At  that  great  city,  it  receives  the  Sadne,  bringiitg  down  nn 
ample  stream  from  the  Vosges,  swelled  by  that  of  the  Doube  from  the  Jura.  I'hc  Rhone, 
now  following  the  direction  of  it«  tributary,  turns  directly  south,  and,  after  a  rapid  course 
through  Dauphiny  and  Provence,  enters  tho  Mf^Utcrranean  by  several  mouths.  In  this  coursn, 
the  Alps  transmit  it  to  the  Isdro,  and  the  classxcal  stream  of  the  Durance :  its  entire  lenfirth 
may  be  500  milea  The  Seine,  though  of  inferior  magnitude,  rUiiins  distinction  as  flowing 
by  the  metropolis :  it  rises  on  the  frontier  of  Burgundy,  and  runs  almost  due  north  till  it 
receives  the  parallel  and  nearly  equal  Aube,  when  their  unitetl  waters  flow  west  and  nortli- 
west  Before  reaching  Paris,  it  receives  from  the  south  tine  Yonne,  and  from  the  north, 
almost  under  the  walls  of  the  cnyi'il,  its  grt^test  tributary,  'he  Marne.  At  Paris  it  is  navi- 
gable for  vessels  of  considerable  r<urdeii.  Beyond  Paris,  the  Seine  makes  some  extensive 
windings,  and  is  augmented  from  th<P!  north  by  the  waters  of  the  Oise  bringing  those  of  the 
Aisne.  It  then  passes  the  fine  and  flouriahing  city  of  Rouen,  and,  spreading  into  an  estuary, 
joins  the  English  Channel  at  the  ancient  port  of  Havre.  The  Garonne  has  a  course  of  still 
less  extent,  though  its  broad  navi<,'(thK«  stream,  flowing  through  a  magnificent  plain,  the  most 
productive  in  valuable  wine  of  any  m  Prance,  ^'ives  it  a  high  commercial  importance.  It 
rises  near  the  eastern  Pyrenees,  and  flows  northward  to  Toulouse,  where  it  assumes  a  steady 
north-west  course,  during  which,  swelled  from  the  north  by  the  Aveyron,  the  Lot,  and  the 
Dordogne,  and  passing  the  great  haven  of  Bordeaux,  it  becomes  an  estuary,  Capable  of  re- 
reiving  the  largest  vessels.  The  Rhine  is  to  France  only  a  limitary  rivor  for  somewhat 
above  100  miles ;  but  its  great  tributaries,  the  Moselle  and  the  Mouse,  rise  and  have  most 
of  their  early  course  within  its  territory.  The  important  Belgic  river,  the  Scheldt,  also  rises 
within  the  French  territfjry. 

France  has  no  lakes,  whjch,  in  a  general  view,  seem  worthy  of  mention. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Geography. 

\-  .      '  ■     ■      ,    . 

SUBSBCT.   i. Geoiofry. 

Primitive  and  tr  nsitinn  districts.     In  Prance  there  are  six  districts  where  the  older 
ocks,  or  those  of  the  primitive  and  transitiiii  classes,  prevail :  viz.  Western  Normandy,  with 


BnoiiT. 


"*'(    pRANCB.  'nurKui 


Britany  and  Anjon ;  tho  northern  iMe  of  thu  I'vrnnoM ;  the  depnrtmnnta  of  the  liower  AIpi, 
Upper  Alpa,  ami  part  of  the  IiAre ;  Central  vVanco,  or  the  tablo-Und  of  France ;  ceolnl 
part  of  tho  VoMKea ;  and  the  Ardonnea. 

(1,)  We$te.m  Normandy,  Britany,  and  Anjou.  In  thb  region  the  rocka  are  partly  Nep> 
tuninn,  partly  Plutonian:  tho  Neptunian  atrata  are  ((nciaii,  mica  alate,  clay  alate,  {froy* 
wai'k)',  quartz  rock,  and  limontone ;  the  Plutonian  rocka  are  (fnnita,  ayenite,  greenatone, 
and  porphyry. 

(2.)  Norlhrrn  lidf.  of  ihn  Ptfrenet>$,  On  the  n«nch  aide  of  the  Pyrenees  the  central 
mckn  are  of  primitivo  formation,  and  conaiat  of  mica  alate,  cliiy  alatc,  limeatono,  or  marlilu; 
tfi\)imng  upon  theao,  and  forming  the  f^reat  body  of  the  range,  are  rocka  of  the  tranaition 
clotv;  viz.  clay  alate,  mreywacko,  and  tranHition  limeatone. 

(3.)  D«parimr.nta  nftht  Lower  and  Upper  Alp;  and  part  qf  hire.  In  thia  moiintainoua 
repfion  there  oro  magnificent  diaplaya  of  many  of  the  more  mtereatinf  formationa  of  tlie 
primitive  and  trannition  clattaca. 

(4.)  Central  tableAand  or  plateau  of  Pranrr.  The  centre  of  France  b  occupied  by  a 
vaj<t  table-land  or  plateau  of  old  rocka,  in  ((oneral  ffninite,  which  forma  tho  mountains  of 
Btiffirimd^,  the  Mmfluain,  Aveyron,  Arddcho,  and  the  Cevennea.  It  ia  moro  than  eighty 
leaffuoa  m  breadth  fVom  tho  heighta  of  Limogea;  but  in  proceeding  towarda  tlio  aouth,  itgro* 
(liinlly  thina  off,  and  terminatca  in  a  point  which  connocta  it  with  the  Montague  Noire. 
ThJH  latter  group  of  old  rocka  forma  a  kind  of  peninaula,  which  ia  aemruted  fW)m  the 
Pyronnos,  by  a  longitudinal  boain  of  socondary  anu  tertiary  formationa.  Tho  acclivitica  of 
thin  central  granitic  table-land,  and  aomo  of  its  hollowa,  ore  covered  more  or  leaa  dcnHeiy 
with  newer  rrK;kH  of  various  dcacriptiona.  UeHidua  these,  there  occurs  on  iti;  oaatcm  part  a 
opli^ndid  {lir'play  of  volcanic  rocka.  The  primitive  and  tranaition  rcKka  of  thiH  tablo-lnmi  ure 
the  following;  viz.  granite,  porphyry,  talc  alate,  aerpentine,  gneiaa,  clay  slute,  greywacko, 
and  limestone. 

(5.)  Central  part  qf  the  Votget.  The  oldeat  rocka  in  thia  range  of  mountaina,  and  which 
are  aaid  to  belong  to  the  transition  claaa,  are  the  following :  granite,  ayenite,  homblonde 
rocks,  greenatone,  red  quartziferpua  porphyry,  augitie  porphyry,  dolomite,  diallage  rock, 
aerpentme,  talc  slate,  clay  slate,  greywacko,  with  unthracito,  granular  and  compact  marble 
or  limeatone. 

(6.)  Ardenneg.  That  pert  of  this  range  of  mountains  included  within  the  limits  of  Franco, 
which  belonga  to  the  older  part  of  the  goognostical  series,  is  composed  of  various  clay  slates, 
with  grnywacke,  all  of  which  seem  to  belong  to  tho  transition  class. 

Secondary  dietricts.  The  lower  and  flatter  parts  of  France  which  extend  timm  the  primi< 
tivo  and  transition  districts,  are  composed  of  secondary  and  tertiary  deposits,  more  or  lesa 
covered  with  alluvial  matters;  and  in  mni<  nnartera  intermingled  with  volcanic  rocks.  The 
secondary  formations  are  arrange''  the  Mime  order,  and  exhibit  similar  relation  -.  with 
those  already  described  'n  our  act  .tint  of  Britain.  The  mountain  limestone  and  coul  forma« 
tinna  form,  when  contrasted  with  their  abundance  in  Britain,  but  a  small  portion  of  tho  Bur« 
fkce  of  France;  while  the  n<nv  '■'•t\  sandstones,  with  the  series  of  the  Jura  limestone,  in- 
cluding the  oolites,  form  grvat  travels  of  country.  Chalk,  or  uppermost  rock  of  the  secondary 
series,  occurs  in  vast  nbuivtxnce,  forming  two  basins,  the  one  the  northern,  extending  in 
length  fh)m  the  northern  e  vtremity  of  Artois  to  the  southern  limit  of  Toumine,  and  in  breadth 
firom  Havre  de  Grace  u^  near  Bar  le  Duo.  The  northern  side  of  Uie  southern  btisin  extends 
from  Rochefbrt  to  Cahors,  and  the  southern  side  ranges  along  tho  northern  faco  of  the 
Pyrenees. 

Tertiary  dietricts.  France  is  remarkable  on  account  of  the  trreat  extent  of  its  tertiary 
deposits;  of  these  the  following  may  be  considered  as  the  principal  ones: — 1.  That  of  which 
Paris  forms  the  central  point;  which  extends  towards  the  north  as  )iiir!i  as  Laon,  and  south- 
ward to  Blois;  while  it  stretches  across  from  Pontoise  on  the  woi^i  to  Epernay  on  the  east. 
2.  The  great  southern  deposit,  which  extends  from  the  south  side  of  the  river  Gironde  to  the 
south  bank  of  the  river  Adour.  3.  The  south-eastern  deposit,  which  covers  part  of  the  De- 
partments of  Herault,  Gard,  Mouths  of  the  Rhone,  Var,  ami  Vauciuse.  4.  The  deposit  in 
the  valley  of  the  river  Allier,  and  that  in  the  upper  part  of  the  course  of  the  Loire.  5.  The 
great  deposit  in  the  course  of  the  Rhine  and  Sadne,  extending  from  about  Valence  to  Dijon. 
6.  The  tract  along  the  Rhine,  extending  from  Basle  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Carlsrhue. 

Votcanic  districts.  True  volcanic  rocks  occur  in  France  only  in  the  great  central  table- 
land or  f)lateau ;  in  the  Departments  of  Jjoire,  Upper  Loire,  Cantal,  and  Puy  de  D6me.  The 
volcanic  rocks  are  tesalt  and  basalt  tufla;  trachyte  with  its  tuffa;  and  lava,  with  its  tuHas, 
scoritB,  &c.  The  newest  of  these  rocks  are  the  lavas;  while  the  basalt  and  trachytes  appear 
of  more  ancient  date,  although  still  not  very  old,  as  we  find  them  breaking  through  roirks 
of  the  tertiary  class. 

Alluvial  districts.  Alluvia  of  every  description  occur  in  France.  Diluvium  or  the  old 
alluvium  forms  extensive  tracts  in  many  quartere  of  tlie  kingdom,  where  it  contains  re.mains 
of  extant  species  of  animals,  of  which  the  most  characteristic  are  those  belonging  to  the 
onler  pachyderraa,  as  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  &c,    Diluvium  is  also  found  in  caves  along 

Vol.!.  44*  fiQ 


UP^'" 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  HI 


with  bones  of  extinct  animals,  particularly  of  the  carnivorous  genera ;  and  rents  and  fissure* 
iu  strata  are  sometimes  filled  up  with  a  diluvium  also  containing  remains  of  extinct  animals, 
of  which  the  most  characteristic  are  the  small  herbivora.  Bane  caves  and  bone  breccia 
occur  at  St  Antonin  and  St  Julien  near  Montpelier ;  at  Billargues,  Vendargues,  and  Pexe- 
nas-Herault ;  at  Anduze  and  St  Hippolyte,  in  Gard ;  at  Aix,  in  tlie  department  of  tlie 
Mouths  of  the  Rhone ;  at  Villefranche  and  Lauraguais,  in  the  Upper  Garonne ;  and  at  Per- 
pignan,  in  the  Eastern  Pyrenees.  This  diluvium  is  covered,  to  a  greater  or  less  depth,  with 
the  various  well-known  kinds  of  modern  alluvium  and  of  vegetable  soils. 


^;  t-,i 


(.f;M5  ■''■■.?■■*■  i'j\' 


Mines  and  Quarries. 


.'••iVr^  ^^t'^Wfi   »»*.v.' 


Coal  mines.  Coal  of  various  descriptions,  as  glance,  bituminous,  and  brown  coal,  are 
viined  in  the  following  departments  in  France,  affording  annually  but  a  small  return  for  so 
vast  a  country : — Allier,  Aveyron,  Mouths  of  the  Rhone,  Calvados,  Gard,  Herault,  Isere, 
Upper  Loire,  Lower  Loire,  Mayenne  and  Loire,  Moselle,  Nidvre,  North,  Pas  de  Calais,  Puy 
de  Ddme,  Upper  Rhine,  Lower  Rhine,  Lower  Sadne,  and  Tarn. 

Iron  mines.  Iron  mines,  some  of  them  of  considerable  importance,  occur  in  the  following 
departments: — Ardennes,  Charente,  Cher,  C6te  d'Or,  Dord(Mfne,  Doubs,  Eure,  Eure  and 
Loir,  Forets,  Indre,  Indre  and  Loire  Isdre,  Jura,  Lower  Loire,  Upper  Mame,  Moselle, 
Nidvre,  North,  Ome,UpperRhine,  Lower  Rhine,  Upper  Sa6ne,  Sadne  and  Loire,  and  Vosges 

Mines  of  silver  and  lead.    The  principal  lead  mines  and  silver  mines  are  the  following  :— 

Minn  or  OilnUdi  of  Uti  Marci  ol  SU«ar 

Finisterre Poullauen about   8,000 1200 

Ditto Huelffoet 3,000 ICOO 

Lozdre Villefort 18,000 ISOO 

Ii«re Viunne 1,500 — 

Copper  mines.  These  are  situated  in  the  ibilowing  departments : — Upper  Alps,  Rhonei 
Rhine  and  Moselle. 

Mines  of  manganese.  This  metal  is  mined  at  Romandche  and  St  Micaud,  in  the  depart* 
ment  of  the  Sadne  and  Loire ;  at  Suquet  in  Dordogne ;  in  the  mountain  of  Tholey  in  Mo- 
selle; at  Laveline,  near  Saint  Dier,  in  the  Vosges;  and  at  Saint  Jean  de  Gardonenque  in 
the  Cevennes. 

Mines  of  antimony.  Antimony  occurs  in  the  provinces  of  Charente,  Upper  Loire,  La 
Vendee,  Cantal,  Allier,  Gard,  and  Puy  de  Ddme. 

Mines  of  vitriol  and  alum.  The  principal  mines  of  sulphate  of  iron  or  vitriol  are  those 
of  Saint  Julien  de  Valgargue,  near  Alais,  which  fiimishes  annually  30,000  quintals ;  and 
that  of  Becquet  and  of  Goincourt,  near  Beauvais,  which  in  some  years  affords  15,000  quin- 
tals ;  that  of  Ural,  in  the  department  of  Aisne,  and  of  Gersdorf,  in  the  department  of  Lower 
Rhine.  There  are  celebrated  manufiictories  of  alum  at  Montpelier,  and  at  Javelle  near 
Paris.  Some  considerable  beds  of  rock-salt  have  been  discovered  at  Vic,  in  the  department 
of  Meurthe.  One  of  these  is  upwards  of  fourteen  yards  thick,  and  another  has  not  as  yet 
been  cut  through.  Although  cobalt,  arsenic,  nickel,  and  tin  also  occur  in  France,  nc  consi- 
derable mines  of  those  minerals  have  been  established. 

Quarriefi.  The  most  extensive  quarries  are  those  of  marble,  building-stone,  slate,  gyp- 
sum, millstone,  and  flint.  Different  kinds  of  marble  are  raised  at  Givet,  Braban^on,  Mons, 
Naffiur,  Boulogne  sur  Mer,  Caen,  Troyes,  Montbar,  Cosne,  Toumus,  Narbonne,  Aix,  Mar- 
seilles, Tarb,  and  in  many  valleys  in  the  Pyrenees.  There  are  quarries  of  excellent  building- 
stone  in  the  departments  of  La  Manche,  Calvados,  Moselle,  Cdte  d'Or,  Yonne,  Oise,  Seine, 
Ijoire,  Dordogne,  and  in  many  departments  in  the  south.  Vast  slate  quarries  are  worked  in 
the  departments  of  La  Manche,  Meuse,  Ardennes,  Maine  and  Loire,  and  at  the  foot  of  the 
Pyrenees.  In  many  other  places,  and  particularly  in  Champagne,  &c.,  there  are  quarries 
and  pits  of  clay  for  brick  and  tile-making.  The  gypfum  of  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris,  the 
chalk  of  the  departments  of  Marne  and  Seine,  the  talc  named  chalk  of  Brian^on,  the  mill- 
stone or  buhr-stone  of  Ferte  sous  Jouarre,  are  objects  of  considerable  commercial  importance. 
The  departments  of  Yonne,  Cher,  and  Lower  Charente,  supply  all  France  and  different 
foreign  nations  with  gun-flints.  Among  the  clays  met  with  in  France,  that  of  Forges  les 
Eaux,  was  formerly  in  great  repute  in  Holland  for  the  manufiicture  of  pipes ;  the  clay  or 
earth  of  Belboeuf,  near  Rouen,  is  considered  an  excellent  material  in  the  purifying  of  sugar ; 
and  the  potters'  clay  of  the  vicinity  of  Beauvais  and  Montereau,  and  the  porcelain  earth  or 
kao-lin  of  Saint  Yrieix,  near  Limoges,  are  highly  esteemed.  ' 

'    w  '  SuBSECT.  2. — Botany. 

Having  devoted  already  so  great  a  portion  of  our  space  to  preliminary  remarks  upon  vege- 
table geography  on  its  more  extended  scale,  and  to  that  of  Great  Britain  in  particular,  we 
must  content  ourselves  with  a  more  limiied  account  of  the  plants  of  other  countries,  other- 
wise we  should  greatly  overstep  the  bounds  prescribed  to  us  by  the  nature  of  the  present 
work.  Following  the  plan  here  adopted  for  the  arrangement  of  the  different  countries, 
France  comes  next  under  our  notice ;  and  a  more  interesting  field  for  the  geographical  bota- 
nist does  not  exist  in  Europe ;  not  only  because  of  its  extent  and  vast  variety  of  surface  the 


Paht  III 

nd  fissure* 
:t  uiiimula, 
ne  breccia 
and  Peze- 
nt  of  tile 
id  at  Per- 
eptii,  with 


Book  I. 


.Yi!'i/      FRANCE.  ;-»>;■  w;n 


^at  height  of  its  mountaiiu,  and  its  eeoloffical  structure ;  but  oec&use,  by  the  .abours  ol' 
Its  naturalists,  especially  Lamarck  and  De  CJandoUe,  the  vegetable  productions  of  France 
have  been  better  explored  than  those  of  almost  any  otiier  country  in  the  virurld.  All  that  we 
can  do  here,  however,  is  to  notice  in  general  those  that  are  the  most  interesting,  from  their 
utility,  their  beauty,  or  some  circumstances  connected  with  their  history ;  or  as  showing  how 
ve^retable  forms  or  groups  are  situated,  in  regard  to  their  distribution,  upon  the  surfoco  of 
tlie  earth. 

France,  extending,  as  it  does,  from  lat.  42°  SC  to  51°  N.,  or  nearly  to  the  latitude  of 
London,  and  from  9°  east  longitude,  to  6°  west,  is  bounded  by  the  Mediterranean,  and  the 
great  chain  of  the  Pyrenees  on  the  south ;  by  the  Atlantic  on  the  west ;  by  the  British 
Channel  and  the  Netherlands  on  the  north ;  and  on  the  east  by  Savoy,  Switzerland,  and  Ger- 
many, which  form,  for  its  entire  length,  a  vast  mountain  barrier.  Such  an  alpine  region 
cannot  fail  to  exert  a  manifest  influence  on  the  vegetation  of  a  country ;  not  only  because 
of  its  own  peculiar  productions,  depending  in  part  on  their  elevation,  and  in  part  on  their 
soil  and  geological  structure,  but  by  their  exposure  even  at  the  same  elevation,  on  two  oppo- 
site sides ;  that  of  the  south  will  be  found  to  exhibit  very  different  vegetable  forms  from  that 
of  the  north ;  and  such  mountains  often  exercise  a  more  powerful  influence  in  limiting  the 
surrounding  vegetation,  than  even  seas  and  rivers. 

Lamarck  and  De  Candolle,  in  a  very  interesting  Botanical  Map  which  accompanies  their 
Flore  Frangaise,  3d  edit,  have  divided  France  into  Ave  regions : — 

(L)  The  region  of  maritime  plants,  which  of  course  extends  everywhere  along  the  coast, 
from  Ostend  to  Bayonne  on  the  north  and  west,  and  from  Perpignan  to  Oueille  on  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  together  with  the  Salines  of  Dieuze  and  Chftteau  Salins  near  Nancy,  and  those 
of  Durkheim  and  Frankensthal  near  Mayence  in  the  interior.  Thus  we  find  that  a  vegeta- 
tion similar  to  that  of  the  sea-siiore  exists  in  the  interior,  whenever  that  interior  yields 
a  sufiicient  quantity  of  marine  salt.  All  the  maritime  plants  of  the  north  of  France,  accord- 
ing to  M.  de  Candolle  (and  they  have  the  greatest  afiinity  with  those  of  England),  are 
equally  found  in  the  south ;  but  the  reverse  does  not  hold  good ;  for  a  very  large  proportion 
of  the  French  Mediterranean  plants  of  the  sea-shore  grow  very  sparingly,  if  at  all,  upon  the 
shores  of  the  Ocean,  principally  indeed  on  the  coast  of  Gascony,  and  reach  no  higher  than 
the  mouth  of  the  Loire,  or  at  most  to  the  middle  of  Britany. 

(2.)  The  region  of  mountain  and  alpine  plants.  When  the  French,  by  their  conquests, 
included  the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps,  and  Savoy  within  the  range  of  the  floras  of  their  own 
country,  this  region  constituted  the  very  richest  of  any  flora  in  Europe;  for  it  included  a 
country,  not  only  of  considerable  extent,  but  mountains,  and  in  very  southern  latitudes,  many 
of  whose  crests  rise  greatly  beyond  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  As  France  is  now  limited, 
the  mountains  of  the  Vosges  near  Strasburg,  and  of  the  Cevennes,  and  those  of  Auvcrgne, 
whose  origin  is  volcanic,  exhibit  its  most  alpine  scenery :  among  the  latter,  the  Puy  de  Sasi, 
one  of  the  Monts  d'Or,  rises  to  an  elevation  of  6300  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
Plomb  du  Cantal  is  estimated  at  6200,  and  the  Pay  de  Ddme  at  5000  feet.  If  the  summits 
of  the  Pyrenees  and  of  *he  Jura  be  considered  as  forming  the  natural  barrier  of  France,  as 
constituting  her  line  ot  separation  from  the  adjacent  territories,  she  will  still  possess  an 
exceedingly  rich  alpine  flora  in  tlie  northern  side  of  the  former  and  the  western  side  of  the 
latter  mountains.  But  the  line  of  demarcation  of  this  region  is  nevertheless  not  so  distinctly 
marked  as  in  the  preceding  region.  The  valleys  exposed  to  the  sun  often  participate  in  the 
vegetation  of  the  southern  provinces,  while  the  cooler  valleys  exhibit  a  growth  wh-ich  has 
more  in  common  with  the  vast  plain  in  the  north  and  centre  of  France.  However,  it  is 
undeniable  that  these  same  districts  do  contain  a  very  considerable  number  of  plants  which 
are  peculiar  to  them,  and  found  on  almost  all  the  more  elevated  mountains  of  France ;  for 
whatever  differences  the  chain  of  the  Vosges  and  the  Jura  may  present  fiwm  those  of  Au- 
vergne,  the  Cevennes,  and  the  Pyrenees  in  the  south,  it  is  allowed  that  the  aspect  of  thoir 
vegetation  offers  considerable  traits  of  similarity,  and  tliat  the  greater  part  of  the  mountain 
plants  are  alike  found  on  the  different  chains. 

(3.)  A  third  region,  and  a  very  important  and  interesting  one,  is  that  of  the  Mediterranean 
plants:  this,  of  couise,  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  stretches 
inland  till  you  come  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  or  following  the  course  of  the  Rhone, 
extending  north  as  far  as  Montelimart  on  that  river;  or  it  may  be  said  to  occupy  or  constitute 
the  great  basin  of  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone. 

(4.)  A  vast  region  is  occupied  by  the  plains,  whose  vegetation  is  very  uniform.  This 
comprises  more  than  one-half  of  France,  and  especially  all  the  plain  country  sitiiated  to  the 
north  of  the  chains  of  mountains.  Many  of  theso  plants  are  found  in  other  regions  already 
indicated ;  but  it  wants  the  species  which  are  peculiar  to  each  of  those  respectively. 

(5.)  and  lastly— M  M.  Lamarck  and  Do  CiindoHe  indicate  nn  intermediate  region,  which 
includes  plants  partaking  of  the  nature  of  the  plains  of  the  north  and  the  provinces  of  the 
south.  This  occupies  a  large  portion  of  the  south-west  of  France,  and  some  districts  up  the 
valley  of  the  Rhone  between  Montelimart  and  Lyons. 

The  map  just  alluded  to  has  these  different  regions  represented  in  different  colours,  and. 


sat 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOGR/  PHY. 


PabtKL 


18  attended  with  thie  advantage,  that,  by  the  elightest  inapection,  a  general  idea  is  conveyed 
of  the  prevailing  nature  of  vegetation  in  any  given  district  We  see  that  the  plants  of  the 
southern  provinces  resemble  more  thoee  of  Uie  north  as  you  advance  by  die  west  side  of 
France  than  by  the  east;  that  the  iloras  of  Mans  on  the  border  of  Normandy,  and  of  Nantes 
upon  the  Loire,  in  lat  47"  and  48°,  scarcely  differ  from  those  of  Dax  and  Agen,  between  lat, 
43°  and  44° ;  whilst  on  the  east  side  of  France,  the  productions  of  Dijon  and  Strasburg  vary 
considerably  from  those  of  Montpelier  and  Auc,  situated  at  nearly  similar  relative  distances 
from  each  other.  All  this  is  accounted  for  on  the  principles  we  have  already  laid  down, 
namely,  that  the  stations  of  plants  are  mainly  influenced  by  temperature ;  and  that  the  mean 
temperature  of  a  place  is  greatly  determined  by  distance  from  the  equator,  and  elevation 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  According  to  M.  de  CandoUe,  an  altitude  of  460  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea  affects  the  temperature  nearly  to  the  same  extent  as  a  degree  of  latitude 
nearer  to  the  north  in  the  eastern  hemisphere. 

By  comparing  the  western  provinces  of  France  with  the  eastern,  we  see  that  the  surface 
of  the  former  is  but  little  raised  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  for,  even  at  a  considerable 
distance  flrom  the  coast,  the  hills  scarcely  exceed  300  feet;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  upon 
the  western  side,  in  the  midst  of  a  mountainous  region,  the  plain  has  generally  an  elevation 
of  from  1300  to  1600  feet  This  height  diminishes,  it  is  true,  on  the  Belgian  frontier;  but 
there  the  temperature  is  sensibly  affected  by  the  second  cause  adduced,  namely,  the  distance 
from  the  equator.  Thus,  there  is  nothing  but  what  is  conformable  to  physical  laws,  in  the 
southern  plants  having  a  greater  resemblance  to  those  of  the  north  upon  the  west  than  on 
the  east  side  of  France. 

But  even  where  the  mean  temp<)rature  is  the  same,  the  distribution  of  plants  between 
these  two  parts  of  France  may  yet  iie  very  different  on  account  of  the  different  degrees  of 
temperature  at  particular  seasons  of  t):e  year.  We  have  already  stated  that  the  latitudes 
being  the  same,  maritime  countries  enjoy  a  more  equal  temperature  than  districts  removed 
from  the  e  a;  in  other  words,  that  the  summers  are  less  warm,  the  winters  less  cold:  thus, 
the  provinces  of  the  west  of  France,  which  are  all  maritime,  experience  this  degree  of  uni- 
formity ;  which  cannot  take  place  in  the  east  being  far  from  the  sea,  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  mountains. 

Plants  now,  in  what  concerns  climate,  may  be  divided  into  two  classes :  those  which 
suffer  from  a  severe  winter  cold,  but  which,  during  summer,  do  not  require  an  excess  of 
heat ;  and  those  ^hich  can  endure  great  severity  of  cold  in  winter,  but  during  summer, 
require  a  great  proportion  of  heat  In  the  first  class,  M.  de  Candolle  places  all  those  trees 
which,  without  being  resinous,  preserve  their  leaves,  and  consequently  their  sap,  through  the 
winter;  in  fact  the  greater  proportion  of  the  trees  of  the  south  being  found,  whether 
indigenous  or  naturalised,  towards  the  north  in  the  maritime  provinces;  such  as  the  Live 
Oak,  the  (Jork  Tree,  the  Kermes  Oak,  the  Strawberry  Tree  (Arbutut),  the  Bay,  the  Fig, 


270 


The  Olive. 


The  Vine. 


the  Phillyrea,  &c.     On  the  other  hand,  in  the  second  class,  that  is  to  say,  among  such  as 
can  brave  a  great  degree  of  cold,  and  do  so  because  the  movement  of  the  sap  is  interrupted 


BdoxL 


?>  T 


FRANCE. 


r>!>"i(.T 


6a» 


i^ 


iuch  as 
rrupted 


by  the  fall  of  the  foliage,  in  the  Vine,  &c.,  and  those  that  avoid  cold  because  the  plants,  or 
at  least  their  stems,  are  annual,  such  as  Maize.  It  may  be  readily  supposed  that  the  indi- 
viduals belonging  to  the  second  class  will  flourish  better,  and  become  more  easily  naturalised 
gi  the  east  than  on  the  west  coast  of  France. 

Let  us  apply  this  law  to  a  peculiarity  in  regard  to  the  cultivation  of  those  most  precious 
vegetaHo  productions  of  France,  namely,  the  Olive  U^g,  270.),  the  Maize,  and  the  Vine 
(fig.  2'<3.\  Mr.  Arthur  Young,  during  his  travels  in  France,  paid  great  attention  to  agri- 
culture and  the  mode  of  cultivation  adopted  tliere,  and  publisned  a  map  of  the  country,  in 
which  he  represented,  by  tiiree  nearly  parallel  lines,  the  northern  limits  of  tlie  three  plants 
just  alluded  to,  the  Olive,  the  Maize,  and  the  Vine.  It  excited  the  surprise  of  many,  that 
the  lines  should  ascend  most  to  the  north  on  the  east  side  of  the  country,  or,  in  other  words, 
that  the  planfii  in  question  should  grow  &rther  north  in  the  eastern  than  in  the  western 
districts ;  directly  the  reverse  of  what  takes  place  in  regard  to  the  aboriginal  native  produc- 
tions of  the  soil.  This  apparent  contradiction  is  reconciled  by  the  twofold  comparison  of  the 
physical  nature  of  the  east  and  west  of  France,  and  of  the  character  of  the  plants  cultivated, 
as  compared  with  the  wild  species. 

The  nature  of  the  cultivated  productions  in  question  forms  a  striking  feature,  which  can- 
not fail  to  arrest  the  attention  of  a  traveller  while  journeying  through  the  districts  thus 
appropriated,  and  forcibly  to  exhibit  their  agricultural  riches.  In  the  extreme  soutli  of 
France,  between  a  line  drawn  from  Narbonne,  in  lat.  43°  N.  and  in  the  meridian  of  Paris, 
to  a  little  below  Grenoble,  he  will  find  the  plains,  parched  and  dry  as  they  naturally  are, 
rendered  still  more  melancholy  by  the  lurid  green  of  the  olive-groves.  Between  that  line 
and  another  drawn  from  the  mouth  of  the  Guronne  rather  below  46°,  to  near  Strasburg,  in 
the  north-wist,  he  will  observe,  together  with  the  vine,  which  is  by  no  means  wanting  in 
all  the  southern  provinces,  fields  where  the  gigantic  maize  (Jig.  272.)  takes  the  place  of 
eyjn  '  '      what  we  usually  term  bread-corn ;  again,  between  it  and  a 

J^t  '  ;.  !i  line  extending  from  the  mouth  of  ^e  Loire  to  the  Rhine, 
passing  at  about  an  equal  distance  between  the  Meuse  and 
the  Moselle,  he  will  find,  intermingled  with  vineyards, 
fertile  fields  of  com,  wheat  (fig.  273.),  oats,  and  barley ; 
whilst,  north  of  that  line,  there  exists  a  most  perfect  simi- 
larity in  agriculture  with  that  which  prevails  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  England.  Fruit  trees  of  all  the  Kinds 
that  are  grown  in  Britain,  here  attain  a  much  greater  degree 
of  perfection  than  in  that  country,  because  of  the  increased 
heat  of  the  summers. 

Thus,  in  what  concerns  a  great  portion  of  the  territory 
of  France,  its  vegetable  productions  much  resemble  those 
of  the  southern  parts  of  Great  Britain. 

It  is  not,  perhaps,  generally  known  that  that  most  useful 
root,  the  Potato,  was  cultivated  in  almost  every  part  of 
Europe  before  its  value  was  appreciated,  and  its  culture 
became  general,  near  the  capital  of  France.  To  England 
is  due  the  credit  of  first  growing  it  upon  a  large  scale. 
Upon  the  Continent  it  was  introduced  between  the  years 
1714  and  1724  into  Swabia,  Alsace,  and  the  Palatinate ; 
and  in  1780  to  the  vicinity  of  Berne.  In  1774,  potatoes 
were  known  on  the  mountams  of  the  Cevennes,  where  they 
now  constitute  a  main  portion  of  the  food  of  the  people:  but 
it  is  principally  to  the  fiunous  M.  Parmentier  that  fVance 
owes  the  general  use  of  potatoes.  The  following  anecdote 
may  give  some  idea  of  the  assiduity  with  which  this  philanthropic  individual  laboured  to 
generalise  their  culture :  it  is  well  attested  that  he  farmed  some  spots  of  ground  in  the 
vicinity  of  Paris  for  this  sole  purpose,  though  the  prejudice  against  potatoes  was  then  so 
strong,  that  few  of  the  poor  persons  to  whom  he  offered  the  roots  would  accept  of  them. 
However,  M.  Parmentier  soon  suspected  that  people  occasionally  stole  his  potatoes  to  eat 
them :  he  was  well  pleased  at  this,  and  continued  to  plant  what  he  hoped  would  be  purloined, 
rightly  concluding  that  the  experience  of  the  thieves  would  contribute  to  diminish  the 
established  prejudice.  Afler  much  trouble  and  many  years,  he  had  succeeded  in  propagating 
potatoes  in  several  situations,  when  the  dreadful  scarcity,  the  consequence  and  effect  of  the 
revolutionary  disturbances,  suddenly  rendered  their  cultivation  universal;  and  now  they 
form  so  constant  an  article  of  food,  that  the  conunon  people  generally  believe  them  to  be 
aboriginal  natives  of  the  country. 

The  mountains  of  France  exhibit  the  i5ritish  alpine  plants,  with  many  others  that  are 
peculiar  to  themselves,  and  which  they  possess  in  common  with  the  higher  Alps  of  Switzer- 
rind.  Savoy,  Germany,  and  the  Pyrenees. 
Of  the  mtermediate  region,  as  De  Candolle  terms  it,  a  great  portion  lying  iu  the  aoutli* 


The  Maize. 


806 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  III. 


west  of  France,  embraces  a  coantry  called  the  Landes,  where  the  ahei^erd-pcasantrT 
whether  walking,  or  at  rest  during  the  day,  live  upon  stilts  (.xeangue$,  in  the  language  oJ 


Wheit,  Oati,  and  Barley. 

the  country):  this  custom  gives  them  the  opportunity  of  viewing  the  land  aroiftid  m  search 
of  their  sheep,  for  a  great  extent,  of  wading  through  the  numerous  shallow  lakes  of  water; 

and  by  these  means  it  is  said  they  can  tra- 
verse triple  the  space  of  ground  they  could 
do  by  the  ordinary  mode  of  walking;  when 
they  stop,  they  support  themselves  by  a  long 
stick  behind.  In  this  same  district  a  vast 
extent  of  fat  land  near  the  ocean,  and  ex- 
tending from  Bayonne  in  the  south  to  the 
T6te  de  Buch  in  the  north,  and  for  a  dis- 
tance of  from  four  to  twelve  leagues  inland, 
is  occupied  by  forests  of  Pine  (Pinus  mari- 
timd)  (jig.  274.) :  these  are  called  Pigna- 
dag,  and  they  give  a  remarkable  feature  to 
the  Landes,  in  conjunction  with  the  habits 
of  the  people  and  their  dress,  the  latter 
consisting  entirely  of  sheep-skins  with  the 
hair  outwards,  little  different  in  outward 
appearance  from  the  flocks  which  it  is  the 
great  object  of  their  lives  to  tend.  The 
Resinous  substances  of  the  pine  are  extract- 
ed in  immense  quantities ;  in  doing  which, 
one  man  takes  care  of  SOOO  trees.  The 
country  being  so  dry,  these  pignadas  are 
liable  to  alanning  conflagrations;  one  of 
them  that  took  place  in  1803,  continued 
burning  for  two  months.  The  mode  adopt- 
ed for  extinguishing  them  is  remarkable : 
when  one  part  of  the  forest  is  in  flames,  it 
is  customary  to  set  fire  to  another  spot,  at 
a  greater  or  less  distance,  according  to  the 
magnitude  of  the  evil;  a  current  of  air 
soon  takes  place  between  the  burning 
masses,  which  drives  the  conflagration 
from  both  sides  on  the  intermediate  trees ; 
these  are  shortly  consumed,  ^he  fire  dies 
out  fbr  want  of  fuel,  and  the  rest  of  the  forest  is  preserved. 

But  the  Mediterranean  region,  which  we  have  already  mentioned,  and  whose  vegetation 
partakes  of  what  is  found  to  characterize  the  whole  shores  of  that  vast  inland  sea,  has  many 
plants  so  different  from  those  of  the  rest  of  France,  that  it  would  be  unpardonable  did  we  not 
particularise  some  of  them. 

Almost  everywhere  in  this  region,  the  soil  is  described  as  consisting  of  the  secondary 
limestone  of  the  Jura,  extending  to  tlie  very  brink  of  the  sea,  forming  arid  coasts,  often 
utterly  destitute  of  vegetation,  or  clothed  with  Wild  Olives  and  the  Aleppo  Pine  iPinua 


The  Pine. 


Book!  '  PRANCE.    ■      '     '  UM 

halepenaisX  with  Ever^een  Oak,  Pistachio-Nut,  Myrtles,  and  numerous  species  of  C'lStus. 
Here,  too,  is  tound  one  species  of  Palm,  the  Chameerops  humilis  (Palmetto  or  Dwarf  Palm) ; 
but  it  grow-  p'^ncipally  in  the  environs  of  Nice.  At  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  Medi- 
terranean rek- '!«,  namely,  about  Roussillon  and  Provence,  and  there  only  in  the  hotter  parts, 
arn  seen  the  Indian  Fig  (Cactua  Tuna),  and  the  American  Aloe  {Agave  americana) :  the  intro- 
duction of  these  is  due  to  the  Spaniards,  who  brought  them  to  Europe  from  the  New  World. 
Sohouw  regards  the  Mediterranean  shores  in  general  as  the  kingdom  of  the  Caryophylleae 
and  liabiatffi ;  this  latter  family  especially  abounds  in  the  south  of  France,  and  particularly 
the  genera  Phlomis,  Teucrium,  Thymus,  Lavandula,  and  others,  remarkable  for  their  aro- 
matic qualities.  In  the  same  places,  and  always  on  very  stony  ground,  the  elegant  Coria 
mnnspeliensis  excels  the  heaths  of  Britain  in  beauty.  The  mulberry  is  cultivated  through- 
out this  territorjr ;  and  among  other  useful  fruits,  the  Fig,  the  Jujube,  the  Pomegranate,  the 
Date,  and  tiie  Pistachio,  all  arrive  at  great  perfection.  The  Orange  can  scarcely  be  said  to 
be  cultivated  without  shelter  in  any  part  of  France.  It  is  grown,  however,  and  somewhat 
extensively,  at  the  Isles  d'Hieres,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Nice,  that  happy  climate  which  is 
probably  unequalled  by  any  part  of  Europe.  Corn,  which  is  but  a  secondary  article  of  cul- 
ture, ripens  at  a  very  early  pt;riod ;  so  much  so  that  it  is  not  unfirequent  to  carry  barley  which 
has  been  reaped  on  the  coast  into  the  mountains,  where  the  seed  is  sown,  and  a  second  crop 
is  produced  the  same  year.  Many  plants  may  be  here  enumerated  which  this  country  pos- 
sesses in  common  with  Greece  and  Italy,  and  even  the  Spanish  peninsula,  and  which  seem 
to  accompany  the  Olive.  Mirbel  has  drawn  up  the  following  list  of  woody  kinds,  which 
mhabit  these  provinces : — Pinus  Pinaster,  and  Pinea,  Juniperus  phoenicea  and  Oxycedrus, 
Quercus  Ilex,  Suber  and  coccifera,  Celtis  australis,  Ficus  Carica,  Osyris  alba,  Laurus  nobiiis, 
Fraxinus  Ornus,  Phillyrea  latifolia  and  angustifolia,  Jasminum  fructicans,  Vitex  Agnua- 
castus,  Nerium  Oleander,  Diospyros  Lotos,  Styrax  oflScinale,  Arbutus  Unedo,  Viburnum 
Tinus,  Tamarix  galHca  and  africana,  Myrtus  communis,  Punica  Granatum,  Philadelphus 
coronarius,  Crattegus  Azarolus,  Mespilus  pyracantha,  Ceratonia  siliqua,  Cercis  Siliquastnun, 
Rhus  Cotinus  and  Coriaria;  Pistacia  Lentiscus,  Terebinthus,  and  vera;  Rhamnus  Alater- 
nu9,  oleoides,  and  infectoria ;  Zizyphus  vulgaris,  Paliurus  australis,  Capparis  upinosa,  Melia 
Azedarach,  Acer  monspessulanum,  &c. 

Hitherto  the  attention  of  naturalists  in  the  study  of  vegetable  geography  has  been  direct- 
ed to  those  plants  that  grow  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth :  Humboldt  alone,  in  his  Carte 
Oeographique  des  Plantes,  has  indicated  the  station  of  some  subterranean  Fungi,  and  in  a 
275  general  way  has  marked  the  ocean  as 

the  habitat  of  Ulvae  and  Fuci  (Jig. 
275.).  It  remained  for  M.  d'Orbigny 
tc  describe  to  a  certain  extort  at  least, 
the  Zones  and  Bands  inhabited  by  the 
marine  Alg«e  (Sea- Weeds).  This  he 
accomplished  upon  the  coasts  in  the 
Gulf  of  Gascony,  and  particularly  on 
the  shores  of  La  Vendee  p,nd  the  Lower 
Charentp,  partly  by  diving  to  consider- 
able depths  in  the  sea,  and  partly  by 
means  of  drag-nets  iixed  to  graduated 
cords ;  and  the  results  of  his  observa- 
tions are  given  in  the  Memoires  du 
Museum  if  Histoire  Naturelk,  vol.  vi. 
With  extracts  from  this,  as  we  shall 
scarcely  have  again  the  opportunity  of 
touching  on  this  beautiful  and  interest- 
ing tribe  of  plants,  we  shall  conclude 
tliis  sketch,  already  too  much  extended,  of  the  vegetable  geography  of  France.    Maritime 

[»lants,  says  M.  d'Orbigny,  grow  in  the  most  opposite  temperatures :  every  country,  every 
Btitude,  and  every  situation  possessing  some  which  are  peculiar  to  itself  Still,  climate 
and  temperature  appear  almost  alike  to  many  of  these  productionn,  which  are  found  by 
voyagers  in  every  different  ocean,  while  others  require  particular  spots  and  climes :  some 
few  preferring  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  the  brackish  waters  of  salt  marshes,  where  the 
bitterness  of  the  sea  is  modified  by  the  aciinixture  of  fresh  water,  and  in  such  situations 
attaining  to  an  enormous  size,  as  Ulva  lactuca  var.  altissima,  while  to  the  greater  number 
of  these  plants,  fresh  water  proves  absolutely  destructive. 

As  for  those  kinds  wliich  grow  indifferently  everywhere  in  the  sea,  they  seem  to  be 
increased  without  any  attachment  to  solid  bodies,  as  Fucus  natans,  &,c.  Banks  of  great 
extent  formed  by  this  plant,  are  often  found  within  the  tropics  of  puch  dimensions  ns  to 
retard  the  progress  of  navigation.  Some  individuals  amonjj  these  groups  may  frequently  be 
seen  which  bear  the  appearance  of  bavins^  been  originally  fixed  to  rocks,  their  flattened, 
disc-like  stem  yet  retnining  a  portion  of  such  substance.  There  seems  to  be  ground  for  the 
supposition  that,  thougii  these  sea- weeds  are  capable  of  living  and  growing  in  the  water, 


UlviB  and  Fuci. 


608 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


PaktIU 


unattached  to  any  soil,  yet  that  they  must  primarily  spring  from  some  solid  body,  as  no  young 
plants  of  this  kind  are  ever  found  between  the  tropics. 

Some  of  the  Algae  prefer  the  southern  sides  of  rorks,  others  afiect  an  eastern,  western,  or 
nortliern  exposure ;  but  they  change  their  position  wording  to  the  dilference  of  latitude : 
tliose  which  are  found  on  the  southern  side  in  culii  climates,  being  generally  seen  on  the 
northern  in  the  warm  or  temperate  regions.  Certain  species  live  near  the  surface,  and  close 
to  the  sea-beach :  others,  at  various  degrees  of  depths :  tlie  first  would  seem  to  enjoy  the 
regular  exposure  to  light  and  heat  which  they  experience  during  the  turnings  of  the  tide ; 
the  second,  on  the  contrary,  shun  the  influences  3f  the  atmosphere ;  and,  growmg  and  fructi- 
fying in  depths  where  the  light  can  scarcely  jver  penetrate,  they  bear,  without  receiving 
any  injury,  both  the  enormous  column  of  water  which  constantly  presses  upon  them,  and  the 
severe  cold  which  exists  in  those  regions.  There  are  even  parasitical  Alga,  which  grow 
indifierently  upon  all  the  others,  and  some  which  only  affect  peculiar  species. 

Many  sea^weeds  prefer  such  spots  as  are  exposed  to  the  fury  of  the  waves  and  the  action 
of  the  currents,  where  they  are  perpetually  floatmg  in  an  agitated  medium :  others  dwell 
in  the  hollows  of  rocks,  or  m  marme  gulfs,  where  the  water  is  generally  calm.  The  lapse 
of  a  few  days  puts  a  period  to  the  existence  of  some  kinds,  whilst  the  tempests  of  successive 
winters  foil  to  destroy  others.  The  general  aspect  is  apt  to  change  in  several  individuals, 
BO  that,  were  it  not  for  more  stable  characters,  derivable  mm  their  fructification,  texture,  &c. 
they  might  be  mistaken  for  novel  species. 

A  number  of  the  more  delicate  marine  plants  are  quickly  destroyed  by  a  removal  from 
their  native  place  of  growth ;  but  the  greater  proportion,  being  coriaceous,  and  insoluble  in 
salt  water,  live  for  a  length  of  time  in  different  situations ;  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find, 
upon  our  own  shores,  the  Alga  of  the  most  distant  regions,  which  have  traversed  the  ocean, 
and  yet  remain  unchanged  in  their  general  appearance.  We  must  thence  necessarily  infer  that 
it  is  not  all  the  Alga  that  are  found  in  any  country  that  may  be  said  to  belong  to  that  country. 

The  proportions  of  marine  plants  are  as  variable  as  those  of  terrestrial  ones.  Some  are 
barely  discoverable  'vith  the  highest  magnifiers;  while  others  rise  from  the  various  depths 
of  the  mighty  ocean,  and,  forming  at  its  surface  an  angle  of  greater  or  less  acuteness  accord- 
ing to  the  force  and  velocity  of  the  cunents  and  the  tides,  ^en  suflbr  their  long  summits  to 
float  on  the  waves,  and  receive  the  benign  infl  .ences  of  atmospheric  light  and  heat.  During 
the  great  equinoctial  floods,  the  sea  often  fo.-sakes,  periodically,  certain  rocks,  which  are 
only  uncovered  at  such  times.  If,  during  that  interval,  the  sun  shines  forth,  or  the  north 
vind  blows,  many  of  the  minute  and  delicate  Alga,  thus  exposed,  dry  up  and  die ;  while 
others,  though  equally  circumstanced,  revive  immediately  upon  the  return  of '  'w  genial  fluid. 

A  certain  proportion  of  marme  plants  are  natives  of  the  French  seas,  while  .  t  must  refer 
the  accession  oi  many  species  to  the  force  of  the  winds,  waves,  and  currents,  especially  to 
that  which  generally  goes  under  the  name  of  Qvlf  Stream,  and  is  called  by  the  French  the 
Mexican  Current.  Almost  all  the  northern  Alga  grow  in  the  Gulf  of  Gascony.  It  is  not 
so  with  those  from  the  Mediterranean  and  Southern  Ocean ;  a  very  small  number  of  them 
are  there  seen  in  a  living  state,  and  their  almost  northern  limit  never  exceeds  the  mouth  of 
the  Loire,  or  at  farthest  the  rock  of  Morbihan.  Independently  of  the  influence  of  tem- 
perature, this  circumstance  may  be  attributed  in  a  measure  to  the  current,  which,  generally 
setting  in  on  these  shores  from  nortli  to  south,  brings  the  seeds  and  plants  themselves  of 
northern  seas  to  these  rock.«,  while  those  of  southern  growth  are  wafled  by  the  same  current 
to  Africa  and  the  Atlantic. 

But  few  are  the  kinds  of  sea-weed  which  prefer  any  peculiar  spot,  or  show  a  predilection 
for  one  substance  above  another  whereon  to  fix.  Deriving  no  nutriment  from  their  roots  or 
points  of  attachment,  they  need  nothing  farther  than  a  temporary  support ;  thus,  they  cling 
mdiscriminately  to  any  solid  marine  body,  equally  to  granitic  and  calcareous  rocks,  to  floating 
or  sunken  pieces  of  wood,  to  the  bones  of  terrestrial  or  marine  animals,  to  shells,  polypi,  &c. 

Notwithstanding  that  many  highly  respectable  naturalists  have  averred  that  the  growth 
of  these  plants  proceeds  with  most  vigour  on  such  and  such  substauv  s,  on  some  or  other 
peculiar  rock,  in  the  vicinity  of  rivers,  or  in  the  open  sea ;  it  has  been  fullv  ascertained,  by 
a  great  number  of  observations,  that  marine  weeds  do  grow  with  equal  vigour,  though 
planted  upon  rocks  or  substances  of  very  diflferent  natures ;  and  that,  if  we  except  some  few 
Viva,  which  aflTect  brackish  water,  those  which  vegetate  in  situations  where  fresh  water 
mingles  with  the  salt,  are  generally  bleached,  produce  little  or  no  fructification,  have  a  thin 
and  weak  texture,  and  contain  but  little  soda.  The  qualities  requisite  for  the  different  uses 
of  which  I  shall  treat  hereafter,  are  only  found  united  in  such  sea-weeds  as  grow  in  pure 
sea-water,  where  they  have  found  a  spot  which  is  sufliciently  tenacious  to  fix  them  in  that 
zone  of  habitation  which  they  prefer. 

Some  kinds  certainly  prefer  sand  or  mud ;  but  then  their  roots  become  elongated,  and 
strike  deep,  till  they  meet  with  some  stone  or  shell  or  other  body  which  may  serve  them  as 
a  point  of  attachment,  and  offer  the  requisite  degree  of  resistance. 

If  the  nature  of  the  bottom  appears  indifferent,  in  a  great  measure  to  maritime  plants ;  it 
is  not  so  with  the  level  which  they  select  in  the  ocean,  or  with  the  distance  of  their  birth- 
place from  the  surface.    Every  species  of  maritime  vegetable  appears  to  afifect,  to  as  great 


partih 

I  no  young 

Western,  or 
f"  latitude : 
•een  on  tlie 
'i  and  close 
enjoy  the 
f  the  tide ; 
and  fructi- 
t  receiving 
•n.  and  the 
^hich  grow 


Book  h>-'\ 


r)/ 


PRANCE.     fi)f'^5-i:i<"' 


92U 


ID  extent  as  the  terroitrial  kinds,  certain  zones  or  regions  of  different  depths  in  the  sea ; 
places  where  the  superincumbent  weight  of  water,  and  the  relative  proportion  of  light  and 
caloric  are  adapted  to  its  peculiar  organs.  Those  individuals  which  are  tbund  towards  Uie 
centre  of  their  proper  zone  contain  all  the  elements  requisite  for  their  perfect  developement, 
and  generally  snow  an  active  state  of  vegetation ;  they  are  vigorous,  they  fructify  at  tlie 
seiujon  suitable  to  their  degree  of  immersion,  while  those  which  grow  at  the  extreme  limit, 
or  out  of  the  bounds,  of  this  same  zone,  prove  languishing,  fructify  imperfectly,  are  always 
covered  with  marine  animals  which  destroy  them,  and  live  but  a  short  time  in  comparison 
with  their  well-situated  conveners.  The  seeds  which  escape  from  these  plants  would  appear, 
by  their  various  specific  weights,  to  gain  an  equilibrium  equivalent  to  the  column  of  water 
which  they  displace,  or,  in  other  words,  to  float  in  that  peculiar  zone  which  the  future  Alga 
would  prefer  to  inhabit  Those  which  become  developed  either  above  or  below  it,  are  ine- 
vitably driven  from  their  spot  of  nature  or  of  election,  by  tlie  agitation  in  the  waves  at  the 
vicinity  of  the  coasts. 

Lower  down  than  a  hundred  feet  fh>m  fhe  surface  of  the  sea,  (taking  a  medium  between 
the  high  and  low  tides,)  it  is  rare  to  find  living  sea-weeds  in  the  Gulf  of  Gascony,  and  even 
these  are  attached  to  portions  of  rock  severed  from  more  elevated  rocks,  and  before  long 
they  inevitably  perish. 

It  may  be  observed  that  the  lower  we  investigate  the  sea,  the  fewer  will  the  number  of 
plants  appear,  and  the  more  numerous  tlio  polypi.  For  instance,  below  forty  feet  from  the 
surface  of  the  water,  but  very  few  Ulva  are  found ;  beyond  sixty  feet,  no  living  Cerofmiutn ; 
and  aflcr  having  descended  to  the  depth  of  a  hundred  feet,  not  a  Fucu$  is  to  be  seen,  and 
the  vegetable  kingdom  wholty  ends. 

1st  Zone,  extending  from  one  foot  above  the  medium  height  of  the  sea  to  twenty  feet 
below,  is  inhabited  by  Uiva  compressa  var.  /} ;  U.  intestinalis,  ventricosa,  Lactuca  var.  a ; 
Fucuspygm8eus,amphibius,  &.c. 

2d  Zone,  from  five  feet  below  the  medium  height  to  thirty  feet : — Ulva  articulata,  Nostoc, 
bullata,  fistuloaa,  Lactuca  var.  3,  umbilical  is,  lanceolata,  purpurea,  Linza,  contorts,  serrata, 
dichotoma,  crispa,  pavonia,  atomaria  (1) ;  Fucus  vesiculosus,  spundia,  ceranoides,  serratus, 
canaliculatus,  caespitosus,  laceratus,  hybridus,  longissimus,  pinnatifidus,  viridis,  arbuscula, 
fastigiatus,  tenuissimus  (1),  confervoides ;  Ceramium  spongiosum,  rupestre,  Mertensii,  peni- 
cillatum,  fucoides,  nodulosum,  gracile,  linum ;  Zostera  marina  and  mediterranea  ;  Diatoma 
rigidum,  flocculosum,  &c. 

3d  Zone,  from  fifteen  to  thirty-five  feet  below  the  medium  surface.  Ulva  ocellata,  pal- 
mata, lingulata,polypodioides,caulescens;  Fucus longifructus,  lumbricali9,bifurcatus,ericoides, 
barbatus,  abrotanifolius,  vermicularis,  norvegicus,  obtusus,  asparagoides,  Wigghii,  verrucosus, 
helminthocortos ;  Ceramium  simplicifolium,  casuarina,  cancellatum,  coccineum,  incurvum, 
elongatum,  polymorphum,  forcipatura,  filum,  capillare,  glomeratum,  elegans,  &c. 

4th  Zone,  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  below  the  medium  surface : — Ulva  Phyllitjs,  saccha- 
rina,  digitata,  bulbosa,  ciliata,  edulis;  Fucus  nodosus,  uvarius,  fiircatus,  ciliatus,  alatus, 
plocamium,  plumosus,  comeus,  gigartinus,  aculeatus,  plicatus;  Ceramium  verticillatum, 
equisetifolium,  spriceum,  scoparium,  &c. 

5th  Zone,  from  thirty  to  sixty  feet : — Fucus  siliquosus  var.  o,  purpuntscens,  ligulatus, 
pistillatus ;  Ceramium  coccineum,  egagropilum,  &c. 

6th  Zone,  from  forty  to  a  hundred  feet : — The  flattened  Fuci ;  F.  siliquosus  var.  3,  loreus, 
sanguineus,  fibrosus,  coronopifolius,  &c.,  and  Ulva  tomentosa,  which  is,  in  fact;,  a  polypus. 

SuBSECT.  3. — Zoology. 
The  zoologj'  of  France  assimilates  less  to  that  of  central  than  of  southern  Europe.  Not- 
withstanding the  narrowness  of  ita  separation  from  Great  Britain,  it  possesses  many  animals 
unknown  as  natives,  or  even  as  visiters,  of  that  island.  With  regard  to  quadrupeds,  this 
circumstance  is  not  surprising ;  for  any  channel  of  the  sea,  however  narrow,  forms  an  insur- 
mountable obstacle  to  the  wanderings  or  migration  of  purely  terrestrial  species:  while 
others,  of  a  semiaquatic  nature  are  too  small  and  feeble  to  efiTect  the  passa'  These  con- 
siderations, however,  are  insufficient  tc  expio.  he  lunited 
range  of  the  smaller  birds,  hitherto  found  only  upon  the 
Continent.  The  distribution  of  insects  is  dependent,  in  a 
great  degree,  upon  that  of  plants ;  and  the  numbers  of  both 
common  in  France,  but  unknown  in  Britain,  are  nearly 
proportionate  ;  on  the  calculation  that  has  been  made  of 
six  species  of  insects  to  one  of  plants. 

Among  the  wild  quadrupeds  of  France  is  the  wolf  (Jig. 
276.),  which  is  still  not  uncommon  in  the  wooded  and 
mountainous  distTicta:  when  pressed  by  hunger,  it  de- 
scends to  the  farms,  and  even  attacks  the  inhabitanta 
The  beaver  is  said  still  to  exist  in  the  southern  parts. 
and  probably  the  wild  boar  may  not  be  wholly  extirpated 
Vol.  L  46  3  R 


TiMWoir 


MO 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


pA»r  in. 


from  the  existing  forests.    Beara  were  once  common,  while  three  or  four  of  the  nnaller  qnad* 
rupeds  appear  peculiar  to  Franco. 

Several  interesting  and  beautiftil  birds,  unknown  or  but  rarely  met  with  in  Britain,  are 
here  not  uncommon ;  such  as  the  wood-chat  {fig.  277.),  shrike  (liamtw  rtifua  T.)  the  gross- 
beak  or  hawfinch,  the  blue-throated  warbler,  and  several  others  of  the  same  family.  In 
short,  from  the  connection  of  this  country  with  the  central  and  southern  kingdoms  of  Europe, 
ilie  ornitholugist  might  probably  discover  in  France  more  than  three-fourtha  uf  all  Uie  conti- 
nental birds.  '  ■•■  ■    H  -•'"<    ■  ••  ■  ■ 

"  'The  marine  productions  of  those  provinces  bordering 
on  the  Channel,  as  may  be  expected,  do  not  offer  any 
marked  difference  from  those  of  the  British  coasts ;  but 
on  the  warm  shores  of  Nice  and  Marseilles  the  natu- 
ralist meets  with  numerous  productions,  indicative  of 
the  rich  stores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  ento- 
mology of  thetie  southern  provinces,  in  like  manner, 
presents  us  with  many  of  those  more  striking  imects, 
which  properly  belong  to  the  tauna  of  Italy.  The  beau- 
tiful Papilio  Podalirius  {fig.  278.)  so  rare  in  England 
that  its  existence  there  is  still  doubted,  is  here  a  common 
insect  France  has  long  stood  foremost  in  promoting  and  illustrating  the  study  of  nature ; 
and  a  society  comprising  some  of  her  most  able  r  ologists  is  at  this  moment  engaged  in 
publishing  a  Faufia  OtMica.  An  able  and  indefatigable  naturalist,  M.  Risso,  has  particu- 
cularly  illustrated  the  fishes  and  Crustacea  of  Nice.    It  was  near  this  place  that  one  of  the 

278    "  ■  ■ ■  ■  


Th*  Wood-Cbau 


,■  IrT:'  '■  ... 
.■\>U1':-:-    . 

^M 

1   '   ..it>' 

■_.'i  ■ ,  ■•   .■ 

^^m^ 

■■•I  '' 

PipUioPodaliriui. 

■!..■■''  .1:: 

1 

'   1  '*!    ,  -   ' 

279 


".'.iM'M-" 


Mitra  ZomUu 

^-■-. ,y:'-v.<r.'.'':-i\v»:\'^:\    .. 

rarest  and  most  beautiful  shells  of  Europe,  the  Mitra  zonata  (Jig.  279.)  was  fished  up  by 
the  anchor  of  a  vessel ;  only  one  specimen  is  known  to  exist  in  collections. 

Among ^e  domestic  animals,  the  French  horses  are  not  very  excellent;  yet  those  used 
in  the  public  stages  are  strong,  active,  and  compactly  made ;  nor  have  their  masters  copied 
the  ridiculous  and  barbarous  custom  of  disfiguring  these  animals,  by  cutting  off  their  tails 
or  ears.  The  stallions  of  England  are  much  prized,  and  have  been  judiciously  used  to  im- 
prove the  native  breeds. 

The  oxen  are  of  two  races ;  the  one  called  bceufi  de  haut  crii  are  of  a  middle  or  small 
size,  with  a  fierce  look,  thick  hide,  and  coarse  hair ;  they  are  principally  bred  in  the  moun- 
tainous provinces  of  Gascony,  Auvergne,  &c.  The  others  are  called  baufs  de  nature,  and 
are  larger,  with  a  mild  aspect,  thin  hide,  and  sofl  hair :  they  fatten  easily,  and  belong  to  the 
plainu. 

The  native  breeds  of  sheep,  not  in  themselves  good,  have  been  of  late  sedulously  and 
successfully  improved.  The  Flemish  breed,  common  both  to  France  and  the  Netherlands, 
is  generally  hornless,  with  long  legs,  and  is  derived  from  an  intermixture  with  those  of 
Barbary.  The  Solognot  are  mostly  without  horns,  and  the  wool  is  curled  only  at  the  ends. 
The  jBertcAomie  ore  likewise  hornless,  but  are  known  by  their  long  neck:  the  &ce  is  covered 
with  wool ;  that  on  the  body  being  fine,  white,  close,  short,  and  curled.  The  Rou8aiUonne 
is  derived  from  the  merino  race ;  and  has  very  fine  wool,  the  filaments  of  the  piles  being 
iNvisted  spirally.  Lastly,  the  Ardennoise  is  honied,  and  bears  a  very  fine  fleece :  this  breed 
Jktwise  er tends  over  part  of  the  Netherlands.    (Ham.  Smith.) 

>  hrge  and  elegant  variety  of  the  Domestic  Cat  is  very  common  in  some  parts  of  France ; 
:..  d  :iCL>rly  double  the  size  of  the  common  cat,  and  is  beturded  much  in  the  same  manner  as 

the  lyUX,  .,;,*. 'Tf-f.>^«.;  •''^.  ^.n  p-    •  .■  ■  .  ^■'   t';-'"'  c  v:-    ■ 

Sect.  III. — Historical  Geography. 
The  Guls,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  France,  and  the  chief  among  the  Celtic  nations, 
were  an  a^itive,  powerful,  and  ambitious  people.  Their  emigrant  hordes  repeatedly  crowed 
ihe  Alps,  pvToseBBeu  uie  whole  north  of  Italy,  once  sacked  the  imperial  city,  and  even  pene- 
trated into  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  Both  Switzerland  and  Belgium  were  then  included  as 
^lart  of  Gaul,     The  people,  though  still  barbarous,  had  made  some  steps  toward  civilisation. 


Book  I. 


'ct«'l 


PRANCE. 


M!'i. 


The  nobles  and  Druids  enjoyed  hiffh  power  and  influence,  and  had  reduced  the  body  of  Uie 
nation  uhnost  to  a  state  of  vasBalaffo.  They  combated  with  obstinacy,  and  made  a  long 
rcsiHtance  to  the  progress  of  the  Roman  arms ;  but  being  opposed  to  Ciesar,  the  gi  jatest 
of  the  Roman  captains,  afler  a  war  of  twenty  years,  they  were  entirely  and  permanently 

subjected. 

Thn  conversion  of  Gaul  into  a  Roman  province,  though  it  humbled  the  chiefis  and  quelled 
tho  mrirtial  spirit  of  the  people,  was  attended  with  many  beneficial  changes.  Peace  was 
eHtabiiaheil ;  cultivation  and  industry  promoted ;  Roman  and  even  Greek  literature  intro- 
duced ;  and  the  people  finally  converted  to  the  Christian  faith. 

The  irruption  of  the  Teutonic  tr:  bcs,  on  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire,  was  early  felt 
in  GhuI,  wticre  tlie  Goths,  the  Hiruli,  the  Burgundians,  and  the  confederacy  called  the 
Franks,  overwhelmed  and  ravaged  t,ie  whole  kingdom,  and  drove  the  Celtic  population  and 
lanfTuage  into  its  remote  and  mounte  inous  corners.  From  amid  a  chaos  of  convulsions,  the 
vigorous  hand  of  Clovis  established  tiie  undisputed  supremacy  of  the  Franks,  and  founded  the 
monarchy  of  France. 

The  reign  of  Charlemagne,  son  and  successor  to  Pepin,  who  firom  mayor  of  the  palace  had 
occupied  the  throne,  formed  the  most  brilliant  period  m  French  history.  That  eminent  and 
powerful  prince  not  only  placed  on  his  head  the  iron  crown  of  Lombardy,  but  reduced  to  hia 
dominion,  after  a.  long  and  obstinate  resistance,  the  intractable  tribes  of  Germany,  who  had 
defied  tlie  utmost  efforts  of  the  Roman  eagle.  He  penetrated  also  into  Spain ;  but  the  fierce 
encounter  of  the  Saracens,  and  the  disastrous  adventure  of  Roncesvalles  on  his  return,  com- 
pletely stopped  his  career  in  that  direction.  Charlemagne,  though  himself  illiterate,  madn 
some  efforts  to  rekindle  the  declining  light  of  science  and  letters  in  Europe. 

The  contests  among  the  successors  of  Charlemagne  were  attended  with  the  most  violent 
and  bloody  convulsions,  and  with  continual  changes  in  the  position  of  the  three  great  king- 
doms which  c  .uposed  his  empire.  At  length  it  fell  entirely  to  pieces.  Germany  retained 
the  title  of  empire,  and  the  claim  to  the  dominion  of  Italy ;  and  m  France  the  Carlovingian 
dynasty,  or  that  of  Charlemagne,  having  become  extinct  under  Louis  Outrenier,  the  Uirone 
was  seized  by  the  Capets,  the  most  powerful  among  the  noble  French  families. 

Hugh  Capet,  having  in  987  assumed  the  title  of  king,  the  real  power  attached  to  which 
had  already  been  exercised  by  his  ikther,  Hugh  the  Great,  founded  the  present  dynasty.  The 
a(i ministration,  however,  was  long  marked  by  a  strong  feudal  character,  and  a  high  spirit  of 
independence  among  the  great  nobles,  of  whom  the  counts  of  Provence  and  Britany,  and  the 
dukes  of  Burgundy,  ranked  altogether  as  separate  end  oflen  hostile  priaces.  The  feudal  age 
of  France  was  also  marked  by  chivalric  and  event'.ul  wars  with  England,  which  long  held 
several  of  the  finest  provinces,  and  whose  king,  Henry  V.,  was  crowned  at  Paris;  but  from 
that  seemingly  approaching  downfall,  the  monarchy,  through  the  romantic  exploits  of  the 
Maid  of  Orleans,  suddenly  revived,  and  became  more  mighty  than  before. 

The  establishment  of  monarchical  power  in  its  plenitude  was  chiefly  effected  by  the  pro- 
found and  insidious  policy  of  Louis  XL,  fevoured  by  the  circumstances  of  the  age.  All 
France  wus  united  under  the  sway  of  Jhe  kings,  who  were  thus  enabled  to  form  great  armies, 
which,  under  Charles  VIII.  and  Louis  XII.,  overran  nearly  the  whole  of  Italy.  But  it  was 
under  the  gay  und  enterprising  reign  of  Francis  I.  that  its  energies  were  fuUv  developed, 
[t  then,  however,  came  into  cmlision  with  the  house  of  Austria,  whose  extensive  possessions 
in  Germany,  Spain,  the  Netherlands,  and  Italy,  wielded  by  a  powerful  hand,  secured  to  it 
during  this  period  a  decided,  though  not  overwhelming,  ascendant. 

The  civil  wars  arising  out  of  the  persecution  of  the  Protestants  agitated  PVance  for  a  very 
long  time,  and  produced  scenes  of  the  most  bloody  and  calamitors  description.  They  lasted 
for  a  hundred  years ;  for  the  popular  reign  of  Henry  IV.  could  scarcely  be  considered  as  more 
than  a  truce.  At  length  Richelieu,  by  the  reduction  of  Rochelle,  terminated  the  long  strug- 
jfle  of  the  Protestants  for  religious  liberty,  which  in  France  alone,  of  all  the  countries  where 
it  was  maintained  upon  a  great  scale,  had  this  fetal  issue.  At  the  same  time,  this  daring 
and  despotic  minister  finally  crushed  the  power  and  pretensions  of  the  nobles,  and  formed 
France  into  a  simple  monarchy.  • 

The  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  during  which  a  single  hand  wielded  all  the  energies  called 
forth  during  the  prior  struggles,  exhibited  France  more  powerful  than  she  had  been  since 
Charlemagne.  The  house  of  Austria,  now  divided  into  the  German  and  Spanish  branches, 
of  which  the  latter  had  become  weak  and  inert,  was  humbled  by  repeated  blows,  which  at 
length  almost  threatened  her  existence.  France  seemed  advancing  in  the  career  of  univer- 
sal monarchy,  when  the  intorjiosition  of  England  and  the  victories  of  Marlborough  turned 
the  tide  of  success,  and  ren<]ered  the  last  days  of  Ijouis  humiliating  and  disastrous.  The 
final  issue,  however,  by  wiiich  a  Bourbon  was  placed  on  the  throne  of  Spain,  and  the  conse- 
quen*  femily  alliance,  gave  to  France  an  increased  weight,  especially  in  the  maritime  con- 
cerns of  Europe. 

The  French  revolution  was  an  event  attended  with  awful  and  mighty  vicissitudes,  so  fresh 
11  the  memory  of  the  world,  that  it  would  be  quite  superfluous  to  attempt  to  enumerate  them. 
AJler  tearing  up  France  by  the  roots,  and  holding  all  Europe  in  chains ;  afler  exhibiting 


nes 


DESCRIPTIVE  QEOGRAPHV. 


Paw  III 


diirinff  twenty  ^ears  the  viciwitudi'it  of  ropublicaiiism,  total  anarchy,  and  pure  doKpotimn;  a| 
lon|{tli,  by  a  mighty  re-action,  it  torminatod  nojtrly  at  the  point  from  which  it  commnncpd. 
Franco,  howovor,  nutAinod  checks  on  tho  arbitrary  ix)wer  of  her  monarchE,  whicli,  nntwith- 
■tanding  tiieir  opposition,  ahe  rendered  more  and  moro  effective.  At  length  CharloH  Y., 
havinir  riwhiy  attempted  to  break  through  all  tho  limits  placed  on  bin  authority,  wuh  driven 
firom  tiiH  throne,  which  was  tlllod  by  IxHiiH-l'hilippe,  head  of  the  collateral  line  of  Orlouna, 
under  tlie  tit'e  of  King  of  tlie  French. 


r\im  !rtii/*t>if.i  A>'>i'<}  n 


'I !  AVI  I  III 


-.g 


Srot.  IV. — Political  Geography. 

The  political  constitution  of  Franco,  prior  to  the  Revolution,  was  almost  purely  di>spotic 
The  privileges  of  the  nobles  consisted  nearly  "Itogether  in  unjust  exemptions  fVom  taxation, 
and  in  corveea,  or  iniquitous  and  oppressive  claims  upon  the  labour  of  the  peasantry.  The 
only  very  salutary  limit  to  the  royal  authority  consisted  in  the  parliaments,  hereditary  bodies, 
by  whom  the  laws  were  very  fhirly  and  honourably  administered;  and  the  parliament  of 
Paris  had  even  the  important  privilege  of  registering  every  new  tax  before  it  could  become 
If^gal.  The  exorbitant  powers  vested  in  tlie  sovereign  being  however  inconsistent  with  the 
growth  of  national  intolligcnce  and  the  augmented  force  of  the  tiers  elat,  a  collision  took 
place,  the  most  terrible  on  record,  which  ended  in  the  temporary  subversion  of  the  throne. 
When  the  Bourbons  were  restored  bv  foroijirii  victories,  they  felt,  and  were  warned,  that 
France  could  no  longer  be  governed  by  the  former  absolute  system ;  and  they  bestowed  by 
charter  a  representative  government  formed  on  the  admirod  model  of  England.  The  nobles 
and  parliaments,  however,  had  been  entirely  swept  away  in  the  late  convulsions,  and  left  no 
hereditary  aristocracy  out  of  which  an  upper  hou*'^  cou'l  be  composed.  A  Chamber  of  Peers 
was  formed,  by  tlie  royal  appointment,  of  a  body  of  imlividuals,  many  distinguished  rather 
by  talents  and  influence  than  by  birth ;  and  in  the  number  were  included  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  Napoleon's  generals.  Pensions  were  assigned  to  support  tlie  dignity  of  the 
Peers,  which  was  at  first  hereditary,  but  by  a  recent  enactment  is  to  continue  only  for  life 
Tlie  Chamber  of  Deputies,  corresponding  to  the  House  of  Commons,  is  chosen  by  electors 
united  in  certain  bodies  called  electoral  colleges.  These  include  all  persons  paying  a  certain 
a,mount  of  direct  taxes ;  which  limits  the  right  of  voting  to  the  middling  class,  and  to  an  entire 
number  throughout  France  scarcely  exceeding  130,000.  The  num^r  of  Deputieii  is  41)0. 
The  functions  of  the  French  chambers  are  high.  Their  annua!  vote  grants  all  the  supplies  of 
the  year,  and  the  expenditure  of  the  preceding  one  is  submitted  to  their  rigorous  examina- 
tion. No  taxes  can  be  imposed,  or  loans  contracted  for,  without  their  concurrence.  Their 
debates  are  regularly  made  public,  and  an  arrangement  is  enacted  by  law  for  tl  e  convenience 
of  the  reporters.  Yet  the  chambers  want  some  of  the  functions  of  a  British  prliament. 
They  cannot  fix  the  amount  of  the  army,  unless  by  limiting  the  fUnds  to  be  employed  in  its 
maintenance ;  nor  can  they  call  in  question  the  engagements  held  by  g-ovemment  with 
foreign  powers,  unless  by  withholding  the  funds  necessary  to  fUlfil  them.  The  liberty  of 
the  press  was  professedly  granted  by  the  charter;  but  there  has  been  much  fluc.,:ation  in  its 
exercise ;  it  was  even  repeatedly  made  subject  to  a  censorship :  even  since  the  last  great 
change,  its  fVeodom  has  not  been  established  on  as  ample  a  basis  as  in  Britain. 

The  administration  of  justice  in  France,  which,  before  the  Revolution,  was  still  more  com- 
plicated than  in  England,  has  been  simplified  in  a  very  remarkable  degree.  The  National 
Assembly  early  applied  themselves  to  form  a  new  series  of  codes,  which  might  supersede 
those  vast  and  voluminous  records  in  which  the  law  was  formerly  contained.  They  pro- 
jcctetl  five  codes,  respectively  referring  to  civil  law,  civil  procedure,  commerce,  criminal 
aw,  and  penal  infliction.  These  were  completed  under  Bonaparte,  who  gave  to  the  whole 
the  name  of  Code  Napoleon :  it  is  comprised  in  a  moderate  volume,  sola  for  a  few  fi^ncs. 
All  the  ancient  parliaments  and  seigniorial  authorities  being  swept  away,  a  new  system  of 
jurisdiclion  has  been  formed.  Of  the  judicial  authorities,  the  lowest  class  are  the  ju^es  de 
paix,  who  amount  to  nearly  3000.  They  have  salaries  of  800  to  1000  francs,  and  decide 
finally  on  all  cases  where  the  question  at  issue  does  not  exceed  fifly  francs.  Immediately 
above  tliem  are  the  tribunals  de  premiere  instance,  before  whom  all  questions  and  charges 
come  in  the  first  instance,  and  who  judge  finally  respecting  any  property  not  exceeding  lOOO 
francs.  There  are  360  of  these  courts,  and  the  judges  are  supposed  little  short  of  8000. 
To  them  are  attached  the  tribunal  of  correctional  police,  which  has  cognizance  of  all  minor 
offences.  Above  these  "^nk  the  cours  royales,  sometimes  called  cours  d'appel,  because  an 
appeal  lies  to  them  from  the  inferior  courts.  They  are  twenty-seven  in  number,  attached 
to  the  chief  cities  in  the  kingdom.  They  consist,  in  populous  towns,  of  twenty,  thirty,  and 
in  Paris  of  fifly  members ;  wno,  in  that  case,  are  divided  into  several  chambers.  Attached 
to  them  are  the  cours  d'assise,  or,  as  we  would  call  them,  jury  courts,  to  which  all  criminal 
cases  of  importance  are  referred  by  the  cours  royales.  A  French  jury  consists  of  twe've, 
and  a  simple  majority  decides.  From  the  decisions  of  the  cours  royales  an  appeal  lies  to  the 
court  of  csssstion,  the  highest  tribunal,  which  also  exercises  a  general  juFisuiction  over  tii6 


Baocl 


r' 


r  Ttitilln 
rite  yan. 


other  judicial  bodies, 
life. 


All  the  judges  ara  appi  intcd  by  the  crown,  but  hold  their  offices  for 


Book  L 


V  Iff  AH    PRANCE.     'J'"'*^:^*' 


iS^ 


[The  fbllowinf;  tables  iVom  official  documonUi  contain  important  data  illuitrative  not  leM 

nf  ihe  moral  history  of  mankind,  than  of  the  itate  of  aocicty  in  France. 

L  Btilement  of  tli«  Nunibflr  of  Perioni  charind  with  Criminal  Oflbncei  beftjra  the  Ciiurli  of  Aimm,  In  each  y«ar. 

ftom  vm  to  IH3II.  I 

\ 


Crimu  ngainit  (A«  Pnttn. 
Aiainit  the  Mtatt^  anil  Public  Onoan . 

Miiriler  and  Manslaughter i 

Parrlcldf 

Infkntlcide 

C'litthiK  and  Wnundinf 

Auaulti  u|K)n  Wmnuii 

"     (;hlldr«n 

Purjiiry  and  Bub<irnalion  of  Perjury  . 

Blitninv 

Other  CrimM 


Totali . 


CrimM  agtinit  Propirtf. 

Colninn 

FiirKcry  nf  CnmniKrcial  Papon  •  • 

Olhi'r  Porgerli'it 

Robbery  and  Theft  in  Chiirrhei . . 

■•  "  on  Illghwaya . 

"  "  by  Domcitlca . 

Other  kind!  nf  Rohhnry 

Fritdulent  Dnnkriiptcy 

Inccndinriini 

Other  Orimei 


laas. 

178 
300 
IS 
1)9 
531 
107 
137 

1 


1,844 


Totali 

General  Totali. 


m 

333 
47 

188 

M6 

3,109 

80 

06 

IZI 


IflW. 

1T8 

SS8 

14 

01 

4M 

184 

130 

70 

11 

04 


1830.    I    1831. 


1,701 


i,ssi 


7,300 


78 

103 

333 

67 

IK'S 

1,91.1 

3,345 

03 

88 

173 


S,S83 


365 
460 

4 
lOU 
300 
1»l 
107 
71 

7 

3a 


1,060 


48 

(« 
881 

47 

133 

1,016 

3,380 

84 
138 
177 


3,306 


7,3rJ        6,069 


618 
(iOS 

13 

80 
.140 
113 
103 

TO 
3 

54 


9,040 


103 

73 

301 

33 

133 

030 

3,481 

07 

133 

314 


3,360 


7,606 


1839. 

l.OHH 

Oil 

33 

88 

349 

131 

111 

104 

0 

83 


9,044 


81 

88 
337 

38 

108 

038 

3,^ 

70 
160 
343 


5,303 
8,837 


t,I 
7 
H 

.'1 

:t 


n.  Statement  ihowing  the  Degree  of  Initruirtinn  nf  Peiions  rhargpd  with  Crimen  before  the  Courti  of  Anize,  in 

each  year,  Oom  1838  to  1833. 


Tew. 


1838 
183« 
1830 
1831 
1833 


Toltl  In  ' 
Five  yean. 


1838 

1HS9 

laio 

1831 
ISM 

TnW  iii 
TiTe  yean. 


UwIjIi)  Io  md  01  wrile. 


CrimM  «K>ln>  Crlmnaniiol 
I'enom.  Proiwrty. 


1,000 
l,0fi3 
900 
1,144 
1,333 

5,539 


915 
185 
174 
334 
809 

1,100 


3,137 
3.400 
3,3SU 
3,430 
3,410 


16,818 


Tolil 
AcctMcd, 

4,100 
4,333 
4,319 
4,000 
4,749 


83,337 


Acquitted. 

1,339 
1,000 
],tl34 
1,048 
1,883 


8,780 


Coavicted, 


3,687 
3,827 
3,003 
8,033 
3,866 


Abla  to  read  and  write  xnM, 


503 

780 

343 

544 

739 

323 

514 

088 

3.10 

5.13 

707 

436 

583 

775 

373 

9,039 

3,739 

1,796 

13.637 


438 
404 
338 
341 
403 


1,043 


Abla  to  read  or  write  Imperfectly. 


50S 
496 
465 
568 
850 


3,884 


Crimea  •(aiiut  Crimea  a^piiiut       Total 
Fenoni.  Froperty.        jtccuied. 


1,858 
1,047 
1,880 
3,047 
3,430 


1,333 
1,431 
l,:i61 
1,479 
1,000 


7,830 


10,134 


AoqulUed.  Convicted. 


715 

787 

706 

1,000 

1,103 

4.430 


1,143 

l.lfiO 
1,000 
1,047 
1,304 

8,70r 


Ileceired  a  degree  of  Iiutmcllon  beyond  mere  reading  and  writing. 


36 
40 
37 
98 
100 


386 


33 

134 

03 

08 


478 


118 
170 
129 
190 
837 


804 


77 
89 
83 
133 
163 


343 


41 

81 
47 
38 
95 


382 


Ah.-Ed.J 

Financial  sy$lem.  During  the  period  of  the  Revolution,  France  shook  off  the  heavy 
burden  of  debt  which  had  been  a  main  iustrument  in  bringinj.'  on  that  catastrophe.  Yet  the 
amount  of  taxes  had  not  exceeded  550,000,000  livres,  and  the  nation  was  crushed  rather  by 
tiie  arbitrary  and  injudicious  modes  of  levying  the  imposts,  than  by  their  actual  amount 
NajMleon,  to  support  his  continual  wars,  laicf  on  large  additional  taxes,  chiefly  in  the  fonn  of 
land  assessment,  and  contracted,  a  debt  of  3,000,000,000  francs.  This  was  augmented  by  the 
events  of  1815,  i  nd  the  occupation  of  the  French  territory  by  the  allied  armies  at  t!ie  expense 
of  France.  The  debt  is  now  expressed  in  the  form  of  rentes  or  annuities,  which  in  the 
budfTct  of  1830  amounted  to  249,496,000  livres :  this,  with  other  funds  for  which  govern- 
ment were  respfjnsible,  was  considered  as  representing  a  capital  of  4,988,738,000  francs. 

The  statement  of  receipt  and  expenditure  for  the  year  1830  is  as  follows: — 


RF.CF.tPT. 

Direct  T.ixon,  rhlcflv  on  I.iinii 

R<'irlstrntiiiii  S'  niiipi).  niid  Domnins 

CiistiMiiliniiKoii  nnd  Salt 

Utjuiirs,  Sundry  Dutici),  Tobacco  and  Gun. 

jinwiliT 

Poff,  Oftiri!       

Fnll«  (if  Timber 

Salt  -n'(irks  

Gnii)  j  n!!-hnufioa 

Riiynl  (jOtt(>ry 

""iriHL'e 

Siiiidry  prncef^ds  .    

Eitranrdinnry  re^oiircea 

Deductions  on  Receipt! 


Fnnca, 
300.205,819 
187.223,018 
154,211,103 


193,081, .582 

33,409,fl:» 

24,0tiO,(!!)7 

1,200,000 

4,3;J8,f)88 

10,049,799 

14!,18! 

11,585,418 

48.402.941 

85,900,000 


983.944.000 


45* 


EXl'ENDITUBE.  FranM. 

Civil  List 27.flf'(l.0fi« 

Clmnibpr  of  Pners 7!"i,'il'9 

Chnmher  nf  Dnpiitieti liOO.ItOO 

Leeion  of  Hoiiiiiir I.ii.'i.'i  '209 

Sinking  Fund A^^^|^.'i^m 

Di?bt 270,:i.')!i.ii(i8 

Justice l(i„5'(i.O20 

Foreign  Affnirs H.TT.-'.IMH) 

RBligion  and  Public  Instruction 38,90l,.5flO 

Interior 12(!,l'.2.'i;i0 

W.".r .., 2.13.103,H7 

Marine 38,527,474 

Finance 22,877.107 

Administration  of  Revenue 129,072,351 

Repayuenta 40,300.808 

1,004,386.445 


884 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  m 


Th«  army  of  France  is  no  longer  that  vaat  and  terrible  maaa,  which  fnr  ao  many  yoar* 
hold  the  whole  of  continental  Europu  in  thmll.  The  event*  of  I8lft  having  proved  too 
clearly  the  attachmonr.  of  the  old  InwiM  to  their  former  miuitur,  Uioy  were  nearly  all  di» 
banded,  and  their  placti  -nipidied  by  OchIi  conncriptinn.  The  governmont  has  the  power  of 
levying  N),0()()  men  in  the  your.  By  a  ro^^uiutioii,  broathin)(  atill  the  republican  Mpiril,  one- 
third  oi  the  officers  inuHt  b«  miHod  from  tlif!  ninkn.  The  army  in  the  year  IrtlW  wm  on  a 
very  formidable  footing.  It  amounted  ii>  nil,  including  lO.CKWJ  officorH,  and  :J71W  children  of 
■oldien,  to  411,^10  men.  Of  thoHO,  the  infantry  conHiatod  of  i).')()r)  offieers*  and  '2(kl,141  men; 
the  cavalry  of  2H(r»  officers  and  {il,;i35  men ;  the  artillery  of  1190  officer*  and  ;)a,ft04  men, 


beHJdcii  gendarmerie,  eni^inoera,  &.c. 
The  French  niivy,  which,  in  171 


roi,  amoiintod  to  Bovonty-four  Bail  of  the  line  and  HJxty-twi) 
frigates,  loHt  half  during  the  w  ar ;  and  those  which  remained,  having  never  venturtMl  for 
mai  yeiirs  to  stir  out  of  port,  I*imI  all  thoir  experience  and  efficiency.  At  preHont,  it  connJHtH 
of  ^j  ships  of  the  line,  66  tVigutos,  30  corvottoa,  103  smaller  vosselii,  17  iiloam-voHsols, 
numerouH  armed  transports,  Sic.  The  French  navy  is  now  in  a  high  state  of  efficiency,  and 
if  rapidly  increasing. 

Sbot.  V. — Productive  Induitry.  '  ' 

France,  with  regard  to  internal  economy,  is  one  of  the  richest  and  most  flourishing  coun- 
tries in  the  world.  In  point  of  industry  she  ranks  third  iiftnr  Britain  and  the  Netlierimi(ln , 
while  she  possesses  a  greater  extent  and  more  natural  advantages  than  either  of  those  great 
■eata  of  commerce  ana  manufacture. 

Agriculture  is  the  most  flourishing  branch,  yet  is  not  in  so  advanced  a  state  as  in  Great 
Britain.  It  has  gained  greatly  by  the  French  revolution,  in  consequetico  of  the  abolition  of 
feudal  rights,  corviei,  and  tithes.  The  great  possessions  of  the  nolnlity  were  then  broken 
up,  and  during  the  grand  emigration,  the  flirmcrs,  or  neighbouring  little  prounntors  and 
capitalists,  were  able  to  purchase  at  a  very  cheap  rate  [mrtions  of  the  forfeited  uomaina.  It 
has  become  a  rage  in  France  for  every  one  to  posaoss  a  little  spot  of  land ;  and  the  diviaion 
of  a  man'H  property  among  his  children,  which  the  law  enforces,  tends  to  split  it  perpetually 
more  and  more  into  minute  portions.  Travellers  have  even  observed  three  or  tour  pro- 
prietors  obliged  to  join  in  keepinjor  a  common  plough.  In  vineyards  and  other  jfardeii  rul- 
tures,  where  nice  care  and  diligence  are  chief^  requisite,  this  minute  partition  seemM 
advantageous.  Chaptal  even  calculates,  that  a  small  vineyard  cultivated  by  the  proprietor's 
own  hand  will  yield  double  the  quantity  of  that  which  is  leased  out  by  a  largo  proprietor. 
But  in  com  lands,  where  a  considerable  capital,  good  machinery,  strong  and  well-fed  cultle 
ar^  necessary,  the  cultivation  is  tiius  kept  down  to  a  much  lower  standard  than  it  would 
otherwise  roach.  The  little  oc^cupants,  also,  are  by  no  means  prompt  in  discoveriii;,'  any 
improved  processes,  or  in  adopting  those  discovered  elsewhere.  Artificial  grasses,  and  the 
rotation  of  crops  which  they  facilitate,  are  by  no  moans  generally  difl'u^ ;  and  an  old 
vicious  circle,  of  wheat,  oats,  and  fallow,  is  still  very  generally  adhered  to.  In  short,  all 
operations  on  a  great  scale,  and  requiring  a  considerable  outlay,  are  deficient  in  France. 
M.  Dupin,  in  a  discourse  on  the  eflTects  of  public  instruction,  in  the  introduction  to  his  normal 
course  of  lectures  on  geometry,  has  drawn  a  striking  contrast  between  northern  and  soutiiern 
France.  Although  the  former  produces  neither  the  olive,  the  vine,  nor  any  of  the  finer 
fruits,  yet  it  pays  of  taxes  127,630,000  francs  on  a  surface  of  18,690,000  hectares;  while  the 
■outh  pays  only  125,410,000  francs  upon  34,840,000  hectares.  Even  in  the  south,  the  dis- 
tricts least  favoured  by  nature  are  both  the  most  enlightened  and  the  most  industrious;  the 
high  Alps,  the  high  Pyrenees,  and  the  departments  immediately  adjoining  to  them. 

Grain,  notwithstanding  the  imperfection  in  its  cultivation,  is  produced  with  such  diligence 
as  to  yield  enough  in  ordinary  years  to  supply  the  extensive  population  of  France  with  food. 
The  only  exception  is  in  part  of  its  soutiiern  coast,  which,  when  permitted,  draws  a  supply 
from  Odessa.  France  is  not  distinguished  for  any  very  superior  quality  of  grain,  nor  is  it  an 
exporting  country.  It  seems  to  have  attended  less  than  most  other  countries  of  Europe  to 
the  culture  of  potatoes,  which  are  still  planted  only  in  gardens,  along  borders,  or  in  tracts 
unfit  for  grain.  Maize  is  mixed  with  wheat  in  the  southern  departments.  Chaptal  iiaii 
given  the  following  statement,  calculated  on  an  average  of  twelve  years,  from  1800  to  1812, 
of  the  entire  products  of  this  branch  of  French  agriculture : — 


HaelolilKa. 

Wheat 51,.W0,3flO 

Rye 30,2!iO,l«l 

Maize 6,3(»,:U6 

Buckwheat 8,409,473 


HMtolitm 

BBrloy 12,5711,003 

Pntatoei 10,800,741 

Oau 38,0jU^.W7 

i(iiril4ti,081 


A  more  recent  estimate,  in  a  memoir  read  to  the  Society  of  Statistics  in  1830,  makes  the 
average  produce  of  the  years  1825  to  1828  amount  to  60,553,000  hectolitres  of  wheat, 
114,733,000  of  other  grains;  46,288,000  of  potatoes  and  chestnuts. 

Wine  ranks  next  in  importance  to  grain,  and  forms  a  most  valuable  part  of  French 
industry.    The  wines  of  France,  though  not  so  strong  as  those  of  more  eoutltem  climates. 


Book  L  I 


iTI'l/}    FRANCE. 


tft  ({uuenlly  aceoanUid  Uifl  moat  delioata  iu  the  world.  ThoM  of  Burffundy  arMl  Chainpn(fn« 
m  witliuut  a  rival,  it'  wu  except  a  tew  ran  apRoiinflnn  of  Tokay.  'I'ho  winm  ot  tho  Oaruiina 
do  not  rank  quito  ao  higli ;  but,  t'roin  their  liffht,  aat'o,  aiid  a^fronable  qiulitiea,  are  drunk  more 
fhi'.ly,  and  exportijd  on  a  larf^or  acalo.  The  nnost  and  atrunKuat  of  theite  winen  are  rultivated 
cliii!liy  to  supply  thu  coiMiiinplum  of  Britain  and  tiio  other  northern  nationM.  Tlin  intorior 
coriHuniption  of  France  conaiiitM  chiefly  of  the  liffht  win«tM,  drunk  at  table,  nearly  iih  our  Imer. 
Two  ulal)onite  attoniptii  have  been  ntodo  to  natiinalu  the  pnxluce  uf  the  French  vuiuyardH; 
Mti  by  Chaptal,  in  hia  "Ounerai  Trtrntiw)  on  French  InduMtry,"  and  the  other  in  tlii)  rf|Mirt 
ot'  a  comtnitti-n  uf  thu  ('hamber  of  I'eera,  preaented  in  lH*i4  by  the  Due  do  Doduiniville, 
Tlii-y  ditler  pnttty  considerably.  ChH|itul  auppoeea  that  l,6m,(NX)  huctarea  are  employod  iu 
prwlucinjl  wine  to  the  avora^fo  annual  amount  of  36,6(N),U00  hectolitrna.  The  table,  how> 
ever,  i;;iven  by  the  duke,  of  the  pioducrj  of  each  depurtmont  dooa  not  ''xcned  UlifliMMNN) 
hectohtroa.  The  differvncu  aa  to  value  ia  atill  more  romnrkable.  Chaplui,  after  loavin^f  out 
t  lixth,  an  made  into  brandy,  eatinrntua  the  remainder  at  fl78,(M)0,()0U  fVancs :  hu  aupiKutoa 
that  there  are  H()0,OOU  wortii  each  2(M)tVancH;  l.MMMMN)  worth  N);  frrodually  deacnndini; 
till  ho  cornea  to  10,r)(MMNN)  worth  only  7^  thinca.  Dodrauvillo  does  not  bring  the  amount 
to  more  than  4H(),(NN),0()0.  The  hiifheHt  averoffe  value  he  aaaiffns  to  the  winea  of  any 
department  ia  to  thoae  of  the  Oiae  (champagne),  30  fVanca;  thoae  of  the  Mame,  Vonne,  and 
C6lo  d'Ur  (burgundy),  26  to  24 ;  of  the  Gironde,  and  Loli,  and  Garunne  (claret),  19  to  21 ; 
llif  roat  from  17  to  9.  Hia  estimate,  however,  seems  too  low;  since  M.  Dupin  {Forcrn  Pro- 
dudives,  ^c.  de  la  France)  calculates  the  value,  according  to  the  tax  pai<l  to  government, 
at  MJ^lSSjWS  fVancs.  The  brandv  into  which  one-sixth  of  the  above  produce  is  made,  is, 
like  the  wine,  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  a  grand  staple  uf  French  trade.  (Ihaptnl  estirnitea 
tlie  value  dintilled  at  4(),(X)0,()()()  francs.  M.  I)npin  states  the  quantity  at4<J9,817  hectolitres; 
that  of  other  spirits  at  9<),U00.  He  calculates  also  0,8C8,21B  hectolitres  of  cider,  and  2  f  "MKAJ 
hectolitres  of  strong  beer. 

Live  stock  does  nut  form  the  moat  approved  part  of  Trench  husbandry.  Chaptal  ooneidera 
tlmt  the  animals  are  too  few,  whether  for  culture,  for  use,  or  for  the  production  of  vianurc ; 
and  also  that  the  measures  taken  to  improve  the  breed  have  benn  very  partial  and  defective. 
The  number  of  horses,  including  mules,  in  1827,  was  2,550,0(K).  Ot  these  it  was  <  tied 
tliat  iMX),0()0  were  employed  in  riding,  posting,  the  artillery,  &c.  The  stock  reqi  tos  f  ^  be 
kept  up  by  an  importation,  which  in  1809  to  1612  was  valued  at  !),541,0()()  francs  annually, 
but  according  to  M.  Senac  had  risen,  in  1822  to  1825,  to  7,500,(NM).  In  return,  there  is  an 
extensive  breeding  of  mules  on  the  Pyrenean  frontier,  and  they  are  exported  to  Spain  to  tiie 
value  of  1,400,000  francs.  France  had  in  1812,  214,000  bulls,  1,701,(KM)  oxen,  »,909,(N)0 
cows,  850,000  heifers.  The  importation  at  that  time  amounted  to  only  2,860,000  francs,  but 
in  1825  it  was  7,680,000.  The  exportation  is,  however,  considerable.  Sheep  are  a  species 
of  stock  very  considerable  in  amount,  particularly  in  the  departments  bordering  on  the  Alps 
and  Pyrenees,  in  those  which  compose  the  mountain  district  of  Auvergne,  and  on  the  pastoral 
banks  of  the  Eure  and  the  Cher.  The  number  of  sheep  in  1812  was  766,310  merinos, 
3,578,000  mixed,  and  30,843,000  native  or  unimproved.  The  first  introduction  of  merinos 
was  in  consequence  of  the  treaty  of  Basle,  which  stipulated  that  4000  of  these  highly  prized 
animals  should  pass  into  France.  An  experience  of  thirty  years  has  shown  that  the  breed 
might  be  preserved  and  extended  in  full  perfection ;  but  the  above  etatement  will  show  that 
the  diffusion  of  it  is,  as  yet,  very  partial.  Pure  merinos  are  valued  at  thirty  tHncs,  mixed 
at  twelve  francs,  and  native  sheep  at  only  five  francs.  The  numrj.:  ..'*  swine  in  Prance  is 
estimated  by  Balbi,  in  1826,  at  4,000,000.  The  ass  is  consideic  •  M.  Senac  to  be,  from 
the  poverty  of  his  owners,  in  an  almost  hopeless  state  of  degradation ;  and  the  fowls,  the 
bees,  and  the  pigeons  to  demand  a  thoroughly  improved  system  of  rearing.  Chaptal  has 
not  attempted  to  estimate  the  winged  species,  but  has  guessed  their  entire  value  at  about 
51,000,000  firancs. 

Among  the  materials  of  manufacture,  the  most  important  is  silk,  which  was  at  first  intro- 
duced near  Tours,  but  was  soon  found  to  be  well  suited  only  to  the  most  southern  districts. 
The  amount,  according  to  Chaptal,  is  about  11,400,000  lbs.,  and  the  value  15,440,000  fhmcs; 
but  this  is  only  alx)ut  two-fifths  of  the  (|uantity  consumed  in  the  manufactures,  so  that  a  large 
importation  is  necessary  from  Lombardy.  Hemp  and  flax  are  cultivated  universally,  but 
always  on  a  small  scale,  every  farmer  having  his  little  patch  for  domestic  use.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  estimate  these ;  but  Chaptal  guesses  the  value  of  hemp  at  30,000,000  francs,  and  flax 
at  20,000,000  francs.  Vegetable  oils  ate  produced  to  the  suppoMtd  extent  of  1,300,000  quin- 
tals, worth  about  75,000,000  francs ;  yet  so  great  is  the  quantity  consumed  in  domestic 
use,  and  in  the  different  manuftctures,  that  they  are  imported  to  the  value  of  nearly  twenty- 
five  millions. 

There  are  certain  tropical  and  colonial  productions  which  it  was  the  eager  wish  of  Napo- 
leon that  France  should  cultivate,  in  order  that  she  might  be  independent  of  commerce. 
One  of  his  favourite  projects  was  the  culture  of  the  bcct=root,  for  the  e.rtraction  of  sugar, 
an  article  of  consumption  with  which  Europeans  con  least  dispense.  The  admission  of  colo- 
nial and  foreign  sugars,  under  reasonal^a  duties,  after  the  overthrow  of  the  continental  ays- 


b86 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa»t  ni. 


tern,  gave  a  severe  check  to  thia  apurioas  branch  of  industry.    To  prevent  its  decline,  heavy 
additional  duties  were  laid  on  colonial  and  foreign  sugars  in  1816  and  1822;  and,  in  coiiae- 

Juence  of  this  encouragement,  the  production  of  beet-root  sugar  has  been  rapidly  increasing 
uping  the  last  five  years,  and  is  now  supposed  to  amount  to  about  8000  tons,  or  8,960,000  lbs. 
The  ait  has  been  a  good  deal  improved ;  and  it  is  sup|)osed  by  many  that  it  will,  at  no  dis- 
tant period,  be  so  much  ameliorated  that  the  beet^growers  will  be  able  to  withstand  the 
competition  of  the  V/est  India  planters  under  the  same  duties :  but  any  such  expectation 
seems  to  us  to  be  quite  visionary.  The  entire  consumption  of  sugar  in  France  amounts,  at 
present,  inclusive  of  that  from  the  beet-root,  to  about  72,000  tons  a  year;  being  not  much 
more  than  a  third  part  of  the  consumption  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland;  which  amounts  to 
about  190,000  tons.  Tobacco,  after  the  removal  of  the  regie  or  royal  monopoly,  rose  to 
50,000,000  lbs. ;  but  since  the  restoration  of  the  regie  in  1812,  it  has  fallen  to  5,000,000. 

Wood  is  an  important  article,  especially  in  a  country  which  is  nearly  destitute  of  any 
other  fuel.  Chaptal  estimated  the  woodlands  at  7,072,000  hectares  (about  17,500,000  acres) ; 
but  according  to  a  more  recent  memorial  in  1824,  by  M.  Herbin  de  Halle,  sub-administrator 
of  tho  forests,  it  is  only  6,521,000  hectares  (about  16,000,000  acres).  Of  this,  1,122,0(,0 
hectares  belong  to  the  state,  1,896,000  to  the  communes,  65,969  to  the  crown,  192,0U(t  to 
princes  of  the  royal  &mily,  and  3,243,000  to  private  individuals.  Woods  thus  occupy  a  little 
more  than  an  eighth  part  of  the  soil.  The  greatest  proportion  exists  in  the  departments 
bordering  on  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees,  and  along  the  KJiine,  the  Moselle,  the  Sa6ne,  'he 
Marne,  and  other  eastern  rivers.  Chaptal  estimates  the  value  of  the  annual  cuttingfs  at 
about  141,000,000  francs;  but  if  this  be  reduced  according  to  M.  de  Halle's  estimate,  it  will 
give  only  130,000,000.  Fruit  trees  are  also  of  importance,  especially  chestnuts,  cultivated 
on  a  large  scale  in  several  provinces,  and  valued  by  Chaptal  at  about  10,000,000  fhuics. 
He  estimates  the  fruit  growing  open  in  orchards  at  22,500,000  francs,  and  that  on  walls,  or 
in  rows  as  single  trees,  at  68,750,000.  He  is  afraid  that  this  last  will  be  thought  too  low ; 
we  should  rather  apprehend  an  opposite  error  in  this  instance,  as  well  as  in  that  of  reckoning 
the  herbs  which  grow  in  328,000  hectares  of  garden  ground,  at  200,000,000  francs. 

On  the  whole,  Chaptal  calculates  that  in  the  52,(K)0,000  hectares  of  which  France  con- 
sists, twenty-three  are  arable;  ten  woods,  vines,  fruit-trees;  seven  pasturage;  the  rest 
wraters,  mads,  buildings,  waste.  He  makes  the  annual  average  produce  of  an  acre  28  fVancs. 
By  this  and  other  estimates,  the  annual  territorial  produce  comes  to  about  1,500,000,000 
francs.  The  entire  agricultural  capital  he  estimates  at  37,500,000,000  francs.  M.  Dupin, 
in  1827,  reckons  the  territorial  revenue  at  1,628,000,000  francs. 

The  manufactures  of  France,  though  they  do  not  present  the  immense  results  of  those  of 
England,  are  considerably  more  productive  than  those  of  almost  any  other  nation.  Colbert, 
the  celebrated  minister  of  Louis  XIV.,  finding  this  branch  in  a  very  depressed  state,  com- 
pared with  its  prosperous  condition  in  some  neighbouring  countries,  bestowed  on  it  almost 
an  exclusive  attention.  Chaptal  calculates,  that  during  the  Revolution  it  made  still  greater 
progress  than  agriculture.  He  regards  as  almost  miraculous  the  advance  made  in  the  cotton 
and  other  fabrics.  The  miracle,  however,  was  wrought  solely  by  the  rigid  exclusion  of 
British  goods ;  and  amid  all  the  boasted  proofs  of  French  ingenuity,  he  is  obliged  to  confess, 
that  when,  as  minister  of  the  interior,  he  sought  eagerly  the  means  of  introducing  new 
manufactures,  he  could  find  no  effectual  expMient,  except  that  of  alluring  English  mar.a- 
factuvers  into  France,  and  of  copying  their  processes.  However,  these  prohibitions,  which 
ha"e  been  continued  to  a  great  extent  under  the  royal  system,  have  in  fact  forced  a  number 
of  manufactures  which  could  not  otherwise  have  withstood  British  competition. 

Silk  has  been  long  one  of  the  most  prominent  objects  of  French  manufacture.  Even  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  though  it  drove  many  of  the  most  industrious  citizens  out 
of  the  kingdom,  lefl  that  branch  of  industry  still  very  flourishing.  It  suffered  more  from  the 
dreadful  calamities  which  befell  Lyons,  its  chief  seat,  during  the  height  of  the  revolutionary 
mania.  The  15,000  establishments  that  existed  in  1788  for  the  manufacture  of  silk,  were 
reduced  in  1800  to  3500;  but  amounted,  in  1831,  to  about  15,000,  employing  above  21,000 
workmen.  It  is  chiefly  in  cloths  that  this  city  excels  all  others,  both  as  to  the  brilliancy  of 
the  dyes,  and  the  richness  and  beauty  of  the  stufft.  Nismes  excels  in  taffetas,  mixed  silk 
and  cottou  stufS,  gauzes,  and  crapes ;  Tours  in  furniture  stuffs ;  Avignon  in  satins,  levan- 
tines,  &c.  The  Cevennes  are  famous  for  bonnets,  while  almost  all  the  silk  ribands  are  fabri- 
cated in  the  department  of  the  Loire.  The  entire  value  of  the  manufacture  is  estimated  at 
125,000,000  francs,  of  which  30,000,000  is  exported. 

The  woollen  manufacture  is  still  more  extensive  and  valuable  than  that  of  silk.  The 
woollens  of  France  are  either  very  coarse  or  very  fine ;  the  former  nre  established  ohioHy  in 
the  hillj  tracts  of  the  soutliern  border,  whoro  the  sliopp  yield  abundance  of  coarse  wool,  iind 
tlie  shepherds  spend  the  leisure  of  winter  in  workincf  it  up  into  serges,  friezen,  and  similar 
stuffs.  On  the  other  hand,  at  Sedan,  Ijouvirrs,  Abbeville,  are  manufactured  finer  cloths 
Uian  any  of  those  of  Britiin,  thoujjh  the  latter  produces  a  much  larjjef  (|uaiiiiiy  of  g(xxi  arui  sub- 
stantial cloth.  Althonsrh  France  produces  84,00(),0(K)  lbs.  of  wool,  she  yet  imports  to  the 
value  of  12,000,000  or  14,000.000  of  francs:  Chaptal  estimates  the  whole  unmanufactured 


ntooK  t 


.Vtl'!/ 


PRANCE.  ii;r?.i:.!(i 


m 


J  ii  rid  SUCH 


wool  at  98,000,000  fhuics,  and  the  finiahed  work  at  238,000,000,  of  which  the  exportf 
amount  bi  about  25,000,000. 

The  itiaking  of  linen  is  as  widely  scattered  as  the  culture  of  hemp  and  flax  The  coarse 
cloths  a»««  chiefly  fabricated  by  the  peasantry,  each  out  of  Uie  produce  of  his  own  little  patch 
of  land.  There  are,  however,  large  manufactures  of  plain  useful  cloth  in  Normandy  and 
Dauphine,  the  latter  from  hemp ;  and  great  quantities  of  sailcloth  are  made  in  the  maritime 
countries,  in  the  departments  along  the  Belgic  border  there  are  extensive  fabrics  of  lawns, 
cambrics,  and  lace ;  which  last,  though  not  of  equal  reputation  with  that  of  Brussels  and 
Mechlin,  forms  yet  an  important  object  of  trade.  We  may  reckon  the  raw  material  of  hemp 
at  37,000,000  francs ;  the  finished  manufacture  at  nearly  110,500,000 ;  flax,  raw  material, 
20,000,000,  the  finished  fabric,  76,000,000.  The  exportation  is  about  87,500,000,  almost 
wholly  of  the  finest  kinds  of  the  manufacture. 

The  cotton  manufacture  was  established  in  France  during  the  continental  system ;  and 
has  been  propj>ed  up  since  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  by  the  prohibition  of  importation 
from  abroad.  In  1810  the  imports  of  raw  cotton  amounted  to  above  25,000,000  lbs.,  and 
during  the  next  ten  ^ears  they  were  more  than  doubled.  But  the  high  price  of  machinery 
in  France,  the  Rcarcity  of  coal,  and  the  want  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  workmen,  seem  to 
oppose  almost  ii  superablc  obstaclns  to  the  further  progress  of  the  manufacture.  It  is  at  pre 
sent  in  a  very  depressed  state,  aua  the  following  account  shows  that  it  has  been  nearly  sta« 
tionary  during  the  last  ten  years : — 


Ibf. 

1822 61,758,a00 

182;) 50,!i53,500 

1824 75,322,200 

182.5 01,37HiOO 

1820 ;....  90,052,200 


Imports  of  Cotton  Wool  into  France. 


n«. 


1827 87,185,100 

1828 61,839,000 

1829 72,009,000 

1830 84,825,000 

1831 65,517,900 


[:n  1834,  it  again  Tt)se  to  279,674  bales,  or  about  73,250,000  lbs. ;  and  in  1835,  to  314,350 
bales,  or  about  94,000,000  lbs.— Am.  Ed.] 

Of  the  secondary  objects  of  manufacture,  that  of  leather  is  perhaps  the  most  extensive, 
though  not  peculiarly  French.  It  is  supposed  that  in  France  the  annual  product  amounts  to 
857,000  cow-hides;  110,C  j;J  horse-hides,  and  2,032,000  calf^skins.  There  are  31,000  shoe- 
makers in  Paris,  who  make  upwards  of  eight  millions  of  pairs  of  shoes  yearly,  not  only  for 
the  city  itself,  but  the  provinces,  and  even  foreign  countries.  Chaptal  reckons  the  whole 
produce  of  tanning,  currying,  shoemaking,  and  all  processes  connected  witli  leather,  at 
143,000,000  francs.  Hsrd  soap  was  formerly  supplied  by  Marseilles  to  all  France  and  the 
colonies,  but  its  produce  of  225,000  quintals  is  now  reduced  by  a  third ;  owing  partly  to  the 
reduction  of  the  colonial  demand,  and  partly  to  the  more  general  difJusion  of  the  manufacture. 
It  is  thought  still  to  amount  to  30,000,000  francs.  Starch,  including  hair-powder,  may  amount 
to  18,000,000  pounds.  There  are  sundry  little  matters  of  jewellery,  trinkets,  flimiture,  per- 
fumery, scented  waters,  volatile  salts,  which  elsewhere  are  only  petty  trades,  but  which  taste 
and  fashion  in  France  raise  to  the  dignity  of  manufactures,  the  whole  produce  of  which  is 
reckoned  at  upwards  of  100,000,000  francs.  Crystal,  glass,  and  pottery  are  branches  in 
which  the  French  have  recently  made  great  progress;  and,  from  being  dependent  on 
foreigners  for  these  articles,  are  now  able  to  export  them.  The  first  two  branches  are  esti- 
mate at  21,000,000;  porcelain  made  at  Sevres  and*  other  places,  at  5,000,000;  pottery  in 
imitation  of  English,  a  little  more;  coarse  pottery  for  the  lower  ranks,  15,000,000. 

Mineral  kingdom.  France  yields  in  abundance  the  most  solid  and  useful  of  all  metals, 
iron.  There  are  about  400  forges  in  the  kingdom,  chiefly  in  the  Pyrenean  and  Alpine  de- 
partments, and  along  the  heads  of  the  Mame,  the  Moselle,  and  the  Sadne. 

The  produce  which  M.  Chaptal  reckoned  only  81,000,000  kilogrammes,  had,  according  to 
M.  Dupin,  risen  in  1825  to  161,000,000  (about  161,000  tons),  the  value  of  which  would  be 
about  75,000,000  francs.  Chaptal  supposed  the  workmanship  bestowed  even  on  the  cmaller 
quantity  produced  in  his  time  sufficient  to  raise  the  value  to  200,000,000  francs.  Nearly  all 
the  copper  and  lead  employed  in  France  is  imported  from  abroad.  Salt  is  extracted  on  the 
southern  coast  from  sea-water  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  in  the  north  from 
brine-springs  artificially  evaporated.  During  the  period  when  salt,  relieved  from  the  old 
oppressive  monopoly,  was  lefl  entirely  free,  its  production  and  use  rose  to  the  extraordinfiry 
height  of  upwards  of  20  millions  of  quintals.  Since  the  re-establishment  of  the  tax,  it  h  is 
fallen  to  not  quite  two  millions;  upon  which  there  is  paid  a  duty  of  45,000,000  francs.  Tliis 
astonishing  diminution  seems  chiefly  owing  to  the  disuse  of  it  in  afrricultiirp ;  a  circumstance 
however  very  injurious  to  tlint  Iminch  of  industry.  Other  mineral  products,  with  their  sup- 
posed value,  are,  alum,  2,.50(),000 ;  saltpetre,  3,000,000 ;  nitric  icid,  0,000,000 ;  muriatic 
acid,  250,000. 

Th.e  tntjil  value  of  the  products  of  the  mines  and  manufactures  of  France  is  estimated  ai 
2,(KX),000,000  francs.  The  particulars  are  about  4.50  millions  of  home  taw  materials ;  225 
millions  of  foreign  raw  materials;  900  millions  of  workmanship ;  225  millions  of  general  ex* 

Vol.  I.  3S 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  in 


penae,  as  impiemunts,  repairs,  lif(hting,  interest  of  fixed  capital ;  200  mlllionB  fnr  Uie  profit 
of  the  manufacturer. 

The  commorce  of  France,  while  all  the  otlier  branched  of  industry  were  thus  advancing, 
has  perceptibly  declined.  It  was  reduced,  indeed,  to  a  state  of  temporary  annihilation  by 
the  violent  policy  of  Napoleon,  who  absolutely  lined  the  coast  with  troops,  that  not  a  sin^rlt" 
vessel  might  enter.  Thus  all  the  commercial  ties  of  France  wtre  broken,  every  ciiiuincl 
ch>sed  by  wliich  i>he  was  accustomed  to  exchange  her  comnicKlitins  with  thoMC  of  fi)roign 
countries.  Indeed,  tlie  anti-commercial  spirit  seems  to  have  bt<conie  rooted  in  tiio  mind  of 
the  nation;  and  when  we  find  even  the  enlightened  mind  of  Chaptal  extolling  tlio  puliibi- 
tory  system,  and  considering  every  tiling  as  a  source  of  loss  to  Franco  which  she  nnports 
fh)m  abroad,  there  can  appear  little  prospect  of  any  amendment.  That  writer  considers  the 
year  1780  as  tlie  most  flourishing  period  of  French  commerce ;  when  the  exports  amounted 
gO  18,ij00,U00/.  sterling,  and  the  imports  to  26,500,000/.  This  extraordinary  exceus  of 
imports,  a  result,  according  to  old  ideas,  considered  so  disastrous,  he  explains  by  observing, 
that  the  imports  include  ten  millions  from  the  colonies,  while  the  exports  thitiier  were  only 
four,  and  also  two  millions  and  a  half  in  gold  and  silver.  Whether  tliis  explanation  be  sound 
or  otherwise,  we  have  no  idea  that  there  could  be  any  permanent  or  extensive  difibrcncc  be« 
tween  the  two  branches.  Chaptal  has,  with  grief,  declined  to  give  any  record  of  the  feeble 
effi>rts  at  revival  made  by  the  French  commerce.  Since  tlie  appearance  of  Chaptal'a  work, 
however,  it  has  considerably  improved.  In  1827,  the  import  trade  was  carried  out  by  U350 
vessels,  under  tlie  French  nag,  tonnage  853,000,  value  of  cargoes  2:^0,140,000  francs ;  and 
by  4439  foreign  vessels,  tonnage  474,000,  value  of  cargoes  136,041,000  francs.  There  were, 
besides,  imported  by  land,  goods  to  ttie  value  of  199,621,000  francs ;  making  tl:e  imports  in 
all,  665,802,000  fironca 

In  the  same  year  the  export  trade  was  carried  on  by  8522  French  vessels,  tonnage 
346,000,  value  of  cargoes  235,120,000  firancs ;  and  4141  foreign  vessels,  tonnage  also 
346,000,  value  of  cargoes  167,728,000  francs.  The  exports  by  land  amounted  to  156,767,000 
francs ;  making  in  all,  559,615,000  francs. 

The  following  was  the  value  of  the  leading  articles  of  import  and  export :— > 


IMTORTS.  XZFORTSi 

Fniin. 

Rtw  hides 8,700,000 

Wools 11,140,000 

Feathen 1,880,000 

Bilk8 38,370,000 

Tallow 8,500,000 

Fruitito  plant 1,820,000 

Tobacco 7,880,000 

Vegetable  Juices 34^70,000 

Oils,  not  for  fuoil '■ 31,430,000 

Me<1icines 3,130.000 

Wood 17,000,000 

,  ornamental 2,900,000 

Hemp 4,310,000 

Flax 80,000 

Cotton 81,010,000 

Geme 8,300,000 

8ul|ihur l,3no,000 

Coal 8,080,000 

Cast-iron 1,170,000 

Copper 0,1 10,000 

Tin 2,130,000 

Potash 3,420,000 

Indipo 14,880,000 

Horses 3,3(i0,000 

Sheep 0,400.000 

Horned  cattle 3,.'!SO.O0O 

Butter 1,«!0,000 

Eggs 3,830,000 

Grain 7,150,000 

Chepse 3,140,000 

Fruits 16,200,000 

Sugar 30,000,000 

Coffee 10,000,000 

Straw-hntR 4,550,000 

Linen,  •.:  hemp  «itutf^ ].VPH),000 

Mercery 2.170,000 

Mercantile  navy.    In  1827,  tlie  mercantile  navy  of  Prance  consisted  of  14,530  vessels, 
of  the  burden  of  700,000  tons.     Of  these  there  belonged  to— 


fMllM. 

Dyestuflk 8,;iil0,000 

Gems 3,130,000 

Hones l,2!il),000 

Mule 4,840,000 

Sheep 1 ,420.000 

Horned  cattle 2,.V2().000 

ReHnedsuKnr 4.,'!.VM)00 

Wino,  ordinary 41,,')10.000 

,  liqueurs 5,TJ0,()00 

Brandies 83.0711.01)0 

Straw-hats , S.OliO.OOO 

Porcelai  n 3,(;h(1,(H10 

Otnss 3,(!(IO.n00 

French  bouks 3,M0,(HI0 

Paper 3,lHiO,(KiO 

Pcrftimcry 5,31)0,000 

Cloths,  wool S(),!)2().()()0 

,  silk DO.HtiO.OOO 

,  ribands 24,3H),(M)0 

,  cotton 40.020,000 

,  linen 17,:i70.()00 

Cambric  and  lawn l«,5H),(iOO 

PlaqntS 3,170,0110 

Clock  and  watch-work 4,2«).000 

Tablettcrie 3.7110,000 

MiTccry • fi.HPO.OOO 

Modes 2,300.(K)0 

Made  clothHS fl,4H),(M)0 

Parisian  articles 8,000,000 


Shipi.  Tana. 

Bordeaux 431 77,000 

Marseilles 711 05,000 

Havre 389 02,000 


Shiph 

Nantes — 5:17  . 

Rouen 354. 

Dunkirk 220. 


Ton. 

.511,00(1 

.  .3H,00U 

-.17.500 


The  interior  commerce  must  be  very  extensive,  though  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  its  atnount, 
as,  notwithstanding  conaiderable  advantages  for  navigation,  the  bulk  of  it  is  carried  on  by 
land.  The  old  medium  affairs  has  been  not  only  preserved,  but  greatly  extended.  M.  Bottin, 
upon  documents  furnished  by  the  minisier  of  the  interior,  calculates  that  thore  are  26,314 


TniB. 
..5l'>,IIU(l 
.SH,(K)0 
.17.300 


Boor  L  FRANCE.  6W 

fiiirs  in  ]<>ance.  Some  of  theae  are  held  on  the  fVontier  of  a  province  or  kinpfdom,  othon 
round  a  i^roat  cathedral  or  noted  placn  of  pili^ritna^^o ;  aoino  at  tliu  foot  of  hif(h  inotiiiliiina  on 
the  inoltini;  of  the  Hnovv8,  which  have  knpt  tliu  inlmbitiinta  iinpriHonod  ibr  Hovural  montha. 
idoinotiinoB  they  open  with  burloa(|uu  ropreHentiitionii,  as  proceMiionii  of  K><intH,  of  flyinff 
dni^onB,  or  monHtroun  iinhos,  Tho  fair  of  lx)n}(cliani|>a,  held  in  spriuff  at  I'urlH,  thoao  of 
Buaiicuiro  in  Lan^uodoc,  and  of  Uuihniy  in  Nornmntiy,  are  the  nioMt  oxtoimivu. 

Tlio  canalaof  i*  ranee  were  lon(f  entiroly  undurtakvu  hy  tho  f^ovorninnnt,  wiiich  carried 
oit  tlioMO  works  with  Home  Hpirit.  The  oariicmt  wum  the  (Jaiial  of  Briaro,  to  tinilo  tho  tieino 
and  tlie  lx)iro.  It  in  about  i^H  iniloH  Ioiij;,  4  feot  dorp,  hiM  40  lockM,  tiiid  cont  l,(MKMMMi 
friiiicii.  Tho  canal  of  Ijaii^uodoc  in  on  a  much  ^rnatur  hcuIo,  uud  won  couHidi^rcd  in  itn  day 
a  Htupondous  undertaking.  It  was  intended  to  unito  the  Mediterranean  with  tho  Atlantic, 
and  is  170  miloa  lonff,  6}  foot  doop,  with  100  lockH.  Tho  coHt  v/aa  82,000,000  fVoncii,  which 
would  have  been,  at  leuut,  doubled  liiui  the  work  been  oxocuted  in  the  present  day.  It  wuJi 
conNidered  the  larffeat  canal  in  Europe,  till  it  waa  eclipHod  by  the  Caledonian,  which  ia  tlinto 
times  as  deep,  ana  admita  ahipa  of  war;  whereaa  the  canal  of  Laneuedoc  haa  aifordod  a 
mere  inland  navigation,  along  which  paaa  1000  veaaela  of  100  to  121)  tona;  but  it  haa  not, 
for  the  most  common  nierchant-vosaols,  Huporscdcd  tho  necousity  of  going  round  by  tho 
Straitfl  of  Gibraltar.  Tho  Canal  of  the  Centre,  joining  tho  Hadno  and  the  Loire  by  a  line 
of  70  milea,  waa  completed  in  1703,  at  an  oxptinse  of  10,000,000  franca;  but  only  5  feet 
deep.  The  Canal  of  Picardy,  from  tho  Oiae  towards  Lille,  romarkublo  tor  ita  long  tuniiol 
near  St.  Quintin,  woe  completed  in  1810,  at  an  oxpcnao  of  10,B(K),(X)0  franca.  Still,  F'rancc, 
in  thia  grand  national  improvement,  remained  far  behind  England,  which,  by  M.  I)u|)iirs  oa- 
timato,  made  a  few  years  ago,  had  more  than  four  and  a  half  timea  aa  mucii  canalization  in 
proportion  to  ita  surface.  Very  recently,  however,  France  haa  displayed  an  extraordimir^ 
activity  in  planning,  and  e  considerable  diligence  in  executing,  deaigna  of  thia  nature.  Thm 
too  has  been  displayed  not  by  rrovcrnmont  only,  but  by  private  associations,  asking  only  aid 
and  advances  from  the  state.  Independent  of  the  fmished  works  above  stated,  twelve  great 
new  canals  are  in  progress.  These  are, — 1.  The  Canal  Monneur,  joining  the  llliine  and 
the  Rhone  by  the  SaAne  and  tho  Douba;  length  160  miles.  2.  Of  Burgundy,  joining  the 
SaAne  to  the  Ix>ire  by  the  Yonnc,  145  milea.  3.  Of  Angou]£me,  making  the  Soinuie  navi< 
gable  to  Amiens.  4.  A  ;ateral  canal  along  the  Jjoire,  to  avoid  the  difficultiea  of  its  navigO/- 
tion,  from  Dijon  to  Briaro,  120  miles.  5.  From  Nantea  to  Breat,  witli  a  view  of  provi"'  oiuiig 
the  porta  of  Britany,  220  miles.  6.  Of  lUe  et  Ranee,  joining  Nantes  to  Brest  and  i"-!..  Mulo. 
7.  Of  Nivernais,  joming  the  Yonnc  to  the  Iioiro.  8.  Of  the  Duke  of  Berri,  joining  tiio  f  ^Iiur 
to  the  Upper  I/Oire.  9.  Ardennes,  10.  Blanet.  11.  Aries.  12.  Oiso.  Several  oaiiuln,  on 
a  still  more  magnificent  scale,  have  been  recently  contemplated,  and  what  the  Frctncli  vnW 
tlio  studies  of  them  are  even  far  advanced ;  but  no  part  of  tho  works  has  yet  boon  com- 
menced. Doubts  are  even  entertained  if  they  will  rejuiy  tho  immcnao  expense  reciuired  for 
their  completion.  The  principal  of  these  are, — 1.  A  maritime  canal  from  Paria  to  tlie  bou, 
avoiding  the  circuitous  navigation  of  the  Soin  j,  and  admitting  Hhi|)s  of  large  burden  to  that 
cai)ital.  Tho  estimate  is  liJO.OOO.OOO  francs,  and  1,.')(M),()00  francs  for  a  harliour  at  I'uris, 
2.  A  canal  from  Paris  to  Strasburg;  which  would  become,  as  it  were,  the  French  (Jrand 
Trunk,  and  might  easily  bo  extencled  to  the  Danube.  The  length  would  exceed  300  hiiIch. 
1.  The  Pyrenean  Canal,  from  Toulouse  to  Bayonne,  forming  a  more  direct  communication 
from  sea  to  sea  than  at  present.     Jjongth,  210  miles. 

Tho  roads  of  Franco,  at  least  the  high  roads,  have  been  chiefly  supported  by  government. 
Tin  V  are  broader,  more  spacious,  more  direct,  and  on  the  whole  of  grander  as|)cct,  tlmn  tho 
tii^iish  roads ;  but  they  have  not  been  kept  in  auch  gwxl  condition  for  travelling.  Roads 
have  been  made  and  repaired  raUier  for  political  and  military  purposes,  from  sf>licitation  and 
fevour,  than  for  objects  of  real  utility.  The  system  seems  to  have  boon,  to  neglect  them  as 
long  as  possible,  till  the  clamour  of  the  district  became  irresiiitiblo,  and  then  U)  yivc  timn  a 
thorough  repair;  to  which  Dupin  justly  prorers  the  system  of  kooping  roads  constantly  in  a 
good  state  by  small  repairs  aa  the  necessity  arises.  The  French  roads,  ho*vever,  have  teen 
greatly  improved  since  1810,  and  the  maintenance  of  a  great  proportion  of  them  has  lieen 
undertaken  by  the  departments ;  so  that  they  are  now  divided  into  royal  and  departmental. 
Tho  royal  roads,  in  1828,  extended  8631  leagues,  and  there  was  expended  on  thorn 
199,000,000  francs;  but  thia  waa  chiefly  on  repairing  and  extending  difFerent  parta  of  them. 
It  M  as  thus  divided : — 

fnoa, 

Toniaintnin  ^205  leamieii,  coit 3J]?'!I!S 

To  repair        31IM1    «lilti) .l'T/i'22 

To  oornplfcto     814    ditto i?'i,'V'^S 

Tnoiien  440    ditto il'lS^SIS 

Work,  of  art SO,m.m 

10»,4fi3.0aO 

The  departmental  roads,  in  1828,  extended  7704  leagues,  of  which  6040  had  been 
opened,  and  txj  complete  the  remaining  1664  would  require  an  expenditure  of  112,000,»HIO 
francs. 


540 


DESCRIPTIVB  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  HI. 


Theru  are  several  rail-roads  in  France,  but  of  no  great  extent ;  thfe  principal  are  that  uf 
Andrezieux  and  Roanne,  50  miles  in  length ;  that  of  St.  Etienne  and  the  Loire,  15  miles ; 
and  that  of  St  Etienne  and  Lyons,  45  miles. 

Of  the  bridges  of  France  several  are  handsome,  as  those  over  the  Loire  at  Orleami, 
Tours,  and  Nantes ;  over  the  Seine  at  Paris,  Neuilly,  and  Rouen ;  over  the  Rhone  and 
Sa6ne  at  Lyons;  and  over  the  Garonne  at  Bordeaux.  Bridges  of  suspension  have  been  con- 
structed at  Paris  in  front  of  the  Hdtel  des  Invalides,  and  over  the  Rhone,  betwreen  Tain  and 
Tournon.    These  operations  have  been  entirely  in  l\e  hands  of  government  <>  >  • 


■)  rtt  -M  i): 


Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 


.11 1 


t       t:: 


The  pcp-'I'-tion  of  France,  which  in  1780,  by  the  enquiries  of  Necker,  appeared  to  be 
21,d00,000,  was  found  by  the  census  of  1791  to  amount  to  26,363,000;  by  that  of  1817,  to 
upwards  of  29,000,000;  and  by  tha  of  1820-21,  to  30,616,000,  including  Corsica  and  tlie 
'  amiy.  According  to  the  royal  ordonnance  of  March  15th,  1827,  it  amounted  to  31,851,545. 
There  were  in  that  year  965,634  births;  of  which  898,329  were  legitimate,  and  67,305  ille- 
gi^mate.  The  births  consisted  of  498,187  boys,  and  467,447  girls.  The  marriages  were 
229,613,  the  deaths  772,428.  At  an  average  the  proportion  of  male  births  in  France  to  female 
births  is  er  16  to  15;  the  marriages  are  to  the  population  as  1  to  133;  the  births  are  to  the 
marriages  nearly  as  4  to  1 ;  and  to  the  population  aa  1  to  31.53 ;  the  deaths  are  to  tlie  popu- 
lation as  1  to  89.4.  The  extraordinary  improvement  since  1780  in  the  condition  of  the  people 
is  obvious  from  the  fact  that  at  the  last-mentioned  period  the  deaths  were  to  the  whole  popu- 
lation as  1  to  30.2 :  so  that  while,  in  1780,  one  individual  died  annually  out  of  every  30 
individuals,  in  1832  one  only  died  out  of  about  39.* 

The  French  national  character  has  very  marked  features,  and  has  been  the  object  of 
mingled  admiration  and  cojitempt  to  the  neighbouring^  nations.  In  the  eyes  of  Frenchmen, 
especially  of  the  old  school,  la  belle  France  is  the  centre  of  all  that  is  refined  and  polished 
in  human  existence,  and  whatever  lies  beyond  its  sphere  is  marked  with  a  deep  taint  of  bar- 
barism ;  while  their  rougher  neighbours  brand  them  as  artificial,  effeminate,  and  fantastic. 
The  art  of  living  iu  society  seems  certainly  carried  to  greater  perfection  than  in  any  other 
country ;  and  the  manners  are  characterised  by  a  peculiar  gaiety,  amenity,  and  courtesy. 
The  polish  of  the  higher  ranks  seems  to  have  descended  even  to  the  lowest  circles.  "  The 
man  who  breaks  stones  upon  the  road  takes  off  his  hat  to  the  woman  that  leads  her  cow  in  a 
string;  the  tinker  and  the  shoeblack  whip  oflj* their  hats  to  each  other."  A  certain  openness 
and  kindness  of  disposition  is  certainly  evinced  in  the  cust6m  of  whole  families,  with  married 
sons  and  daughters,  continuing  to  dwell  under  the  patemaT  roof  The  Frenchman  lives  as 
it  were  in  public :  his  house,  for  a  part  of  the  day,  is  open  to  a  large  circle  of  acquaintance. 
He  enjoys  society  without  expense  and  ceremony.  He  resorts  habitually  to  the  theatre, 
spectacles,  and  scenes  of  public  amusement  In  more  serious  points  of  view,  the  French 
possess  estimable  qualities.  Intoxication  is  a  vice  confined  to  the  lowest  ranks ;  and  swear- 
mg  is  repelled  at  least  as  a  mark  of  barbarism.  The  French  are  ingenious,  acute,  active,  and 
intelligent  If  they  have  not  what  can  strictly  be  called  patriotism,  they  have  at  least  a 
very  strong  national  feeling.  To  exalt  the  glory  and  promote  the  influence  of  France,  is  the 
prevailing  impulse  which  actuates  the  mind  of  almost  every  Frenchman.  It  is,  however, 
alleged,  that  there  is  a  want  of  that  sterling  principle,  that  openness  and  integrity,  which 
forms  the  boast  of  the  English  charp-:ter.  Dissimulation  and  insincerity  seem  widely  dif- 
fused through  the  intercourse  of  the  higher  circles.  The  honesty  of  the  lower  classes  is, 
however,  remarkable;  and  the  system  of  higgling  in  shops,  is  a  consequence  of  the  contracted 
state  of  commerce.  The  deportment  of  the  female  sex,  however  embelli? bed  by  tournure, 
and  the  graces,  does  not  accord  with  our  ideas  of  social  and  domestic  propriety.  The  young 
ladies  are  strictly  watched,  and  held  in  almost  monastic  seclusion ;  but  the  era  of  marriage 
la  the  signal,  if  not  of  positive  irregularity,  at  least  of  a  system  of  regular  flirtation,  which 
've  cannot  recon-jile  to  the  conjugal  and  matronly  character.  It  is  probable,  however,  that 
the  impression  of  the  general  dissoluteness  of  French  manners  has  been  chiefly  derived 
from  the  opulent  circles  of  the  capital;  while,  as  a  late  writer  has  observed,  Paris  and  the 
provinces  form  entirely  separate  worlds.  Among  the  peasantry,  and  even  among  the  trading 
class  in  the  cities,  there  appears  to  be  much  that  is  respectable  and  amiable.  The  great 
activity  and  prominent  station  of  the  female  sex  are  everywhere  conspicuous:  they  are  ween 
managing  the  shops,  carrying  on  great  manufactories,  and  joining  in  the  hardest  toils  of  the 
loom  and  the  field.  It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  upon  a  farm  to  see  the  master  sowinp,  his 
wife  guiding  the  plough,  and  a  fine  girl  filling  the  dung-cart.  Such  avocations  divest  the 
fair  sex  in  the  provinces  of  any  great  portion  of  beauty.  Indeed,  the  gay  hilarity  of  thii 
French  character  does  not  seem  quite  so  universal  as  is  generally  supposed.  Travellers  iti 
the  south,  from  Arthur  Yojng  to  those  of  later  date,  complain  rather  of  a  singular  gravity 
and  taciturnity.     Mr.  Matthews  remarks  in  his  "  Diary  of  an  Invalid,"  that  a  very  co»- 


[*  The  population  in  1833  was  33,500,000.— Ah.  Ed.] 


Book  L    r 


PRANCE. 


Ml 


Biderable  change  of  manners  has  taken  place  since  the  Revolution.  All  the  distinctions  ot' 
rank  have  been  cut  down  like  the  old  trees  of  the  forest,  and  the  new  generation,  like  the 
3oppice,  are  all  on  a  level.  "  You  will  seek  in  vain,"  he  says,  "for  that  liigh-bred  polish  of 
manners,  wliich  has  been  so  much  boasted  as  peculiar  to  the  hauHon  of  France.  A  re- 
publican spirit  prevail,  and  shows  itself  in  an  independent  roughness  of  manner,  savouring 
ofsans-culottism." 

The  Roman  Catholic  has  been  the  ruling  religion  in  France,  ever  since  the  &tal  issue  of 
the  long  struggle  for  religious  liberty.  Previously  to  the  Revolution,  however,  a  general 
scepticism  pervaded  all  the  well-informed  classes,  both  as  to  the  Catholic  tenets,  and  as  to 
religion  in  general.  This  was  doubtless  one  great  cause  both  of  the  Revolution  and  of  many 
of  the  fatal  and  disastrous  aspects  which  it  assumed.  A  furious  anti-religious  fanaticism 
reigned  ;  all  form  of  public  worship  was  suspended,  and  even  prohibited ;  the  churches  were 
rifled  and  defeced  in  a  barbarous  manner.  At  this  time  the  vast  domains  of  the  church,  iiy 
which  so  many  dignitaries  and  so  many  convents  were  supported  in  splendour,  were  voted 
the  property  of  the  nation,  and  sold  at  a  low  price  to  supply  its  necessities.  Napoleon  had 
the  merit  of  re-establishing  religious  worship,  and  on  a  very  liberal  footing ;  an  allowance 
being  made  li.r  the  support  of  the  Protestant  clergy,  proportioned  to  the  number  who  still 
hold  that  faith,  and  who  amount  to  about  1,500,000.  As  all  the  former  funds  however  had 
disappeared,  the  establishment  is  supported  out  of  the  public  revenue,  and  is  frugal,  and  even 
scanty,  both  as  to  numbers  and  salary.  In  1831,  there  were  four  cardinals,  ten  archbishops, 
and  sixty-six  bishops.  After  the  intermediate  classes  of  vicars  and  canons  come  the  cures, 
or  parish  priests,  amounting  to  3000,  with  incomes  of  1000  or  1500  fVancs;  but  the  chief 
labour  devolves  upon  23,000  desaervans,  or  acting  curates,  who  starve  upon  400  or  600 
francs  a  year  with  the  addition  of  only  some  small  fees.  The  whole  church  expenditure,  in 
1823,  amounted  to  1,575,000  livres,  but  in  1832  was  reduced  by  a  third  ;  and  the  church 
has  been  in  a  somewhat  unsettled  state.  The  Bourbons  were  supposed  to  aim  at  restoring 
it  to  all  its  former  power,  splendour,  and  privilege ;  a  course  viewed  with  extreme  jealousy 
by  the  republican  party.  The  high  church  party  endeavoured  to  remedy  the  deficiency  of 
the  establishment  by  sending  sound  missionaries  who  were  listened  to  by  the  people  with 
enthusiastic  delight.  The  author  of  "  Four  Years  in  France"  mentions  one  who  in  depart- 
ing from  a  city  had  his  cassock  torn  off  his  back,  and  cut  into  pieces  to  be  distributed  as 
relics.  The  liberals  deride  them  as  ignorant  fanatics ;  but  some  travellers  who  cannot  be 
charged  with  superstition,  report  them  as  displaying  a  good  deal  of  natural  eloquence,  and 
that  their  doctrines  appeared  really  very  edifying,  since  many  persons  who  had  been  guilty 
of  thefts,  even  at  remote  periods,  were  induced  by  them  to  come  forward  and  make  confession 
and  restitution. 

The  intellectual  character  of  the  French  has  been  brilliant,  .and  since  the  age  of  Louis 
XIV.  has  had  a  powerful  influenco,  in  matters  of  taste,  on  the  general  literature  of  Europe : 
that  prince,  ambitious  of  glory  in  every  form,  extended  a  munificent  patronage  to  letters  and 
arts.  The  French  Academy,  though  its  endowments  were  not  ve:y  splendid,  and  though 
intrigue  often  influenced  its  admissions,  gave  a  fixed  and  high  place  in  txwiety  to  men  of 
letters ;  who,  amid  all  the  frivolity  of  French  character,  were  received  even  among  the  highest 
ranks  with  a  distinction  not  accorded  to  them  in  any  other  modern  country.  The  aim  of 
Louis  to  make  the  French  a  sort  of  universal  language  was  in  a  great  measure  successful ; 
it  became  the  established  dialect  at  all  the  courts,  and  the  chiel  medium  by  which  he  different 
nations  communicated  with  each  other.  The  departments  in  which  the  writ*  if  that  age 
excelled,  were  chiefly  pulpit  eloquem  r  yjoetry  of  a  light  and  satirical  character,  and  the 
drama  in  a  somewhat  fettered  and  artiflcial  form.  The  writers  of  the  following  age  took  a 
bolder  and  more  varied  flight,  and  sought  to  turn  the  opinion  of  mankind  into  new  channels 
upon  all  subjects.  The  wit  and  varied  talent  of  Voltaire,  the  eloquence  of  Buffon  and  Rousseau, 
the  comprohensive  views  of  Montesquieu,  and  the  "fipnce  of  D'Alembert,  gave  a  new  turn 
to  the  ideas  of  the  thinking  world  throughout  Europ...  These  writers,  with  their  successors 
of  the  same  school,  had  a  powerful  influence  in  bringing  on  this  revoiution,  in  the  n'ins  of 
which  several  of  them  were  buried.  Learning  was  for  some  time  a... lost  extinguished  in 
France ;  but  as  soon  as  th^  rc\  olutionary  frenzy  abated,  the  National  Assembly  constituted 
a  new  body  called  tho  National  Institute,  round  which,  under  the  changed  appellations  of 
Imperial  and  Royal,  all  the  highest  names  in  science  have  since  continued  to  rally.  The 
French  during  this  period  did  not  shine  in  poetry  or  general  literature ;  but  in  mathematics, 
physics,  and  chemistry,  the  labours  of  Lavoisier,  Laplace,  Lalande,  Chaptal,  and  a  number 
of  others,  have,  notwithstanding  the  powerful  rivalry  on  the  other  side  of  the  Channel,  raised 
them  perhaps  to  the  very  first  place.  Recently  France  has  produced  some  very  eminent 
historians,  and  popular  poets  of  a  peculiar  character ;  there  has  been  also  a  remarkable  exten- 
sion of  the  habits  of  reading.  The  periodical  sheets  printed  were  in  1814  only  45,000 ;  in 
1826,  thfiv  were  144,000.  The  most  solid  and  useful"  branches  also  are  those  which  have 
most  increased,  as  appears  from  the  following  table,  formed  by  M.  Dupin : — 

Vol.  1.  46 


(MS 


DEaCRlJ'  T'lVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Paei  ni. 


Theoloiry ,,, 

IinglHlntive 

PcienccB 

Philnfinpliy 

Political  Ecnnomy . . . . 


No.  of 


prtiiivl. 


1814. 


4,074,000 
1,374,000 
9,540,000 
753,000 
1,634,000 


7886. 


33,308,000 

lH,li05,()00 

]2,1(M),0(I0 

3,n:W,<)00 

S,l'i);,000 


Military  Bubjeet 

Fine  Arts 

Ik'lica  Lnttrei 

Hiitory,  Traveli,  la; 

Varietiea,  Almanaca,  Ate. 


No.  or  Sbnli  prUlod. 


1814. 


441,000 

l3,tw,L,:jj 

16~2(i,lXIO 
-.MW.OlHi 


luao. 


1,445,1100 
S'<,704,0(W 

4fl,iiSJ,mio 

7,TO),00(1 


The  literary  mid  scientific  collections  of  Paris  are  the  most  splendid  in  i^virope  ■  tie  royal 
library  contains  800,000  pnateri  volumeri,  100,000  manuscripts,  5000  volume'?  of  eti(,..n  inV-f 
and  1,000,000  liibtorical  documuiits  There  are  sixteen  other  lihi  \ries  in  I'lrif,  coiiUiinirg 
800,(KX)  volumes.  The  Museum  of  Natucal  History  nd  tiie  Jardm  dep  Planiiis  are  equally 
copious  in  their  respective  deprtinonts.  All  these  w.^  opened  \c  the  pu'in ,  in  the'  most 
liberal  manner.  Tiie  provincial  collectijus  are  also  re'^tt'-ctable,  ihm^h  they  do  not  equal 
tliose  of  the  minor  princes  of  Germany ;  and  France  is,  oiv ;  !e  whole,  leas  rich  in  this  species 
of  t'^nsiiro. 

Auiong  the  ebtablishments  for  public  education  in  France,  the  univerjiities,  which  ai« 
twf;i».iy-8i.v  in  number,  hold  the  first  rank.  That,  of  Paris  w  ')f3rUa(>3  the  mobt  celebrated  in 
Eijic/jc,  Hiid  was,  oven  in  liie  dark  ages,  the  gruiid  theatre  ot'  tnosf  dialectic  (wjmbft'^,  «.',  Th 
Jlien  ur ..'■  ji^d  tl»e  honours  of  sciri.co.  Thougli  destroyed  during  tlm  fii  y  ot  the  Revolt,...'  ^ 
ii,  h<j-i  l^tp  re  e.itabji!:!i5i?  on  a  grep;  scale,  and  with  a  larger  appoi;ivaient  of  profe*  jors  than 
any  other  ii.  Euiro|:  >.  k  artmcts  students  fi-om  evenr  part  of  the  kingdcfn,  as  none  of  the 
rest  enjoy  oqiiil  rt;ptj'i\  end  In  U'jd  bear  t\.'  jrosent  only  the  name  of  acsMlemies.  The  Lyceeg, 
now  called  royul  colle^fc,',  ir?  . » insiitutMn  ot'  Napoleon;  the  expense  of  board  and  educa- 
tion is  Irora  350  to  750  ftiPH:s  .i  yeas',  but  thny  enjoy  a  very  unwarrantable  monopoly  of  the 
right  to  tcaca  J.iitm;  tii'y  v. era  ailrttrled,  in  1825,  by  10,000  pupils.  Primary  schools 
iiUended  tor  tho  ,<^rner.d  liis.vuction  uf  the  people  amounted  in  1825  to  22,900,  and  were 
altttjidod  by  1M),|-K)0  .scliolars,  LttaicnBterian  schools  have  since  been  introduced,  and 
amoui^fed  in  ltf2U  to  800,  attended  by  80,000  scholars.  M.  Dupin  re'narks  striking  local 
diifei-<3iice&  in  thira  respect,  fn  the  north,  13,000,000  of  inhabitants  send  to  school  740,000 
children;  while  in  the  south,  18,000,000  send  only  875,000:  even  in  the  south,  the  propor- 
tion is  largest  in  the  districts  least  favoured  by  nature,  the  Upper  Alps  and  the  Upper 
Pyrenees;  while  in  Touraine,  emphatically  called  the  garden  of  trance,  it  is  only  one  in 
229.  All  these  eKfublishments  are  under  the  patronage  and  control  of  the  government,  which 
grants  annually  nbout  5,000,000  francs  for  their  support.* 

The  iino  arts  were  zealously  promoted  by  the  regent  duke  of  Orleans,  and  by  Louis  XIV. ; 
and  thouf^h  they  never  reached  the  splendour  of  the  Italian  or  even  of  the  Flemish  schools, 
vol;  tljoy  could  boast  several  masters  jf  the  first  class;  the  Poussins  and  Claude  Lorraine, 
hav.:  V  fixed  their  residence  and  even  found  their  scenery  in  Italy,  became  half  Italian.  Le 
Brun  and  Le  Sueur  were  the  chief  artists  decidedly  French :  of  whom  the  former  enjoyed 
the  fai'our  of  the  king,  and  tho  chief  direction  of  Uie  great  works ;  but  the  latter  has  been 
pronounced  by  posterity  to  be  his  superior,  AtUr  this  me  French  school  sunk  greatly,  and 
was  employee  in  delineating  only  the  artificial  forms  of  court  society ;  but  within  the  last 
thirty  years  a  new  school  has  sprung  up,  in  which  David,  Gerard,  Guerin,  Girodet,  and  their 
followers  have  sought,  not  without  success,  to  imitate  the  highest  classical  models.  The 
French  school  has  produced  a  series  of  very  eminent  engravers ;  and  the  names  of  Desnoyers, 
Berric,  and  Moseard  still  support  its  reputation,  though  it  no  longer  surpasses,  or  perhaps 
eq'ii,ln,  tiiose  of  England  and  Italy.  The  French  galleries  of  art  have  passed  through 
me  ly  vicissitudes :  before  the  revolution  they  were  certainly  the  firat  out  of  Italy.  During 
tba  I;  convulsion,  all  the  collections  of  the  pruices  and  nobles  were  put  up  to  sale ;  the  entire 
Orl  lans  collection  was  carried  to  England ;  the  Crozat  went  to  Russia ;  various  minor  col- 
leciions  shared  the  same  fate.  When  the  French,  however,  over-ran  Italy  and  the  Nether- 
lai  b,  they  were  seized  with  the  desire  of  enriching  Paris  with  treasures  of  >  rt,  and  carried 
off  whatever  could  be  removed  firom  among  the  masterpieces  of  the  Fl'v'h  and  Italian 
maiiters,  and  of  ancient  sculpture.  Thus  was  assembled  in  the  Louvre  i  .  .y  of  all  that 
is  most  brilliiuit  in  art,  such  as  nothing  before  existing  in  the  world  could  ivalled.  But 


♦[It  appears  from  official  documeni  f,  in  1833  the  number  of  cliildren  tfi    .» 

yearn,  was  2,7'14,,524,  of  whom  nhnul  2.r'        '.UeiKied  infant  schools;  ofthogebeti*     ..  '. 
were  4,067,201,  of  which  2,449,725  alt'-.        ,'  ><  primaryschools;  andof  personsabi'.     >'U 
of  whom  14,355,856  could  neither  rein.  .i;i  ^.rite;— no  that  there  were  nearly  19, i   )    •») 
two  years,  who  received  no  instruction  at  all.    The  same  papers  pivc  the  fo'.iowii 
exliting,  and  of  the  number  required  to  educate  the  whole  population : — 

Infant  schools , 1,000  actual  number.       40,C'.:' 

Priinar.  do 30,467  "  54,2,S4 

Femali.  Working  do 1,000  "  20,000 

Auuiido 9,361  "  '     ."54,840 


geB  of  two  and  tix 

,d  fifteen  years,  there 

.  ',1'ere  were  22,966.170, 

rsons  above  the  aae  of 

'  tcraents  of  the  sthooii 

'.'(juirp.i  ':,  mbof. 


Totals 34.888 


i00,134 


Ah.  Eo.] 


Pari  HI. 


Book  I. 


PRANCE. 


048 


use. 


i,'M5,nnn 

I,i>.i;'.<l(.w 
7,(HHI,000  I 

t  le  royal 

etl(.»;n;in<Ti-! 


t  dire  reverse  awaited  the  nation.  The  allied  armies  who  conquered  at  Waterloo,  and  thence 
advanced  to  occupy  Paris,  determined  to  exact  full  restitution  of  all  this  brilliant  booty.  The 
Venus,  .*  'loUo,  ana  Transforation  were  sent  off  for  Rome ;  the  Descent  from  the  Cross  for 
Antwerp ;  and  numberless  other  masterpieces  wore  restored  to  their  ancient  possessors.  The 
unseemi;  (raps  thus  left  were  filled  up  bv  native  productions  and  others  taken  from  the 
palaces ;  and  the  gallery  presents  a  coup  dail  almost  as  brilliant  as  ever ;  the  intrinsic  value, 
however,  is  vastly  diminished ;  though  since  the  purchase  of  the  Borghese  collection  it  still 
ucmprises  some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  ancient  sculpture. 
--r^  The  houses  in  France  under  the  former  regime  presented  a  jfreat  variety ;  for  while  the 

If^X'  tnanHJons  of  the  nobles  displayed  a  profuse  splendour  and  luxury,  and  might  be  characterised 
J  palices,  those  of  the  body  of  the  people,  compared  with  the  English,  were  very  deficient 
in  neuiiiess  and  comfort ;  the  rooms  being  dark,  the  passages  straggling,  the  floors  of  stone, 
the  doors  and  windows  by  no  mean'  well  finished.  The  palaces,  however,  can  no  longer 
he  maintained  as  such  by  their  impoverished  owners ;  and  all  the  fine  old  chftteaus  throughout 
France  are  converted  into  barracks,  prisons,  or  manufactories.  On  the  other  hand,  the  habita* 
♦ions  of  the  peasantry,  as  well  as  their  general  condition,  appear  to  be  sensibly  improved. 

Amusement  used  to  form  as  it  were  the  life  of  a  Frenchman,  and  was  sought  for  in  every 
various  and  popsible  shape ;  but  since  the  Revolution  a  very  great  change  has  taken  place  in 
this  respect  Paris  still  claims  to  be,  as  it  were,  the  centre  of  gaiety  to  the  civilized  world. 
The  Parisians  go  from  home  in  search  of  amusement  much  more  than  their  neighbours ;  almost 
all  their  leisure  is  spent  in  places  of  public  resort,  which  are  open  on  terms  that  render  them 
accessible  to  all  classes.  Dancing  is  an  exercise  peculiarly  French,  in  which,  as  to  agility, 
and  perhaps  grace,  they  excel  most  nations.  Much  of  their  time  is  also  spent  in  the  open 
air ;  and  the  extensive  ranges  of  gardens  in  Paris  are  provided  with  every  recreation  suited 
to  the  tastes  of  its  citizens.  Although  many  improprieties  doubtless  mingle  with  these  enter- 
tainments, especially  in  Paris,  there  is  less  of  intoxication,  turbulence,  or  quarrelling,  than 
in  the  amusements  of  the  lower  orders  in  England :  so  far,  even  us  concerns  the  public  places, 
there  are  fewer  open  violations  of  decorum. 

Dress  is  a  particular  in  which  the  PVench  long  claimed,  and  were  allowed  to  give  the  law 
to  the  rest  of  Europe.  Paris  has  been  for  ages  the  grand  maeasin  des  modes.  In  that 
capital  seems  to  have  originated  the  system  which  is  termed  fashion,  and  which  consists  in 
the  continual  change,  according  to  a  prescribed  model,  of  the  form  and  construction  of  every 
part  of  the  human  attire.  Such  light  and  constant  changes,  however,  while  they  indicate 
an  inordinate  attention  to  the  object,  seem  as  inconsistent  with  the  formation  of  a  pure  and 
elegant  taste,  as  the  immutable  costumes  of  our  ancestors  and  of  the  East.  The  empire  of 
Paris  seems  considerably  shaken  by  the  extinction  of  its  brilliant  societies,  and  its  long  seporar 
tion  by  war  tiom  the  other  countrieb ;  but  its  influence  remains  still  very  considerable  in  this 
department 

In  the  preparation  of  food,  the  French  equally  boast  of  a  refinement  and  recherche  supe- 
rior to  that  of  the  other  European  nations.  Instead  of  plain  joints  presented  in  their  natural 
form,  French  cookery  delights  in  what  are  called  made  dishes,  stews,  fricassees,  and  ragottts, 
which  retain  few  traces  of  the  original  material.  On  the  merits  of  this  system  various  opin- 
ions have  been  entertained ;  but  at  present  the  fashion  of  this  cookery  out  of  France  is  on 
the  decline,  an'^  the  time  deern»  past  when  it  was  considered  a  matter  of  state  that  the  tables 
of  the  great  should  be  covered  with  French  dishes. 

Sect.  VIL — Local  Oeography. 

The  local  divisions  of  France,  prior  to  the  Revolution,  were  provinces,  thirty-two  in  num- 
ber, most  of  which  had  formed  independent  states,  and  even  little  kingdoms,  when  they  ■  /ere 
merged  into  the  mass  of  the  French  monarchy.  The  National  Assembly,  however,  super- 
-(eded  this  division  by  one  much  more  minute,  into  departments ;  which  has  been  retained  by 
the  Bourbons,  and  is  the  basis  of  all  administrative  operations.  It  is  indeed  very  convenient, 
being  foundeil  iiyxjn  riirrl  .Ifvidionp  .  'rivers  and  mountains:  all  the  departments  are  toler- 
ably equal  as  to  m;; '-'  ludf,  u'.id  ruc'j  has  its  seat  of  administration  nearly  in  the  centre.  All 
the  oTclusivc  P4.  liages  and  restrairts  upon  internal  communication,  which  were  attached 
to  the  arran  .iient  into  provinces,  n;  'e  been  happily  removed.  Yet  these  divisions  must 
still  be  kept  i  i  view,  not  ouly  because  they  are  ne  ssaiy  for  the  understanding  of  history, 
but  because  they  remain  rooted  in  the  mind  of  the  n. ,  ion,  and  often  mark  striking  differences 
of  race,  of  manners,  and  even  of  language.  It  would  not  consist  with  our  limits,  or  be 
in^presting  to  readers  out  of  France,  to  enter  into  n,  detailed  description  of  each  department; 
hi  the  following  tables  will  exhibit  a  very  comprehensive  view  of  their  respective  statis- 
tical detftils.  The  first  exhibits  the  departments  in  their  relation  to  the  ancient  provinces, 
thoir  extent  according  to  the  report  of  the  commission  oi  the  Cadastre,  their  population 
according  to  the  census  of  1827,  and  their  chief  cities  and  towns.  The  square  French  league 
may  be  reduced  to  ''ir;  square  Erii^iish  mile  by  multipiying  by  8,  cr  more  closely,  7,84. 

The  following  '  i  f^y*iibitsboth  the  provinces  and  the  departments  as  noirlyaa  possible  in 
the:.'  relation  to  e-scc  >  <M:r'. :  with  their  extent  in  sqiian-  leapuen,  ^nd  the  fXipulntioii  of  the  capi- 
Jil  and  principal  ti      m  i         'ing  to  the  estimate  formed  by  the  French  j.rovprnment  in  1627  • 


n-^K  ' 


844 


DESCRIPTIVE  CvEOORAPHY. 


Fait  UI. 


rnivliUM  and  Dtiannieiili. 

Flandcr*..  ■     Nord 


Artoli Pas  de  Calaii  ■  • 


338 


Picnrdy...  ■ 
Normandy . 


lale  of 
France  < 


Champagne 


Lorraine 
AlMce 1 

Britany 


Maine  and 
Percho. .. 

Anjnd 

Touraine 


Orliana 


Berri 

Nivernain  . 

Burgundy. 


Franchc 
cnnitu 


1 


-\ 


Sonimn 

Lower  Suine... . 

Calvailiii 

Mnnche 

Oriic 

Eiire 

B«ine 

Brine  and  Oise.  • 

Oiae 

Seine  and  Marne 

Aisne 

Marne 

Ardennei 

AuImi 

Upper  Marne  •  ■ . 

Meuae 

Moselle 

Meurthe 

Vosgei 

Upper  Rhine.,. . 
Lower  Rhine  . .. 
Illc  and  Vilaine. 
Ctiteidii  Nord... 

Fiiiistorro 

Morhihan 

Lower  {joirc. .. . 

Mayenne 

Sarthe 

Maine  and  Loire 
Indre  and  Loire . 

Lniret 

Eiire  and  IjOire  . 
Loir  and  Cher. .. 

Indre 

Cher 

NiSvro 

Ynnne 

Cote  d'Or 

SaAne  and  Loire 

Ain 


\ 


Poitou . 


Upper  SaSne. . 

Douba 

Jura 

Vendue 


e.Li.  ) 
sill .  .1 

i.dain-) 
B.  An- J 
loib . .  S 


Marnhe.Li' 
moiisi 

Aunis.dain 
tonge, 
gnuind 

Anvergiie  .  { 
Lyonnnia.  .< 

Dauphiny. .  ^ 

Ouienne . 

Bnurbonnais' 

Onacony 
and  Beam  ' 


Two  Sevres . . . 

Vicnne 

Creuze 

TTpper  Vienna. 
Coir^ze 


Charente 

Lower  Cha'ente 

Puy  de  Odma  ... 
Cantal 


Rh6ne 

Loire 

Is^re  

Uppjr  Alps.. 

llrjme 

Tynrdoine . .  •  • 

Oironde 

Lot  and  Garonne 

Lot 

Aveyron 

Tarn  and  Ga-  > 

ronne t 

Allier 

Landes 

Gers 

Upper  Pyrenees . 


Lower  Pyrenees 

Foix Arriige 

Housiillon.     Eastern  Pyrenees 
'  Upper  Garonne 

Aude 

Tarn 

Herault 

*  Gard 

Lnzire 

Upper  Loire  . .. 

.  Ardiche 

'  Lower  Alps.... 
Mouths  of  the 

Rhone 

Var 

_  Vaucluao 

Cnrnifa^. . .  ^  Corsica 


Languedoc. 


nrorence . 


3ns 

3U0 
'2H1 

3h:i 

31)3 
84 

sr? 

907 
301 
373 

256 
300 
315 
305 
13!) 
282 
253 
IM 
310 
331 
375 
330 
3tiO 
308 
3111 

:m 

305 
.331 

;ko 

304 
310 
354 
300 
334 

:)U4 

440 
390 

905 

202 
270 
354 

341 

390 
349 
205 
390 

878 

880 
307 

400 
974 

141 

334 
430 
275 

3:u 

47fi 
517 
243 
203 
445 

114 


450 
313 
333 

386 

387 
305 
339 
300 
2!10 
315 
303 
257 
950 
277 
375 


336 

:«iR 
1«7 


Pripulillon. 
063,048 

648,000 

596,383 
l>88,3tiS 
500,U5<> 
61 1, SIN) 
434,379 
431,665 
1,013,373 
440,871 
385,184 


ChiM  urf  TowM,  with  llirlr  ropuhllnn  hi  IM7. 


Lilla 00,860 

Arras 39,m 

Amiens 48,033 

Rouen U0,0U0 

Caen 38,161 

St.  Lo 8,50!) 

Alenpon 14,071 

Bvreux 9,739 

Pari 890,531 

Versailles,...  99,701 

Boauvais 13,805 


318,300  MAlun 7,199 

48g,5«0Lann 7,:U4 

385,045  Chalons 19,4  IB 

881,634  Mczi£res 4,150 

341,702  Troyes 85,387 

844,833  Chaumont ....  6,037 

306,.l')9  Bar  le  Due. . .  13,590 

409,155  Metz 4,270 

403,038NHiKy S(M33 

EpInnI 7,951 

Colinar 1,54!) 

Straaburg 49,708 

Rennes 99,377 

St.  lirieux  ....  9,9(i3 

Cliiiniper 10,033 

Vannes 11,889 

Nantes 71,739 

Lavnl 15,840 

Lo  Mans 10,477 

Anxers 89,978 

Tours 80,930 

Orleans 40,340 

Charlres 13,703 

llloia 11,337 

Chatcauroux  .  10,010 

Dourgcs 19,500 

Nevera 15,7^2 

Auxerro 13,348 


(  Donny 

I  Dunkirk  ... 
)  Itoiiliigne, . . 
)  Ht.  Onior  . . . 
Ahbevillo  .... 

Havre 

Ilayenx 

Cherbourg.... 
Argentan  .... 

Luuvicrs 

Sc«aux 

Eiamnei 

Conipiigne . . . 
Fontainehleau 
St.  Quentin  . . 

Rheims 

Sedan 


in.WO  Vnloiiriennes.   lO.Ml 
34,517  Cnnibrai  . .     ,  17,031 

10,314  Cnlaia n.f:u 

10,01!) 

19,530  Bl.auentin  ..  13,;Ut 

81,(M9  Dicppo 17,(177 

lO.OliO  Falnian lU,:iU3 

17,066  Cuutances ....    0,U:I3 

6,044 

0,349 

1,590  St.  Mnii 5,731 

7,867 

7,309 

7400  Meaux 7,836 

17,661  Boissoni 7,483 

34,869  Epernay 5,080 

18,608  Rocroy 3,500 


379,839 
408,741 
5:15,407 
333,453 

5Hl,(iti( 

soa,^^ 

437,454 
457,0(10 
354,1:18 

44fl„5in 
458.074 
3!K),l(iO 
304,22H 
277,7f2 
330,606 
237,1128 
348,589 
371,377 
343,116 


Langrei 7,180 

Verdun 

Thinnville  . . .    3,881 

Luneville  ....  13,378  Toul 

81,  Die 7,330 

Bcfort 4,803 

Snverne 4,003  WeisNmburg. 

St.  Malo 9,838 

Dinant 7,173 

Brest 88,CS5  Morlaix 

L'Orient M,310 

Mayenne 0,700        '"^ 

Baumur 10,314 

Cherson 4,400 

Montargii....    6,633      ' 

Dreux 6,947       "m      ' 

Vend6me  .,..    6,803         ,, .     ,    . 
lasoudun 11,393 


0,883 

6,146 
9,781 


Bens 8,683 

370,{)43'  Dijon 33,845  Somur 4,990 

Autun 0,036  Chiloni 


313,776  Map  on 10,963 

»*>.«««  !%"rre":.j     «■"'< 

327,641  -■ 

334,319 

310,383 


)     Dressc  . 

Vesnul :      5.353 

Besanfon  ....    88,795 
Lons  le  Baulnier  7,864 

393,836  Bourbon-Vend£e  3,130 

388,960Niort 15,709 

967,670  Poitiers 91,508 

2,59,032 
376,351 
384,889 

333.653 
494,147 


Gray 

Fontarlier. 


Guerrt 3,448 

Limoges 83,619 

Tulle 8,470 

Angoul^me...  13,306 

Rochelle 11,073 


566„T73 
262,013 

416,575 

360,208 

52.'!,984 

125,329  Gap 

285,791"  " 

464,074 

.•538,151 

330,886 

380,515 

350,014 


341.586 


I  Fontenay  > 
}    le  Comte  { 

Ch&tellerault . 


7,203 
4,549 

7.493 

9,241 


Clermont. 
Aurillac. 


(  Lyons,with  ) 
)     suburbs    { 

Montbrison  . . 

Grenoble  ...   . 


Valence . . . 
Pitrigueux . 
Bordeaux  . 
Agen  ...... 

Cahnrs  . , . . 
Rhodcz. .. . 


30,010 
9„'576 

170,875 

5,1.16 
33,149 

7,015 
10,383 

8,598 
93,549 
11,971 
13,413 

7,747 


Montauban  ..    90,466 


285,309  Moulins 14,525 

965,3091  Mont  de  Marsan  3,088 

307,('>01|Auch 10,844 

222,059  Tarbea 8,712 

412,469  Pan 11,761 


247.933 
151,372 
407,016 
303,991 
327,065 
339,560 
347,550 
138,778 
285,073 
3i!8.4M; 
153,063 

336,302 

311,095 
2.13,048 
185,079 


Foix 

Pcrpi^nan.... 

Toulouse 

Carcassonne.. 

Alhy 

Mont)ielier . . . 

Nismes 

Mende 

LePuyenVclay 

Privaa 

Digne 


4,958 
13.357 
53,319 
17,775 
10,993 
33,843 
39,068 

5,443 
14,908 

4.100 

3,955 


Marseilles....  ns,&<<3 

Toulon 30,1,1 

Avienon 31,!B0 

Ajaccio 7,058 


Cognac 3,017 

Baintes 10,.300  Rochefbrt 

Riom 12,736  Thiers  ... 

St.  Flour 6,640 

Trevoux 2,453 

St.  Etienne...  30,615 

Vienne 13,7K0 

Embriin 3,:i00 

Monteliroar  . .  7,580 

Bergerac 8,412 

Villeneuvo  . . .    0,405 

VillcfVanche..    9,531 
Moiasac 10,115 

Dax 5,045 

Bagnfires 7,037 

(  Bayonne  . . .  13,498  Orthes  . .. 
{  Oleron 6,433 


Narbonne ....  10,007 

Castres 15,663 

Bezlers 16,515  Soden  ... 

Alais 10,352 

ArgnntiAn..,     9,79? 
Bisleron 3,980 

Aix 23,133  Aries 

Draguignan  . .    8,016  Grasse 

Orange 8,864  Carpentras . 

Baatia 0,537 


18,909 
11,613 


6,834 


9,843 


10,868 

13,716 
9,75(1 


AllUr 

Alps  Upp"  • 

lAwer 

AnlecUa  -  •  • 
Ardconei  •  - 
Artiep  •  •  • 

AUtM  •  ■  •  • 
Aude  .... 
Aveyran  •  •  , 
Bouchea  du  Rhof 
Ctlvadot  ■  ■ 
Cutal  •  •  •  ■ 
Clureiile    ■ 

Iii>w«r 

Cher 

Correze  -  •  ■  • 
Conica  .  .  •  -  • 
Cole  d'Ur  •  -  • 
Com  du  Nord 
Creuze  •  .  -  . 
lli)rdui;M  -  -  ■ 

UoulM 

Unnne  .  -  •  • 

Eure  • 

Eure  and  liolr  - 
Flnitlerre  > 
Oanl  -  •  • 
Garonne,  Upper 
Ooii-  ■  •  • 
Oironde  •  • 
Herault  •  • 
lie  and  ViUioa  ' 

Indre 

Indre  and  liilra 
Inere  ■  -  -  « 
Jura  -  ■  «  - 
Landa  •  •  - 
Loir  and  ClMr 
Loire    •  •  •  - 
Loire,  Upper  - 

Ujwer 

l/iirel  •  -  •  • 

Lot 

lot  ndOaronn 
Lozero  -  •  •  - 
Miine  and  Loir 
Manehe  ■  •  • 
Marne  ■  ■  •  - 

Upper 

Mayenne  •  • 
Mrurthe    •  - 
Meuse .  •  -  -  • 
Mortiihan  •  •  • 
Mnaelie  -  •  -  ■ 
Nievre   .  .  •  - 

Nnrd 

Oine 

Ornu ' 

Pas  de  C.ilala 
Puy  de  Dome 
Pjieuoea,  Lou 

Ea* 

Rliinc,  U'Wer 

Upper 

Rtione  ■  •  •  - 
Sa"tie,  Upper 
S  tone  and  Loi 
Sarlhe  •  -  ■  • 
St'ine  •  -  -  • 

I/>wer 

Seine  and  Ma 
Seine  and  01» 
Scvrea,  Two 
Sorume  ■  •  • 
Tarn  .  ■  -  - 
Tim  and  Ou 

Var 

Vauetuse  •  ■ 
Vendee  •  •  ' 
Vienue  -  -  .  . 

Uppw 

"mKea  -  •  • 

'onne  •  -  -  - 


BiWK  I. 


PRANCE 


MA 


Th-'  foliowing  atatistical  table  uxhibits  a  compitrative  view  of  the  itate  of  culture  and  pm> 
Auction  in  ttic  different  depurtmontd  of  France.  Tiio  amounts  of  grain,  cattle  and  wool  are 
furniohcd  bf  Chaptal.  The  wine  ia  drawn  from  the  report  presented  to  the  pverM  bv  the  Due 
de  DodeauviUe,  and  the  tbreHta  from  the  memorial  of  the  sub-admtniatrator,  M.  Herbin  de 
Hulle.  Tlie  entire  annual  amount  of  land  revenue  is  derived  lirom  an  eacimatu  of  ttie  aver- 
age produce  of  the  arpent  in  each  department,  founded  upon  the  Cadaatre  or  general  survey 
of  tlie  kingdom.    It  ia  furnished  by  Chaptal : — 


DUitlliMti. 


Aluw 

Allior 

Alps  U|i|nr  .  .  .  . . 

Ijovm  -  •  •  ' 

Ardeclie •  ' 

AnleatiM  >■>••- 
Anion  >.•-•■■ 

Autie 

Aucla 

Aveyron 

Bouchci  du  Rbooe  • 

UhadM ■ 

Cuiial 

Chumta    ■  ■    •  • 

Loww  • 

Ch«r 

Correu  ---••- 

Cunica 

Cote  d'Ur  •  ■  •  • 
Com  du  Nord  • 

Creiize 

Diirdfwiif  •  •  -  ■ 

Uoubf  

Droma   .  .  •  •  . 

Eure 

Eura  and  Lotr  - 
Finiaterro  -  •  .  - 

Oard    

Gironne,  Upper 

Ocn 

Oironde 

Hentilt 

lie  lud  ViUloa  •     • 

liKlr« 

Indre  ud  loll* 

laere - 

Jura  ..---■ 

Undei 

Loir  and  Cbar     •' 
Loire     •  .  .  • 
Loire,  Upper  -     -  « 

Luwer 

Lolrol • 

Lot 

Ix>t   nd  OmnM  •  ' 

Lowrc 

Jhhiiie  and  Loire  •  • 

M.iitche ' 

Martie  .  .  -  -     •  • 

tJPP"     •• 

Mayvniie  •  •  ■  •  « 
Mfuriho  •  •  •  -  " 
Memo  ..--■••■ 
Mortiihan  -  .  -  -  ■ 

Mnnlle 

Nievre   ..---.- 

Nord 

OIhc  ....-.•.. 

Orni! 

PsH  de  C.ilais  •  -  • 
Piiy  de  Dome  -  •  •  - 
>^reiiees,  Lower-  • 

Ur|ier  ■  ■ 

Raalen 


Rliiiie,  I/iw-er 

— —  "PP<" 

Rhone 

Si'ine,  t'pper  •  *  •  ' 
Sione  and  Loire  •  • 

Sjrihe • 

Seine -  ■ 

Jjiwer  •  -  .  . 

Seine  and  Marne  •  • 
Seine  and  Oise  ■  -  ■ 

Scvr«,  Two   • 

Snnime 

Tarn 

Tarn  and  Oaionna  • 

Var 

Vaueluse  .-.--. 

Vendee   

Vienne 

Upper  -  .  - . 

^'oBicei -  • 


WlM>L 


triifloo 

1,4119,100 
210,000 
IW,000 
1116,000 
108,000 
603,0(10 
IW,000 

4««,oao 
i,no,ooo 

312,000 

3tl7,000 

1,159,000 

mxiuo 

891,000 
709,000 
40,000 
104,000 
104,000 
004,000 
416,000 
9.000 
6:iO,000 
98S,000 

l,39K,000 
1,032,000 

8»9,oao 
a^LOuo 

1,187,000 
1,011,000 
416,000 
M4,000 
619,000 
4)7,000 
737,00U 
737,000 
<I39,000 
256,000 
634,000 
1^,000 
230,000 
»97,000 
■12,000 

eoo,oco 

1183,000 
67,000 
810,000 
977,(100 
740,000 
535,000 
4S0,C00 
1,100,000 
709,000 
511,000 
860,000 
294,000 

i,63«,oao 

1,217,000 

649,000 

2,0I9,(X)0 

e^iiooo 

305,000 

122,000 

120,000 

602,000 

600,000 

160,000 

693,000 

tjOO.OOO 

4S7,000 

RSOOO 

l,49l,(m) 

1,361,000 

1,326.000 

929,000 

882000 

840,000 

72C,(X10 

438,000 

279,000 

663,000 

617,000 

76,000 

607,000 

401,000 


>;•. 


mfiM 
1,040,000 
748,000 
IMioOO 
108,000 

iM4,ooa 

458,000 
189,000 
631,000 
183,000 
433,000 

13,000 
938,000 
678,000 
341,000 

34,000 
260,000 
630,000 

14,000 
611,000 
623,000 

8M,oao 

365,000 
138,0(<0 
223,000 
621,000 
I6ii,000 
479,000 
134/100 

47,000 
116,000 
333,000 

87,000 
460,000 
365,000 
ai5,000 
1,025,000 
117,000 
254,000 
379,000 

33,000 
630,1100 
2WfiOO 
827,000 
169,001 
tl^000 

36,000 

I,I2\0(C 

I22,0«) 

l,IIS,000 

124,000 

330,000 

71,000 

32.U0O 
690  000 

sioioo 

331,000 
601,000 
756,000 
1^2,000 
307,(100 

1,03/000 

17,000 

88,000 

120,000 

155,000 

109,000 

217,000 

194.000 

597,000 

371,000 

79,000 

169,000 

344,000 

3a',,000 

37?,000 

1,367,000 
660,000 
844,000 
13,000 
130.000 
S79.00O 
297,000 
663,000 
168,000 
438,000 


148,000 

6a£ooo 

1,721,000 

13,000 

716,000 

3«,00O 

2,000 

114,000 

147,000 

30,000 

878,000 

180,000 

249,000 

123,000 

962,000 

1,211,000 

l,60l,(XI0 

IWi.OOO 

2,046.000 

1110,000 

24,000 

22,000 

42,000 

30,C00 

277,000 

202,000 

OMOOO 

444,000 

76,000 

76,000 

ll^oao 

46,000 

73,000 

638,000 

376,000 

143,000 

810,000 

148,000 

16,000 

669,000 

29,000 

108,000 

88,CO0 

833,000 

40,000 

31,000 

16,0(X) 

144,000 

1S4,IIOO 

861,000 

68V0OO 

446.000 

1 1,094,000 

433,000 

8j4,UX) 

600,000 

130,000 

I,l78il00 

1,147,000 

I,497.ri00 

130,000 

59,000 

83,100 

66,000 

631,000 

33,000 

397,000 

421,000 

17»,000 

62.000 

300,000 

189,000 

84.000 

243,000 

36J,000 

60,000 

60,000 

IJBO.OOO 

mooo 

98/X» 
83,000 

909,000 
72,000 

766,000 
1,181,000 

613,000 


MfiOO 
111,000 
16,000 
11,000 
64,000 
80,000 
54,000 
45,000 
30,000 
71,000 
3,000 
99,000 
101,000 
70,000 
67,000 
42,000 
86,000 

l04',000 
163,000 
86,000 
I80AIO 


104,000 
10,000 
A6M 
66,000 

200,100 
6,000 
76,000 
81,000 
68,000 
7,000 

164.000 

10<,000 
63,001k 

113,000 

113,000 
68,000 
69,000 
72,000 
60,000 

133,000 
73,000 
54,000 
68,000 
33,000 

161,0(0 

1JO,OCO 
63,C00 
81,000 

139,000 
75,000 

174,000 
lefiOO 
99,000 
172,000 
74,000 
101,000 
146.000 
lOl.OOO 
11^(00 
49.000 
13,000 
107,000 
49,000 
44,000 
83,000 
113.000 
108,000 
12,000 
60,000 
78,000 
I  |-,0(iO 
63,000 
66,000 
50,000 
39,000 
11,000 
4,000 
104.000 
42,000 
94,000 
106.000 
67,000 


Wool 


Kilo, 
f  Itih  Ita. 


66,000 
1,107,000 
147,000 
338,000 
666,000 
384,000 
657  000 
WfiCO 
166,000 
1,442.000 
630.000 
6»S«10 
304,000 
435,000 
356,000 
211,000 
836aX)0 
313.000 
104,000 
240,000 
130,000 
331,000 
462,000 

63,000 
963,000 
413,000 
917,000 

46,000 
701000 
660,000 
190,000 
468,000 
«00,00» 

88/)00 
816,000 
936000 
869,000 

84,00C 
33«.(' 
664,000 
144,000 
339,000 
259,000 
633,000 
463,000 
13>/)p0 
72:,W0 
317,000 
3SO,000 
33(1,000 
159,000 
I72,(K10 
136,000 

68,000 
165.000 

97,000 
744,000 
932,000 
4.'>2,000 
m2flOO 
846,000 
48<>.0CO 
348,000 
648,000 

86.000 
183.000 

93,000 
121,000 

76,000 
193,000 

68,000 
640.000 
1,196,00c 
1,082,000 
3fc0,000 
778,000 
634,000 
351,000 
573,000 
438,000 
816,000 
381,000 
832,000 

45,000 
174,000 


WlM. 


Hectoll- 

MMial- 

loaa  each. 


S73JI0O 
991,000 
8)«,000 

101,000 
98,000 
77,000 
66,000 
117,000 
673,000 
601,000 
991,000 
690,000 


4,000 

1,836,000 

1,791,000 

333,000 

610,000 


417,000 
139,000 
861,000 
66,000 

i,OM,oao 

1,041,000 

467,000 

1,094,000 

1,366,000 

1,718.000 

8,000 

181,000 

666,000 

153,000 

419.009 
647,000 
376,000 

80,000 
710,000 
693,000 
340.000 
401,000 

14,000 
493,000 

423,000 
609,000 

688,000 
646,000 

160.000 
33,000 

8!>,ooa 


310,000 
160,000 
278,>X10 

70,000 
464,000 
347,000 
4.38,000 

7S,000 
408,000 
148,000 


667,000 

849,000 

264,000 

600 

4'  <nuo 

364.IXX) 
69,1^10 
306,000 
33^0IX) 
436,000 
21.000 
101,000 
907,000 


Avarafe 
rtiiM  la 
r>*aai. 


16 

n 

17 
16 
16 
18 
10 
IS 
17 
10 
14 
14 

II 
9 
10 
10 


41 


16 
18 
18 
U 
10 

10 
14 
9 
19 
10 
13 
13 
16 
II 
17 
13 
11 
19 
14 
10 
16 
17 
II 
18 
16 

M 
U 

13 
16 

17 
10 


93 
17 
II 
16 
18 
14 
16 
30 
19 
IS 


S 
17 
12 
90 
12 

3 
M 
19 
10 
11 
17 
16 
86 


rofaalB. 


64,000 
103,000 
106,000 
74,000 
60,000 
88.000 
160,000 
65.000 
77,000 
66,000 
45,000 
64,000 
32,000 
30,000 
12,000 
3&000 
160,000 
13,060 
55,0(« 
228,000 
16,000 
30,000 
67,000 
113,000 
93,000 
97,000 
44,000 
12,000 
61,(«0 
60,000 
11,000 

M/m 
7aooo 

80.00 
102,000 

73,000 
133,000 

138,000 
125,000 
60,000 
38,000 
33,000 
37,000 
93,000 
116,000 
1.3,0U0 

3i,a)o 

43,000 
KiiOOO 
81,000 
233MI0 
26,000 
810,000 
IIAOOO 
I8.00O 
132,000 
1113,000 
67,000 
8^000 
69,000 
46,000 
65,000 
112,000 
68,000 
49,000 
156,000 
169,000 

160,000 
131.000 
68,000 
4,000 
84,000 
73.009 
74.000 
39,000 
66.000 
43,000 
11,000 
118,000 
57.000 
19,000 
87.000 
39.000 
316,000 
168,000 


Und 

Raneua^ 


10,068,000 
37,441,0(10 
8,236,000 
3,604,000 
4,6*4,000 
11,767,000 
13,201,0(10 
11,618,000 
1^686,000 
17,263,000 
18,461,000 
17,863,000 
A637,0OO 
10,022000 
17.313,000 
16,868,000 
9,330,000 
9,673,000 

I9,3ea,000 
6,989^100 
I4,43I,0I» 
14.464,000 
.  30,WM> 
27,186,000 
16,911,000 
13,661,000 
18,113,000 

lajmjm 

10,666,000 
I8,I30m0O 
11,660,000 
18,451,060 
6,433an> 

l6.i76,nno 

31^34,.  >0 
93,411,. >  I 
16.383  0011 
16,337,0(10 
11,269,000 
16,780,000 
13,969,000 
K743(100 
7,936,000 
17,189,000 
6,678,000 
SLiMflOO 
37,6X1,000 
8,eC  1.000 
11,626,000 
19,414,000 
13,161,000 
10,3|!3,000 
16,631,000 
11,776,000 
10,166,000 
M,14S.0(» 
36,984/100 
10.768,000 
36,117,000 
11,663,000 
14,799,000 
9,831/100 
8,W  (100 

K  ■     .  . 

9.r 

10,a  ..il 
19,137,000 
23,784,000 
18,770,000 
63,001,000 
34,290^000 
17.388/100 
3!,141/»> 
11,741/nO 
18,947.000 
ll,S48,(<00 
10,645/100 
31.H3/I0O 
10,9)1,000 
10,868,000 
8,690/103 
8,677,000 
7,808,000 
16,444.000 


The  Isle  of  IfVanco,  now  divided  into  several  departments,  claims  priority  of  notice  as  con- 
taininff  the  capita)  It  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  an  island ;  but  being  situated  near  the  junc- 
tion of  Uie  Oise.  tr  Marne,  the  Aisne,  and  the  Seine,  is  intersected  by  very  numerous  nvei 
channels.  It  is  in  ^  inoral  level,  fertile,  and  highly  cultivuved ;  aiid  beneain  uie  »U"»ccr- 
quarries  of  gypsum  so  copious,  that  the  substanca  is  c  ;i-imonly  designated    plaster  oi  rans. 

Voi,.L     "  46* 


8  T 


MO 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


Pa»t  ni. 


Paris,  the  capital  of  France,  has  also  made  pretensions  to  be  considerfld  as  the  general 
capital  of  the  civilized  world.  London  can,  in  fact,  alone  dispute  its  claim,  beinir  more 
extensive,  more  wealthy,  and  the  m'nt  of  a  much  more  extended  commerce ;  yet  the  central 
situation  of  Paris,  the  peculiar  attractions  rendering  it  the  crowded  resort  of  strangers,  and 
its  brilliant  and  plished  society,  p^iu'cially  undfir  the  old  monarchy,  gave  to  this  city  a  gayer 
aripcct,  and  rendered  it  a  more  Cunspicuous  object  in  the  eyes  of  Europe.  Paris  is  not  oidy 
|ps8  |K)pii!ou8  than  London,  but  in  pror^'  ti  iii  to  its  population  it  covers  less  groimd.  It  forms 
on  lK)th  bunks  of  the  Seine  an  "-'.i  t^  iif  :.1»  ♦.  four  miles  in  length  and  Uiree  in  breadth. 
The  princi|xil  strpets  are  lonrr  u.irrm.,  \k  ■  i-red  by  high  houses,  which,  like  those  of  Fxlin- 
burgli,  are  each  occupied  by  v.  t'cm!  '  ..nJitJ.  The  streets  of  shops  are  further  encumbered 
by  the  exhibition  of  the  iri'^rr  handise  in  flront  of  the  doors,  a  practice  only  tolerated  in  the 
mont  olwcurn  districts  of  lif  itih  cities.  Paris  thus  presents  generally  a  more  gloomy  and 
confused  aspect  than  London;  nor  has  it  any  structure  which  can  match  the  grandeur  of  St. 
Paul's,  or  perhaps  tho  beauty  of  Westminster  Abbey ;  yet  some  of  its  quarters  contain  long 
ranges  of  superb  iind  stately  edifices,  which  London  cannot  rival.  Tiie  palaces  of  Parin,  in 
particular,  far  excel  'hose  of  the  rival  metropolis.     Tl  'istinguished  is  the  I/)uvre, 

finished  with  the  utmost  splendour  in  the  style  th.  „  .  .eiinguinht'l  the  ..jeof  l/juis  XIV.  Its 
front,  ."j'iS  feet  long,  is  a  model  of  symmetry,  the  effect  of  which  is  only  injured  by  the  want 
of  space  before  it.  The  Louvre  is  not  now  occupied  as  a  palace,  but  as  a  grand  depdt  of  the 
objects  of  taste  and  art  The  gallery,  which  is  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  and  the 
walls  of  whic!.  re  entirely  crowded  with  paintings  that  are  still  fine,  forms  a  magnificent 
coup  d'ail.    Tl"  hall  of  statues  is  still  adorned  with  some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  ancient 

sculpture.  The  Tuileries,  which  is 
the  present  royal  residence,  was  be- 
gun at  an  earlier  period  than  the 
Louvre,  and  carried  on  at  successive 
times ;  whence  it  exhibits  varied  and 
sometimes  discordant  features,  but  is 
on  the  whole  a  noble  and  venerable 
edifice,  surrounded  with  fine  gar- 
dens and  avenues.  The  palace  of  the 
Luxembourg  (fig.  280.),  on  ''  south 
of  Paris,  and  the  Palais  Bouiuon  on 
the  west,  are  edifices  of  great  taste 

and  beauty.    The  former,  now  strip- 
The  Luxembourg.  p^^j  ^j.  ^j^^  ^^^^^^^  ^g^j^g  ^^  paintings 

by  Rubens,  which  haf  been  truisferred  to  the  Louvre  gallery,  affords  in  one  part  a  place  of 
assembly  for  the  Chamber  of  Peers,  and  in  another  apartments  for  the  exhibition  of  paintings 
by  living  artists ;  while  the  Palais  Bourbon  is  in  part  occupied  by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

The  Palais  Royal  (Jiff.  281.)  is  no  lonj^er 
exclusively  a  palace,  but  is  in  part  leased 
out  fo  simdry  persons,  for  purposes  partly 
of  Is  isinesB,  but  much  more  of  pleasure: 
it  .  tilled  with  shops,  coffee-houses,  tav- 
ern ,  gaming-tables,  and  every  form  of 
gaiety  and  dissipation  which  can  find  ac- 
ceptance  in  such  a  city.  Notre  Dame,  the 
'*"    ""  ■  ancifnt  cathedral     i'  Paris,  is  somewhat 

heavy  and  massive,  but  the  interior  is  richly  decorated.  The  modern  church  of  St.  Gene- 
vieve, called  during  the  Revolution  the  Pantheon,  was  highly  extolled  duri-i^  its  erection 
as  deetinod  to  eclipse  both  St.  Peter's  and  St.  Paul's;  otI  such  was  the  expectali>i;  enter 
tained  ui  France,  till,  the  scaflTolding  being  remc  ed  ai..  the  front  thrown  open,  its  inferi- 
ority :>ecame  apparent:  however,  it  is 
till  1  edifice  of  a  high  class  (Jig.  282.) 
St.  ,  Ipice  is  also  a  modern  structure. 
Paris  las  no  fine  streets,  nor  any  of  those 
ample  squares  which  are  so  great  an  or- 
nament of  London.  It  boasts,  however, 
of  its  places,  which,  without  having  the 
regular  form  or  dimensions  of  a  square, 
command  admiration  by  the  ranges  of 
noble  buildings  that  surround  them.  In 
particular,  the  Place  Louis  Quinze 
standing  in  a  central  situation  among  the 
palaces,  presents  one  of  the  most  bril- 
This  capital  possesses  also  great  advantages  io 


Church  of  8t  Genevieve. 


ii&.it  poiiits  of  view  io  be  found  in  any  city. 


Boocl. 


PRANCE. 


547 


th«  wide  ornamented  onei.  apacM  which  lie  in  the  V'  heart  of  the  city.  The  Boulevardt, 
the  ancioiit  rampart  ur  Paris,  when  it  was  circuinscnued  within  a  much  narrower  compaaa, 
tre  now  converted  into  a  walk  adorned  with  rows  of  trees,  and  filled  with  niimerouH  exhi- 
bitors and  venders  of  evorv  thing  that  can  conduce  to  public  amusement  The  gardens  of 
the  Tuileries,  and  the  embellished  spot  called  the  Champs  Elytiet,  are  also  open  to  tha 
public. 

The  statistics  of  Paris  have  been  carefully  illustrated  in  a  series  of  interesting  works  by 
the  Count  de  Chabrol.  The  population,  in  1821,  amounted  to  713,966,  but  has  now  risen  to 
800,4:U.  The  births,  in  the  three  years  ended  1821,  averaged  24,700;  the  deaths  22,680; 
Iciiving  tlius  2000  as  the  annual  excess  of  births.  A  third  of  all  the  births  were  illegiti- 
mntc,  and  of  these  only  a  third  were  acknowledged  by  the  parents.  The  still-born  children 
were  averaged  1365.  The  average  of  marriages  in  the  three  years  was  about  6000.  In 
tho  three  years  732  died  of  small-pox,  and  only  one  child  out  of  twenty-five  was  vaccinated. 
Tiio  violent  deaths  averaged  350,  half  of  whom  were  married  persons,  and  the  most  com- 
mon cause  was  domestic  chagrin. '  Drowning  was  the  most  frequent  mode :  170  persona 
wore  drowned  annually  by  accident  The  consumption  of  Paris  consisted,  in  1823,  of 
76,689  oxen ;  8142  cows ;  74,759  calves ;  361,946  sheep.  The  taxes  paid  in  Paris  amount 
to  110,000,000  fVancs.  House-rent  amounU  to  80,000,000  fVancs.  The  number  of  houses, 
IP  1821,  was  27,000,  with  an  average  of  thirty-four  doors  and  windows  in  each.  The  loans 
made  on  pledges  by  the  charitable  establishment  called  the  Mont  de  Piili  amount  to 
19,500,000  francs,  upon  1,000,000  articles,  of  which  1  \500,000  are  redeemed.  There  are 
fourteen  hospitals  for  the  sick,  and  eight  hospices  for  the  infirm.  The  former  received 
annually  42,500,  of  whom  about  40,000  wn  out  cured;  the  latter  18,500.  The  annual 
expense  is  about  '.'  000,000  francs.  There  m  besides  an  office  of  charity  in  each  of  the 
twelve  arrondiaaemeng,  the  aids  of  which  are  administered  by  "  sisters  of  charity,"  who 
divide  the  poor  among  themselves,  make  regular  lists  of  them,  and  pay  frequent  visits. 
They  make  an  annual  collection  in  their  district,  the  produce  of  which  is  transmitted  to  the 
office.  The  annual  distributions  made  by  the  oflUces  of  charity  amount  to  1,250,000  francs 
in  money ;  747,000  quartern  loaves ;  270,000  lbs.  meat ;  19,000  oils  of  cloth,  &c.  The 
manufactures  of  Paris  are  considerable.  The  principal  are  of  works  in  gold  and  silver, 
vliich  employ  700(*  or  8000  workmen,  and  yield  a  value,  according  to  M.  Dupin,  above 
r-4.  lOO.OOO  fraacs.  'f  here  are  manufactured  also,  by  2000  workmen,  80,000  gold  and  40,000 
silv  watches,  wi;  15,000  clocks,  which  may  be  worth  19,000,000  francs.  Sugar  refinery 
is  al  upposed  t  iiroduce  20,000,000  lbs.,  worth  32,000,000  francs.  Eighty  printing-offices 
employ  600  prcsser  and  3000  workmen,  and  use  annually  280,000  reams  of  paper ;  supposed 
valuo  "^  ?■  1000  francs.  Of  the  various  articles  above  enumerated,  there  are  exported  to  the 
value  u,  ,  rly  50,000,000  firancs.  Paris  is  visited  by  12,000  or  13,000  boats,  of  which  1000 
are  from  the  low  rr  Seine,  and  the  rest  fi-om  the  upper.  Twenty  are  steam-boats.  The  city 
has  1000  boats    f       own. 

The  environs  aris  are  not  covered  with  tliose  numerous  villas  and  country  residences 
which  have  been  vuustruc'od  to  gratify  the  rural  taste  of  the  citizens  of  Ijondon.  Immedi- 
ately beyond  the  gates  they  present  a  flat  open  corn  country.  They  are  chiefly  marked  by 
the  royal  palaces;  superb  fabrics,  the  works  of  successive  kings,  and  on  which  millions  have 
lieen  expended.     The  most  elaborate  and  most  splendid  is  Versailles  (Jig,  283.).    It  was 

283 


'iHleau  atVctsailles. 

begiin  by  Louis  XIII.  who  found  it  little  more  than  a  village ;  but  its  chief  ornaments  are 
due  to  Louis  XIV.,  who,  during  twelve  years,  expended  immense  sums  in  surrounding  it 
with  every  kind  of  magnificence.  The  front  is  highly  elegant,  built  of  polished  stone,  and 
approached  by  three  great  avenues.  The  interior  consists  of  spacious  apartments  embel- 
lished in  the  most  costly  manner,  and  many  parts  of  them,  and  of  the  staircases,  are  covered 
with  frescoes  executed  by  eminent  French  painters.  The  interior  and  the  gardens  are  filled 
with  crowds  of  statues,  partly  antiqu  and  partly  the  work  of  French  sculptors.  Water 
was  at  first  deficient ;  but  it  has  been  conveyed  in  such  abundance  as  to  be  lavished  in  fan- 
ciful and  fantastic  forms, — fountains,  jetrt  d'eau,  cascades,  with  which  Versailles  is  more  pro- 
fiisely  embellished  than  any  other  royal  residence.  The  two  palaces,  called  the  Great  and 
Little  Trianon,  are  in  the  vicinity,  and  arc  celebrated,  particularly  the  last,  for  gardens  .ai_ 
out  in  the  English  style.  The  long  residence  of  the  court  at  Versailles  assembled  round  it 
A  splendid  city  formed  by  the  courtiers  and  great  nobles,  who  considered  it  necessary  to  have 


548 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


•T'vtT  nt 


at  leaat  a  maiuion  thora.  Since  the  tmi^ic  aconoa  ut'  October,  17R0,  the  palace  :,  \a  novoi 
be«n  inliahitoU  i  thouifh  tho  Bourbons,  aflor  thnir  ri>turn,  placcid  it  in  ri>|Niir.  IltMicn  the 
city  haa  <t<>clinc<i  in  population,  aixl  the  late  inannions  of  the  noblea  are  in  a  grcM  nicnNiiro 
occupied  by  Knfflinh  rc«iidontii.  St.  (^loiid,  four  or  five  iniloH  dintant  fVom  Paris,  ii  purtiru- 
'arly  ailmircd  tor  ita  gurdena  and  extnnMivo  woo<l)(,  an  oxciiraion  to  which  forma  a  popular 
ftmuaeniont,  eapecially  on  featival  daya.  It  waa  the  favourite  roaidence  of  Napoleon,  wIkwo 
court  waa  thence  called  the  cabinet  of  St.  Cloud.  Fontainebloau  ia  the  huritinff-acat  of  the 
monarchy,  boing  aurrounded  by  a  foreat  of  nearly  !M),(NX)  acrea.  The  pnlnce,  built  by  huc- 
ccMive  monarcha,  fVom  Francia  I.  to  liouia  XV.,  la  chiefly  noted  for  its  long  and  numoroua 
ffalleriea.  Anion)^  the  few  towna  in  thia  country,  Moaux  ia  diHtinguiahed  not  only  by  the 
Douutiful  choir  of  ita  cathedral,  but  by  having  l)or>n  the  im'o  of  the  celebrated  Uooauot,  wIiohp 
tomb  it  contains.     Melun  is  a  contM<|pniblc,  but  ill-built  and  gloomy,  old  town. 

The  northern  departments,  comprising  the  provinces  of  French  Flanders,  Picardy,  and 
Normandy,  compose  together  an  extensive  plain,  the  richest,  most  flourishing,  ami  most 
highly  cultivated  in  the  kingdom.  The  farms,  though  of  various  size,  are  generally  larger 
Uian  in  the  rest  of  France ;  the  improved  English  processes  are  gaining  ground,  and  the 
introduction  of  artificial  grosses  has  in  a  (jfrcat  measure  supplanted  the  routine  of  wheat, 
oats,  and  fallow.  This  re^on  is  also  the  chief  seat  of  manufactures.  These  nrovinccs  have 
produced  many  men  of  distinguished  talent,  and  knowledge  is  very  generally  difluHnd  in 
them.  The  Flemings  retain  their  national  character,  distinct  from  that  of  the  French ; 
heavy,  phlegmatic,  industrious,  addicted  to  pretty  close  drinking  and  long  rustic  festivals. 
The  Norman  still  partakes  the  adventurous  spirit  of  his  forefauiers;  he  loves  expeditions 
and  journeys,  readily  engages  in  any  enterprise,  and  eagerly  pursues  it. 

The  cities  throughout  all  this  part  of  France  are  large  and  flourishing.  Those  of  French 
Flanders,  or  the  Nord,  rank  among  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Europe,  and  are  the  bulwarks 
of  the  monarchy.  Lille  perhaps  holds  among  these  the  very  first  place,  being  considered 
the  master-piece  of  Vauban.  It  was  reduced  by  Marlborough  only  after  a  long  blockade, 
and  is  considered  in  any  other  way  almost  impregnable.  It  is  also  well  and  renrularly  built, 
and  the  Rue  Royate  is  a  very  nplendid  street.  Lille  has  also  a  very  considerable  variety 
both  of  manufacturing  and  commercial  industry,  with  institutions  both  for  literature  and  the 
arts.  Douay  is  an  ancient  and  strong  town  on  the  Scarpe,  and  enjoys  some  celebrity  a.s  a 
■eat  of  rather  antiquated  and  scholastic  learning.  Its  university  consists  of  three  collegpt, 
now  united,  one  of  which  is  called  the  English  college,  and  is  resorted  to  from  all  the  three 
kingdoms  as  a  place  of  Catholic  education.  Cambrai  is  a  very  ancient  and  celebrated  city, 
the  capital  of  the  Nervii  in  Cesar's  time,  and  afterwards  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks. 
Here  was  concluded,  in  1597,  the  league  of  Cambrai,  which  caused  the  downfall  of  Venice ; 
and  it  was  the  scene  of  other  important  diplomatic  transactions ;  but  perhaps  the  name  is 
best  known  from  its  having  formed  tlie  archicpiscopal  see  of  Fenelon.    It  ranks  still  as  a 

fortress  of  the  firet  class,  and  was  one  of  those  held 
by  the  army  of  occupation,  after  the  peace  of  Paris, 
in  1815.  Valenciennes  is  another  ancient  bulwark 
of  the  kingdom,  which  yielded  to  the  allies  in  1793, 
after  a  long  siege ;  but  they  did  not  derive  any  advan- 
tage from  their  success.  It  has  some  fine  manufiic- 
tures  of  lace,  gauze,  and  cambric. 

In  Picardy  and  the  part  of  the  Isle  of  France  bor- 
dering on  it,  there  are  several  large  ond  flourishing 
cities.  Amiens  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  manu- 
facture of  coarse  woollens,  as  serges,  plush,  velvets 
for  furniture,  and  carpets ;  also  coarse  linens.  Here 
was  concluded  the  peace  of  1801,  between  Britain 
and  France.  Its  cathedral  (fg.  284.)  is  one  of  the 
most  spacious  and  most  highly  ornamented  in  France 
or  in  Europe.  Abbeville  is  celebrated  as  one  of  the 
few  seats  of  the  manufacture  of  very  fine  woollen 
cloth,  which  surpasses  even  the  English ;  it  deals  most 
extensively  in  sailcloth,  sheeting,  and  other  coarse 
fabrics  from  hemp  and  flax.  St.  Quentin,  the  scene 
of  the  great  victory  of  Philip  II.,  enjoys  a  more  hum 
ble  and  useful  distinction  as  one  of  the  most  thriving 
manufacturing  places  of  Prance.  Its  manufactures 
consist  in  lawns,  cambrics,  and  still  more  of  late  in  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton ;  all 
which  employ  in  the  town  and  neighbourhood  upwards  of  50,000  persons.  The  citizens  of 
St.  Quentin  display  an  enterprise  and  an  activity  in  pushing  every  new  and  promising  branch 
of  industry,  which  are  not  usual  in  France.  A  canal  is  here  cut  from  the  Oise  to  that  of 
Douay,  remarkable  tor  its  extensive  tunnels.  Laon  is  an  ancient  town,  with  a  stately  cathe* 
dral.     Soissona  is  distinguished  in  French  history,  and  its  bidiop  had,  second  to  that  of 


Amiaiii  Cathedral. 


Book  L 

Rheima,  the  ri 
featurea.     Bet 
The  ports  o 
being  the  only 
anco.     I»uia 
iitrongost  harb 
was  taken  of 
entire  deinolil 
an  effective  mI 
of  the  uea  waa 
Kii(jl'i"J  to  ce 
privateering  s 
memorable  ei 
abruptly  to  ru 
by  the  allio(l 
canal  of  a  mil 
obliged  to  use 
from  the  inun 
ous  draining 
which  so  long 


S 


i"^L- 


now  abandon 

of  English  i 

herring,  mac 

The  cities 

28( 


is  slill  a  c 
handsome  i 
l\s  manufa 

ETiVCS  Gliipi 

some  pmin 
of  oonsidet 


Bmk  L 


PRANCE. 


MO 


CalQM  Harbour. 


Rheinu,  the  right  of  crowning  the  king  of  France.    It  does  not  now  present  any  atriking 
ftaturea.     Beuiivaia  ia  thriving  and  indiiiitriouM. 

Thu  porta  uf  I'icardy  and  trench  Flaiulont  are  alao  vorv  doaerving  of  notice.  Dunkirk, 
being  tim  only  one  which  openu  into  the  North  Hoa,  waa  alwaya  con^tidered  of  grnat  iinnort- 
tnco.  Loiiia  XIV.  having  detiiiilivuly  obtained  thia  placn  in  UM'2,  mule  it  ono  ot  the 
itrungost  hurbourM  in  Kiiropo.  It  aoun  became  ao  annoying  to  Britiah  trade,  that  oilvantoge 
waa  taken  of  thu  triiiniptia  of  the  war  of  Miiccoaaion,  t4)  require,  at  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  ita 
entire  demolition.  By  ounaU  and  other  meana,  the  French  contrived  alwaya  to  ropluce  it  ia 
an  effective  atate ;  but  by  aucceiwive  treatieH,  the  demolition  of  the  fortifications  on  the  aide 
of  the  uea  waa  again  and  again  atipulatod,  till  the  circuniatancea  of  the  peace  of  178,3  obliged 
England  to  ceaHo  from  exacting  it.  From  that  time  Dunkirk  became  the  main  centre  of  the 
privateering  ayatein.  It  hoa  alao  a  coimiderable  ahare  of  flahery  and  of  the  Baltic  trade.  A 
memorable  era  in  ittt  luHtory  waa  ita  aiege  by  the  Britiah  in  1793.  They  wore  compelled 
abruptly  to  raiae  it,  and  thia  formed  tho  commencement  of  a  long  aeriea  of  revuraea  auMtuined 
by  tho  allied  arma.  Dunkirk  hoa  a  good  harbour  in  tho  centre  of  the  city,  entered  by  ■ 
canul  of  a  mile  and  a  half;  it  ia  rather  well  built,  but  for  want  of  apringa  the  inhabitanta  are 
obliged  to  uao  rain-v/ater.  The  neighbouring  territory  ia  low  and  marahy,  only  preaorved 
frmn  tho  inundation  of  the  aoa  by  a  ridge  of  downa,  and  only  cultivated  by  meana  of  numor- 
oua  draining  canals.  Calaia  ia  well  known  aa  the  point  of  communication  with  England, 
which  80  long  held  it  aa  tho  key  of  France,  oven  after  hor  aiiiia  at  the  entire  coiiquoat  of 

that  monarchy  hud  ceaaed.    At  proaont, 

it  ia  chiefly  aupported  by  the  packet 

intercourse,  ita  indifferent  harlwur  (Jig. 

285.)  unfitting  it  tor  any  commerce  on 

a  great  acalc.     Calaia  ia  in  a  very  flat 

country,  intersected  by  canals,  by  which 

it  might  be  even  inundated.     Boulogne 

has  more  maritime  importance ;  though 

its  port,  choked  with  sand,  will  no  longer 

receive  vessels  of  any  size,  unless  at 

high  tide.     It  has  loat  altogether  the 

forced  consequence  given  to  it  by  the 

construction  of  the  grand  flotilla,  dea- 

tined  to  subdue  the  British  empire,  but 

now  abandoned  to  rot    Its  proximity,  however,  to  the  coast  has  rendered  it  a  great  resort 

of  Entflish  families,  who  inhabit  it  to  the  amount  of  several  thousands.    The  fishery  of 

herring,  mackerel,  &,c.  varies  in  value  from  1,(KH),000  to  2,000,000  francs. 

The  cities  of  Normandy  are  larger  and  more  important  than  those  already  described, 

Rouen  is  one  of  the  noblest  in  France.  Its  manu- 
factures are,  perhaps,  the  most  enterprising  and  indus- 
trious in  the  kingdom,  and  from  their  vicinity  to  Eng- 
land have  had  peculiar  facilities  in  borrowing  her  pro- 
cesses. The  main  staple  is  cotton-spinning  and  weav- 
ing, which  are  supposed  to  occupy  two-thirds  of  the 
55,000  workmen,  and  so  to  constitute  the  same  pro- 
portion of  the  two  millions  sterling  of  manufactured 
goods  annually  produced.  The  cathedral  (Jiff.  286.), 
commenced  by  William  the  Conqueror,  was  considered 
one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  ecclesiastical  architec- 
ture in  France,  till  the  late  disaster,  which  overthrew 
a  great  part  of  it.  The  streets  are  excessively  narrow 
and  dirty,  though  those  adjoining  to  the  Seine  are 
agreeable.  That  river  was  long  crossed  only  by  a 
pontoon,  composed  of  nineteen  large  barges,  strongly 
moored  together  by  iron  chains ;  but  as  this  !iad  many 
inconveniences,  a  handsome  stone  bridge  has  been 
lately  substituted.  At  Elbu!uf,  near  Rouen,  is  a  manu« 
factory  of  fine  cloth,  almost  equal  to  that  of  Louviors. 
Caen  is  a  very  ancient  city,  of  great  historical  name 
the  favourite  residence  of  William  the  Conqueror,  anf. 
the  frequent  head-quarters  of  the  English  armies.  It 
is  still  a  considerable  place,  rather  unusually  well  built  for  a  French  town,  contiiinmg  a 
handsome  castle,  the  only  remaining  part  of  its  tbrtifications,  and  some  fine  old  churdieii. 
It.s  manufactures  :ire  numerous,  but  none  of  them  very  eminent,  except  that  of  lace,  which 
gives  employment  to  about  20,000  females  in  this  place  and  the  neighbourhood.  It  is  of 
some  eminence  a«  a  seat  of  literature,  gave  birth  to  Malherbe  and  Huet,  aim  has  a  university 
of  ounsideruble  deputation,  which,  tliough  suppressed  during  the  Revolution,  has  been  restored 


Rouen  Calhodral. 


I 

'i 

■^ 

V. 

lit 

i 

600 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartIII 


in  fiill  lustre.  Havre,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  is  the  port  of  Paris,  and  one  of  the  meet 
active  seats  of  French  commerce.  Tlie  custom  duties,  in  1824,  amounted  to  somewhat  above 
a  million  sterling,  and  its  trade  has  since  been  greatly  augmented.  The  chief  fabric  of  the 
town  and  neigh^urhood  is  that  of  printed  cottons.  It  is  a  gloomy  town,  the  streets  narrow, 
and  the  houses  often  built  of  a  framework  of  wood  filled  up  with  mortar.  Dieppe,  St.Valery, 
Fecamp,  and  Honfleur  are  very  active  stations  for  fishing ;  which  is  not,  however,  carried  on 
with  the  same  energy  and  adventure  as  before  the  Revolution.  The  immense  efforts  made 
to  render  Cherbourg  a  naval  station  of  the  first  rank,  have  proved  nearly  abortive.  The 
French  government,  after  the  peace  of  1783,  began  to  erect  a  series  of  cones,  with  the  view 
of  breakmg  the  force  of  the  waves ;  but  these  w^re  overwhelmed,  and  retain  no  vestige  of 
their  original  form :  they  lie  under  water,  a  shapeless  ruin,  which  Bonaparte  in  vain  attempted 
to  make  the  foundation  of  a  regular  breakwater.  After  two  millions  had  been  spent  in  this 
undertaking,  he  employed  other  five  millions  in  forming  an  interior  basin  and  a  wet  dock-, 
but  all  these  mighty  works  remain  unfinished. 

Britany  forms  a  peninsula  distinguished  by  many  marked  features  from  the  rest  of  France : 
its  rude  surface,  composed  in  a  great  measure  of  forests,  marshes,  and  heaths,  enabled  it  not 
only  to  preserve  a  large  portion  of  its  original  Celtic  population,  but  to  give  shelter  to  fujji-- 
tives  firom  Britain,  whence  it  received  its  name.  After  being  long  a  separate  duchy,  it  \va» 
united  to  France  by  the  marriage  of  its  heiress  with  Louis  XII.  It  retained,  however,  down 
to  the  era  of  ine  Revolution,  its  feudal  states,  which  assembled  every  two  years.  The  Bas 
Breton  is  a  Celtic  dialect.  The  people  are  very  numerous  and  very  poor.  The  country  is 
divided  into  small  properties  or  farms,  seldom  exceeding  twelve  acres,  cultivated  by  the 
manual  labour  of  the  occupants,  according  to  antiquated  and  unskilfiil  processes,  to  which 
they  adhere  with  the  most  fixed  determination.  The  peasantry  reside  in  small  huts,  gloomy, 
dark,  and  damp;  they  are  strongly  attached  to  their  homes;  ignorant  and  superstitious,  but 
at  the  same  time  frank,  brave,  hospitable,  constant  in  their  ftiendships,  and  faithful  to  their 
word.    They  are  stubborn  and  hanly,  and  those  on.  the  coast  make  bold  sailors. 

Of  the  cities  of  Britany,  Rennes,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Rhedones,  is  the  first  in  dignity, 
and  was  the  place  of  meeting  for  the  states,  the  discontinuance  of  which  has  diminished  its 
importance.  It  is  still  rather  a  fine  and  handsome  city,  having  been  regularly  rebuilt  since 
a  great  fire  in  1720 ;  and  its  cathedral  of  St.  Peter  is  adorned  with  lofty  towers.  There  is 
a  library  of  30,000  volumes,  a  fine  botanic  garden,  a  museum  of  natural  history,  and  extensivo 
collections  in  the  fine  arts.  It  carries  on  some  trade  by  the  river  Vilaine,  which  admits 
barges, of  considerable  size.  Vannes,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Veneti,  is  a  much  smaller 
and  poorer  town,  though  its  vicinity  to  the  sea  gives  it  some  commerce  and  fishery.  Morlaix 
and  Quimper  are  rather  good  towns  in  the  western  departments :  but  the  finest  city  in 
Britany  is  undoubtedly  Nantes,  which  seems  almost  to  belong  to  the  rich  provi"^.  -"s  on  the 
Loire ;  it  is  situated  on  a  hill  above  that  river,  twenty-seven  miles  fiwm  its  mouth,  and  has 
the  advantage  of  delightful  walks  and  environs.  Its  situation,  at  the  mouth  of  the  greatpst 
river  in  France,  is  very  favourable  to  commerce,  which  was  carried  on  to  a  vast  extent,  till 
ruined  by  the  disastrous  influence  of  Napoleon's  continental  system ;  but  Nantes  is  begin- 
ning a^in  to  rear  its  head.  The  West  India  trade  and  the  cod  fishery  were  the  most 
extensive  branches.  Much  ship-building  is  carried  on  for  the  merchant  service,  and  vessels 
of  1000  tons  are  occasionally  built.  Its  manufactures  ure  various,  and  were  formerly  exten- 
Bive,  especially  sugar  refinery,  cotton,  woollen,  and  linen  cloths,  and  earthenware.  Tt  is 
connected  with  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  by  a  noble  bridge,  vhich,  uniting  five  different 
islands,  extends  in  its  entire  length  more  than  two  miles.  In  its  construction  Nantes  exliibits 
the  usual  faults  of  old  cities ;  the  most  agreeable  parts  are  the  suburbs,  and  the  islands  are 
thickly  planted  with  trees  and  houses. 

Brest,  on  the  western  coast  of  Britany,  is  the  chief  naval  station  of  France  on  the  ocean, 
as  Toulon  is  on  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  selected  for  this  purpose  in  1631  by  Cardina' 
RichelieU;  in  consideration  of  its  harbour,  which  is  secure  from  every  wind,  and  of  a  spacioui 
roadstead,  affording  anchorage  to  500  ships  of  war.  From  Brest  issued  the  fleet  which  was 
totally  defeated,  in  1792,  by  Lord  Howe ;  and  during  the  whole  of  the  subsequent  war 
between  England  and  France,  this  port,  with  the  navy  which  it  contained,  was  held  in 
almost  constant  blockade.  The  works  of  Brest  are  very  strong,  and  the  attempt  made  iii 
1694  to  carry  them  by  storm,  was  repulsed  with  considerable  disaster.  The  town,  though 
modern,  having  been  built  in  haste,  and  with  a  sole  "' jw  to  utility,  is  crowded  and  dirty ;  but 
within  the  bst  half-centuiy  there  has  been  built  a  handsome  suburb,  called  La  Recouvrance. 
Brest,  besides  its  naval  importance,  carries  on  a  considerable  fishery. 

There  are  other  maritime  stations  of  considerable  magnitude  in  Britany  L'Orient  has 
been  made  a  depdt  for  naval  stores,  and  strongly  fortified ;  it  derived  much  i.  jrtance  fr'ym 
being  the  almost  exclusive  seat  of  the  commerce  of  the  East  India  O  i.jy ;  M"  smci'  that 
trade  has  been  nearly  onnihilated,  this  port  has  greatly  declined  .St.  2 '  ^o  c  !.ains  a  race' 
of  bold  and  hardy  mariners,  actively  employed  in  the  Newfbundlani  tr'ii  '  jr  fisheries  r  a.d 
who,  in  time  of  war,  exercised  briskly  the  trade  of  privateering.     Mo>UvX  carries  on  a  con- 


BookL 


PRANCE. 


60l 


Biderable  trade  with  the  north  of  Europe.    Quimper,  though  ranking'  above  Brest,  as  capital 
ot  ttie  department  of  Finiuterre,  ia  now  only  an  old  town  of  little  importance. 

The  provinces  on  the  Loire,  in  its  course  from  east  to  west,  comprehending  Orlcanais, 
Touraine,  Anjou,  to  which  may  be  added  those  of  Maine  and  Perche,  adjoining  on  the 
north,  are  the  most  central  and  perhaps  the  richest  in  the  kmgdom.  A  great  part,  indeed, 
especially  of  Anjou  and  Maine,  is  covered  witli  those  wide  wastes,  overgrown  with  brush- 
wood and  iicuUi,  which  occupy  so  much  of  the  French  soil.  But  the  banks  of  the  Loire 
around  Orleans  are  generally  considered  the  garden  of  France;  they  consist  of  unijounded 
plains,  through  whi6h  the  magniticent  Loire  winds  its  stately  course,  and  which  are 
variegated  with  rich  meadows,  vineyards,  gardens,  and  forests.  On  this  theatre  were  acted 
many  of  the  greatest  events  in  tiie  history  of  the  monarchy,  particularly  its  rise  from 
the  apparent  peril  of  total  subjection,  through  the  inspiring  influence  of  Joan  the  Maid  of 
Orleans. 

The  cities  of  this  region  are  celebrated  and  magnificent.      Orleans,  in  former  times, 
ranked  almost  as  a  second  capital :  though  it  exhibits  the  usual  characters  of  antiquity,  it  is 
a  superb  and  beautiful  city.   A  very  fine  stone  bridge  of  nine  arches  opens  to  the  rue  rnyale, 
spacious  and  handsome,  which  extends  to  the  hne  square  in  the  centre ;  here  is  placed  a 
statue  of  Joan,  the  sculpture  of  which  is  not  altogether  so  elegant  as  might  be  desired.    The 
cathedral  is  a  very  fine  edifice,  the  choir  of  which  was  raised  by  Henry  IV.   From  its  steeple 
is  an  almost  unbounded  view  over  the  magnificent  plain  of  the  Loire.     Situated  in  the  centre 
of  France,  and  dividing  as  it  were  the  Lower  from  the  Upper  Loire,  Orleans  enjoys  a  great 
transit  trade.     Blois  is  almost  equal  to  Orleans  in  historical  celebrity ;  its  ancient  edifices, 
placed  on  a  hill  above  the  Loire,  have  a  most  commanding  appearance.    The  castle,  on  a 
rock  overhanging  the  river,  is  an  immense  and  lofly  pile,  mil  of  windows  of  aH  shapes  and 
sizes,  balconies,  galleries,  buttresses,  and  "a  strange  incongruous  assemblage  of  buildings 
destined  for  ornament  in  peace  and  defence  in  war."    All  the  parts  are  little ;  but  the  whole 
is  so  vast  as  to  be  almost  sublime.    In  this  edifice  the  states-general  once  assembled.    The 
glory  of  Blois  has  now  entirely  passed  away :  its  streets  are  narrow,  gloomy,  and  dismally 
dirty.     Tours,  equally  ancient,  is  now  much  more  flourishing;  its  plain  is  pre-eminent,  even 
among  the  other  districts  on  the  banks  of  the  Loire.    The  silk  manutactnrc,  first  introduced 
here,  has  been  in  a  great  measure  transferred  to  Lyons,  but  it  still  employs  7000  or  8000 
persons.    Happily  for  the  beauty  of  the  city,  a  great  part  of  it  was  consumed  50  years  ago, 
and  occasion  was  taken  to  build  a  new  street,  running  its  whole  length,  of  fine  hewn  stone, 
broad,  and  on  an  elegant  design;   it  is,  perhaps,  the  finest  in  France.    It  is  connected 
with  a  bridge  of  14  arches,  which  till  of  late  was  considered  equally  unrivalled ;  and  also 
with  a  fine  promenade  bordered  with  trees.    The  metropolitan  church  wps  almost  entirely 
demolished  during  the  revolutionary  excesses ;  only  two  of  its  lofty  spires  remain.    The 
beauty  and  abundance  of  the  country  around  Tours  have  attracted  such  numbers  of  English 
residents,  that  Mrs.  Carey  was  asked  on  the  road  what  ^-yreat  convulsion  was  agitating  Eng- 
land, that  her  people  were  flying  firom  it  in  such  crowds.    Saumur,  once  highly  flourishing 
and  industrious,  lost  two-thirds  of  its  population  by  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes. 
Angers  is  a  large,  old,  steep,  ill-built  town,  but  has  a  considerable  trade ;  its  monuments 
have  been  dreadfully  sliattered  during  the  Revolution.     Le  Mans,  capital  of  Maine,  on  the 
Sarthe,  is  very  old,  but  large  and  clean,  with  a  spacious  markjt-place  and  some  considerable 
manufactures. 

The  provinces  between  the  Loire  and  the  Garonne,  Poitou,  Berri,  Limousin,  and  tlie 
Marche,  are  of  diversified  and  somewhat  pecuHur  aspect:  they  present  none  of  those  bound- 
less plains  which  characterise  France  north  of  the  Loire ;  they  are  everywhere  traversed  by 
valleys  and  ridges  of  hills,  never  rising  into  mountains,  but  giving  to  the  country  a  broken  and 
variegated  aspect.  This,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  is  sometimes  rude  and  dreary, 
sometimes  gay  and  smiling.  Mr.  Young  ranks  the  Limousin  as  the  most  beautiful  district 
in  all  France,  such  is  the  variety  of  hills,  dales,  streams  and  woods  which  compose  its 
landscape.  Mrs.  Carey  describes  Marche,  beyond  Argenton,  as  singularly  pastoral ;  the 
hills  covered  with  sheep,  goats,  kids,  and  lambs,  the  last  of  which  at  evening  come  down 
bleating,  and  are  received  into  the  houses.  Poitou,  a  part  of  which  is  so  fatally  celebrated 
under  its  new  name  of  La  Vendee,  is  a  rough  country,  a  great  part  of  which  is  covered 
with  a  forest  called  the  Bocage.  All  these  districts  are  more  productive  of  cattle  than  of 
grain,  though  they  are  cultivated  by  a  simple  peasantry  with  hardihood  and  vigour,  but  quite 
in  the  antique  style,  and  with  a  strong  antioathy  to  all  modern  improvements.  In  Poitou, 
the  proprietors,  being  small,  and  residing  much  on  their  estates,  excited  feudal  feelings  and 
attachments,  that  were  extinct  in  the  rest  of  France;  hence  the  formidable  war  which  they 
waged  single-handed  in  defence  of  the  ancient  regime. 

The  cities  in  this  range  of  provinces,  though  ancient,  are  neither  large,  nor  distinguished 
by  much  industry.  Poitiers  is  of  high  antiquity,  and  presents  soiiie  interesting  Roman  re- 
mains; in  modern  times  it  is  distinguished  by  the  signal  victory  gainvid  here  by  the  Black 
Prince,  The  city  is  of  great  extent,  but  comprises  many  empty  spaces  and  gardens.  Limoges 
IB  an  ill-built  town,  with  many  houses  of  timber,  roofed  with  tiles,  and  projecting  eaves,  but 


6sa 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PajitIII. 


there  are  several  handsome  squares  and  fountains,  and  the  public  walks  command  a  beautiful 
view  rf  the  Vienne  flowing  down  a  charming  valley.  Its  cathedral,  said  to  have  been  built 
by  the  English  during  their  temporary  poeeession  of  this  part  of  France,  suffered  much  during 
the  revolution,  and  has  only  one  tower  left  standing.  Bourges,  the  ancient  Biturgite,  is  very 
ill-built,  but  adorned  with  a  fine  cathedral,  and  distinguished  for  its  university,  and  as  tlie 
birth-place  of  Boi'  daloue,  and  of  the  Jesuit,  Father  d'Orleans.  Ch&teauroux  is  gloomy,  but 
has  a  large  woollen  manufacture. 

The  two  departments  of  the  Charente,  watered  by  the  fine  river  of  that  name,  form  a 
region  different  in  character  fi-om  those  now  described;  level,  and  extrenieiy  fertile,  tlioutrh 
in  some  parts  marshy  and  unhealthful.  A  great  part  of  the  produce  of  it  rich  vineyards'^is 
at  Cognac  converted  into  brandy,  which  bears  an  unrivalled  reputation,  though,  probably, 
the  name  is  applied  with  a  firaudulent  latitude  to  inferior  liquors.  The  yellow  tinge  so 
generally  given  to  brandy  is  the  consequence  of  a  local  custom  at  Cognac.  Saintes  ia 
ancient  even  aa  a  French  city.  An  ample  theatre,  an  aqueduct,  and  a  triumphal  arch  of 
white  marble,  attest  its  ancient  importance  as  a  Roman  city ;  and  the  cathedral  is  said  to 
belong  to  the  age  of  Charlemagne.  But  the  most  conspicuous  features  of  the  Charente  are 
Rochelle  and  Rochefort.  The  former  is  renowned  as  the  grand  and  last  bulwark  of  the 
Protestant  cause ;  and  its  reduction,  effected  by  the  almost  incredible  efforts  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu,  fixed  the  down&U  of  civil  and  religious  liberty  in  France.  Though  no  longer  a 
haven  of  the  first  magnitude,  its  colonial  trade,  prior  at  least  to  the  late  war,  was  very  con- 
siderable. •  The  town  is  handsome,  with  broad  streets,  many  of  the  houses  built  on  arcades, 
with  shops  beneath  as  in  Chester.  Rochefort  has  little  trade,  but  is  one  of  the  principal 
French  naval  stations.  It  has  a  secure  harbour,  with  very  safe  and  extensive  docks. 
Being  one  of  the  few  towns  in  France  that  are  not  nmch  more  than  a  century  and  a  half 
old,  it  is  built  on  a  regular  plan,  with  broad  open  streets.  Angoul^me,  in  the  interior, 
stands  on  a  rock  in  the  centre  of  a  charming  valley,  through  which  winds  the  silver 
stream  of  the  Charente.  It  is  a  clean  well-built  town,  having  a  cathedral  with  five  cupoliw, 
and  displaying  other  marks  of  historical  importance.  There  is  a  large  manufacture  of 
paper. 

Guienne  is  a  most  important  province,  which  for  several  ages  formed  an  appanage  of  the 
English  crown.  It  consists  of  a  magnificent  and  highly  cultivated  plain,  watered  by  the 
(Jaronne,  whose  broad  stream  here  resembles  an  arm  of  the  sea,  and  by  its  ample  tributaries, 
the  Tarn,  the  Lot,  and  the  Dordogne.  It  is  distinguished  by  various  rich  productions,  but 
more  especially  by  the  wines  bearing  the  name  of  claret,  which,  though  not  quite  so  rich  and 
highly  flavoured  as  some,  are  so  light  and  agreeable  that  a  greater  quantity  is  drunk  at  the 
tables  of  the  opulent,  than  of  any  other.  M.  Frank,  in  a  late  work  published  at  Bordeaux, 
estimates  the  entire  produce  of  claret  at  250,000  tans.  The  wines  of  the  farms  Laffitte  xnd 
Ch&teau-Margaux  are  the  most  esteemed ;  but  much  is  sold  under  these  names  which  has 
no  title  to  them. 
Bordeaux  {fig.  287.),  near  the  mouth  of  the  Garonne,  is  one  of  the  grandest  emporia  in 

France,  and,  indeed,  in  Europe. 
287  Situated  at  tlie  mouth  of  tlie 

Garonne,  which  here  allows  the 
largest  vessels  to  ascend  to  its 
port,  it  exports  all  the  valuable 
produce  of  this  great  soutli(;rn 
plain,  of  which  the  wines  are 
said  to  amount  to  100,000,  and 
brandy  to  20,000  pipes  annually. 
It  is  engaged  also  in  colonial 
trade,  and  in  the  cod  and  whale 
fisheries.  Recent  travellers  re- 
mark a  greater  display  of  wealth 
and  prosperity  in  this  than  in 
any  other  of  the  French  com- 
mercial cities.  Every  tiling  is 
on  a  grand  scale,  and  buildings  are  in  progress  which,  when  finished,  will  leave  it  without  a 
rival  in  France.  The  theatre,  designed  after  that  of  Milan,  is  considered  a  mmlel  of  archi- 
tectural beauty.  Many  of  the  ecclesiastical  structures  were  founded  by  the  English.  A 
very  republican  spirit  is  said  to  prevail  at  Bordeaux. 

The  otlier  towns  of  Guienne  are  not  of  the  first  magnitude.  Montauban  embraced  with 
ardour  the  Protestant  cause,  and  iiad  a  distinguished  university,  which  was  suppressed,  when 
the  place  was  taken  in  1629,  by  Louis  XIll.,  and  the  fortifications  razed.  This  seminiiry, 
however,  was  restored  by  Napoleon  in  1810.  Montaulviin  is  well-built,  of  painted  urick, 
with  wide  and  clean  (streets ;  and  an  elevated  walk,  which  commands  a  most  extensive  view. 
reaching  ^o  the  Pyrenees.  Agen  is  a  very  dirty  ill-lmilt  town,  but  famous  for  the  plums 
raised  in  its  vicinity.     Cahors  has  some  thriving  manufactures,  and  its  vicinity  produces  the 


Bordeaux. 


tin  de  Qrav 

town,  but  th 
Gascony  i 
level  surface 
places  loose 
for  sheep,  ai 

Eendent  peo 
ially  addict 
one  of  the  > 
fulour,  it  ha 
and  sends  al 
Landes,  is  b 
The  Pyre 
ginal  princi] 
which  unde 
it  was  final 
mountain  di 
well  cultiva 
fruit  trees; 
of  property, 
eideratile  to 
whose  cradl 
gmxl  de*l  o 
Tarbes,  cap 
of  crowded 
valleys  of  t 
tivated,  anc 
magnificen 
people,  mai 
tbrtification 
but  has  son 
Langued 
I   Toulouse,  i 
coasts  is  gt 
celebrated 
Cevennes, 
a  breadth  < 
ia  of  much 
part  even 
denied  to  ( 
The  citi 
finely  situ 
great  exte 
liament,  v 
not  very  I 
is  an  uni 
Castrcs  is 
Carcassor 
ancient  q 
is.ugly  ai 
of  Langii 
of  that  p( 
pelier  en 
declared 
alternatu 
not  be  di 
mands  a 
Europe : 
volumes, 
a  fine  en 
ishing  c 
there  to 
reinemb 
part  of 
court,  a 
Invard  I 
Dian  mc 
Vol 


PRANCE. 


653 


rin  de  Qravti,  which  is  held  in  high  estii -•ation.    Rhodez,  on  the  Aveyron,  is  a  jrl»umy  old 
town,  but  the  seat  of  a  distinguished  bishopric. 

Gascony  is  a  large  province,  extending  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  consisting  chiefly  of  a  wide 
level  surface,  of  peculiar  character,  called  the  landes.  These  are  plains  of  sand,  in  some 
places  loose  and  blowring,  but  mostly  covered  with  pine  trees,  sometimes  atfording  pasturage 
for  sheep,  and  more  rarely  detached  tracts  f^t  for  cultivation.  The  Grascons,  long  an  inde- 
pendent people  under  their  dukes,  are  a  peculiar  race,  fiery,  ardent,  impetuous,  and  prover- 
bially addicted  to  boasting ;  hence  the  term  gasconade.  Bayonne,  though  not  very  large,  ia 
one  of  the  strongest  and  prettiest  towns  in  France.  Situated  at  the  broad  mouth  of  the 
Adour,  it  has  a  considerable  traffic  in  exporting  the  timber  of  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Landes, 
and  sends  also  vessels  to  the  cod  and  whale  fisheries.  Mont  de  Marsan,  the  capital  of  the 
Landes,  is  but  a  small  and  poor  place. 

The  Pyrenean  departments  comprehend  some  interesting  features ;  Beam,  the  little  ori- 
ginal principality  of  Henry  IV.,  which  he  governed  with  paternal  kindness ;  and  Roussillon, 
which  underwent  several  revolutions,  alternately  belonging  to  France  and  to  Spain,  before 
it  was  finally  annexed  to  the  former.  Young  gives  a  delightful  view  of  the  state  of  this 
mountain  district.  It  is  divided  into  a  number  of  small  properties,  which  are  well  enclosed, 
well  cultivated,  each  comfortable  cottage  being  surrounded  by  its  garden  well  stocked  with 
fruit  trees ;  t  le  inhabirxints  snug:ly  dressed,  like  Highlanders,  in  red  caps.  The  subdivision 
of  property,  though  great,  seems  not  to  have  gone  so  far  as  to  lead  to  misery.  Pau  is  a  con- 
sideraDle  town,  in  a  romantic  situation,  and  celebrated  as  the  birth-place  of  Henry  IV., 
whose  cradle  is  still  shown  in  the  ancient  palace,  now  converted  into  a  prison.  It  makes  a 
good  de*l  of  linen,  and  is  noted  for  its  excellent  hams,  which  are  exported  from  Bayonne. 
Tarbes,  capital  oi  the  upper  Pyrenees,  and  Bagneres,  with  its  minefcl  hot  springs,  a  place 
of  crowded  and  fashionable  resort,  are  delightfully  situated,  affording  an  approach  to  the  fine 
valleys  of  the  highest  Pyrenees.  The  slopes  cf  the  neighbouring  mountains  are  richly  cul- 
tivated, and  often  well  enclosed.  Roussillon  is  Spanisii  as  to  language  and  customs ;  but  the 
magnificent  roads  effected  in  defiance  of  natural  obstacles,  and  the  thriving  industry  of  the 
people,  mark  the  influence  of  a  more  active  and  enlightened  government.  The  extensive 
fortifications  of  Perpignan  render  it  a  barrier  of  the  kingdom.  It  is  gloomy  and  ill-built, 
but  has  some  manufactures. 

Languedcc,  the  ancient  Gallia  Narbonensis,  and  afterwards  the  domain  of  the  counts  ot 
Toulouse,  is  the  pride  of  France  in  regard  to  climate,  soil,  and  scenery.  The  air  along  its 
coasts  is  generally  considered  the  most  salubrious  in  Europe.  The  plains  of  Languedoc  are 
celebrated ;  yet  they  are  encroached  upon  not  only  by  tlie  Pyrenees  on  the  east,  but  by  tiie 
Cever.nes,  which  form  their  constant  northern  boundary,  and  in  many  nkces  reduce  them  to 
a  breadth  of  a  few  miles.  But  on  the  line  from  Beziers  by  Montpelier  to  Nismes,  the  plain 
is  of  much  greater  breadth,  and  displays  a  luxuriant  fertility  scarcely  rivalled  in  any  other 
part  even  of  this  happy  region.  Every  thing  flourishes  here,  even  vfhL*:  is  most  strictly 
denied  to  other  provinces ;  not  only  grain  and  the  vine,  but  tlie  silk-worm  and  the  olive. 

The  cities  of  Languedoc  are  not  of  the  very  first  magnitule ;  but  they  are  handsome  and 
finely  situated ;  and  they  present  some  interesting  Roman  monuments.  Toulouse  covers  a 
great  extent  of  ground,  but  it  has  suffered  in  consequence  of  the  discontinuance  of  its  par- 
liament, which  was  one  of  the  most  important  in  France.  The  cathedral  is  very  large,  but 
not  very  beautiful ;  and  many  of  tlie  churches  weie  d-^stroyed  during  the  Revolution.  There 
is  an  university  attended  by  1500  students,  r.nd  two  large  libraries  open  to  the  public. 
Castres  is  a  well-built,  industrious,  lartje  town,  the  birth-place  of  Rapin  and  Madame  Dacier. 
Carcassonne  still  retains  some  of  the  bastions  and  towers  of  the  castle  on  its  hill ;  but  this 
ancient  quarter  is  almost  deserted  in  favour  of  the  neat  pleasant  town  built  beneath.  Beziers 
is.ugly  and  dirty,  but  has  a  handsome  coihedral,  and  is  important  from  its  site  on  the  canal 
of  Languedoc  Narbonne,  though  celahrated  as  a  Romaii  capital,  presents  few  monuments 
of  that  people ;  these  are  said  to  have  been  taken  down  at  the  building  of  the  walls.  Mont- 
pelier enjoys  an  unrivalled  fame  for  its  mild  and  salubrious  air;  but  late  travellers  have 
declared  themselves  unable  to  discover  on  what  that  renown  is  founded.  It  is  subject  to 
alternations  of  heat  and  cold;  cloth  pelisses  mast  be  worn  the  whole  winter,  and  firej  can- 
not be  discontinued  till  May.  It  is,  however,  an  agreeable  lesidence ;  the  public  walk  com- 
mands a  view  over  the  Mediterranean  and  the  surroundmg  untry,  scarcely  equalled  iu 
Europe :  there  is  a  flourishing  medical  school,  with  good  practitioiiers,  and  a  library  of  40,000 
volumes.  Montpelier  is  not  uniformly  well-built;  but  it  presents  a  noble  Roman  aqueduct, 
a  fine  cathedral,  and  other  public  buildings.  Nismes  is  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  flour- 
ishing cities  in  the  south  of  France.  The  silk  manufacture,  as  already  noticed,  flourishes 
there  to  a  great  extent.  More  than  half  the  inhabitants  are  Protestant,  who,  as  may  be  well 
remembered,  were,  on  the  restoration  of  tiie  Bourbons,  exposed  to  violent  outrages  on  the 
part  of  their  Catholic  feiiow-citizeus;  but  these  disorders  were  disavi'i-eii  by  the  French 
court,  and  have  ceased.  The  city  is  ill-built,  ill-pa veu,  ill  laid  out;  bul,  there  is  a  fine  bou- 
levard bordered  with  trees;  and  it  is  particularly  illustrious  for  tlie  magnificence  of  its  Ro- 
man monuments.     The  amphitheatre  is  nearly  entire,  and,  though  rather  amaller  timii  that 

Vol   1.  47  3U 


554 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III. 


Pont  du  Gsrd. 


of  Verona,  from  its  maesive  grandeur,  and  the  etiurmous  stones  of  which  it  is  constructed, 
suggests  the  idea  of  an  imperishable  fkbric.  But  the  edifice  called  the  Maison  carree,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  temple  of  Augustus,  is  that  which  has  excited  the  admiration  of  all 

travellers,  from  its  extreme  elefrance 
and  gracefiil  proportions,  which  ran 
der  it  almost  a  perfect  model  of 
architectural  beauty.  It  remains 
after  so  many  ages  quite  entire,  "as 
if  savage  and  saint  had  been  alike 
awed  by  its  superlative  beauty." 
Near  Nismes  is  the  Pont  du  Card 
(Jff.  288.),  an  ancient  bridge,  or 
rather  aqueduct,  forming  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  monuments  now 
extant  of  Roman  grandeur. 
Provence  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  and  interesting  of  the  French  provinces,  first,  as 
the  earliest  seat  of  wealth,  civilisation,  and  poetry ;  next,  as  containing  the  ecclesiastical 
capital,  Avignon,  near  which  is  Vaucluse,  the  favourite  residence  of  Petrarch ;  lastly,  as 
including  Toulon  and  Marseilles,  the  greatest  naval  and  the  greatest  commercial  city  in  the 
kingdom.  The  classic  stream  of  the  Durance,  though  it  crosses  the  whole  region  from  its 
alpine  boundary  to  the  Rhone,  and  too  often  overflows  its  banks,  does  not  preserve  the  exten- 
sive tracts  covered  with  rude  calcareous  hills  from  the  evils  of  aridity.  Although,  there- 
fore, the  products  of  this  province  are  various,  and  many  of  them  fine,  it  does  not  yield  com 
sufficient  for  its  own  cffisumption,  nor  can  it  boast  of  extensive  manufactures,  but  depend* 
chiefly  upon  commerce. 

The  cities  of  Provence  rank,  in  all  respects,  among  the  greatest  and  most  interesting  of 
ihe  kingdom.  Aix  is  not  the  largest,  but  is  reckoned  the  capital,  and  was  formerly  the  seat 
of  the  parliaments  of  Provence.  Its  name  is  contracted  from  that  of  Aquee  Sextiw,  given  to 
it  by  the  Romans  from  the  copious  warm  baths,  in  whose  vicinity  niunerous  medals  and 
inscriptions  have  been  discovered.  It  is  pleasant,  airy,  well  buik,  in  a  fine  plain  encircled 
by  lofty  mountains.  The  cours  is  very  beautifiil,  formed  by  two  rows  of  trees,  with  hot 
fountains  bubbling  up,  at  which  women  are  seen  washing  clothes.  Greater  celebrity  attaches 
to  *he  name  of  Avignon,  for  some  time  an  ecclesiastical  capital,  and  still  more  illustrious  by 
association  with  the  names  of  liaura  and  Petrarch.  It  is  finely  situated  on  the  Rhone,  with 
many  handsome  houses ;  but  the  streets  are  crowded  and  ill-paved.  In  the  centre  rises  an 
insulated  rock,  separated  by  the  river  from  a  range  of  hills  on  the  other  side,  and  in  which 
are  the  remains  of  the  palace  of  the  popes,  now  converted  into  barracks  and  prisons.  The 
cathedral  had  accumulated  immense  wealth  in  silver  and  other  offerings,  of  all  which  it  was 
rifled  at  the  Revolution ;  an  event  more  fatal  to  Avignon  than  to  any  other  city,  excppt 
Ijyons.  Avignon  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  built  only  for  fiscal  purposes,  and  the  Rhone  is 
crossed  by  a  handsome  bridge  built  by  St.  Benezet  in  the  twelft'i  century  from  the  produce 
of  alms,  and  which  yields  50,000  francs  of  annual  toll.    It  would  be  profane  for  a  traveller 


289 


Fountain  of  Vauclute, 


to  leave  Avignon  without  visiting 

the  tomb  of  Laura  in  the  church 

of  the  Franciscans,  and  making  an 

excursion  to  the  beautifiil  fountain 

of  Vaucluse  (Jiff.  289.),  the  scene 

of  inspiration  to  Petrarch,     j^rleo 

was,  in  early  times,  one  of  the  most 

important  cities  in   the  south  of 

France ;  under  the  Romans  it  was 

the  seat  of  tiie  praslorian  prefect ; 

in  the   ninth   century  it  was  the 

capital  of  a  separate  kingdom,  and 

afterwards  the  seat  of  an  archbi- 

It  is  still  a  large  city,  and  presents  the  vestiges 

interior  area  is  now  built  upon),  once  capabl'^  of 

.stil!  a  flourishing  place,  above  which  rises  the 

converted  into  a  prison.     On  the  opposit^ 


shop,  and  of  thirteen  successive  councils. 

of  a  Roman  amphitheatre  (of  which  the 

containing  30,000  persons.     Tarascon  is 

Rucient  castle  of  the  counts  of  Provence,  )i«w 

bank  of  the  Rhone  is  Beaucaire,  distiiiguished  for  its  great  annual  fair,  at  which  are  still 

sold  goodri  of  various  descriptions  to  the  vnliio  of  about  7,500,'XK)  francs.     Digne  and  Car- 

pentras  are  of  some  importance  hm  capital*  </  districts. 

Marse'Ons  and  Touion,  the  two  great  southern  havens,  form  now  tlw  most  important  fea- 
tures of  Provencfi,  T'i"?  commeicia!  fame  of  M.irseiiles  dates  from  «^riy  antiquity,  when 
It  was  a  Greek  colony,  and  carried  on  almost  all  the  commerce  of  Gaul.  In  modern  times 
it  has  been  the  chief  centre  of  the  trade  in  the  liOvant ;  and  though  its  prosperity  suffered 
a  total  eclipse  u/ider  the  regime  of  Napoleon,  it  has  since  regained  much  i»f  its  firmer 


BookL 

splendour, 
and  shallow 
and  is  filled 
and  beautifi 
sea,  Greeks 
It  is  compa 
trade  and  di 
other  fine  p 
cours  is  foi 
walk  is  cro 
bold  and  ri 
Beat  of  con 
ports,  the  o 
extensive  a 
Bail  of  the 
by  two  stro 
of  the  year 
parte's  mili 
streams  of 
and  intersp 

290 


high  slopes 
the  silk-wc 

The  citi 
built,  with 
conspicuou 
town  that 
poor  old  t 
presents  a 
modern  ca 
was  educa 

The  L3 
rough  and 
centres  in 


its  founii 
narrow,  1 
tliem  trtH 
el!i>.'«s  ci 
Ciller  ifM 
of  t.iie  TU 
broke  in 
«ti  the  ' 


BookL 


PRANCE. 


55b 


splendour.  The  harbour  is  spacious  and  secure,  but  it  is  somewhat  narrow  at  tho  ontrauce, 
and  shallow.  It  is  bordered  by  extensive  quays  of  hewn  stone,  with  spacious  warehouses; 
and  is  filled  with  all  the  shipping  peculiar  to  the  Mediterranean,  among  whicli  are  galleys, 
and  beautiful  pleasure-boats  with  silk  awnmgs;  it  is  crowded  with  all  the  nntions  of  that 
sea,  Greeks,  Turks,  Jews,  Spaniards,  Italians,  and  loaded  with  the  produce  of  Asia  and  Africa. 
It  is  compared  by  a  late  "Writer  to  Liverpool:  the  district'^  round  the  port  are  a  nucleus  ot 
trade  and  dirt;  but  in  the  exterior,  the  streets  are  handsome,  airy,  and  well  built.  Among 
other  fine  public  buildings  is  tlie  hdtd  de  ville,  with  its  magnificent  marble  staircase.  The 
cours  is  formed  by  two  rows  of  fine  trees  bordered  by  handsome  houses,  anil  the  central 
Wiilk  is  crowded  like  a  fair.  The  neighbouring  plain  is  finely  cultivated,  but  is  bounded  by 
bold  and  rugged  mountains  that  rise  above  the  range  of  vegetation.  Toulon,  though  not  a 
seat  of  commerce,  is  the  chief  naval  station  of  France  on  the  Mediterranean.  It  has  two 
ports,  the  old  and  the  new :  the  latter  alone  receives  ships  of  war,  and  is  bordered  by  most 
extensive  arsenals,  in  which  5000  men  are  constantly  employed.  This  port  can  contain  200 
sail  of  the  line;  and  without  is  a  very  spacious  and  well-shelcered  roadstead.  It  is  defended 
by  two  strong  forts,  which,  however,  were  occupied  in  1793  by  the  British,  who,  at  the  end 
of  the  year,  were  obliged  to  evacuate  the  place.  This  was  the  first  occasion  on  which  Bona- 
parte's military  talents  became  conspicuous.  Toulon  is  a  clean,  pleasant  town,  refreshed  by 
streams  of  water,  running  through  the  streets.  The  adjacent  country  is  wild  and  romantic, 
and  interspersed  with  some  cultivated  valleys. 

OQQ  Dauphiny  is  a  region  completely  alpine,  the  two  depart- 

'  ments  of  the  Upper  and  Lower  Alps  occupying  the  greater 

part  of  its  surface.  The  mountains  are  chiefly  calcareous, 
and  broken  into  the  most  picturesque,  peculiar,  and  ro- 
mantic forms.  Young  even  considers  the  scenery  of  Dau- 
phiny, particularly  along  the  Isere,  as  surpassing  that  ot 
any  other  part  of  the  Alps.  In  one  of  the  most  awful  re- 
cesses of  these  rocks  and  wilds,  at  a  distance  from  all  the 
smiling  scenes  of  earth,  St.  Bnmo  erected  the  monastery 
of  the  Chartreuse  (Jig.  290.),  of  which  Gray  has  drawn 
so  sublime  and  imposing  a  picture.  There  are  other  semes 
emphatically  termed  the  wonders  of  Dauphiny;  as  the 
burning  fountain,  the  grottoes  of  Sassenage,  &-c.  Although 
this  part  of  the  kingdom  cannot  be  considered  as  productive, 
yet  great  numbers  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  reared  on  its 
high  slopes  by  a  simple  race  of  men  resembling  the  mountaineers  of  Switzerland ;  and  even 
the  silk-worm  is  bred  in  its  lower  valleys. 

The  cities  do  not  require  very  particular  notice.  Grenoble  is  a  considerable  place,  not  ill 
built,  with  a  library  of  60,000  volumes,  and  some  other  literary  establishments.  It  took  a 
conspicuous  part  in  promoting  the  commencement  of  the  Revolution,  and  was  also  the  first 
town  that  opened  its  gates  to  Napoleon  on  his  return  from  Elba.  Gap  is  a  pretty  large  but 
poor  old  town,  in  a  deep  hollow,  amid  barren  mountains.  Vienne  is  a  Roman  city,  and 
presents  a  temple,  with  several  other  interesting  remains  of  that  people.  It  has  also  a  fine 
modern  cathedral  with  a  very  lofty  spire.  Valence  has  a  military  school,  at  which  Bonaparte 
was  educated.     Near  Tain  is  produced  the  celebrated  wine  called  Hermitage. 

The  Lyonnais  is  a  small  territory,  penetrated  by  branches  of  the  Alps,  in  some  places 
rough  and  stony,  in  others  finely  diversified  witli  hill  and  dale.  Its  chief  interest,  however, 
centres  in  the  great  city  which  is  its  capital. 

Lyons  (fig.  291.)  is  generally  con- 
sidered as  the  second  city  in  France, 
and  as  foremost  in  regard  to  com- 
merce and  industry.  It  is  on  the 
whole  a  noble  city.  The  quays  along 
the  Rhone  are  superb ;  the  hdtel  de 
ville  is  held  to  be  second  only  tn 
that  of  Amsterdam ;  the  cathedral  is 
highly  ornamented  in  the  florid 
Gothic  style ;  and  the  squares,  espe- 
cially the  Place  de  Bellecour,  with 
its  fountains  and  statues,  are  nowhere  surpassed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  old  streets  are 
mrrnw,  bordered  by  lofty  and  gloomy  walls,  and  divided  by  a  muddy  stream.  To  turn  into 
tliern  from  the  quays  has  boon  compared  to  entering  subterraneous  passages,  watered  by  the 
»li/,.eB  of  (>K;ytnB.  J.yon.s  suffered  dreadfully  under  the  sway  of  the  jacobins,  who  made  it  a 
c'nwT  ihtmire  m  iliose  atrocities  that  rendered  them  the  hoiror  of  mankind.  To  say  nothing 
c/f  ilic  m^siSLcrcfi  perpetiated  under  the  appellation  of  fusillades  and  noyades,  they  studiously 
roke  in  pieces  all  the  manufacturing  macliinery,  while  with  barbarous  hands  they  defaced 
«!)  the  'irnaments  of  the  city,  filled  up  tlie  fountains,  broke  the  statues  in  pieces,  and 


Grande  Clmrireuse. 


Lyoni. 


966 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  in. 


demuliBhed  the  whole  of  the  cathedral  except  the  walls.  Her  citizeni  have  mode  dili^rent 
ofTorts  to  restore  hot  prosperity,  and  not  without  success;  still  the  want  of  capital  ami  tlio 
stagnation  of  trade  are  serious  obutructions,  and  cause  the  evils  of  poverty  among  a  lurfje 
population  to  be  severely  felt.  The  Lyonnese  have  the  propensities  usually  observed  in 
manufacturing  places:  they  dislike  tlie  Bourbons,  and  the  eight  of  an  Englishman  is  worm- 
wood to  them. 

Auvergne,  to  the  west  of  the  Lyonnais,  is  the  only  mountainous  and  pastoral  tract  which 
France  has  peculiarly  its  own.  It  consists  of  a  continuous  range  of  mountains  which  iiuve 
evidently  been  in  a  state  of  volcanic  action,  the  country  being  covered  with  lava,  and  the 
houses  built  of  it.  From  an  elevated  and  extensive  plain  rises  the  great  Puy  de  Ddine, 
nearly  6000  feet  high,  with  about  sixty  attendant  mountains,  called  in  the  country  the 
giantess  and  her  children.  The  country  is  diversified  with  many  rugged  and  precipitous  rnclis, 
having  castles  and  even  towns  built  on  them.  Yet  Auvergne  is  not  a  barren  country.  The 
Puys  are  mostly  covered  with  herbage,  and  have  large  level  plains.  The  natives  are  labo- 
rious, and  rear  large  herds  of  cattle,  which  are  almost  wild ;  they  are  even  said  to  beat  oflf 
the  wolf,  the  low  of  the  animal  attacked  summoning  all  the  rest  to  its  assistance ;  but,  in 
return,  they  cannot  be  milked  unless  the  calf  be  on  the  other  side.  The  people  are  homely, 
and  '/ery  republican ;  they  form  themselves  into  a  number  of  societies,  of  which  the  princi- 
ple is  a  common  table,  attended  however  by  the  men  only.  In  winter  they  take  up  their 
fibode  under  the  same  roof  with  the  cattle  which  occupy  each  end,  and  by  their  heat  sjive 
fuc'  which  is  scarce.  Clermont  is  a  considerable  town,  perched  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  und 
!)»iilt  of  lava.  It  is  extremely  dirty,  and  Mr.  Young  compares  several  of  its  streets  to  chan- 
nels cut  in  a  dunghill ;  however,  the  mountain  breezes  purify  the  air.  Tiie  ctifheJral,  which 
was  fine,  was  nearly  destroyed  during  the  Revolution.  In  the  surrounding  country  are  many 
curious  caverns,  petrifying  wells,  warm  springs,  cascades,  &c.  Aurillac  also,  Riom,  and 
p,-^  Thiers   are    elevated  towns,  com- 

^  *  '^''  manding  striking  views  of  the  rocks 

and  cones  of  this  remarkable  chain. 
Towards  Puy  en  Velay,  which  na- 
turally belongs  to  Auvergne,  the 
rocks  become  stil;  more  steep  and 
romantic;  and  among  the  castles  seat- 
ed in  them,  Mr.  Young  especially 
distinguishes  that  of  Polignac  (Jifr. 
292.),  the  form  and  site  of  which 
appears  to  him  so  striking,  as  tc 
Castio  of  Polignac.  ^g^^gg  g^U  ^^  fg^j^l  ages,  by  a  sort 

of  magic  influence,  to  rise  before  the  mind.  St.  Michael's  church,  in  the  centre  of  the  town 
of  Puy  itself,  stands  on  the  top  of  a  very  striking,  almost  precipitous  rock,  of  tower-like  form. 
Burgundy  and  Champagne,  with  the  small  adjoining  provinces  of  Bourbonnais  and  Nivrr- 
naia,  form  a  vast  plain  extending  north  of  the  provinces  last  described.  Burgundy,  however, 
is  traversed  by  branches  from  the  Vosges,  forming  hilly  tracts  of  moderate  elevation.  This 
is  the  great  country  of  wine,  producing  the  finest  in  France,  and,  with  very  few  exceptions, 
in  the  whole  world.  The  surface  of  the  wine-district  is  chiefly  red  sandstone  rock,  with 
very  little  soil.     The  vineyards  are  cultivated  by  small  proprietors,  who  do  not  usually  hojd 

more  than  twenty  or  thirty  arpents.  It  costs  ."JlK)  francs  U 
plant  an  arpent  in  vines,  and  30  annually  to  keep  it  in  repair. 
Three  years  elapse  before  it  yields  any  wine,.and  six  before 
it  yields  good  wine.  Common  vineyards  sell  at  1500  francs 
an  acre ;  and  there  are  some  that  sell  so  high  as  10,000. 
The  precariousness  of  the  crop,  however,  and  the  want  of 
capital,  render  this  branch  of  industry  a  poor  employment ; 
and  tlie  cultivators  of  Burgundy  are  the  least  flourishing  of 
any  in  France.  Few  new  vineyards  are  now  laid  down; 
though  the  capital  invested  in  the  old  ones  is  a  jnfficient 
reason  for  keeping  them  tip. 

Of  the  chief  towns,  the  first  in  dignity  is  Rheims,  n  no 
ble  and  ancient  city,  the  ecclesiastical  capital  (f  France, 
where  the  kings  were  crowned  and  anointed.  The  cnthe- 
dral  (fg.  293.)  has  been  considered  the  most  splendid  spe- 
cimen of  Gothic  architecture  existing,  though  some  of"  iU 
ornaments  are  not  in  the  purest  taste.  Tlie  Hotel  de  Villa 
is  also  fine;  and  the  streets,  unlike  what  is  usual  in  old 
towns,  are  broad,  straight,  and  well  built.  Rheims  is  still 
the  chief  mart  of  that  favourite  wine  called  champagne, 
and  from  thence  the  connoisseurs  of  Paris  take  care  to  pro- 
Otbedralat  Eheinu.  ^^^^  ^jj^j^  guppHes.    Troyes,  once  celebrated  for  its  great 


Book  1. 


FRANCE. 


661 


hirB,  and  noted  m  having  given  its  name  to  the  Troy  weight,  ranks  as  capital  of  Champagne, 
and  is  still  a  large  and  flourishing  town  on  the  Seine.  CTiftlons  sur  Marne  is  also  considera< 
ble,  and,  by  a  seemingly  capricious  choice,  is  the  capital  of  the  department  of  the  Marno, 
instead  of  Rhcims.  Mezieres  and  Sedan  are  strong  frontier  towns ;  the  latter  celebrated  for 
i|s  manufacture  of  fine  woollen  cloth,  as  well  as  for  one  of  arms.  Rocroy  is  only  distin- 
guished for  the  signal  victory  of  1643,  which  first  established  the  superiority  of  the 
French  arms.  In  Burgundy,  Dijon  (Jig.  204.),  with  its  numerous  and  lofly  spires,  presents 
a  noble  appearance  to  the  approaching  traveller ;  but  it  has  lost  much  of  its  ancient  impor- 


Autun  Cathedral. 


Dijon. 

tance.  Its  churches,  now  too  numerous  for  the  place  in  its  reduced  state,  were  dreadfully 
defaced  and  mutilated  during  the  Revolution:  one  has  been  converted  into  a  market  for  fish, 
another  into  one  for  com.  The  streets,  however,  are  wide  and  clean.  Dijon  has  a  distin- 
guished university,  and  can  boast  of  giving  birth  to  Bossuet,  Buffon,  and  Crebillon.  Autun 
attracts  notice  by  a  temple  and  other  remains,  which  indicate  its  importance  as  a  Roman 
city,  also  by  a  fine  modern  cathedral  (Jig.  295.)  Auxerre  still  flourishes  by  the  excellent 
295       ^  wine  produced  in  its  neighbourhood,  und  is  adorn- 

ed with  a  cathedral  and  several  lofty  spires. 
Chftlons  sur  Sadne  is  a  good  country  town.  Sens, 
tlie  see  of  an  archbishop,  and  formerly  the  seat 
of  several  councils,  presents  still  some  noble 
monuments  in  decay.  Moulins,  capital  of  the 
rich  plain  of  the  Bourbonnais,  though  not  hand- 
some, is  busy  and  cheerful,  having  a  considerable 
traffic  upon  the  Seine.  Nevers,  in  Nivernais,  is 
finely  situated  on  the  Loire,  but  is  an  ill-built  and 
dirty  town. 

The  provinces  of  Lorraine,  Franche-comte,  and  Alsace  are  less  an  integral  part  of  Prance 
than  a  series  of  appendages  obtained  by  conquest  chiefly  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
They  remain  still  in  many  points  connected  with  Germany.  They  are  watered  by  the 
Meuse  and  the  Moselle,  tributaries  of  the  Rhine ;  they  are  traversed  by  the  chain  of  the 
Vosges,  connected  with  the  Swiss  Alps  and  the  Black  Forest ;  their  surface  is  rude  and 
irregular;  their  wines  have  the  same  agreeable  acid  quality  as  the  Rhenish.  Even  yet 
Alsace,  both  as  to  language  and  manners,  is  altogether  German. 

The  cities  are, — Nancy,  capital  of  the  dukes  of  I<orraine,  a  race  of  gallant  and  accom- 
plished princes.  It  is  said  to  be  the  mo?t  elegant  city  in  France,  especially  the  new  town, 
built  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  gates  appear  almost  like  triumphal  arches;  the  public 
buildings  are  numerous;  the  place  royale  and  the  adjoining  area  are  superb.  The  place  is 
lighted  in  the  English  manner.  Metz  is  a  larger  town,  and  now  more  important,  being  one 
of  the  strongest  of  the  French  fortresses.  It  is  nearly  enclosed  by  the  Moselle  and  the 
Seille,  and  entered  ly  successive  drawbridges.  The  usual  complement  of  its  garrison  is 
10,000  men.  Metz  is  celebrated  for  its  long  and  triumphant  defence  under  the  Duke  of 
Guise  against  the  army  of  Charles  V.  It  is  still  a  flourishing  town,  with  numerous  manu- 
factures, and  contains  a  library  "of  60,000  volumes.  Luneville  was  for  some  time  the  resi- 
dence of  Stanislaus,  the  ex-king  of  Poland,  who  considerably  embellished  it;  and  it  was  the 
scene  of  Bonpparte's  first  triumphant  treaty  in  1801.  It  is  now  rather  a  poor  place,  having 
few  manufactures.  Another  strong  fortress  is  Verdun,  a  name  fiimiliar  to  English  ears,  as  tlie 
scene  of  the  detention  of  their  countrymen  in  1803.  It  is  well  situated  on  the  Meuse.  Salins 
flourishes  by  means  of  the  salt  extracted  from  the  brine-springs,  Which  aie  found  also  in 
other  parts  of  this  territory.  Besancon,  in  Franche-comte,  was  a  city  of  the  German  empire 
till  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  wiien  it  was  ceded  to  the  Sponiards,  from  whom  it  was  wrested 
by  Louis  XTV.  It  is  a  large  and  industrious  place,  particularly  distinguished  by  a  manufac- 
ture of  clocks  and  watches,  introduced  towards  tiie  end  of  the  last  century,  and  employing 
about  1800  persons.  It  has  also  valuable  scientific  and  literary  establishments.  D61e  is 
likewise  a  very  ancient  town,  once  the  capital  of  Franche-comte.   Vesoul  and  Lena  le  Saul- 


Me 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa»t  in. 


296 


nier  are  pretty  gfood  towns,  and  capitals  of  departments.  In  appraachinff  Switzeilind,  the 
country  becbmea  elevated,  and  tho  towns  occupy  picturesque  sites.  Omans  lies  in  a  deep 
doll,  skirted  by  green  rocky  hills,  like  Matlock.  Fontarlier  stands  on  a  height  having  a  strong 
castlr  which  guards  the  passage  into  Switzerland.     Nantua  is  placed  in  a  nook  between  two 

enormous  mountains.  On  crossing  the  Vosges  appears 
the  rich  and  fruitful  plain  of  Alsace,  more  highly  cul< 
tivated  than  any  other  part  of  the  kingdom  except 
French  Flanders.  Here  Cohnar,  Haguenau,  Saverne, 
Weisemberg,  are  agreeably  situated  and  rather  thriving 
towns.  But  b^  far  tho  most  important  place  in  this 
part  of  France  is  Strasburg  {fig.  296.\  It  was  eav!y 
celebrated  as  an  imperial  city,  enjoying  extensive 
privileges,  and  enriched  by  the  navigation  of  the 
Uhiuu.  Its  prosperity  was  still  farther  promoted  in 
consequence  of  the  zeal  with  which,  along  with  the 
rest  of  Alsace,  it  embraced  the  reformed  doctrines. 
Strasburg  and  Alsace  suffered  a  severe  misfortune,  by 
being,  in  1689,  subjected  to  France  by  Louis  Xlv. 
Yet  the  city  retained  privileges  beyond  any  other  in 
France,  and  continued  to  be  distinguished  both  by 
wealth  and  intelligence.  Its  schools  were  considered 
second  only  to  those  of  Paris,  till  the  Revolution,  when 
siruburc  tijgy  y^Qxe  severely  injured,  and  have  not  yet  been  fully 

restored.  Strasburg,  however,  has  still  valuable  institutions,  both  literary  and  economical, 
and  is  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  flourishing  cities  of  France.  Its  ancient  importance  is 
attested  by  its  catliedral  or  minster,  one  of  the  most  splendid  existing  monuments  of  the 
Gothic.  Its  tower,  470  feet  high,  is  said  to  be  the  most  elevated  structure  in  the  world,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Great  Pyramid  of  Egypt 


CHAPTER  IX 

SPAIN. 

Spain  forms  the  principal  part  of  a  verjr  extensive  peninsula ;  the  most  southern,  and  also 
the  most  westr  m,  portion  of  Europe.  It  is  only  jnnected  by  an  isthmus  about  a  hundred 
niles  broad,  traversed  by  the  Pyrenees,  a  chain  holding  the  second  rank  among  the  moun- 
tains of  Europe.     Spain  is  thus  almost  insulated  from  uie  rest  of  the  continent. 

Sect.  I. — General  Outline  and  Aspect, 

The  boundaries  of  the  Peninsula  in  general  are,  on  the  north,  the  Bay  of  Biscay  ,  on  the 
west,  the  Atlantic ;  but  this  coast  for  more  than  half  its  extent  is  occupied  by  PorluKal, 
whose  interior  frontier  forms  to  that  extent  the  western  boundary  of  Spain.  The  most  south- 
ern point  near  Gibraltar  is  only  separated  by  a  narrow  strait  from  the  opposite  ahor  uf  Afirica 
Eastward  from  this  strait  is  the  Mediterranean,  along  which  the  coast  wmds  m  a  north- 
easterly direction,  gradually  receding  from  Africa,  and  facing  at  a  groat  interval  the  western 
coast  of  Italy.  From  its  termination,  the  Pyrenees  stretch  across  to  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and 
form  the  lofly  limit  between  Spain  and  France. 

The  extent  of  Spain,  north  and  south,  is,  from  Tarifa  Point  in  the  straits,  in  36°  N.  lati- 
tude, to  Cape  Ortegal  in  Galicia,  43°  46' ;  about  540  English  miles.  From  east  to  west,  the 
extreme  points  of  the  peninsula  are  Cape  Creus,  in  Catalonia,  3°  17'  E.  longitude,  and  Cape 
La  Roca,  9°  30'  W.  longitude ;  implying  twelve  and  three  quarters  degrees,  which,  in  this 
latitude,  amounts  to  about  560  miles.  Thus  the  Peninsula  forms  almost  a  square ;  allowance 
being  made  for  the  irregularity  of  its  outline ;  and,  the  entire  extent  of  Portugal  being  taken 
off,  Spain  is  reckoned  to  contain  183,600  square  milea 

The  surface  of  Spain  is  strikingly  irregular.  It  is  traversed  by  long  and  lofly  ranges  of 
mountains,  having  plains  of  vast  extent  Iretween  them  and  the  sea.  These  mountains  may 
be  considered  as  part  of  the  great  range  which  crosses  Europe  from  the  BlacTi  Sea  to  the 
AUantic.  The  Pyrenees  common  to  France  and  Spain,  form  a  long  continuous  line  of  lofly 
summits,  the  most  central  and  elevated,*  of  which  is  Mont  Perdu  near  the  wurce  of  the 
Cinc^,  which  the  accurate  measurements  have  fixed  at  upwards  of  11,160  feet.  Towards 
the  sea,  on  both  sides,  the  mountains  sink  into  a  more  moderate  elevation,  and  the  barrier 
oetween  the  two  kingdon?s  is  less  formidable.     This  great  chain  shoota  lower  branches  int» 

*  [The  hiirlicgt  point  of  the  Pyrenees  is  now  known  to  be  La  Mnladetta,  11.424  feet  in  lieipht.  The  highest  peak 
of  tne  Sierra  Nevada,  called  the  Cerro  de  Miilhucun,  ia  still  more  elevated,  being  11,060  feet  above  tljc 
aea.— Am.  Ed.] 


Book  I. 


SPAIN. 


609 


Catalonia  and  Navarre,  presenting  also  some  striking  insulated  peaks,  amon^  which  that  of 
Montocrrat  is  the  most  conspicuous.  From  the  western  extremity  of  the  Pyrenees,  a  great 
cliaiii,  which  has  been  called  ttie  Iberian,  reachej  almost  due  south,  forming  the  boundary 
of  the  tine  plains  of  Aragon  and  Valencia.  All  the  other  ranges  run  from  cast  to  west.  Tho 
Ciintabrian  is  nearly  a  continuation  of  tlie  Pyrenees :  it  stretches  across  the  whole  north  ot 
Spain,  covering  the  provinces  of  Asturias  and  Galicia,  and  leaving  only  a  narrow  and  rugged 
plain  along  tho  sea-coast  Parallel  to  th'"  on  the  opposite  side  or  a  vani  plain  through  which 
the  Duero  flows,  is  another  trans veru .  ..  ige,  bearing  in  its  highest  points  the  names  ot 
Guodarrnma  and  Somosierro,  and  enclosui.^  with  its  rugged  and  romantic  clitls  the  elevated 
palaces  of  San  Ildefonso  and  the  Escurial.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  Tagus  and  of  tho 
plain  of  Madrid  is  another  parallel  chain,  the  Sierra  of  Toledo.  It  borders  the  wide  elevated 
plain  of  La  Mancha ;  on  the  southern  boundary  of  which  is  the  more  celebrated  chain  of 
Sierra  Morena,  the  lofty  barrier  of  the  rich  jplams  of  Andalusia.  Beyond  these  rises  another 
longitudinal  chain,  of  a  peculiarly  bold  und  lofty  character,  called  the  Sierra  Nevada,  firom 
tho  snow  which  perpetually  covers  many  of  its  summits ;  between  which  and  the  Mediter< 
ranean  only  a  narrow  though  beautiful  plain  intervenea.  Those  long  and  lofty  ranges,  an 
observed  already,  are  separated  by  very  extended  plains,  which,  in  the  interior,  are  of  great 
elevation,  and  even  Madrid  is  2170  feet  above  the  sea :  the  plains  along  the  Mediterranean, 
and  almost  on  a  level  with  it,  display  a  profuse  fertility,  and  abound  in  all  the  choicest  fruita 
of  a  southern  climate. 

The  rivers  of  Spain  form  as  important  and  celebrated  a  feature  as  its  mountains.  The 
Tagus  aHd  the  Duero  rising  in  the  Iberian  chain,  on  the  frontiers  of  Aragon,  roll  along  the 
two  grand  central  p:  ins,  receiving  numerous  though  not  very  large  tributaries  from  the 
mountains  by  which  f  ley  are  bordered.  Unfortunately  tor  Spain,  they  terminate  in  the 
gomewhat  hostile  realm  of  Portugal,  and  are  scarcely  navigable  above  its  frontier ;  so  that 
the  commercial  benefits  arising  from  them  are  of  little  importance.  The  Guadiana  belongs 
to  La  Mancha,  and  on  its  approach  to  Portugal  forms  the  boundary  of  the  two  kingdoms ; 
but  the  high  tract  through  which  it  flows  is  only  distinguished  for  its  rich  pastures,  and  does 
not  render  its  port  of  Ayamonte  a  place  of  any  importance.  Beyond  the  Sierra  Morena,  the 
Guadalquivir  waters  the  plain  of  Andalusia,  and  has  on  its  banks  the  noble  cities  of  Cordova 
and  Seville ;  while  Cadiz,  not  far  from  its  mouth,  forms  the  chief  emporium  of  Spain. 
Though  its  navigation  is  now  much  impeded,  and  practicable  for  large  vessels  only  to  Seville, 
it  is  the  only  river  in  Spain  of  much  commercial  importance.  The  Ebro,  which  derives 
from  its  position  a  greater  historical  celebrity  than  any  other,  rising  in  the  Cantabrian  moun- 
tains,  nearly  crosses  the  breadth  of  north- aastern  Spain,  and  septmites  Catalonia  and  Ara- 
gon from  the  extensive  regions  of  the  interior.  Its  banks  at  present  afford  few  materials  for 
trade,  except  a  large  quantity  of  timber.  The  Guadalaviar  and  Xucar  in  Valencia,  and  the 
Miilo  in  Galicia,  are  also  rivers  of  some  magnitude. 

The  mountains  of  Spain  enclose  no  lakes,  their  waters  >'u 'ing  a  ready  issue  along  th« 
vast  plains  on  which  they  border. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Oeography. 
SuBSECT.  1. — Geology, 

The  principal  mountain  chains  in  Spain  difTer  not  only  in  their  external  aspect  ut  .Iso 
in  their  internal  composition:  they  appear  more  as  diflbrent  individuals  than  as  members  of 
a  single  system.  They  have  this  in  common  with  one  another,  that  their  nucleus  con^'dt8, 
in  whole  or  in  part,  of  primitive  and  transition  rocks ;  but  nr  ,  only  the  species,  but  also  the 
relations  of  these,  vary  in  the  different  chai.js.  A  great  body  of  granite,  which  seldom 
reaches  the  highest  points  of  the  country,  and  contains  subor.^'nate  beds  of  gneiss  and  other 
primitive  rocks,  ranges  Mirough  the  Pyrenees  properly  so  called.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  pre- 
dominating mass  of  crystalline  slate  and  of  transition  rocks,  among  which  the  most  abundant 
are  clay  slate  and  limestone.  On  the  contrary,  on  the  v.estern  contini^ation,  in  the  Biscayan 
mountains,  the  older  rocks  are  not  widely  distributed,  and  apoear  first  in  Galicia,  at  the 
western  extremity  of  the  northern  mountain  chain,  where,  ac  ding  to  Hui  iboldt,  granite, 
accompanied  by  crystalline  slates,  appears  again,  and  in  great  extent.  The  principal  mass 
of  the  mountain  chain  which  separates  Old  from  New  Castile  1j  composed  of  gneiss  and 
granite.  In  the  chain  of  mountains  extending  between  the  Tagus  and  the  Gii  idiana,  accord- 
ng  to  Lmk,  tho  principal  rock  is  granite.  The  long  ridge  of  the  Sierra  Morena  contains 
principally  transition  rocks;  granite  breaks  out  on  its  southern  foot  towards  the  Guadalquivir. 
This  rock,  so  frequent  in  the  Iberian  peninsula,  appears  to  be  wanting  in  the  highest  southern 
chain.  The  middle  mountain  ridges  consist  of  mici  o.  abounding  in  garnets,  which,  in 
the  ridges  lying  before  them,  passes  into  less  cryst  ■  .  ca  slate,  chlorite  slate,  and  clay 
slate,  which  sometimes  enclose  beds,  at  times  of  >  ..  gnitude,  of  compact  limestone, 
marble,  noiomltc,  ainl  serpentine.  Ofi  the  si.utli  coast,  ne---  !-a!isition  shito  and  grey.vacke 
slate,  with  beds  of  flinty  slate,  lie  hero  and  there  on  the  o' ).  slate.  The  basis  or  funda- 
montal  uart  of  tlie  rock  of  Gibraltar  is  of  these  rwks. 


fiOO 


:fAP  OF  SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL 


Fi«.  m 


w 


Rook  I. 


SPAIN 


^1 


nio  structure  of  the  chainn  of  mountairw  corrnHpoiuU  in  (jenoral  with  their  chit.f  Hiroction. 
Not  only  the  alternation  of  the  diHerent  rockH,  hut  niso  tiio  dirrction  of  tho  Hinta,  are  con- 
Ibnnahio  with  the  direction  of  the  chniim:  iieiicp,  in  tho  (rrciitfr  |)art  ot'  Spain,  ■•  i>rinci|)«l 
direction  of  the  slaty  rocks  iH  from  S.W.  to  N.R.,  or  W.S.  VV.  Ui  E.N.K.  Hut  .  »<  inclina- 
tion of  the  strata  vanes.  In  tho  Pyrenees,  properly  m  ciillod,  the  dip  of  tho  ^trntii  ih  con- 
forinuhlo  with  tho  two  acclivities  of  the  ranjjfe.  In  the  Soinosierra  and  Guadarrunin  nmges, 
the  principal  mass  of  pfneias  dips  S.E.  fnwurds  tho  granite  lyinp  l«efore  it.  In  the  Hierra 
Morena,  the  predominatinff  dip  of  the  slaty  strata  is  towards  tho  N.^V^,  hi  that  they  appear 
to  rest  on  tho  pfranito  which  breaks  from  under  them.  In  the  Sierra  N<m  Jo,  tho  dip  of  tlio 
strata  is  conformable  with  the  two  acclivities  of  tho  chain.  It  m  worth}  >f  remark  how  the 
curvature  of  the  south  coast  of  Spain  obeys  the  direction  of  fhn  strutii,  ami  how  tho  for  iifion 
of  the  far  projectinjf  southern  point  of  tho  land  olw^  stands  in  connection  with  tho  din  ction 
of  the  Htnitd.  At  the  foot  of  the  rock  of  Oibraliar,  'he  >■'■ '  strata  run  nearly  north  and 
Bouth  with  a  rapid  dip  towards  the  east.     The  Gut  of   i'lhr,  '■  thert    >■'>  nearly  at  right 

migles  to  tho  direction  of  tho  strata.     The  rocky  vvall  be 
Atlantic  Seas,  by  this  direction  of  the  strata,  muHt  have  "'wof 
tho  currentfl.     The  primitive  and  transition  rocks,  in  v 
The  present  mines  are  confined  principally  to  tho  soutli 
The  mighty  lead-glance  veins  of  Linares  occur  in  gran  "■; 

5 lance  in  the  Sierra  do  Gador,  which  afforded,  in  the  year 
istributed  in  masses  (putzen),  in  a  limestone  which  may  bo  rei. 
rocks,  and  the  rich  mercury  mines  of  Almaden  are  contained  in  clay  slate.  The  secondary 
rocks  also  assist  in  forming  tho  principal  Spanish  mountain  chains,  but  in  a  different  manner. 
They  ascend  to  a  great  height  on  the  Spanish  t-ule  of  the  Pyrenees;  oven  some  of  tho 
highest  summits  are  of  secondary  rocks.  The  western  continimtion  of  the  Pyrencan  chain 
consists,  in  the  Biscayan  provinces,  principally  of  secondary  rocks;  and  it  is  probable  that 
the  lo*lv  limestone  mountain  ridjjes  which  separate  Asturins  from  Leon  are  a  continuation 
of  the  Biscayan  secondary  formation.     On  both  sides  of  Somosierra  tho  primitive  rocks  ara 


16  M»!diterranean  and 
rongest  rOHi.  lunco  to 

pla'  •  ■<.  are  rich  in  ores. 

th«  si  parts  of  Spain, 
ossttl  deposit  of  lead- 
K),0(K)  cwt.  of  lead,  is 
to  the  oldest  transition 


NORTH  PART. 

Galicia. 
].  Ciimaiiiiiii 
18.  Ciininnit 

3.  nuiunzoi 

4.  P^riol 

5.  Amtk 
0.  Ijiiio 

7.  La  Geita 

8.  H'>n>ia(o 

9.  Vigo 

10.  Tuy 

11.  Itilmilavia 
Vi.  Aiiahiilet 

13.  OronM 

14.  La  Rua. 

JiHturiu, 
j5.  llliiiio 
10  Oviudo 
17.  Oijon 
W.  Riviidacella 

19.  Lanes. 
__        Iiton. 

20.  AfuilardeCam- 

pni 
31.  Ilerrera 

33.  Siililana 

21.  Almanza 

34.  I,u<m 
9.1.  ABlnritB 
30.  t^an  Juslo 
32-  Lii  Mczquita 
88.  Corvijal 

Sit  M'lynma 
30.  Anuacii 
.■«l.  P'lleni'ia 
33.  Villactinancia 
3T  VHllnilolid 
.'M.  I'nrduailla* 
:«.  Toro 

30.  7.iimc>ra 

37.  Piinoteliauci 

38.  Haliiinanca 
3!l.  .Mulilla 

40.  Ciiidad  Rodrlgo 

41.  CespedoM 
43.  Pnnaranda 

43,  Medina  del 

Cnmpo. 
Old  Ciistile. 

44.  Arovalo 
4.5  Bonilla 
4A.  F.npinar 
47.  Sfiovia 
48  Pcdnia 
49.  Cueila 
M.  Lnrina 

31.  Frmnillo 
53.  Barrona 
Si.  Aimaxan 

54  Soria 

55  A.-riedo 

Vol.  I. 


50.  Loirono 

57.  Nnj..ra 

58.  Fria» 

59.  Miiiivienoa 

00.  Riirxni 

01.  Piijaiizuela 
61*  Aliiiii 
03.  Vargai 

03.  Siniander 

04.  Orduna. 

Bitcay. 
6.1.  Rilbcia 
66.  n«ba 
07.  Tulnaa 
68.  S'.  Siihaitian 

60.  Villuria. 

JVocarr*. 
70.  Piinipeluna 
Tl.Tudela. 

Jiragon. 
73.  Verdun 

73.  Jnca 

74.  Ainiia 
7.1.  Hiutra 

76.  SariiKiista 

77.  (inrincnn 

78.  Calatuyud 

79.  liiico 

80.  Monialban 

81.  Teruc! 
83.  Sarrion 
83.  Uar 
64.  Pina 

Catalonia. 
ai.  Lerida 

86.  Halagiier 

87.  Orfiaiiiia 

88.  Urce" 

89.  Figuerai 

90.  Carduna 
91.Reruna 
93.  Barcelona 

93.  Tarragona 

94.  Cervora 

95.  Rapilal 

96.  Flix 

97.  Tortoia 

SOUTH  PART. 

Rslremadura. 
1.  La  C'liva 
3.  Piacnntia 

3.  Galiitea 

4.  Coria 

,5.  Alcantara 

6.  Cacerei 

7.  F.I  Tersorero 

8.  Bnilajiis 

9.  Oliva 

10.  Xernz 

11.  Llerena 
IS,  Majacella 


References  to  the  Map  of  Spain  and  Portugal. 

/.n  Mnncha.  8.  Ald«a 

07.  H.  Lcrnnza  9.  Mirandolla. 

SI-  «'"""'i  ?'"''  !"•  Alnifida 

''••  Mailriilijcn  ll.Lnnieffii 

71.  Malanon  13.  AJKarcnl 

72.  LMhorniii  13.  Villanuva 
.Indttlufia.  14.  Fi'ira 

73.  DiMiiMcar  IS-  Avciro 

74.  Andnjar  !"•  <  oimbra 
7.1.  I.iimrpi  1'-  yisou 
70.  Ilanzn  1'^.  TraiiBoso 

77.  Hiiusnar  10-  Giinrila 

78.  .Ablcix  30-  HalvHiierra 
70.  Oiillnr  31.  Caslellii  Braneo 
P«  .lodar  3'2.  Pardoal 
81.  Miinn8'crio  33.  Abraiiies. 
83.  .1>ien 
Kl.  Mniililla 
8-t.  Biijalnnce 


111.  Muriila 

14.  Acndi'ra 

15.  Truxillo 
10.  Alinarai, 

J^fW  CaatiU. 

17.  Rnudulupu 

18.  Aziitan 
10.  Onipesa 

90.  Tnlavcradala 

Ri'vna 

91.  Tdlidn 
3'i.  (JayiicrB 
2:1.  Kl  I'radu 
34.  Miialnlos 
3.1.  Madrid 

30.  Kl  F,«ciiriiil 
97,  T;i  Pardo 
38.  (•iiu'lahixara 
311.  AranJiD'Z 


30.UM..ladenel-   KV  CoXVr 


ninnl 
31.  S(M:adiin 

39.  ranavnra 

33.  Valtablado  del 

Khi 
.14.  Flinoiosa 
35.  Friax 
30.  Cu.-nra 

37.  I<ii  Parra 

38.  Yiii'sla 
30.  Kcqiiena 

ynlimcia. 

40.  Tuejar 

41.  Ailuiniiz 

49.  Forcali 

43.  .Mnrulla 

44.  Ziirila 
4.1.  P^ni-'cola 
40.  Fi  d>'  SttI 

47.  Oiopcia 

48.  Aiint'dixar 
43.  Minviedro 
.10.  Valencia 
.11.  Alclrn 

53.  Felipe 
53  D»iiia 

54.  Xizana 

55.  Alicante 

Mureia. 

50.  Rafnt 

57.  Carthaicna 

58.  AIniazarrun 
.W.  Tiiiana 

00.  Mureia 

01.  CeliBgin 
63.  Hi-ilin 

63.  Velannera 

64.  Chinchilla 
6.1.  Ayna 

G6.  Chiclana 


80.  OnBiina 

87.  Carmuna 

88.  Ecija 

89.  Aracpna 
sn,  Axiarcollar 
9l.  Almcndro 
113.  Ayamonte 
0:1.  Iliielva 
94.  »<-xt»o 

0.1.  S.  Lucar 

90.  Ri)ia 
97. 1  'adiz 
88.  Xmh^z 
9<l.  Tiirifa 

100.  (iibrullar. 

Granada. 

101.  Ouocin 
1(».  Marhella 

-W3.  Runda 
104.  AntiQuera 
lO.'i.  Mtilaci 
100.  Vi'Ipz  Malaga 
1U7.  La  Herradura 
108.  Molril 
100.  Rranada 

110.  Aura 

111.  Almnria 
113.  Piirchena 
113.  Mujacar. 

PORTUGAL. 
I.  F.ntm  Dmro  a 
JUinko. 
1.  Viana 
3.  Braga 

3.  Amaranle 

4.  OnoFfn 


IV.  F.3trcmadnra. 
34.  Ari'ga 
9.1.  Porta 

30.  Lciria 
97.  Paiitarem 
38.  Ohrdna 

3U.  Villal'ranca 
;'()  Bi'nuviinte 

31.  Oimra 
.'K*.  LiKlmn 

33.  Almnda 

34.  Seiiibal  or  Bu 

Uhe« 

35.  Alcaccrdo. 

V.  Alrmtejo, 
,30.  Piirtalegro 
:17.  V.Un» 

38.  Olivencat 

39.  Povoa 

40.  Senia 

41.  Beji 

49.  Our  qua 

43.  M»l  ilva 

44.  S.  Aialro 
4.1.  Villa  Nova 

46.  Serdaii. 

VI.  Mgarve. 

47.  Seyja 

48.  Lfifcm 
40.  Albnreira 

50.  Castro  Marino. 
Rirerg  nf  Spain. 
a  Tambre 

b  Ulla 
R  Minho 
d  Sil 
e  Navia 
r  Nalon 
g  Rpaaya 

U     171.  .A 


II.  Tras  ot  Monies.  1   Durango 

5.  Cazabranca  J    Aragnn 

6.  BraganZH  k  Gnllcgo 

7.  Miranda  de  Vita  I    Cinca 


t  01tvme.i  {*  «  Hhin  the  S|Kinhh  Hailtfc 


mRiliagurzano 
n  Si'gri) 
o  Mciga 
p  T«r 

q  LInhrpgat 
r  Fraiiccili 
i  Mnnin 
t  Xiloca 
u  Pciirn 
V  Ailanza 
w  Arlnnzon 
X  Pnuirga 
J  Carrion 
z  FhIb 
»•  Orviego 
b*  Tnrmoi 
c*  Cob 
d*  Zi-zpro 
('•  'I'ngiia 
f*   Alberrhe 

R*  r>u«mn 
•  Hinarei 
i*  Tielar 

i'*   Rundiana 
*  Odiel 
1*   Tinio 
m*  Oiinrialquivit 
n*  .lai.duin 
0*  Guadalimar 
p*  Ruadix 
q*  GiKui'la 
r*  Xucar 
§•  Ci.brifil 
t*  Gundnlaviar 
u*  Segura 
V*  Lorca 
w*  Guadajox 
X*  Geiiil 
y*  Guadiaro. 
Rivera  ofPortugot 
a  Luna 
b  Tamaga 
c  Paliar 
d  Vouga 
e  Mondego 
e*Tagu» 
f  Coa 

RZezore 
Lnura 
i    Saldn 
j   Gundinni 
BALEARIC 
ISLANDS. 
Jvica. 
1.  Ivica 

Majorca. 
9.  Pa  I  ma 

3.  Snllnr 

4.  St.  Lorenza, 

Mmorca. 

5.  Mahon 

6.  Ciudadela. 

3V 


.^^ 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


■  4.0 


IIS 

m 

u 


11.25  in  1.4 


12.0 

m 


^ 


7] 


^;i 


>> 


-^^ 


>• 


'^^ 


'/ 


Hiotographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STRICT 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  USSO 

(716)872-4503 


^ 


o 


;\ 


'9> 


502 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PaetIIL 


ekirted  by  thoae  of  the  secondary  class;  but  they  are  fer  finom  the  middle  and  higher  parts 
rf  the  mountain  chain.  When  we  follow  the  road  froin  Madrid  to  Andalusia,  we  meet  with 
secondary  rocks  near  the  transition  clay  slate  of  the  passes  of  the  Sierra  Morena ;  but  we 
must  descend  very  low  on  the  south  side  before  we  meet  with  similar  rocks.  The  high 
mountains  of  Jaen  are  formed  of  secondary  rocks.  In  the  northern  vorgebirge  of  the  Siena 
Nevada,  between  Granada  and  Guadiz,  there  are  secondary  deposits,  which  are  not,  how- 
ever, so  considerable  and  extensive  as  to  reach  to  the  high  ridges.  Also  in  the  vicinity  of 
Malaga  new  secondary  rocks  lie  on  the  foot  of  older  mountain  masses ;  and  the  ridges  of 
secondary  rocks  extend  from  the  hills  of  Ronda  towards  the  southern  extremity  of  Spain. 
The  wonderful  isolated  rock  of  Gibraltar  is  also  principally  composed  of  new  secondary  rock. 
The  distribution  of  the  rock  is  not  confined  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  higher  moun- 
tain chains,  but  it  extends  from  tlie  one  to  the  other,  rises  or  falls  in  the  intermediate  spaces, 
and  forms  in  this  way  the  widely  extended  high  table-land. 

The  moat  important  of  the  Spanish  secondary  rocks  are  the  following ;  viz.,  variegated 
aemdstone  and  marl,  gryphite  limestone,  and  the  white  limestone  or  Jura  limestone.  The 
first  of  these  exhibits  the  same  relations  as  in  Pritain,  where  it  is  known  under  the  name  of 
new  red  sandstone  and  red  marl.  The  shell  limestone,  which,  in  Germany,  is  enclosed 
between  Werner's  variegated  sandstone  and  the  younger  marl  formations,  is  wanting  in 
Spain,  as  is  also  the  case  in  England.  The  sandstone  and  marl  is  rich  in  gypsum  and  masses 
of  rock  salt  At  Vallecas,  near  Madrid,  and  in  some  other  places,  there  rests  upon  it,  in 
single  beds,  that  rare  deposit  consisting  of  meerschaum,  with  nests  of  siliceous  minerals.  It 
is  to  this  formation,  which  occurs  widely  spread  over  the  high  table-lands  of  Old  and  New 
Castile,  that  these  countries  owe  the  reddish-brown  colour  of  their  soil,  and  the  tiresome 
uniformity  of  their  surface.  The  lias  formation  is  widely  distributed  in  the  northern  pro- 
vinces of  Spain.  It  appears  to  reach  a  considerable  height  on  the  Spanish  side  of  the  Pyrenees. 
In  the  Biscayan  provinces  it  exhibits  the  same  characters  as  the  gryphite  limestone  of  the 
Weser,  and  is  so  widely  distributed  that  nearly  all  the  older  rocks  are  covered  by  it.  Here 
it  is  remarkably  prolific  in  an  excellent  iron  ore.  The  immense  mass  of  sparry  iron  ore,  con- 
verted by  decomposition  into  brown  and  red  iron  ores  of  Sommorostro,  near  Bilboa,  and  which 
probably  forms  the  ironstone  hills  mentioned  by  Pliny  in  the  34th  book  of  his  Natural  Hit' 
tori/,  belongs  to  this  formation.  Probably  also  the  vast  beds  of  coal  in  the  Asturias  are  sub- 
ordinate to  it  The  white  Jura  limestone,  which  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  for- 
mations, is  also  of  great  geognostical  importance  in  Spain.  It  forms,  in  most  places,  the 
immediate  cover  of  the  variegated  sandstone  and  marl,  and  occurs  in  the  north,  and  also  in 
the  south  of  Spain,  in  single  ridges  and  great  mountain  masses.  This  formation  is  exhibited 
in  its  most  characteristic  forms  in  the  narrow  pass  of  Pancorbo  in  Old  Castile,  in  the  lacerated 
mountains  of  Jaen,  and  the  isolated  rocky  wall  of  Gibraltar.  Wherever  it  occurs,  its  presence 
is  announced  by  the  yellowish-brown  colour  of  the  soil  with  which  it  is  covered. 

Some  members  also  of  the  chalk  formation  occnr  in  Spain.  The  sandstone  of  the  rocky 
rid<re  of  the  southern  coast,  between  Cadiz  and  Gibraltar,  and  the  limestone  in  the  district 
of  IjOS  Barios,  bring  to  our  recollection  the  rocks  of  the  Saxon  Switzerland.  The  first 
airrees  with  the  German  quader-sandstein,  the  latter  with  the  Saxon  planer  limestone,  an 
e(iuivalent  for  impure  chalk. 

Tertiary  deposits  occur  in  difierent  parts  of  Spain.  In  the  south,  particularly  near  the 
sea-coast  there  is  a  deposit,  filled  with  marine  organic  remains,  in  which  calcareous  sand 
and  pebbles  occur,  partly  in  a  loose  mass,  and  partly  more  or  less  firmly  compacted  by  means 
of  calcareous  cement  Judging  firom  the  included  petrifactions,  among  which  are  beds  of 
oyster-shells,  this  deposit,  on  which  Cadiz  stands,  and  which,  in  some  places,  rises  into  hil- 
locks and  low  hills,  belongs  to  the  upper  tertiary  sea-water  formation.  Probably  the  ter- 
tiary deposit  mentioned  by  Brongniart  as  occurring  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Barcelona 
belongs  to  the  same  deposit  That  fresh-water  limestone  occurs  in  Spain  has  been  sufficiently 
proved  by  the  observations  of  Baron  Ferussac.  The  deposit  very  much  resembles  that  so 
generally  distributed  in  Germany,  and  is  found  in  difiTerent  parts  of  Spain,  both  in  the  inte- 
rior and  on  the  coast  and  at  different  heights.  The  calcareous  breccia,  generally  with  a 
ferruginous  basis,  which  occurs  principally  m  the  south-west  where  it  is  widely  distributed, 
belongs  to  the  latest  of  the  antediluvian  deposits.  It  not  only  incrusts  limestone  rocks  of 
difierent  formations  more  or  less  thickly,  but  also  fills  up  rents  and  fissures  in  them :  thus  it 
abounds  among  the  calcareous  rocks  of  Gibraltar,  where  it  sometimes  contains  bones  of  quad- 
rupeds no  longer  met  with  there.  The  formation  of  the  breccia  is  ascribed  to  a  catastrophe 
which  aflfectc3  different  parts  of  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  sea.  As  Professor  Haus- 
mann,  to  whom  v/e  owe  the  preceding  details,  had  not  an  opportunity  of  travelling  in  Mur- 
cia,  he  was  not  able  to  confirm  or  reject  the  accounts  of  Spanish  geologists,  who  maintain 
that  it  contains  true  volcanic  rocks.  The  occurrence  of  other  rocks,  which  are  conjectured 
to  have  come  from  below,  has  been  noticed  in  but  few  places.  Characteristic  basalt  occurs 
in  Catalonia.  The  porphyritic  and  basaltic-lookinff  rocks  nytRn/lin?  from  Cn.bo  de  Gata,  and 
fh)m  Avila.  on  t'lo  north  sido  of  the  GnrKlarrama  runge,  are  still  problematical.  Hy  persthene 
rock  has  been  found  by  Professor  Garcia  in  the  vicinity  of  Salinas  de  Pozo,  in  Old  Castile, 


BoosL 


SPAIN. 


668 


in  contact  with  Jura  limestone.  Professor  Hausmann  found,  in  the  mountains  of  Jaen,  Rear 
to  variegated  marl  containing  masses  of  gypsum,  rocks  of  greenstone.  Col.  SUvcitop 
describes  tertiary  deposits  in  Granada.  ^ 

It  may  not  be  improper,  from  Professor  Hausmann,  to  pomt  out  the  influence  of  soil  and 
climate  on  the  other  departments  of  nature,  as  also  on  the  peculiarities  and  occupations  of 
man.  A  glance  at  the  whole  nature  of  Spain  discovers  a  threefold  principal  difierence. 
The  northern  zone,  which  extends  to  the  Ebro,  diflers  entirely  in  its  characters  from  the 
middle  zone ;  and  this  again  is  completely  different  from  the  southern  zone,  which  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Sierra  Morena,  and  a  part  of  the  Ostrandes.  The  northern  zone,  which 
uicludeH  Galicia,  Asturias,  the  Biscayan  provinces,  Navarre,  the  northern  part  of  Aragon, 
and  Catalonia,  is  a  widely  extended  mountainous  and  hilly  country.     The  snow-fields  and 

Srlaciers  of  the  Pyrenees  on  the  one  side ;  and  on  the  other  the  north  and  nortli-west  winds, 
lave  a  marked  influence  in  lowering  the  temper8.ture  of  the  atmosphere,  and  in  increasing 
the  supply  of  water.  The  increased  humidity  is  fiivourable  for  vegetation,  which,  on  the 
whole,  very  much  resembles  that  of  the  south  of  France ;  and  the  variety  of  rocks  contain- 
ing lime,  clay,  and  sand,  and  also  their  frequent  alternations,  operate  beneficially  on  the  soil. 
i,,  ^  The  soil  everywhere  invites  to  cultivation,  and  the  Catalonians  and  Biscayans  are  active 
cultivators  of  the  ground.  The  middle  part  of  Spain,  to  which  belongs  Old  and  New  Castile, 
a  part  of  Aragon,  Leon,  and  JSstremadura,  is  not  so  favourably  circumstanced.  In  general, 
we  rarely  meet  with  either  beauty  or  variety  of  aspect  The  extensive  and  lofl;y  table-lands, 
destitute  of  trees,  are  dull  and  tiresome ;  their  uniform  and  monotonous  surface,  formed  by 
vast  deposits  of  horizontally  disposed  secondary  strata,  is  swept  across  by  the  wind,  and  burnt 
up  by  the  sun's  rays.  Whichever  way  the  eye  turns,  it  meets  with  scarcely  any  thing  but 
wretchedly  cultivated  cornfields  and  desert  heaths  of  cistus.  Seldom,  in  general,  more,  in 
the  southern  than  in  the  northern  districts,  plantations  of  olive-trees  afforl  a  meagre  shelter, 
and  vary  the  scenery,  although  in  an  inconsiderable  degree.  Nothing,  certainly,  has  so 
great  an  influence  on  these  properties  of  nature,  with  which  many  of  the  peculiarities  and 
modes  of  life  of  man  harmonise,  than  the  high  situation  of  the  widely  extended  table-lands, 
and  the  uniformity  of  the  rock  which  forms  the  support  of  the  soil.  It  is  owing  principally 
to  the  horizontal  stratification,  and  the  want  of  water,  Ihat  the  great  Spanish  table-lands  are 
so  widely  extended,  and  so  little  intersected  by  deep  valleys.  The  rivers,  in  most  cases, 
carry  but  little  water  in  comparison  with  the  magnitude  of  the  land,  and  the  number  of  con- 
siderable mountain  chains;  and  it  is  further  surprising  how  insignificant  the  waters  of  most 
of  the  Spanish  mountain  groups  are,  even  when  the  qualities  of  the  rocks  favour  the  forma- 
tion of  springs.  The  causes  of  this  great  deficiency  of  water  are  principally  the  great  dry- 
ness of  the  atmosphere,  the  inconsiderable  cover  of  snow  on  the  mountains,  and  its  short 
continuance ;  the  absence  of  forests,  and  the  want  of  great  moors  on  the  heights,  and  the 
comparatively  inconsiderable  breadth  of  the  mountain  rangea  The  southern  and  south- 
western part  of  Spain,  which  comprehends  Andalusia,  with  Granada  and  Murcia,  is  very 
different  firom  that  just  described.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  Sierra  Morena  the  whole 
land  has  a  more  southern  and  foreign  aspect,  a  breathing  of  that  African  nature,  which  an- 
nounces itself  not  only  by  the  world  of  plants,  but  also  by  the  animal  world,  and  man  him- 
self. The  great  difference  of  climate  is  produced  by  the  southern  situation,  the  exposure  of 
the  acclivity  on  the  south  and  south-west  to  the  African  winds,  and  the  strong  reflection  of 
the  solar  rays  from  the  lofly,  naked  mountain  walls.  The  mountain  ranges  are  more  closely 
aggregated,  the  valleys  more  deeply  cut :  there  is  no  room  fat  very  extensive  table-lands, 
and  the  more  limited  ones  that  occur,  as  those  of  Granada,  are  more  amply  supplied  with 
water  than  those  in  the  middle  of  Spain.  Along  with  this  arrangement,  there  is  greater 
dil^rence  among  the  rocks,  and  also  of  their  position.  The  south  of  Spain,  therefore,  pos- 
sesses not  only  a  much  higher  temperature,  one  fit  for  the  orange  and  the  palm,  but  also  a 
more  varied  and  a  more  favourable  soil  for  cultivation.  But  these  relations  would  have  acted 
more  beneficially  if  the  air  had  been  more  humid,  and  moisture  had  been  everywhere  more 
abundant  The  deficiency  of  moisture  is  the  principal  cause  not  only  of  the  striking  mea- 
greness  of  phenogamous  vegetation,  on  most  of  the  mountain  acclivities,  but  also  of  the 
remarkable  paucity  of  lichens  and  mosses  on  the  mountains  on  the  coast ;  and  in  connection 
with  this  is  the  fact,  that  the  weathering  of  the  rocks,  and  the  reforming  of  the  original  sur- 
face of  the  moimtains,  assume  there  a  somewhat  different  course  from  what  is  observed  in 
places  which  are  moi&Ler,  and  provided  with  a  more  powerful  vegetation. 

SuBSECT.  2. — Botany. 

"  Oh !  Chrijt !  it  is  n  tfoodly  sieht  to  see 
What  tlnAVKii  hatli  done  for  thiR  delicinufi  land  I 
What  (Viiltd  of  A'agranGc  blush  on  every  troe  I 
What  Boortly  prns|>ects  o'er  the  hills  expand  I 
(But  man  wuiilil  mar  them  with  an  impious  hand). 

"  European  Spain,"  says  M.  de  Humboldt  "  situated  in  latitudes  under  which  Palm  trees 
( Phanix  dactylifera  and  ChamcRrops  humilis)  grow  upon  the  plains,  presents  the  majestic 
spectacle  of  a  chain  of  mountains,  the  tops  of  which  shoot  up  into  the  region  of  everlasting 


A64 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PABTlir. 


■now.  By  a  lovellingf  survey  executed  with  tho  ^eatest  care,  it  has  been  ascertained  that 
in  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  Granada,  the  Pico  de  Velota  rises  about  11,385  English  feet,  and 
llio  Mulhacen  11,660  English  feet,  above  the  level  of  the  ocean.  None  of  tho  mountains 
of  the  Pyrenees  are  of  so  great  a  height ;  for  Mont  Perdu,  the  loftiest  of  the  Spanish  Pyre- 
nees is  only  11,168  feet,  and  the  highest  of  the  French  Pyrenees  only  1722  fathoms.  Tlie 
peak  of  Mulhacen,  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  Granada,  wants  only  76  fathoms  of  being  as 
high  as  the  Peak  of  Teneriffe.  Yet  even  this  summit,  if  situated  in  the  same  latitude  as 
the  town  of  Mexico,  would  not  be  perpetually  covered  with  snow :  for  the  never-melting 
snows  begin  under  the  equator  at  2460  fathoms ;  under  the  twentieth  degree  of  latitude  at 
28.50  fathoms;  under  the  forty-fifth,  at  IbOO  fathoms;  and  under  the  sixty-second,  at  900 
fathoms." 

Thus  circumstanced  in  regard  to  climate,  and  the  elevation  of  its  mountains,  how  greatly 
is  it  to  be  regretted  that  no  country  in  Europe  has  been  so  little  investigated  in  regard  to  its 
botanical  productions !  Enough,  however,  is  known  for  our  purpose,  which  may  be  collected 
fi'om  the  different  travels  in,  and  accounts  of,  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  from  the  Rechercheg 
tur  la  Dittribution  Oiographique  dea  Vegelaux  Phanirogamea  dans  VAncien  Monde, 
already  alluded  to,  by  M.  de  Mirbel.  This  author  considers  the  whole  of  this  peninsula, 
with  the  exception  of  the  northern  part  of  Spain,  which  forms  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of 
Gascony,  and  which  belongs  to  the  temperate  zone,  as  entering  into  the  transition  zone.  If, 
therefore,  its  vegetation  has  any  affinity  with  that  of  France,  it  is  only  where  its  mountainous 
parts,  especially  the  Pyrenees,  resemble  the  mountains  of  France,  and  its  warm  districts  are 
like  the  extreme  south  of  France.  In  E^t  Valencia  and  Murcia,  in  the  south  of  Andalusia 
and  the  Algarves,  in  Western  Alemtejo  and  South  Estremadura,  the  rich  and  varied  vege- 
tation calls  to  mind  the  fertile  plains  of  Syria.  In  Andalusia,  frosts  are  unknown,  and  the 
snow,  if  it  ever  fklls,  melts  the  moment  it  touches  the  soil :  so  that  it  is  not  surprising  that, 
in  the  cultivated  parts,  the  Spaniards,  long  famous  for  their  voyages,  should  have  introduced 
many  vegetables  from  remote  parts  of  the  world ;  thus  giving  a  perfectly  tropical  appear- 
ance to  the  country. 

The  Erythrina  Corallodendron,  or  Coral  tree,  with  its  brilliant  scarlet  blossoms,  the 
Schinug  molle,  with  its  gracefully  pinnated  foliage,  and  the  Phytolacca  dioica,  are  intio- 
duced,  with  many  other  phnts,  from  South  America.  Even  the  bananas  are  common  to  the 
south  of  the  Guadalquivir;  as  are  also  the  Cayenne  Pepper;  and,  in  gardens,  the  Convolvu- 
lus Batatas,  or  Sweet  Potatx).  Everywhere  about  the  rural  habitations  of  the  Spanish  pea- 
santry, the  Date,  the  Orange  (Jig.  298.),  the  Lemon,  the  Olive,  the  Pomegranate,  the  Fig 


TheOrania. 


TiwFig 


{Jig.  299.),  and  the  Mulberry,  flourish  nearly  as  well  as  in  the  native  soil.  Link  notices  the 
trees  growing  about  Lisbon ;  "  they  are  chiefly,"  he  says,  "  Olive  and  Orange  trees.  Cypress, 
Judas  trees :  Elms  and  Poplars  appear  too.  But  of  Oaks,  Beeches,  and  Lime,  there  are 
none,  and  very  few  Willows ;  so  that  one  may  instantly  perceive  how  different  is  the  char- 
acter of  a  Lisbon  view  fh)m  that  of  Germany."  The  Orange  is  the  most  striking  of  these . 
for  there  are  many  plantations  in  quintas,  where  they  fbnn  compact  groves,  and  also  scat- 
tered in  open  spots.  These  trees  require  much  artificial  watering,  and  they  are  propagated 
by  seed,  and  afterwards  by  grafting  upon  those  seedling  trees.  In  December  and  January 
the  fVuit  begins  to  turn  yellow ;  and  at  the  end  of  January  and  in  February,  before  they  arc 
ripe  and  sweet,  they  are  gathered  for  exportation.  Towards  the  end  of  March  and  April 
the  oranges  are  very  go(M,  but  they  are  not  in  perfection  till  early  in  May.  In  July  and 
August,  Uiey  are  scarce,  and  over-ripe.  At  the  end  of  April  and  May,  the  new  flowers  ap- 
pear, the  fragrance  of  which  extends  Ikr  and  wide,  and  at  this  time  the  quantity  of  glittering 
fruit  emboKxned  amid  the  dark  foliage,  "  like  golden  lamps  in  a  green  night,"  relieved  stifi 


^fc-- 


«. 


Book  L 


SPAIN. 


06S 


mora  by  the  snowy  blossoma,  presents  an  object  which  continually  excites  new  admiration, 
though  it  is  one  of  daily  occurrence.  One  single  tree  fVequently  bears  1500  oranges,  and 
examples  are  not  wanting  of  their  bearing  2000,  and  sometimes,  though  rarely,  2^)0.  In 
the  provinces,  they  sell  for  half  a  farthing  apiece.  Figs  are  exported  largely  from  the  city 
of  Faro;  they  arc  the  most  important  produce  of  the  Algarve,  and  are  brought  down  by  the 
country  people  to  the  merchants  in  immense  quantities.  They  are  thrown  in  heaps  in  a 
building  prepared  for  the  purpose,  where  a  syrup  flows  from  them,  which  is  used  to  advan- 
tage in  makmg  brandy.  They  are  then  spread  to  dry  in  the  sun,  in  an  open  situation,  where 
they  are  left  for  a  few  days,  m  proportion  to  the  heat  of  the  weather ;  after  which  they  arc 
packed  into  small  baskets  made  of  the  leaves  of  the  Fan  Palm,  and  exported.  "Greece  and 
the  Algarves,"  M.  Link  observes,  "  are  the  only  countries  where  capnfication  is  practised , 
for  in  the  latter  country  are  some  varieties  of  Pigs,  pnd  those  very  excellent,  that  fall  to  the 
ground  immature,  ui.less  punctured  by  gnats."  Two  ideas  prevail  respecting  the  eflfect  of 
this  operation ;  the  general  opinion  being,  that  the  little  insect,  on  entering  the  Fig,  (which 
is  known  by  botanists  to  be  a  fleshy  receptacle,  including  many,  and  often  only  barren 
flowers,)  carries  with  it,  from  other  figs  that  it  has  visited,  and  from  which  it  comes  loaded, 
the  farina  necessary  for  fertilisation :  while  others  maintain,  and  among  them  M.  Link,  that 
the  puncture  caused  by  the  insect  gives  a  fresh  stimulus  and  a  new  movement  to  the  sap  or 
juices  of  the  fruit,  thereby  not  only  preventing  the  fall  of  the  fruit,  but  rendering  it  sweeter 
and  better  flavoured  ;  and  it  is  certam  that  many  of  our  common  fruits,  when  pierced  by  in- 
sects, acquire  the  sweetest  flavour.  The  ancients  perfected  the  figs  in  the  Archipelago  by 
means  of  an  insect,  a  species  of  Cynips  (C  Ficug).  In  Algarve,  besides  the  cultivated  kind, 
another  wild  sort  is  grown ;  in  which  the  insects  abound.  These  trees  are  recalled  Fijos  de 
torn ;  and  branches  of  them  are,  at  the  proper  season,  broken  off,  and  suspended  over  those 
intended  to  be  fertilised,  when  the  little  animals  come  forth,  alight  upon  the  fruits,  puncture 
tliem,  and  aid  their  ripening. 
Formidable  fences  are  made  of  the  Cactus  Tuna  (fig.  300.),  and  the  Agave  americana, 
gOQ  or  American  aloe.    The  former  is  often  mixed  with  the  Pome- 

granate, but  of  itself  it  constitutes  a  hedge  almost  impervious  to 
cattle.  In  Portuguese  it  is  called,  on  account  of  its  prickles, 
Fijo  do  inferno :  the  flowers  are  yellow  and  the  fruit  esculent ; 
the  latter  is  by  no  means  unpalatable,  and  is  regularly  sold  in 
Iiisbon.  Of  the  Agave  americana  we  have  already  spoken,  and 
snail,  therefore,  simply  mention  here,  that  its  leaves  undergo  a 
process  by  which  a  valuable  thread  is  extracted,  known  in  Por- 
tugal by  the  name  of  Filo  da  jnla.  The  largest  and  most  per- 
fect leaves  are  cut  oflT,  laid  upon  a  board,  and  scraped  with  a 
square  iron  bar,  which  is  held  in  both  hands,  until  all  the  juices 
and  pulp  are  pressed  out ;  the  nerves  only  remaining,  when 
these  are  found  easily  separable  into  threads.  Where  pasturage 
is  scarce,  as  in  Algarve,  the  cattle  eat  the  foliage  of  this  plant, 
if  cut  into  thin  transverse  slices. 

In  La  Mancha  grows  the  Esparto  grele  {Stipa  tenacissima), 
of  which  cords  are  made,  and  the  foliage  is  sent  in  large  quan- 
tities into  Portugal  for  this  purpijse.    To  prevent  the  careless 
destruction  of  these  valuable  plants,  penalties  are  inflicted  on 
CactuiTuna.  ^^^y  person  wlio  ventures  to  gather  them  before  the  month 

of  May,  when  they  are  in  perfection. 
Tlie  Carob  tree  (^Jig.  301.)  Link  reckons  the  most  beautiful  of  European  trees.  It  attains 
a  considerable  height,  forming,  with  its  large  evergreen  pinnated 
foliage,  a  head  of  considerablf.  dimensions,  and  yielding  a  welcome 
shade.  Among  the  foliage  hang  down  the  numerous  long  pods, 
which,  when  ripe,  are  used  as  fodder  for  cattle,  especially  the 
mules,  and  as  meat  for  swine,  though  inferior  to  the  acorns  of  the 
Evergreen  Oak.  Before  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors,  the  Sugar 
Cane  was  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  lately  it  has  been 
re-introduced,  at  San  Lucar,  into  a  garden  "  d'acclimation,"  to- 
gether with  Coffee,  Indigo,  and  Gum  Arabic.  A  vast  extent  of 
country  is  covered  by  the  Chameerops  humilis  {Dwarf  Palm  or 
Palmetto),  growing  in  waste  places.  This  vegetation,  in  part  ex- 
otic, follows  the  coasts  of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  to  the  east  and  to 
tlie  west  It  is  diffused  in  all  its  luxury  in  the  delicious  territory 
of  Valencia,  where  the  agriculture  of  the  Moors  is  still  held  in 
respect  With  the  species  already  named,  are  here  cultivated  the 
Aloe  perfoliata.  Yucca  aloitblia,  Cassia  tomentosa,  Melia  Azeda- 
rach,  many  kinds  of  Mimosa,  Annona,  &c.  In  the  environs  of 
^licant,  the  Date  harvest  is  very  abundant  This  Palm  there  grows  in  large  plantation^, 
Vol.  L  48 


301 


Carnb  Tree. 


9H 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOQRAPHY. 


Pakt  III 


and  often  attains  the  height  of  120  feet  It  reaches  alon^T  the  entire  coast,  to  the  40th  de- 
ffree,  and  perhaps  higher.  The  Agave  abounds  in  the  environs  of  Tarragona,  in  the  4l8t 
degree ;  and  the  Olive  continues  to  the  shore  of  France. 

In  general,  the  vegetation  of  the  east  of  the  Peninsula  differs  little  from  that  of  the  other 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  coasts  of  the  Ocean,  on  the  west,  are  less  hot,  according 
to  M.  Bory  de  St.  Vincent,  than  corresponding  latitudes  on  the  east  sides ;  so  that  the  south- 
em  vegetation  does  not  extend  so  far  to  the  north.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  Date,  the  Lemon, 
ttie  Orange,  abound  in  Algarve  and  Alemtejo.  The  Orange  grows  plentifully  in  the  cnvi< 
Tons  of  Oporto,  in  41°  ;  and  the  Olive  extends  to  42°.  A  great  number  of  American  plants, 
the  seeds  having  been  probably  brought  in  ballast,  are  mingled,  and,  as  it  were,  confounded, 
with  indigenous  species.  Upon  the  whole,  however,  the  vegetation  may  be  considered  as 
having  more  in  common  with  that  of  the  Atlantic  than  with  the  coasU  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean. Link  thus  pictures  the  climate  of  Portugal,  and  its  effects  upon  vegetation : — "  A 
heat,  equal  to  96°  of  Fahrenheit,  is  not  unc(Hnmon  in  this  country ;  and,  frum  conipamtive 
observations,  it  appears  that  the  climate  is  warmer  here  than  in  wazil,  though  the  heat  docs 
not  continue  near  so  long.  From  Midsummer-day  to  the  middle  of  September,  rain  is  ex- 
tremely uncommon,  and  even  in  the  beginning  of  that  month  very  scanty ;  the  drought  utlon 
continues  much  longer.  Immediately  after  the  first  rains,  follow  the  autumnal  floweiifi,  the 
Meadow  Saffnui  (Cto^Atca,  two  species  but  little  known);  Saffron  (CVocim  sativus);  tlie 
Autumnal  Snowdrop  {Leucojum  autumnale) ;  the  sweet^melling  Ranunculus  buUatus,  and 
many  others.  These  appear  in  the  higher  lands  around  Cintra,  where  the  rains  are  earlier 
than  in  the  low  parts  near  Lisbon.  Immediately  after  the  autumnal  flowers,  come  the 
spring  plants,  owing  to  which  the  interval  between  spring  and  autumn  is  scarcely  percep- 
tible. In  October  the  young  grass  springs  up,  and  the  new  leaves  shoot  out,  rendering  it 
the  pleasantest  month  of  the  year.  In  November  and  December  fall  heavy  rains,  with  fre- 
quent storms.  Days  of  perpetual  silent  rain  are  veiy  rare,  for  in  general  it  comes  down  in 
torrents.  The  brooks  round  Lisbon,  which  it  was  a  little  while  before  easy  to  step  over,  and 
which  wholly  disappear  in  summer,  now  rush  like  torrents  dovtm  tlie  hills.  This  swelling 
of  the  streams  renders  travelling  dif^ult  at  that  season,  and  woulu  retard  the  operations  of 
war  as  much  in  winter  as  the  drought  in  summer.  In  January,  cold,  clear  weather  oilen 
prevails,  but  becomes  milder  in  February,  which  is  generally  a  veiy  pleasant  month." 

The  most  common  vegetables  of  the  plains  of  Spam  are  the  dork  tree  (Ji^.  302.),  the 
Hex,  and  Kermes  Oak  (Jig.  303.),  the  Bay  tree,  the  Myrtle,  the  Philyrea  media  and  angus- 
302  _^    ^B^  303 


Kennea  Oak. 
Cork  Tree. 

tifelia,  Juniperus  Sabina,  Celtis  australis,  Pistacia  Terebinthus  and  Lentiscns ;  Rhamnus  Ala- 
ternus,  and  many  other  species  of  this  genus ;  Viburnum  Tinus,  Osyris  alba,  Paliurus  aus- 
tralis, the  Strawberry  tree,  the  common  and  shrubby  Jessamines,  the  Caper  plant,  and  a  great 
number  of  Cisti  (Jig.  304.)  with  other  shrubs,  whose  foliage  is  of  an  evergreen  and  coriace- 
ous nature.  Immense  plains  are  clothed  with  Lygeum  Spartum,  and  the  running  streams 
are  bordered  with  Bupleurum  spinosum  and  Nerium  Oleander. 

But  it  has  been  justly  remarked,  that  no  country  in  Europe  presents  a  more  sorrowful 
aspect  than  the  interior  of  the  Peninsula.  "  No  man,  perhaps,  saving  a  botanist,"  says  Link, 
"  could  travel  with  any  pleasure  in  the  barren  tracts  of  Old  Castile ;  but  this  pursuit  can 
render  travelling  both  instructive  and  interesting,  even  in  these  apparently  sterile  wastes. 
Where  forests  have  existed  there,  they  have  yielded  lo  the  stroke  of  the  axe ;  and  the  -laked 
soil  remains  without  any  culture.  Vast  chains  of  mountains  spread  out  in  all  directions,  and 
between  them  are  extended  the  Parameras,  more  or  less  elevated  plains,  frequently  as  naked 
as  the  steppes  of  Siberia."  M.  Bory  eiiiimates  at  iiom  1800  to  2000  feet  the  elevation  of  the 
Paramera  which  divides  the  sources  of  the  Douro  and  the  Ebro.  In  the  valleys  formed  by 
these  rivers  and  their  tributary  streams,  a  vegetation  of  great  beauty  is  found,  partaking  <x 


Boob  T. 


SPAIN. 


587 


tliat  in  the  more  temperate  climates  of  the  north.  Here  are  wen  amall  fields  of  Maize,  and 
even  of  Rye  and  Burley,  more  mrely  of  Wheat,  surrounded  by  lofty  Oaks,  Chestnuts,  and 
Poplars,  every  tree  supportingf  a  Vine,  which  spreads  over  it  and  not  unfrequently  reaches 
to  the  very  summit  of  the  highest  Oaks. 


'»  ll;.  :rjn    •  it,>i;i, . -.Mlifl;)!?  Vi'K,!. 


it«»i  flr.- :>«. 


, ;-  *i.;<  ••-wji 


Ciitui. 


ChMtnot 

The  great  mass  of  the  forests  which  have  escaped  destruction  are  mostly  formed  of  Ever* 
ffreen  Oaks ;  among  which,  besides  the  other  species  already  enumerated,  are  found  the 
Quercus  Ballota,  eegilopifolia,  feginea,  prasina,  crenata,  rotundifolia,  humilis,  &c.  The  latter 
does  not  exceed  six  inches  in  height  In  the  valleys  and  on  the  mountains  also,  grow  Tilia 
europsBa  {platyphyllos  ?\  Fagus  syl/atica,  Castanea  vesca  (^g,  306.),  Taxus  baccata,  Pinus 
sylvestris,  Fraxinus,  Omus,  &c.  The  commonest  forest  tree  on  the  plains  of  the  temperate 
zone,  namely  the  Oak  {Querent  Robur),  inhabits  the  southern  slope  of  the  Pyrenees.  It  is 
said  that  this  tree  occurs  also  in  some  parts  of  the  Peninsula. 

The  vegetation  which  prevails  on  the  lofty  mountains  in  the  interior  of  Spain  is  almost 
wholly  unknown  to  us.  M.  Ramond  has  made  some  interesting  observations  on  that  of  the 
Pic  du  Midi,  one  of  the  highest  of  the  Pyrenees ;  and  has  compared  the  plants  of  its  moat 
elevated  summit,  estimated  at  about  10,000  feet,  with  tiiat  of  Melville  Island,  as  described 
by  Mr.  R.  Brown.    The  similarity  is  very  striking. 


SUMMIT  OF  THE  HO  DU  MIDI 

Cryplogamia. 

Piingi 0 

liiciiKns SI 

Hc'piuicae 1 

Mi>!<u(.'H 6 

Ferns 4 

—  t 

PhanogomoM, 

(lyperacee 3 

(trasses 7 

Jiiiici 0 

PnlyKoneee 1 

riantacinete I 

I*liiiiibnE[ines I 

LysiniBchiiB 4 

Pedicularina 3 

Labiats 1 

BcrophularinR 1 

Boragineo 1 

Oentianeoe 2 

Campanulaceie 1 

Cichoracea) 3 

Coryinbifene 10 

RuhiaceB 9 

PapaveracetB 1 

Crur.ifera? 6 

CaryophylleB 6 

FicnideeB 4 

Saxiflrages   4 

Rnsacea; 4 

Leguminoaa 4 

AiuemaCSS  ...........**iii*ii:sss!i-  1 


—  71 


UELVILLB  ISLAND. 

Cri/ptogamia. 

Fungi 9 

Liclwni IS 

Hepatics 9 

Mosses 30 

Fern* 0 

Phaiu^amoua. 

Cyperacea 4 

Grasses 14 

Junci 9 

Folygonec S 


Scrophularina 1 

Ericeoe 1 

Campanulaces 1 

Cjchoracete 1 

Corymbifcm 4 

Ranunculacen 8 

Papaveraceffi 1 

CruciffertB 9 

Caryophyllea * 

Saziflrageo 10 

Rosncetc 4 

Leguminoaie 9 

Amentacea 1, 


-4B 


.fff^l 


see 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  III 


Of  these,  eight  of  the  Melville  hlando  licheiu  and  one  of  its  mostea  are  found  on  the  sugn 
mit  of  the  Pic  du  Midi ;  five  others  of  the  lichens,  and  one  of  its  two  hepatica,  and  six  of  iu 
mosses,  grow  on  the  crags  of  the  peak,  or  in  its  immediate  vicinity. 

SvESKOT.  3. — Zoology. 
The  native  zoology  has  been  so  little  investi^ted,  that  nothing  beyond  a  meagre  list  could 
be  furnished  of  indigenous  animals.  In  the  mountains  of  Asturias  Uie  Ibex  is  not  uncoiiiiiinii, 
and  the  Alpine  Squirrel  {Sciurua  alpinua)  is  only  found  in  the  Pyrenees.  In  the  Boiitiicni 
parts,  bordering  on  the  African  shore,  a  few  species  of  warblers  nave  recently  been  fomul, 
which  are  as  yet  unknown  to  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  European  Bee-eater  (Jiff.  300.)  :io- 
3Qg  quenta  the  vicinity  of  Gibraltar  in  large  flocks  during 

tne  season  of  migration. 

Among  the  domesticated  animals,  the  horse  and  slutcp 
of  Spain  deserve  particular  notice,  as  having  been  long 
celebrated  throughout  Europe.  The  best  horsea  are 
generally  about  four  feet  six  or  eight  inches  high ;  tiioy 
nave  all  the  Hre,  docility,  grace,  and  action  of  tlio 
beautiful  Arabians  of  Barbary  (generally  called  Biirbs), 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  these  noble  animals  huviiig 
been  introduced  by  the  Moors,  and  crossed  with  the 
Earopean  Bee-Bkiar.  native  breed :  those  of  Andalusia,  Granada,  and  Eslro- 

madura  are  the  most  distinguished.  At  Xeres  are  found 
two  perfectly  distinct  races;  the  one,  which  possesses  the  fine  qualities  above  mentioned,  is 
still  preserved  in  all  its  purity  at  the  Chartreux.  The  other  race  is  larger,  stronger,  Insa 
elegant,  and  used  for  common  purposes.  Ijatterly  but  little  care  has  been  bestowed  in  keep. 
ing  up  the  more  noble  breed,  so  that  fine  horses  are  not  so  common  in  Spain  as  formerly. 

The  mule,  in  so  mountainous  a  country,  is  particularly  useful,  and,  with  the  ass,  is  priii- 
cipally  used  for  conveying  goods  in  the  interior ;  the  breeds  of  the  latter  are  very  fine,  und 
are  hardly  excelled  by  those  of  Egypt.  Spain  is  still  famous  for  its  merino  race  of  sliecp 
(//?■.  307.).  The  flocks  are  kept  constantly  travelling  during  the  greater  part  of  the  sum- 
mer, but  are  carefully  pent  up  in  winter.    This  race,  subdivided  into  breeds,  is  extended 

over  the  greater  part  of  Spain ;  but  those  of  Cavage,  and 
Negrate,  are  the  best  A  third  breed,  the  Souan,  apjiears 
more  hardy,  and  passes  the  winter  in  Estremadura,  Anda- 
lusia, and  New  Castile :  these  three  constitute  the  Transhu- 
mante,  or  travelling  race,  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
Eatantes,  or  those  of  a  somewhat  inferior  breed,  who  do  nut 
migrate.  The  best  fleeces  are  those  which  appear  ahua^t 
black  on  tlieir  surface,  caused  by  tlie  dust  adhering  to  tiic 
peculiar  greasy  pile;  for  it  is  invariably  found  that  such 
fleeces  are  of  the  purest  white  beneath.  The  merinos,  dis- 
persed by  George  III.  over  England,  have  incalculably  im- 
proved the  native  races.  By  great  care  and  expense  on  the  part  of  the  native  graziers,  tliis 
valuable  race  has  likewise  been  introduced  in  the  distant  regions  of  Australia  with  efiiial 
success.  There  is  a  very  large  breed  of  oxen  in  the  country  round  Salamanca ;  but  tliR 
cattle  of  Spain  have  been  much  neglected;  the  mountaineers  deriving  all  their  milk  mid 
butter  from  goats.  The  spaniel  appears  to  be  a  breed  of  dogs  originating  from  this  country; 
and  the  Spanish  pointer  is  considered  to  have  a  greater  acuteness  of  scent  than  that  of 
Britain. 

Sbot.  in. — Hiatorical  Oeography. 

The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Spain,  like  those  of  Gaul  and  Britain,  were  of  the  Celtic  race, 
and  from  the  river  Ebro  (Iberus)  were  called  Celtiberi.  The  whole  country  was  by  tlie 
Greeks  called  Iberia,  and  sometimes,  from  its  western  position,  Hesperia.  The  people,  like 
those  of  the  rest  of  Europe,  were  divided  into  a  number  of  small  tribes,  hardy  and  warlikp, 
who  often  showed  a  peculiar  attachment  to  national  independence,  and  obstinacy  in  its 
defence. 

The  Carthaginians,  were  the  first  civilised  people  who  occupied  Spain,  which,  for  several 
centuries,  was  considered  as  theirs.  They  founded  colonies  on  the  most  advantageous  points, 
worked  its  rich  silver  mines,  and  easily  allured  many  of  its  brave  but  poor  inhabitants  into 
their  mercenary  armies ;  they  were  fiir,  however,  from  having  thoroughly  suklued  the  Pen- 
msula,  the  people  of  which,  on  the  rise  of  the  Roman  power,  endeavoured  by  its  alliance  tr 
emancipate  themselves  from  the  Punic  yoke.  The  siege  and  fall  of  Saguntum  seemed  to 
liave  extinguished  these  hopes,  and  to  have  secured  the  ascendency  of  Carthage ;  but  the 
events  which  marked  the  close  of  the  second  Punic  war  completely  humbled  that  proud 
republic,  and  put  an  end  to  its  dominion  over  Spain. 

The  Romans,  by  the  capture  of  Numantia  in  b.  c.  134,  established  their  supremacy  over 
Spain,  undisputed  by  any  other  nation ;  but  the  complete  subjugation  of  its  inhabitants  wa^ 
a  long  and  arduous  task,  to  which  the  utmost  exertions  of  Ceesar  and  his  lieutenants  were 


Merino  Shoep. 


BookL  SPAIN.  tW 

not  fully  adoquate.  Sptin,  however,  waa  at  lenj^h  reduced  to  a  province,  divided  by  Auirus- 
tuH  into  three  parts: — Tarraconensis,  the  north  and  eatit;  Bwtica,  the  south;  and  liUtfiUinia, 
PortujTal.  The  Spaniards  even  became  civilised  and  peaceable  subjects;  so  that  wlion 
Rome,  sinkinpf  under  its  own  weight,  was  unable  to  defend  them,  they  could  not  rrtiinne 
their  early  independence,  but  fell  a  prey  to  the  Vandals,  Goths,  and  otlier  barbarous  hunlut 
that  poured  in  tVom  the  north  of  Europe. 

The  Gothi),  in  this  terrible  struf^glo,  finally  prevailed ;  and  in  418  a  Gothic  dynasty  vvua 
fiilly  eHtabliflhod  over  Spain.  These  barbarous  invaders  appear  here,  as  elsewhore,  to  luive 
expelled  or  extirpated  tlie  native  people,  whoso  features  and  language  are  recognised  only 
in  Kome  of  the  higher  mountain  districts.  Afler  a  sway  of  three  centuries,  Uie  Goths  were 
destint'd  to  yield  to  a  new  people,  coming  from  a  remote  quarter. 

The  Arabs,  rendered  invincible  bv  fanaticism,  had  over-run  all  the  north  of  Africa,  and 
established  a  powerful  kingdom  in  Fez.  The  vengeance  of  Count  Julian  invited  them  over, 
and  opened  the  way  for  them ;  tlieir  immense  host  covered  tlie  plains  of  Andalusia ;  Roderick, 
the  Gothic  king,  was  totally  defeated.  The  invaders  then  over-ran  the  whole  kingdom,  with 
the  exception  of  some  mountain  recesses,  in  which  a  remnant  of  the  Gothic  chiefs  l()iind 
shelter ;  they  even  passed  tho  Pyrenees,  and  seemed  about  to  over-run  all  western  Europe. 
But  Charles  Martol  met  them  on  the  plains  of  Aquitaine ;  and,  afler  a  dreadful  battle  of  tin  ee 
days,  they  were  signally  overthrown,  and  never  again  attempted  to  pass  tlie  Spanish  frontier. 
Meantime  Don  Pclayo,  and  other  chiefs  of  the  Gothic  race,  again  raised  the  national  standurd 
.  in  the  mountains  of  the  Astiirias :  then  commenced  a  contest  of  70()  years,  distinguisiied  by 
numerous  heroic  achievements  and  memorable  events,  which  gave  to  the  Spanish  churucter 
that  romantic  and  adventurous  cast  which  it  has  never  wholly  lost.  The  Arabs  or  Mmirs 
still  retained  the  finest  provinces,  and  the  courts  of  Cordova  and  Granada  were  the  most 
splendid  and  polished  in  Europe.  The  Spaniards,  however,  under  a  succession  of  able  chiefs 
and  particularly  of  their  great  hero  the  Cid,  gained  ground  :  new  kingdoms  wore  successivol) 
founded ;  which  all  merging  into  those  of  Castile  and  Aragon,  comprehended  the  whole  ot 
Spain,  except  the  extreme  southern  kingdom  of  Granada.* 

Spain  was  again  formed  into  one  great  kingdom  bv  the  union  of  the  crowns  of  Castile  and 
Aragon,  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  in  1474,  and  by  the  final  overthrow  and  expulsion  uf 
the  Moors.  From  this  period  commences  the  most  brilliant  era  of  her  annala.  The  dis- 
covery of  America,  the  conquest  of  the  golden  regions  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  and  of  other 
dominions  so  extensive  as  to  make  it  a  plausible  boast  that  the  sun  never  set  on  them,  throw 
an  almost  unrivalled  lustre  around  the  Spanish  crown.  Under  Charles  V.  and  Philip  II., 
Spain  continued  the  most  powerful  kingdom,  and  her  armies  the  most  formidable,  of  any  in 
Europe.  The  throne  derived  even  an  addition  of  apparent  lustre  from  the  subversion  of  tlie 
popular  part  of  the  government,  and  the  conversion  of  a  body  of  grandees,  once  the  proudest 
in  Europe,  to  the  condition  of  humble  vassals. 

The  decline  of  Spain,  though  its  causes  had  begun  to  operate,  did  not  become  perceptible 
till  after  the  death  of  Philip  II.  A  gloomy  indolence  and  degrading  superstition  now  marked 
her  councils;  her  armies  were  vanquished  by  the  French  under  Condf'  and  Turenne;  she 
lost  her  place  and  rank  in  Europe.  The  trade  with  her  vast  coloni.  !•  ttered  by  absurd 
restrictions,  became  profitable  only  to  the  industrious  nations  wliich  supp'  'cd  its  materials. 
The  war  of  the  succession  drew  notice  towards  this  country,  and  called  forth  some  displays 
of  national  energy ;  but  the  Bourbon  dynasty,  which  it  placed  on  the  throne,  soon  relapsed 
into  the  characteristic  indolence,  and  Spain  became  little  more  than  a  dependency  of  France. 
We  know  not  whether  to  designate  as  an  era,  the  train  of  remarkable  events  which  have 

*The  Arabs  in  Spain,  tike  the  Saxons  in  England,  pstahlishcd  a  lastins  niemorinl  of  their  dominion  byenerafl- 
ing  tlinir  own  laneiiaite  on  that  of  the  country  which  they  niibdiied.  Of  thi;,  the  topography  of  the  PeninHula 
exhibits  innumeralile  instances.  The  names  of  rivera,  mountains,  towns,  and  places,  were  either  totally  or  par- 
tially changed,  by  the  victorious  invaders;  and  after  the  expulsion  of  their  descendants,  those  names  were  pr- 
petunted,  though  with  alterations  in  some  instances  as  arbitrary  as  those  which  were  made  in  the  ancient 
topography  of  the  country:  thus,  the  Roman  station,  Pa%  Augtuta,  was  transformed  by  the  Arabs  into  Batatit, 
and  afterwards  by  the  Spaniards  \nloBadajn;  Ca»ar  Augusta,  by  an  abbreviation  less  violent,  became  Saragosta, 
and  Emerila  ^Kgusli  was  contracted  into  Merida. 

The  Arabic  term  Medina  (city^  survives  in  two  eminent  instances  among  the  titles  of  the  Spanish  nobility: 
Medina  Selim  (the  city  of  Selim)  is  recognised  in  the  dukedom  o{  Mr-dina-Celi ;  and  the  colony  probably  called  New 
Sidon,  is  that  of  Medina- Sidonia.  From  the  generic  term  guad,  a  river,  and  velet  or  velcd,  a  landed  estate  or  district, 
many  names  may  be  explained  which  at  first  view  appear  capricious  and  arbitrary  :— 

Ex.     Ouad-al-aviar The  white  river. 

Guad-al-quivir The  great  river. 

Ouad-al  -higiara,  now  Oiiadalaxara, The  river  of  rocks. 

yelei  and  Veled  are  otlen  conjoined  with  proper  names,  ns/nz  Mnlapa,  feted  Vlid.  now  Valladnlid  :  thus,  Navnirre 
and  I,eon,  their  confines  never  having  been  occupied  hv  the  Arabs,  were  calli-d  by  them  Veled  Jlrroum,  th;'  land 
of  the  Romans.  Oetiro  was  applied  indifferently  to  an  island  or  a  peninsula  ;  hence  Alpetira.  Jlldea  means  «  hat 
is  coinpitliended  under  the  English  torin  a /arm.  It  is  of  common  occurrunco  in  itineraries,  as  .^/dto  rfW  i?io, 
Aldea  Oalle/ra,  Aldrns  de  Fonfso.  From  mntara.  a  bridge,  we  account  for  the  emphatic  name  AleHnttira.  Cohlnfo, 
\  castle,  enters  more  or  leas  prominently  into  the  composition  of  various  names;  as  Oa/iJaf  .^j/of,  the  cactle  of 
Ayat,  is  now  Calat^tit/ud;  CaUat  Rahah.  the  castle  of  Rabah,  is  now  Calatrava ;  M  Calilat.  simply  the  castle,  is 
now  Alcali'i.  Alcaiar,  a  word  of  fri-qiient  nccirrrence  iu  Spanish  topography,  is  a  fortified  house  or  small  rnstle  ; 
Jilmeria  is  an  otwervntnry.  _Bee  DfMription  of  Spain,  by  Gerif  Alhedris,  in  the  translation  of  Don  Josft  Antonio 
CondA,  whose  Historij  qf  ike  iJominaium  iff  the  jinun  in  Spain  is  sstecmed  one  of  the  most  masterly  works  thai 
have  appeared  in  the  present  age. 

Vol.  I  48*  3W 


870 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pa«t  nr. 


occurred  between  IROR  and  1822.  The  Spaniards  excited  the  admiration  and  oiitoniRhnient 
of  Europe  by  theii  daring  defiance  of  the  power  beneath  which  the  preateut  sovcreicni*  imd 
been  reduced  to  the  nink  of  vosails.  Their  subsequent  exploits  did  not  altojfether  corre- 
■pond  to  this  bc^innin^^.  Still,  their  resistance,  considered  as  that  of  a  people,  whs,  on  tiia 
whole,  obetinate  and  glorious;  it  even  appeared  that  there  had  been  formed  a  body  nttnchod 
to  popular  government,  and  eager  to  redress  the  political  grievances  untier  which  Spain 
.aboured.  Ultimately,  however,  the  eagerness  with  which  the  majority  of  tlit;  imtiim  ncqni- 
esced  in  the  system  of  absolute  power,  re-edtablished  by  foreign  interference,  tirnirthtMi  its 
nonour,  and  reduced  it  again  to  that  imbecile  and  degraded  state  in  which  it  hod  existed  fot 
several  centuries. 

Scot.  IV. — Political  Oeography. 

The  constitution  of  Spain,  ever  since  the  downfall  of  her  liberties  under  Charlns  V.,  has 
been  the  most  despotic  of  any  in  Europe,  except  Russia  and  Turkey.  The  Cortes,  that 
powerful  assembly,  whose  privileges  were  greater  than  those  of  any  other  European  rcpre- 
sentative  body,  have  since  that  period  been  rarely  assembled,  and  then  only  partially,  on 
occasions  of  mere  form.  The  only  two  bodies  which  possess  any  influence,  are  the  council 
of  state  and  the  council  of  Castile ;  but  as  these  are  entirely  under  the  appointment  and 
direction  of  the  monarch,  they  form  little  more  of  a  check  upon  absolute  power,  than  the 
Turkish  divan. 

Two  attempts  to  restore  a  representative  form  of  government  have  lately  been  made, 
under  circumstances  which  must  be  familiar  to  our  readers.  Unluckily,  the  leading  or  liberal 
party  were  hurried,  on  this  occasion,  into  an  opposite  extreme ;  adopting  the  system  of  uni- 
versal suflHge,  forming  themselves  into  one  house,  and  allowing  only  a  temporary  veto  to 
the  monarch.  This  system,  which  excluded  the  nobles  and  clergy,  the  most  wealthy  and 
influential  bodies,  was  iVom  the  first  decidedly  unpopular ;  and  Ferdinand  found  it  easy,  first 
without,  and  afterwards  with,  foreign  aid,  to  subvert  it,  and  to  re-establish  in  full  plenitude 
the  despotic  sway  exercised  by  his  predecessors, 

[The  Cortes  were  convoked  anew  in  1834,  with  some  modifications  of  their  ancient  orga- 
nization. The  body  now  consists  of  two  houses ;  that  of  proceresor  peers,  composed  in  part 
of  hereditary  members,  in  part  of  members  named  by  the  king  for  life,  and  the  procuradorea 
or  deputies,  elected  by  colleges  of  electors,  who  are  chosen  by  the  principal  citizens.  The 
Cortes  have  extensive  legislative  powers,  but  their  existence  and  authority  have  emanated  from 
the  royal  will. — Am.  Ed.] 

The  grandees  and  other  privileged  orders  in  Spain  are  distinguished  for  then-  pride  beyond 
any  others  in  Europe.  Even  Charles  V.  was  baffled  in  his  attempt  to  retrench  the  right 
of  wearing  the  hat  in  the  royal  presence.  The  Spanish  nobles  impair  their  fortunes  less  by 
extravagance  than  those  of  the  same  rank  elsewhere ;  and  as  they  intermarry  only  with  each 
other,  the  number  of  titles  or  hats,  as  they  are  called,  continually  accumulates  upon  single 
heads.  The  dukes  of  Medina-Celi,  of  Alba,  of  Infantado,  of  San  Estevan,  of  Ossuna,  and 
some  others,  hold  possessions  truly  immense,  covering  whole  provinces.  They  are  adminis- 
tered, indeed,  in  the  worst  possible  manner,  being  kept  in  their  own  hands,  managed  by 
tribes  of  factors  or  intendants,  of  whom  some  nobles  keep  300;  so  that  it  is  truly  astonishing 
that  they  should  sometimes  yield  §25,000  or  $40,000  a  year.  As  these  grandees,  however, 
live  not  on  their  estates,  but  in  the  cities,  in  secluded  pomp,  they  have  lost  all  their  feudal 
influence,  and  the  ties  which  united  them  with  the  greater  body  of  the  people.  The  hidaliros, 
claiming  nobility  by  descent  from  the  members  of  great  families,  are  much  more  numerous, 
and  form,  in  some  provinces,  a  lar^e  proportion  of  the  inhabitants.  They  are  oflen  reduced 
to  great  poverty;  m  which  they  dispi  ,y  that  union  of  pride  and  indolence  which  has  been 
supposed  characteristic  of  the  Spaniard.  Mr.  White  mentions  a  species  of  illustrious  birth 
quite  peculiar  to  this  country,  consisting  in  a  pure  Christian  descent,  without  any  mixture 
of  Jewish  or  Moorish  blood,  which  last  is  supposed  to  produce  so  deep  a  stain,  that  no  time 
can  efface  it.  The  clergy,  moreover,  exercise  a  paramount  influence  over  the  minds  par- 
ticularly of  the  lower  orders,  and  have  been  the  main-spring  in  all  the  movements,  good  or 
bad,  which  for  a  long  time  post  have  taken  place  in  the  Peninsula. 

The  revenue  of  Spain,  though  levied  with  little  regard  to  the  comfort  and  well-being  of 
the  subject,  has  never  risen  to  any  great  amount  Yet  she  is  the  only  power  which  ever 
derived  any  from  her  colonies;  as  the  quinta,  or  royal  fifth  of  the  mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru, 
after  every  deduction,  brought  home  considerable  treasure ;  but  this  source  of  wealth  is  now 
withdrawn.  The  other  taxes  were  the  most  ruinous  to  industry  and  trade  ever  contrived 
by  any  government.  The  alcavala,  or  impost  upon  each  transference  of  commodities  from 
one  hand  to  another,  seems  expressly  destined  to  impose  fetters  upon  commerce ;  while  the 
royal  monopolies  of  salt,  lead,  powder,  tobacco,  and  other  articles  in  general  use,  have  the 
usual  pernicious  effects.  Combined  with  those  prohibitory  clauses,  by  which  Spain  endea- 
voured without  success  to  prevent  her  industrious  neighbours  from  supplying  the  wants  of 
her  American  colonies,  they  gave  rise  to  a  vast  contraband,  carried  on  in  almost  open  defiance 
of  govornment    Hence  the  taxation  of  Spain,  though  highly  oppressive  to  the  nation,  yields 


Book  L 


SPAIN. 


871 


very  little  to  the  crown;  being  in  a  gnat  mcMure  absorbed  by  the  support  of  the  individual! 
employed  in  ita  collection,  who  aro  said  to  amount  to  10,05U.  Althuu|;n,  thGrofort),  tiie  entire 
sum  taken  fVom  the  people  has  been  suspected  not  to  fall  short  of  12,00<),()U()/.  steriinff,  the 
receipt  by  ffovornnient  m  1828  did  not  exceed  5,98(),0U0/.  The  expenditure  in  that  year 
wuH  tor  theannv,2,65(MN)0{. ;  navy,  4(H),(M)0{. ;  marine,  1,446,000/. :  justice,  14.VMK)/. ;  state, 
1(IH,(KH)/. ;  royal  household,  Q([)5,(NM)/.  At  tlie  same  time,  S\Mm  is  burdenud  with  a  debt  of 
lli(),(HM),0<N)/.  sturlinff,  of  which  the  revenue  would  be  wholly  inadequate  to  dcfhiy  the  inte- 
rent^  had  not  more  than  half  conHinted  of  the  rin/al  valea,  which  do  not  bear  any.  Under  the 
roimtitutional  (government  a  conaidornble  addition  of  debt  was  incurred,  which,  however, 
Fi^rdinand  VII.  cleared  otf  by  refutiing  to  acknowled((e  it;  while  he  himself  ineffectually 
attempted  to  raise  a  loan  to  any  amount 

The  navy,  at  the  commencement  of  the  late  war,  was  at  least  respectable,  and  a  formi- 
dable auxiliary  to  France.  The  fatal  days  of  St.  Vincent  and  Tra&lgar,  and  the  fVuitless 
expeditions  to  South  America,  reduced  it  toil  feeble  state.  In  1826  it  consisted  often  ships 
of  the  line,  sixteen  frigates,  and  thirty  smaller  vessels. 

The  army  of  Spain,  which  under  Charles  V.  and  Philip  was  the  bravest  and  most  formi- 
dable in  Europe,  has  for  a  century  and  a  half  enabled  her  to  rank  very  low  among  military 
nations.  It  is,  however,  at  present  the  best  organised  part  of  her  establishment  According 
to  the  author  of "  A  Year  in  Spain,"  it  consists  of  25,000  roval  guards,  and  55,000  troops 
of  the  lino  and  provincial  militia,  which,  being  commanded  by  experienced  officers,  formed 
during  a  period  of  protracted  warfare,  possess  a  considerable  degree  of  efficiency;  and  their 
discontent  being  an  object  of  dread,  every  effort  is  made  to  pay  them  regularly.  The  royalist 
volunteers,  amounting  to  about  800,000  men,  formed  a  bana  of  armed  fanatics  almost  entirely 
under  the  command  of  the  priests  and  monks,  and  seeking  in  theur  favour  to  lord  it  both  over 
king  and  people. 

Sbot.  V. — Productive  Indtutry.  -  .   • 

In  respect  to  industry  and  wealth,  Spain,  which  had  every  opportunity  within  and  without 
of  becoming  the  foremost  nation  of  Europe,  is,  in  fact,  the  poorest  and  the  most  uncultivated. 
The  insecurity  of  property,  and  the  multiplied  restraints  imposed  by  an  unenlightened  govern- 
ment, appear  to  be  the  main  causes  which  have  paralyzcHl  all  branches  of  industry.  The 
fiirious  bigotry  of  its  monarchs,  in  particular,  led  to  the  most  suicidal  acts  against  the  public 
weal.  At  the  commencement  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  country  contained  a  numerous 
population  of  Jews  and  Moors,  who  formed  its  most  industrious  and  wealthy  inhabitants,  and 
rendered  it  the  most  flourishing  kingdom  in  Europe.  The  Jews,  unless  in  the  alternative  of 
feigned  conversion,  were  expelled  from  the  kingdom  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  the  Moors 
by  Philip  III.  Although  it  appears  to  be  upon  exaggerated  estimates  that  Spain  has  ever 
been  supposed  to  have  previously  contained  20,000,000  of  people,  yet  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  the  emigration  of  mercantile  communities,  with  their  capital  and  machinery,  must  have 
struck  deeply  at  the  root  of  the  national  prosperity. 

Spanish  agrictilture,  it  must  be  confessed,  has  some  obstacles  to  struggle  against.  The 
territory,  as  we  have  had  occasion  to  observe,  is  traversed  in  every  direction  by  chains  of 
rugged,  and  often  barren,  mountains.  Yet  these  elevated  provinces  being  the  seats  of  com 
^rative  liberty  and  industry,  ar«  o"^  the  whole  the  best  cultivated  and  the  most  populous 
The  great  extent  and  continuity  of  these  chains  certainly  present  serious  difficulties  to  tiie 
transport  of  grain.  When  government  were  bringing  a  supply  from  Old  Castile  to  the  capital, 
it  was  found  that  30,000  beasts  of  burden  were  necessary  to  carry  2000  quarters.  Another 
great  impediment  to  effective  agriculture  consists  in  the  habit,  partly  oriental,  partly  formed 
during  a  long  internal  warfare,  which  leads  the  farmers  to  crowd  into  towns,  and  thus  live 
often  at  many  miles'  distance  from  the  fields  which  they  cultivate.  In  many  cases  they 
merely  pitch  tlieir  tents  during  seed-time  and  harvest,  and  at  other  seasons  pay  only  occa- 
sional visits.  They  are  also  very  poor,  destitute  of  capital,  and  oppressed  by  the  burden  of 
tithes  and  other  exactions. 

The  grain  produced  in  Spain  is  of  admirable  quality ;  the  wheat  of  Andalusia  bearing 
a  price  of  ten  or  fifteen  per  cent  higher  than  that  of  any  foreign  wheat  brought  to  the  mar- 
kets of  Cadiz.  But  a  deplorable  defect  appears,  when  it  is  stated  that  Spain,  a  country 
purely  agricultural,  does  not  grow  com  for  her  own  use,  but  makes  a  regular  importation. 
This,'however,  according  to  R)urgoing,  amounts  only  to  2,000,000  fanegas  or  400,000  quar- 
ters ;  a  smallproportion  of  the  entire  consumption,  which  may  be  estimated  at  12,000,000 
of  quarters,  'oie  agriculture  of  Spain,  however,  produces  three  valuable  articles ;  wool,  wine, 
and  barilla. 

The  wool  of  the  merino  is  of  almost  unrivalled  fineness,  though  dearly  purchased  by  the 
system  upon  which  it  is  produced.  Vast  flocks,  amounting  to  20,000,  ^,000,  or  even  60,000, 
belong  to  the  grandees,  convents,  and  dignitaries  of  Spam.  After  being  pastured,  during 
summer,  on  the  sides  of  the  mountains  of  Leon  and  Old  Castile,  they  descend,  in  winter, 
chiefly  to  the  plains  of  Estremadura.  According  to  the  rules  of  the  powerfiii  society  of  the 
mesta,  composed  of  the  above  high  members,  they  must  pass  freely,  and  be  allowed,  on  pay- 


579 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PAtTin 


ment  of  a  ver^  inadequate  rant,  to  pasture  upon  all  the  unoncloacd  landa,  which  form  the 
bulk  of  thoHo  in  Spain.  The  cntiro  number  of  iihtiop  in  nil  thcMC  wuii<ierin(f  fl(>cki  i«rflckiMii>d 
at  n,0()0,(NM);  and  thero  are  a  groat  numbor  which  remain  ntationary,  and  oi^oy  privilt!(r(>i 
nearly  aimilar.  The  annual  shearing  takes  place  on  a  ffreat  scale,  and  wittt  much  coluhra* 
tiun ;  and  tlie  wool  is  caretlilly  sorted  into  three  kinds,  according  to  the  part  of  the  body 
fVom  which  it  is  taken. 

The  wines  of  Spain  are  produced  on  the  fine  plains  of  the  southern  provinces.  Tiie 
most  important  is  the  Xeres  or  sherry,  which  has  come  into  such  general  use  witli  ilie 
Engliiih  nation.  Mr.  Jacob  reckons  that  40,U00  pipes  are  produced  in  the  plain  of  Xur*>H ; 
of  which  15,()00  are  exiwrtod,  almost  the  whole  to  England.  Around  Mula^  is  iiimlo 
wine  still  more  valued,  tliou^h  not  in  such  quantity;  which,  when  white,  is  culled  moun- 
tain, when  red,  tent  (tinto).  The  northern  and  central  provinces  yield  wine  only  uf 
inferior  value. 

Barilla,  the  finest  Liown  species  of  ashes,  and  highly  usoflil  in  ^lass-making,  bleaching, 
and  other  processes,  is  procured  bv  burning  various  species  of  salme  and  aromatic  plums 
in  the  provinces  of  Murcia  and  Valencia,  and  is  one  of  the  few  articles  which  other  natimis 
con  nowhere  else  procure  of  equally  good  quality.  Silk  and  oil,  in  the  Mediterranean  pro- 
f  inces,  are  only  limited  by  the  want  of  culture  or  demand. 

The  manufactures  of  Spain  have  been  of  little  importance  since  the  expulsion  of  the 
Moors.  That  industrious  people  introduced  the  silk  manufacture ;  a  branch  untiruly  suited 
to  a  country  where  the  material  is  produced  in  the  greatest  perfection  ;  but  it  is  now  geno 
rally  decayed,  unless  in  Valencia,  where  it  was  supposed  lately  to  employ  !)000  peo|)lL>. 
The  blades  of  Toledo  were  once  famous  over  Europe,  and  tlie  city  has  still  a  royal  muiui- 
factory  of  swords,  though  of  little  importance.  The  Spanish  government  has  devoted  rathor 
an  extraordinary  attention  to  manufactures,  but  unfortunately  seeks  to  promote  them  by  the 
king  becoming  himself  the  pro<iucer.  He  has  established  a  great  factory  of  broadcloth  iit 
Guodalaxaro,  which,  having  fine  materials  at  hand,  is  rather  thriving.  Yet  Spain  does  not 
supply  herself  with  fine  cloth.  Other  royal  works  are  those  of  porcelain,  at  San  Ildefoniio; 
paper,  in  Segovia ;  cards  and  tapestry  at  Madrid :  all  rather  for  show  than  use. 

Commerce,  for  which  Spain  seemed  to  have  monopolised  the  most  extensive  materiaJH, 
has  long  been  in  a  state  at  least  as  low  and  depressed  as  any  other  branch.  It  has  sufierud 
severely,  indeed,  from  the  immense  importance  attached  to  it  by  the  government,  which 
actually  crushed  it  to  pieces  in  the  attempt  to  prevent  any  portion  from  escaping.  To  ab- 
Borb  within  their  own  circle  the  entire  treasures  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  was  the  first  pcjcy 
of  the  Spanish  sovereigns.  The  gold  and  silver  of  those  regions  were  to  be  brought  exclu- 
sively to  Spain,  never  to  be  taken  out  of  it,  and  only  the  produce  and  manufactures  of  that 
country  to  be  sent  in  exchange.  By  a  sad  fiitality,  the  commerce  of  the  cojonies  was  cur- 
ried on  almost  entirely  by  French  and  English  merchants ;  nearly  all  the  goods  exported 
thither  were  foreign;  and  Spain,  of  all  her  neighbours,  was  the  most  destitute  of  the  weulth 
accruing  from  this  trade.  These  colonies,  with  the  exception  of  Cuba  and  the  Philippines, 
are  now  gone,  and  with  them  the  greatness  of  Cadiz,  which,  by  the  absurd  monopoly  granted 
to  her,  became  one  of  the  principiu  emporia  of  Europe.  The  trade  of  Spain  consists  now 
in  the  export  of  wines,  fVuits,  brandies,  wool,  silk  raw  and  manufactured,  lead,  quicksilver, 
barilla,  and  a  few  other  articles,  which,  according  to  a  very  imperfect  document,  issued  by 
the  Spanish  government,  amounted  in  1826  to  about  1,584,0002.  Of  this,  241,000/.  was 
stated  to  be  to  the  colonies.  Her  imports  consist  of  sugar,  cocoa,  salt  fish,  spices,  wood, 
rice,  butter  and  cheese,  hides,  cotton  wool,  and  almost  every  species  of  manufactured  com- 
modity. They  are  stated  for  the  same  year  at  about  3,267,000/.,  of  which  724,000/.  was 
from  the  colonies. 

Internal  communication  is  a  particular  in  which  Spain  actually  labours  under  natural  dis- 
advantages, from  the  obstructed  navigation  of  its  rivers,  and  its  long  and  steep  chains  of 
mountains.  These  obstacles  the  government  has  endeavoured  to  surmount  by  vast  but  ill- 
executed  projects  of  improvement.  They  had  conceived  the  plan  of  a  grand  canal,  which, 
passing  through  Asturias,  Old  Castile,  and  Aragon,  might  join  the  Mediterranean  with  the 
Bny  of  Biscay.  Of  this  mighty  undertaking,  only  two  small  portions  exist ;  the  canal  of 
Aragon,  running  parallel  to  the  Ebro  from  Saragosso,  and  that  of  Old  Castile  alonfr  llie 
Pisuerga  and  Carrion  by  Placencia;  but  as  neither  of  them  makes  any  approach  to  tlie  sea, 
their  benefit  is  very  limited.  The  main  roads  maintained  by  government  between  Mndrid 
and  the  other  great  cities  are  good,  and  the  mails  well  conducted ;  but  most  of  the  oilier 
communications  are  mere  tracks  worn  by  the  feet  of  mules,  which  are  chiefly  employed  in 
tlie  conveyance  of  goods. 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 

■    * 

The  population  of  Spain,  according  to  a  census  made  in  1798,  amounted  to  10,351,000. 
It  was  generally  understood,  however,  that  the  jealousy  of  the  people,  and  all  the  obstacles 
usually  encountered  in  such  undertakings,  operated  to  a  peculiar  extent  in  diminishing  the 


Book  1. 

inn  Hint. 


Book  I. 


BPAIN. 


rm 


tmoiint.  Thn  eeiuiM,  In  17W-fl,  jfavo  only  l(),2flfi,(100,  of  which  Iflfl.flOO  wnrt  ehurch* 
niiiii ;  and  nmoui;  thoae,  01,000  worn  monks,  un«l  JW,.'V)0  niinn.  Theri'  with  4H0,(NN)  hi- 
dalflfnii ;  84,000  morchantit ;  40,0(M)  manufactureni ;  271,(NK)  artirann ;  ()07,(NN)  (H'aiwntM ; 
WMMNK)  (lay-labourorH ;  2HO,(l00  domcatic  male  lorvanta.  A  conmia  waa  undertaken  in  IH'JO, 
wliich  waa  not  flilly  completed,  but  carried  so  fkr  aa  to  prove  that  the  number  of  inhabitantK 
must  bo  considerably  greater  than  the  above  :  it  is  estimated  by  Minano  at  ld,792,(NN) ;  by 
HasscI  at  i:),0.'M,(KM). 

The  national  character  of  the  Spaniard  is  marked  by  striking  features.  The  genuine 
Spanianl  is  grave,  proud,  adventurous,  romantic,  honourable,  and  genormis.  It  hns  b<^en 
insinuated  that  this  is  the  Hpaniard  of  the  sixteenth  contury«  of  whom  the  Hpaniard  of  the 
present  day  is  only,  as  it  were,  the  shadow.  But  though  the  higher  ranks  nave  certainly 
luHt  the  original  stamp,  and  become  flrivolous  and  dissipated,  Uie  body  of  the  people,  and 
expccittlly  the  peasantry,  form  a  very  fine  riice.  Even  among  the  fbrmer,  the  late  troubles 
brought  forward  signal  displays  of  heroism,  though,  as  too  oflen  happens  in  such  cases, 
equally  base  examples  of  treachery.  In  the  virtue  and  wisdom  of  the  nest  Spaniards,  there 
is  apt  to  be  something  speculative  and  theoretical,  not  applicable  to  the  practical  purposes 
of  lite ;  a  want  of  the  wisdom  of  action.  In  prosperous  jircumstances  they  readily  give 
way  to  supineness  and  false  confidence ;  but  in  sudden  and  overwhelming  vicissitudes, 
which  sink  the  spirit  of  others,  their  latent  energies  are  roused,  and  they  display  unexpected 
and  surnrising  resources.  Although  assassination,  which  was  once  the  reproach  of  Spain, 
is  greatly  diminished,  yet  a  promptitude  to  fight  and  to  shed  blood,  characteristic  of  all  na- 
tions imperfectly  civilized,  is  still  prevalent.  It  is  accompanied  with  a  readiness  to  rise  in 
tumultuary  insurrections,  and  an  unwillingness  to  submit  to  the  restraints  of  discipline. 
The  jealousy  which  was  wont  to  dwell  so  deep  and  dark  in  the  mind  of  the  Spanish  hu» 
band,  has  been  superseded  by  a  general  laxity  of  morals.  The  custom  is  said  to  prevail,  that 
every  married  lady  should  have  a  cortvjo  or  gallant,  corresponding  to  the  Italian  cicnoeo  ; 
and  thougli  the  usage  mav  not  bo  so  decidedly  criminal  as  it  appears  to  strangers,  it  is  cer- 
tainly inconsistent  with  tiiDse  habits  and  feelings  which  form  the  felicity  of  the  matrimonial 
state.  In  this  singular  relation,  fixed  rules  are  observed,  and  a  certain  fidelity  is  exacted  ; 
the  jealousy  of  the  husband  is  assumed  by  the  cortejo ;  and  the  lady  who  changes,  at  least 
with  any  frequency,  this  object  of  attachment,  loses  ca$te  in  the  eyes  of  the  public. 

The  religious  state  of  Spain  need  only  be  mentioned  to  suggest  the  dark  and  gloomy  fea- 
tures by  which  it  is  marked.  That  bigotry  and  superstition  which  the  Romish  faith  con- 
tracted during  ages  of  darkness,  and  which  in  all  other  countries  is  so  much  abated,  retains 
nearly  its  fbll  force  in  Spain.  The  Inquisition,  that  frightftil  tribunal,  the  disgrace  of  mo<lom 
Europe,  which  here  hela  its  central  seat,  kept  alive  its  fires  against  all  who  exercised  their 
reason  on  a  subject  connected  with  the  national  faith.  The  oraer  of  Jesuits,  who  have  been 
callod  the  militia  of  the  Romish  church,  originated  alwi  in  this  country.  The  Inquisition 
perished  in  the  late  struggle;  yet  a  numerous  body  still  call  aloud  for  its  re-establishment, 
and  the  most  liberal  rulers,  whom  the  revolution  raised  to  power,  durst  not  attempt  any  ap- 
proach to  toleration,  or  to  trench  upon  the  "  Catholic  religion  one  and  indivisible."  This 
spirit  of  bigotry  and  superstition  is  aeeply  diffused  through  the  nation,  who,  it  lliev  no  longer 
demand  that  heretics  shall  be  committed  to  the  flames,  never  doubt  at  least  of'^  the  future 
tortures  to  which  they  are  destined.  All  the  childish  and  absurd  customs  which  marked  its 
prevalence  during  the  dark  ages,  are  preserved  nearly  unaltered  ;  the  processions  and  ex- 
nibitions,  in  whicn  the  events  of  sacred  history  are  represented,  often  in  a  familiar  and  ludi- 
crous manner ;  the  endless  festivals,  which  impoverish  the  nation,  and  favour  its  natural 
indolence ;  and  the  zeal  of  multitudes,  who  are  induced  by  mistaken  piety  to  withdraw 
themselves  from  their  families  and  the  world.  Mr.  Blanco  White  has  given  a  striking 
account  of  the  artifices  by  which  the  young  female  is  led  to  make  the  irrevocable  sacrifice ; 
the  respect  and  importance  attached  to  her  during  the  period  of  noviciate ;  the  ceremonies, 
which  resemble  those  of  marriage,  even  the  name  of  bride  being  given  to  her ;  and  the  dis- 
grace attached  to  a  retractation.  Yet  it  appears  evident,  from  the  same  author,  that  this 
profession  is  often  deeply  sincere ;  that  it  aids  in  producing  that  strong  moral  feeling  which 
prevails  throughout  the  nation;  that  many  are  even  tormented  by  minute  conscientious 
scruples ;  and  that,  with  such  persons,  absolution,  founded  on  false  pretensions  to  penitence, 
is  considered  as  aggravating  the  ffuilt  At  the  same  time,  there  is  a  combination  of  deep 
devotion  and  dissolute  conduct,  which  not  only  rapidly  succeed  each  other,  but  actually  co- 
exist, in  a  manner  never  jeen  in  any  Protestant  society.  It  may  be  observed,  that  amid  this 
thick  darkness  which  covers  the  nation,  a  body  of  men  has  lately  arisen,  of  active  and  en- 
quiring minds,  who  have  discerned  the  errors  of  the  national  creed,  and  have  passed  to  the 
opposite  extreme.  They  are  comparatively  few  in  number,  however ;  and,  as  already  ob- 
served,  even  in  their  greatest  triumph,  although  they  considerably  reduced  the  conventual 
establishments  of  Spain,  they  never  durst  attempt  to  introduce  the  toleration  of  any  form  of 
worship  different  from  the  Catholic. 

Scasish  litentture,  during  the  era  of  the  iiational  glory,  supported  itself  at  least  on  a 


74 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Past  m. 


level  with  that  of  any  other  nation  in  Europe.    Spain  had,  as  it  were,  a  literature  to  itself 
scarcely  any  of  the  productions  of  which,  if  we  except  the  inimitable  satire  of  Cervantes, 
becuine  familiar  to  the  rest  of  Europe.     During  the  middle  age,  she  was  rich  in  chivalric 
■x)mance,  the  taste  for  which,  however,  was  banished  by  the  appearance  of  Don  Quixote,  a 
change  which  some  lament,  as  having  led  to  the  decline  of  the  national  spirit    The  poetry 
of  Spain,  roused  by  so  many  vicissitudes  of  internal  revolution  and  transmarine  triumph, 
took  a  somewhat  lofly  flight.    The  Araucana  of  Ercilla,  celebrating  her  conquests  in  the 
New  World,  is  named  together,  though  not  on  a  level,  with  the  best  modem  epics.    Gar- 
cilosso  de  la  Vega,  Viilegos,  Mcndoza,  and  others,  chiefly  ofiicers  in  the  army  of  Charles  V., 
introduced  a  style  formed  on  the  Italian  model ;  and,  having  the  advantage  of  a  noble  and 
sonorous  language,  worked  up  their  verses  to  the  highest  polish.    But  it  is  m  the  drama, 
that  the  Spaniards  have  been  chiefly  distinguished.     Lope  de  Ve^  and  Calderon,  indeed, 
construct  their  plots  with  an  entire  disregard  of  the  unities,  filled  with  extravagant  incidents, 
and  strained  and  artificial  sentiments.    But  they  display  an  inexhaustible  fertility  of  inven- 
tion, and  often  strong  traits  of  character ;  so  that,  though  they  never  could  be  transferred 
entire  to  any  other  stage,  the^  furnished  useful  hints  both  to  uie  French  and  English  dra- 
matists.   Mariana's  History  of*^  Spain  ranks  among  classical  productions ;  while  Herrera  and 
Sol  is,  though  of  inferior  merit,  have  produced  valuable  histories  of  the  Spanish  transactions 
in  the  New  World.    To  Don  Antonio  de  Solis,  the  Spaniards  are  willing  to  ascribe  that  in- 
imitable satire  on  human  character  and  manners,  GU  Bias,  which  must,  they  say,  have  been 
written  by  a  Spaniard  and  a  courtier.    As  such,  he  might  rejoice  that  it  had  amply  fulfilled 
his  mtentions  without  compr  mising  his  security,  and  could  ve^  well  afford  to  dispense  with 
the  fame  which  redounded  to  its  reputed  author,  Le  Sage.    These  writers  belong  to  the 
classic  age  of  Spain,  which  nc^irly  expired  with  the  seventeenth  century;  but  of  late,  the 
intellectual  spirit  which  has  spread  so  actively  throughout  Europe,  has  penetrated  into 
Spain,  and  made  vigorous  struggles  against  the  night  of  ignorance  and  prejudice  in  which 
that  country  was  involved.    Campomanes,  Ustariz,  Jovellanos,  and  Arguelles,  have  endea- 
voured to  trace  the  causes  which  have  paralysed  Spanish  industry,  and  to  discover  the  means 
of  reviving  it ;  Peyjo6  has  done  much  to  rouse  a  spirit  of  reflection ;  Yriarte,  Isla,  and  Me- 
lendez  Valdez,  have  produced  agreeable  miscellaneous  writings ;  and  Moratin  has  adopted  a 
more  regular  drama,  formed  on  the  French  model.    There  are  extensive  public  libraries ; 
one,  the  royal  library  in  Madrid,  consisting  of  130,000  volumes,'  with  valuable  manuscripts, 
and  a  rich  collection  of  medals ;  and  others  in  the  great  provmcial  towns ;  but  the  preva- 
lence of  monkish  legends,  and  the  prohibition  of  many  of  the  most  important  standard  works, 
greatly  limit  their  value.    The  universities  are  numerous,  and  that  of  Salamanca  once  per- 
haps the  most  celebrated  in  Europe ;  but  education  being  conducted  upon  obsolete  and  scho- 
lastic principles,  and  impregnated  with  the  national  bigotry,  they  have  long  ceased  to  attract 
students  from  any  place  out  of  Spain.    Some  of  the  younger  members  were  supposed  to 
Iiave  embraced  novel  ideas  in  regard  to  religion  and  government ;  whence  they  have  become 
objects  of  jealousy  to  the  government,  which  will  probably  be  little  anxious  to  rescue  them 
from  that  decay  into  which  they  were  thrown  by  the  events  of  the  revolution. 

The  fine  arts,  especially  painting,  could  boast  in  Spam  of  a  dis- 
tinguished school,  marked  by  features  strikbgly  national  and 
original.  It  is  characterised  by  depth,  force,  great  truth  of  nature, 
and  a  warm  expression  of  devotional  feeling.  Murillo,  Ribeira 
(self-named  Spagnoletto),  and  Velasquez,  are  those  alone  whose 
works  are  difiused  throughout  Europe ;  but  bv  those  who  have 
visited  Spain,  Cano,  Juanes,  Ribalta,  and  Morales  aro  mentioned 
in  terms  of  equal  praise.  The  Escurial  and  other  royal  palaces 
are  likewise  adorned  hy  some  of  the  finest  pieces  of  Raphael, 
Titian,  and  Rubens.  This  taste  seems  to  have  declined  with 
that  of  literature ;  and  Townshend  observed  that  the  nobles  set 
little  value  on  the  magnificent  collections  with  which  their 

Ealaces  were  adorned.  Of  late  the  e^rts  to  revive  painting 
ave  been  considerable,  but  without  producing  any  artists  of  much 
celebrity.  The  Spaniards  are  fond  of  music,  but  delight  rather 
in  detached  airs  for  the  serenade  and  ball,  than  in  that  higher 
class  in  which  the  Italians  and  Germans  excel.  The  guitar  (Jig.  308.)  as  an  accompaniment 
for  song,  and  the  castanets  for  the  national  dance,  arc  characteristic  Spanish  instruments. 

The  Spaniards  have  fevourite  and  peculiar  diversions.  They  are  most  passionately 
attached  to  the  bull-fight :  a  large  space  is  enclosed,  sometimes  the  great  square  of  the  city, 
around  which  the  people  sit  as  in  an  amphitheatre.  The  bull,  being  introduced,  is  first 
attacked  by  the  picadorcs,  or  horsemen  armed  with  spears ;  a  desperate  confiiei  ensues ;  the 
horse  is  frequently  killed  or  overturned  with  his  rider,  when  persons  on  foot  run  in,  and 
distract  the  animal,  by  holding  up  diflfercnt  kinds  of  coloured  stuffs.  He  is  next  attacked  by 
banderiUeros,  or  footmen  armed  with  arrows ;  and  not  only  their  skill,  but  their  dexterity  in 


5*5; 


The  Guitar. 


Book  I. 


SPAIN. 


tfli 


escape,  are  the  subjects  of  admiration :  at  last,  when  the  animal  io  completely  covered  with 
gQQ  wounds,  the  matador  or  slayer  appears,  and  closes 

"  the  scene.  Tumultuous  applause  or  hissing  from  the 

populace  accompanies  every  part  of  this  savage  per- 
formance, according  to  the  respective  merits  of  the 
bull  or  his  assailants.  The  comparative  excellence 
of  different  matadores  becomes  often  a  party  question, 
and  the  sul^ect  of  keenly  agitated  discussion  in  the 
circles  of  Madrid.  Wounds  frequently,  and  death 
sometimes,  are  the  result  to  the  actors  in  this  exhi- 
bition, for  whose  benefit  a  priest  with  holy  water  ia 
in  regular  attendance.  Not  less  is  the  fondness  tor 
the  dance,  particularly  under  its  national  forms  of 
the  fandango  {fig.  309.),  the  bolero,  and  the  gvMn- 
acko,  performed  with  the  castanet  in  the  hands ;  and 
The  Fuidanio.  jhe  two  former  especially  consisting  chiefly  in  move- 

ments expressive  of  passion,  but  so  little  consonant  to  the  rules  of  decorum,  that  the  indul 
gence  shown  to  these  amusements  by  the  church  cannot  but  be  regarded  as  a  matter  of  sur- 
prise. 

The  dress  of  the  Spaniards  is  antique,  and  varies  much  according  to  the  diflferent  {frovinces ; 
that  of  the  ladies  consists  chiefly  of  a  petticoat  and  a  large  mantilla  or  veil,  covering  the 
upper  part  of  the  person.  The  grandees,  and  the  opulent  m  general,  display  a  profusion  of 
jewels ;  the  dreus  of  the  men  is  slight,  and  closely  fitted  to  the  body,  witn  the  exception  of 
8  loose  cloak  thrown  over  the  whole.  The  minister,  Squillace,  under  Charles  III.,  having 
conceived  that  these  cloaks,  by  conceaiL^  the  person,  served  as  a  cover  to  deeds  of  violence, 
stationed  persons  at  the  comers  of  the  streets,  who  seized  the  passengers,  and  forcibly  cut 
down  this  part  of  their  dress  to  the  legal  dimensions ;  but  this  measure  raised  so  violent  and 
general  a  clamour,  that  the  king  was  forced  to  appease  it  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  minister 
who  had  attempted  such  an  obnoxious  curtailment. 

Both  in  eating  and  drinking  the  Spaniards  are  temperate ;  the  only  noted  national  dish  is 
the  olla  podrida,  in  which  various  meats,  vegetables,  and  herbs  are  mixed  together  in  a 
manner  which  even  foreigners  admit  to  be  palatable.  The  pleasures  of  society  are  chiefly 
sought  at  tertvlias  or  evening  parties,  where  only  slight  refreshment  is  presented;  bnt 
r^rescoa  or  dinner  parties  are  givt^n  on  a  large  scale  upon  very  special  occasions. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography. 

Of  the  divisions  of  Spain,  the  most  prominent  b  into  kingdoms  or  principalities,  each  of 
which,  at  some  period  of  its  eventful  history,  enjoyed  an  independent  existence,  though  they 
are  now  merged  into  one  monarchy.  More  recently  the  country  has  been  split  into  a  number 
of  smaller  departments  or  jurisdictions ;  but  the  original  distinction  into  kingdoms,  being 
founded  upon  natural  limits,  and  maintained  by  feelings  and  impressions  derived  from  former 
independence,  is  still  the  most  interesting.  The  kingdoms  are  New  Castile,  £stremadura, 
Old  Castile,  Leon,  Galicia,  Asturias,  Biscay,  Navarre,  Catalonia,  Aragon,  Valencia,  Murcia, 
Granada,  and  Andalusia. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  Spain,  with  the  extent  and 
population  of  each,  according  to  Hassel : — 


{Madrid 
Toledo 
GuadalazBra  ■ 
Cuenca  
Ln  Manclin  •  • 

ERtremadura 

I  Burgos 

3  Soria  . 


(Avila... 


Leon . 


'Leon 
Pnlencia . .  ■ 

Toro 

Valladolid  . 
Zamora..  ■. 
SRlamanca. 


Sqinra 
LiNiguet. 


110 
734 
163 
MS 
631 
1199 
643 
341 
390 
315 
403 
145 
165 
371 
133 
471 


FnpulAtion. 


398,060 
485.000 
133,000 
363,000 
357,000 
556,000 
613,000 
367,000 
331,000 
153,000 
311,000 
153,000 
130,000 
343,000 
93,000 
373,000 


Asturiai 

Galicia 

Catalonia 

Navarre 

(  Biscay 

Biscay <  Quiptiicoa  . 

(  Alava 

Aragon  

Valencia  •■.. 

Murcia 

Grnnada  

(Seville 

Andalusia. . .  <  Jacn 

(Cordova  ••■ 


Sqiura 
Lngvei. 


3083 

1330 

1003 

305 

100 

53 

003 

13,332 

643 

659 

805 

752 

308 

348 


FopuUllon, 


565,000 

1,585,000 

1.116,000 

388,000 

145.000 

].%,000 

93,000 

856,000 

1,355.000 

403.(100 

i,o;i7,ooo 

070.000 
377.000 
335,000 


With  New  Castile,  the  central  and  metropolitan  province,  we  commence  our  survey :  it 
consists  chiefly  of  an  extensive  plain  enclosed  between  two  of  the  lonpr  purallel  mountain 
ranges,  the  Sierra  de  Guadarrama  and  the  Sierra  de  Toledo.  Along  this  plain,  and  )wrallel 
to  both  ranges,  the  Tagus  flows  in  a  deep  rocky  befl.  Beyond  the  Siorra  de  Toledo,  the 
district  of  La  Manchn,  which  we  include  also  in  New  Ca.«t,ile,  eytoiids  to  a  third  pnralle 
mountain  range,  tlie  Sierra  Morena,  dividing  it  from  Andaluaia  and  the  soutliern  provinces 


B7« 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY 


Part  in. 

The  plain  of  Castile  Proper  la  elevated  and  naked;  and  being  thus  exposed  to  the  sun's 
direct  rayn,  presents  a  bare  and  parciied  appearance.  It  includes,  however,  fertile  valleys 
producing' wine,  oil,  grain,  and  truits  of  various  kinds;  but  the  inliabitunts  are  extremely 
deficient  in  every  species  of  industry. 

Madrid  (Jig,  310.),  the  capital  of  Castile,  and  of  "  all  the  Spains,"  stands  on  several  low 
hills  on  the  immense  Castilian  plain,  which  on  the  nortii  appears  bounded  by  the  higii  disiimt 
range  of  the  Guadarrama,  but  on  every  other  side  has  no  visible  termination.  A  small  rivulet, 
tie  Manzanares,  flows  past  the  city,  and  falls  into  the  Tagiu.   Madrid  is  a  superb  but  some 

310 


Madrid. 


what  gloomy  capital ;  the  houses  are  high,  well  built  of  good  stone,  not  defaced  by  smoke , 
the  streets  are  well  paved,  and  have  broad  footpaths.  The  main  street  of  Alcala,  long, 
spacious,  and  bordered  on  each  side  by  a  row  of  princely  houses,  attracts  particular  admira- 
tion. The  Prado,  a  wide  public  walk,  bordered  by  trees,  and  connected  with  gardens  all  open 
to  the  public,  is  equally  conducive  to  ornament  and  pleasure.  There  are  many  public  foun- 
tains, supplied  with  pure,  light,  and  salubrious  water,  filtered  through  beds  of  gravel  and 
sand,  from  a  distance  of  seven  or  eight  leagues.  The  gates  built  by  Charles  III.  are  uncom- 
monly beautiful,  particularly  that  of  Alcala ;  but  in  a  miserable  wall  which  might  be  Inttcred 
down  by  a  three-pounder  in  half  an  hour.  The  royal  palace,  built  by  Philip  V.,  is  a  spacious 
and  magnificent  structure,  though  the  taste  displayed  in  it  is  a  subject  of  controversy.  It 
contains  numerous  fine  paintings,  which  do  not  equal,  however,  those  of  the  Escurial.  The 
Retiro,  with  its  fine  gardens,  was  defaced  by  the  French,  who  made  it  a  military, post;  an 
extensive  and  costly  menagerie  is  now  forming  within  its  precincts.  The  museum  of  sta- 
tuary and  painting,  a  new  and  elegant  building,  has  recently  been  enriched  with  some  of  the 
finest  pictures  from  the  royal  palaces.  The  cabinet  of  natural  history,  supported  by  the 
government,  is  also  a  handsome  structure,  and  its  contents  valuable.  The  environs  of  Madrid 
are  not  remarkable  for  beauty ;  they  are  much  broken  into  hills  and  hollows ;  so  that,  of  the 
200  villages  situated  in  them,  only  three  or  four  can  be  seen  at  once.  Population,  201,000. 

Toledo,  even  in  its  present  decay,  excites  an  interest  equal  or  superior  to  Madrid.  Once 
the  proud  capital  of  Spain,  it  has  a  commanding  site  on  a  lofty  rock,  almost  insulated  by  the 
Tagus.  A  position  so  strong  rendered  it  a  grand  national  bulwark  during  the  long  ages  of 
internal  wamre,  but  occasioned  its  desertion  during  peace,  when  it  was  felt  as  extremely 
inconvenient,  the  streets  being  so  steep  that  a  carriage  can  scarcely  drive  safely  through 
them.  Its  manufactures  of  wool  and  silk,  which  are  said  once  to  have  employed  nearly 
40,000  men,  have  disappeared ;  and  government  has  in  vain  attempted  to  revive  that  of 
Bwords,  of  which  those  formerly  manufactured  at  Toledo  were  valued  above  all  others.  Its 
populatic  i  of  200,000  has  been  reduced  to  25,000 ;  and  it  presents  a  mere  mass  of  narrow, 
deserted,  winding,  and  dirty  streets.  Toledo,  however,  still  exhibits  two  grand  montiments ; 
the  Alcazar  or  palace,  and  the  cathedral.  The  former  is  a  noble  and  extensive  pile,  in  a 
pure  style  of  architecture,  and  the  granite  columns  of  the  Corinthian  order  which  adorn  the 
mner  court  are  particularly  admired.  The  grand  staircase  and  spacious  gallery,  no  longer 
crowded  with  guards  and  courtiers,  are  now  dirty,  deserted,  and  silent.  The  edifice,  though 
neglected  and  decaying,  still  wears  a  stately  and  imposing  aspect ;  "  and  its  handsome  front, 
immense  quadrangle,  and  elegant  colonnade,  declare  it  to  have  been  the  pride  and  ornament 
of  a  happier  period."  The  cathedral  is  also  one  of  the  grandest  edifices  in  the  Peninsula. 
It  was  originally  a  mosque,  built  in  a  grand  style ;  but  its  simplicity  has  been  much  impaired 
by  tasteless  additions,  and  by  the  profusion  of  gilding,  relics,  and  statues,  with  which  its 
interior  has  been  filled.  It  retained  its  wealth  and  splendour,  however,  till  the  late  war 
when  its  treasures  became  the  prey  of  the  invader,  and  its  six  hundred  ecclesiastics  were 
dispersed,  leaving  only  a  few  to  perform  the  sacred  functions. 

Two  other  considerable  towns  in  New  Castile  are  Guadalaxara,  to  the  east  of  Madrid, 
where  the  government  has  established  a  manufiicture  of  fine  cloth  on  a  great  scale ;  it  is  of 
course  an  ill-conducted  and  unprofitable  concern ;  yet  it  supports  the  population  of  12,000 


Part  in. 

;d  to  the  sun's 
ertile  viilli^ys, 
>re  extremely 

n  several  low 
e  high  (lisUiiit 
small  rivulet, 
wb  but  some 


Book  t 


SPAIN. 


n77 


ed  by  smoke, 
Alcala,  long, 
cular  admira- 
dens  all  open 
r  public  foun- 
)f  gravel  and 
are  uncom- 
it  be  battered 
is  a  spacious 
itroversy.     It 
scurial.    The 
tary,poBt;  an 
iseum  of  sta- 
ll some  of  the 
ported  by  the 
ms  of  Madrid 
)  that,  of  the 
)n,  201,000. 
idrid.     Once 
ilated  by  the 
long  ages  of 
s  extremely 
fely  through 
loyed  nearly 
nve  that  of 
others.    Its 
8  of  narrow, 
monuments ; 
e  pile,  in  a 
:h  adorn  the 
',  no  longer 
ifice,  though 
isome  front, 
id  ornament 
'■  Peninsula, 
ch  impaired 
h  which  its 
le  late  war 
iastics  were 

of  Madrid, 
lie ;  it  is  of 
D  of  12,000 


1 


or  14,000  in  a  deg?c.  '  ;(nfort  not  usual  in  Spanish  towns:  and  flirther  east,  Cuen4;a,  th(« 
capital  of  a  mountaiii  ..  'riot  of  the  sunie  name,  interposed  between  Valencia  and  tho 
plain  of  Castile.  It  ':i,  a  nmali  ancient  city,  distinguished  by  a  cathedral  and  some  other 
moinimenbs. 

La  Mancha,  sometimes  reckoned  a  separate  province,  is  the  most  southern  part  of  Castile 
from  which  it  is  seimrated  by  the  Sierra  de  Toledo.  It  is  an  immense  table-plain,  inter- 
sected by  different  ridges  of  low  hills  and  rocks,  without  a  tree  except  a  few  dwarf  evet- 
green  oaks ;  or  an  enclosure,  except  mud  walls  round  the  villages.  All  this  vast  tract  of 
open  country  is  cultivated,  and  proauces  corn  or  vines:  its  wine,  especially  that  of  Val  de 
PefLas,  enjoys  a  high  repute.  Its  name,  however,  is  chiefly  familiar  to  the  public  as  having 
given  an  appellation  to  the  celebrated  hero  of  Cervantes.  The  names  of  Don  Quixote  and 
Sancho  Panza  are  familiar  to  the  district ;  and  the  dress  cf  the  peasantry  presents  still  an 
exact  model  of  that  of  the  doughty  squire.  There  are  a  number  of  large  villages ;  and  Ciu- 
dad  Real,  the  capital,  is  well  built  in  a  fine  plain,  though  it  has  lost  much  of  its  former  pru(»> 
perity.     Almagro  and  Ocaiia  are  also  pretty  considerable  towns. 

flstremadura  forms  a  continuation  to  the  west  of  the  same  plain  as  New  Castile,  traversed 
like  it  by  the  Tagus,  and  bounded  by  the  same  ranges  of  mountains.  It  is  a  fine,  wide, 
wild  province,  diversified  by  rugged  mountains,  deep  valleys,  and  almost  boundless  plains. 
The  depopulation  generally  complained  of  in  Spain  seems  more  remarkable  here  than  m  any 
other  province ;  and  vast  tracts  may  be  passed  without  seeing  a  human  habitation.  This 
seems  chiefly  owing  to  the  pernicious  laws  of  the  Mesta,  whicn  assign  it  almost  entirely  for 
the  occupation  of  the  merino  flocks,  when  they  descend  from  the  mountains  of  Leon.  "EsUe- 
madura,  therefore,  forms  a  vast  pastoral  district ;  only  a  small  proportion  of  its  surface  being 
necessary  to  furnish  grain  for  its  scattered  population.  Yet  the  Romans  made  it  one  of  the 
chief  seats  of  their  dominion ;  and  no  part  of  the  Peninsula  exhibits  more  striking  works 
and  monuments  of  that  great  people.  The  Estremenos  also  retain  much  of  the  antique 
Spanish  aspect  and  character :  and  no  province,  during  the  late  crisis,  made  more  striking  dis- 
plays of  patriotic  energy. 

The  cities  are  no  longer  considerable.  Badajos,  tlie  capital,  a  strange  corruption  of  the 
Roman  name  Pax  Augusta,  is  a  considerable  and  strong  town,  but  much  shattered  by  the 
successive  sieges  it  sustained  in  the  late  war  from  Soult  and  Wellington.  Merida,  the 
ancient  capital  of  Lusitonia,  excites  more  interest,  from  the  striking  remains  which  it  pre- 
sents of  Roman  magnificence.  The  amphitheatre,  baths,  a  lofly  triumphal  arch,  three  votive 
altars,  and  a  handsome  stone  bridge,  are  all  magnificent  monuments,  and  in  wonderful  pre- 
servation. Truxillo,  an  old  city,  of  small  extent,  was  the  birth-place  of  Pizarro,  whose 
splendid  mansion  is  still  to  be  seen,  adorned  with  barbarous  trophies  of  his  conquest  Alma- 
raz  is  distinguished  chiefly  by  the  very  noble  modern  bridge  adjoining  to  it.  Talavera  do 
la  Reyna,  once  splendid  but  now  decayed,  has  acquired  recent  lustre  from  being  the  theatre 
of  one  of  the  greatest  battles  fought  during  the  peninsular  war.  In  the  extensive  plain 
north  of  the  Tagus  are  the  two  pleasant  little  cities  of  Coria  and  Placencia  ;  the  latter  of 
which  was  the  scene  of  the  singular  monastic  retirement  of  Charles  V.  In  the  mountains 
separating  this  part  of  the  province  from  Leon  is  a  rocky  region,  of  the  most  savage  and 
desolate  character,  called  Batuecas. 

Old  Castile  is  situated  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  chain  of  mountains  which  forms  the 
northern  boundary  of  New  Castile.  It  presents  a  high  variegated  table-land,  seprated  on 
the  north  by  the  Cantabrian  chain  from  Asturias.  Some  parts  are  rugged ;  but  it  is,  upon 
the  whole,  a  fertile  well-watered  region,  traversed  by  tlie  Duero  in  its  early  course. 
There  are  many  tracts  of  rich  pasturage,  and  others  equally  fitted  for  the  growth  of  corn. 
It  is,  however,  one  of  the  provinces  in  which  the  marks  of  decay  are  most  striking.  The 
capitals  are  neglected  and  ruinous ;  large  portions  are  left  uncultivated ;  and  of  the  fine 
manufactures  of  cloth  from  the  merino  wool,  only  a  remnant  is  now  supported  by  the  aid  of 
government.  Castilian  pride  and  indolence  have  fixed  here  their  old  and  central  seat :  the 
hidalgos  belonging  to  Old  Castile  amount  to  146,000,  a  much  larger  proportion  than  in  any 
other  province. 

Burgos,  the  once  magnificent  capital  of  the  kings  of  Castile,  and  the  highest  in  rank  of 
any  city  in  the  kingdom,  is  dwindled  into  a  poor  place,  not  containing  above  10,000  inhabit- 
ants. Amid  its  gloomy  and  decayed  el-3ets,  however,  towers  ij^i'^thedral.  one  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  (Jothic  architecture  existiv.?  in  Europe,  and  thftwi"  of  which  bears  a  con- 
siderable resemblance  to  that  of  York  minster.  The  strong  ancient  castle,  which  had  fallen 
into  decay,  was  so  far  re-established  by  the  French,  that  it  successfully  stood  a  long  siege 
from  the  Duke  of  Wellington. 

Of  the  other  towns  of  Old  Castile,  Segovia  presents  some  interesting  monuments  of 
Roman  and  Moorish  grandeur.  Its  aqueduct  {fig.  311.),  of  159  arches,  nearly  half  a  mile 
long,  and  in  one  place  94  feet  high,  is  a  stupendous  Roman  work,  ranked  by  Swinhnm* 
above  the  Pont  du  Gard.  The  Alcazar,  or  royal  castle,  was  erected  by  the  Moors  on  a 
•twk  overlooking  a  wide  range  of  country.    Afler  it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Chris- 

Vou  L  49  8X 


flTB 


DESCRIPWVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Vuet  m 


Aquaduot  of  Befovla. 


EMoria). 


liana,  it  wu  employed  u  a  atate  prison,  and  is  now  a  military  school.    Five  centuries  ago, 

Segovia  had  very  extensive  manu^tures  of  fine  cloth;  but  these,  notwithstanding  Uie 

All  '  '    <'  honour  of  havinff  the  king  for  a  part> 

'"*  *^    ner,  have  dwindled  to  a  very  small 

amount.  Population  15,000.  Avila, 
capital  of  a  small  province  of  the 
same  name,  is  a  city  of  ancient  diB< 
tinction;  and  its  massy  walls,  its 
towers,  its  Alcazar,  and  the  dome  of 
the  old  cathedral,  render  it  imposing 
at  a  distance ;  but  it  is  in  a  8tat«  of 
wretched  desertion.  The  attempt  to 
establish  manufactures  of  cloth  and 
cotton  has  not  been  successful.  Soria, 
near  the  site  of  the  ancient  Numantia, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Duero,  near 
its  source,  is  a  tolerable  country  town,  capital  of  one  of  the  smaller  provinces  into  which 
Old  Castile  has  been  subdivided. 
The  palaces  of  the  Escurial  {Jig.  312.)  and  San  Ildefonso  are  striking  objects  in  Old  Cas- 
tile. The  "royal  monastery"  of  the 
Escurial  was  founded  by  Philip  II.  on  a 
plan  entirely  congenial  to  his  gloomy 
mind.  It  unites  the  characters  of  a 
palace  and  a  convent ;  and  has  the  form 
of  a  gridiron,  the  instrument  of  the 
martyrdom  of  St.  Lorenzo,  to  whom  it 
is  dedicated.  Attached  to  it  is  the  Pan- 
theon, a  classic  and  somewhat  profane 
structure,  in  which,  however,  are  in- 
terred all  the  crowned  kings  and  queens 
of  Spain  since  Charles  V.  The  wealth 
of  the  Spanish  monarchs  has  been  con- 
tinually employed  in  adding  new  ornaments  to  this  &vourite  residence,  which  is  considered 
by  the  nation  as  the  eighth  wonder  of  the  world ;  and  large  volumes  have  been  filled  with 
descriptions  of  it.  The  church  and  the  great  altar  have  scarcely  a  rival  for  magnificence 
and  grandeur  of  eflbct.  The  library  is  not  extensive,  but  contains  manuscripts,  especially 
Arabic,  that  are  of  great  value.  The  collection  of  paintings,  it  is  probable,  yields  only  to 
that  which  covers  the  walls  of  the  Vatican.  Besides  select  productions  of  Murillo  and 
other  masters  of  the  Spanish  school,  it  contains  several  of  the  greatest  works  of  Raphael, 
Titian,  and  others  of  the  first  Italian  masters.  The  environs  are  wild  and  naked  in  the 
extreme,  witliout  shelter  from  the  cold  blasts  of  winter,  or  the  intense  heats  of  summer. 
On  the  opposite  declivity  of  the  same  mountains,  looking  towards  the  north,  San  Ildefonso, 
without  any  pretensions  to  equal  magnificence,  is  finely  surrounded  by  woods,  gardens,  and 
beautiful  jets  d'eau.  Aranjuez  stands  in  quite  a  dififerent  situation,  on  the  lowest  plain  of 
Castile,  at  the  junction  of  the  Tagus  and  the  Xarama.  It  is  chiefly  admired  for  its  mag- 
nificent woods  and  gardens ;  the  former  carried  in  long  and  spacious  avenues,  the  latter  con- 
taining in  profusion  the  finest  native  and  exotic  plants. 

Leon  forms  a  continuation  of  the  plain  of  Old  Castile,  along  the  lower  course  of  the 
Duero,  and  bounded  by  the  same  ranges  of  mountains.  For  several  centuries  it  was  the 
seat  of  a  kingdom,  comprising  the  chief  Christian  power  in  Spain,  until  it  was  united  to  that 
of  Castile.  It  is  almost  entirely  within  the  domain  of  the  mesta,  and  thus  devoted  princi- 
pally to  pasturage.  The  consequent  depopulation  has  been  very  great;  insomuch  that, 
according  to  Townshend,  the  bishopric  of  Salamanca,  which  once  contained  748  townships, 
is  now  reiduced  to  338.  The  vast  extent  of  open  plain  which  forms  the  centre  of  this  pro- 
vince has  been  found  highly  favourable  to  an  invader  who  possessed  superior  cavalry ;  such 
as  the  Moors  once,  and  more  latterly  the  French. 

The  cities  of  Leon  are  almost  solely  interesting  from  the  traces  which  they  present  of 
ancient  grandeur.  Leon  itself,  by  its  highly  ornamented  cathedral,  its  nine  convents,  and 
its  ancient  palace,  testifies  the  remote  period  when  it  was  the  seat  of  royalty ;  but  a  hetero- 
geneous assemblage  of  dirty  streets  filled  with  beggars,  splendid  churches,  and  half-ruined 
fiimily  mansions,  are  all  that  it  now  presents.  Salamanca,  by  its  university,  has  acquired  a 
much  greater  fame.  This  seminary,  one  of  the  first  in  Europe,  was  founded  in  1200,  and 
extended  during  the  same  century  by  Alfonso  tlie  Wise,  celebrated  for  the  progress  which 
astronomy  made  under  his  auspices.  From  the  medical  knowledge  of  Avicenna,  Averrocs, 
and  other  Arabian  sapes,  it  derived  a  character  superior  to  those  of  the  other  monkish  univer- 
sities during  the  middle  ages.  Salumanca,  however,  remained  stationary  in  the  fourteenth 
century ;  and,  while  sound  science  was  spreading  through  the  rest  of  Europe,  continued  to 


Book  L 


'V'U.n. 


SPAIN. 


Iff 


occupy  its  students  with  dogmatic  theology,  and  with  the  worship  of  Aristotle  and  Aquinaa. 
Its  students,  once  reckoned  at  16,000,  have  been  reduced  to  leas  than  2000.  Salamanca  is ' 
crowded  with  sacred  edifices,  to  enrich  which,  all  the  tour  comers  of  Uie  world  have  been 
made  to  contribute ;  and  on  days  of  high  festival  the  display  of  silver  and  precious  stones 
was  altogether  dazzling.  The  cathedru  and  principal  square  are  very  magnificent,  but  the 
streets  are  narrow  and  sfloomy.  Captain  Sherer,  in  1813,  found  Salamanca  quite  a  deserted 
city ;  only  a  few  of  the  old  professors  and  youthful  students  still  lingered  in  the  colleges,  or 
paced  the  spacious  aisles  of  the  elegant  cathedral.  Of  the  latter,  some,  as  appears  firom 
Mr.  White,  notwithstanding  the  antiquated  course  of  instruction,  had  adopted  modem  ana 
liberal  ideas,  and  in  the  late  crisis  obeyed  the  call  of  their  country  and  of  liberty.  The 
French  having  made  Salamanca  a  military  position,  a  great  part  of  the  plape  was  levelled 
or  battered  down ;  and  subsequent  events  nave  not  been  fiivourable  to  its  restoration.  We 
must  not,  however,  dismiss  Salamanca  without  noticing  the  new  lustre  it  has  derived  ^m 
giving  name  to  one  of  the  most  splendid  of  Wellington's  victories. 

Valladolid  has  a  great  name  in  history.  Charles  V.  made  it  his  capital,  and  it  continued 
to  be  the  residence  of  the  Spanish  court  until  Philip  IV.  removed  it  to  Madrid.  In  these 
splendid  days  Valladolid  was  supposed,  perhaps  with  some  exaggeration,  to  contain  200,000 
inhabitants,  now  reduced  to  a  tenth  of  that  number.  Yet  it  covers  a  very  large  space  of 
ground ;  and  the  numberless  spires,  domes,  and  turrets  of  its  sacred  edifices  give  it  still  the 
appearance  of  a  large  metropolis.  Its  university  is  attended  by  2000  students,  and  taught 
by  forty-two  professors  and  fifly  doctors.  After  a  very  marked  period  of  decay,  Valladolid 
experienced  lately  a  considerable  revival.  Its  envuxins  are  particularly  healthy  and 
agreeable. 

Several  other  large  decayed  towns  attest  the  former  grandeur  of  Leon.  Zamoraand  Toro, 
both  on  the  Duero,  are  capitals  of  two  of  the  small  provinces.  Benavente  is  distinguished 
by  its  castle,  which  has  been  described  as  onb  of  the  grandest  monuments  of  the  age  of 
chivalry ;  and  Tordesillas  was  a  royal  residence  in  the  reign  of  Charles  V.  Astorga,  once 
capital  of  the  Asturias,  and  one  of^the  bulwarks  of  the  Peninsula,  has  lost  its  strength  and 
magnitude.  Palencia  is  also  a  small  capital,  pleasantly  situate  on  the  Carrion,  having  a 
little  inland  trade.  Ciudad  Rodrigo  is  a  national  bamer  on  the  Portuguese  frontier,  still 
kept  up  as  a  strong  fortress,  which  sustained  successive  sieges  during  the  peninsular  war.    ' 

Galicia,  separated  by  its  mountain  boundary  firom  I^eon,  forms  the  north-western  comer 
of  the  Peninsula.  It  is  entirely  a  highland  and  alpine  region,  broken  into  rugged  rocks  and 
narrow  passes,  though  with  valleys  of  great  fertility  and  of  peculiar  beauty  interspersed. 
The  Gallegos  are  industrious ;  and  the  country  is  better  peopled  than  many  of  the  more 
favoured  regions  of  tho  Peninsula.  They  are  hardy  and  enterprising,  and  often  leave  this 
barren  territory  to  seek  emplojnnent  in  the  cities  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  where,  like  the 
Scottish  highlanders,  they  act  chiefly  as  porters  and  servants.  The  shores  and  ports  of  Gap 
licia  are  celebrated  in  naval  history,  forming  as  it  were  the  outer  coasts  of  Europe,  beaten 
by  the  waves  of  a  tempestuous  ocean,  and  where  fleets  fix>m  the  distant  quarters  of  the 
globe  often  made  their  first  appearance  in  Europe,  and  met  with  hostile  fleets  on  the  watch 
for  them. 

The  interior  towns  of  Galicia  have  for  their  capital,  St  Jago  de  Compoetella,  the  most 
celebrated  shrine  of  the  Peninsula,  supposed  to  contain  the  body  of  St.  James,  its  patron. 
In  the  chapel  dedicated  to  him  is  his  statue,  two  feet  high,  of  pure  gold,  illuminated  every 
night  by  2000  wax  tapers.  Twenty-two  other  chapels  have  been  enriched  by  the  oflTerings 
of  pilgrims  from  every  part  of  the  Peninsula,  whose  numbers  have  diminished.  Lugo  pre- 
sents the  poor  remains  of  an  ancient  city  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  towers,  once  of  great 
strength,  but  now  mouldermg  into  rain.  Orense,  a  little  city,  formerly  celebrated  fi)r  its  hot 
springs,  and  Tuy,  a  strongly  situated  fortress,  are  on  the  Portuguese  frontier. 

Of  the  seaports  of  Galicia,  Vigo  had  the  greatest  reputation,  several  great  naval  actions 
having  been  fought  near  it;  particularly  that  of  1702,  when  the  whole  fleet  of  Spanish 
galleons  was  sunk  or  taken  by  the  English.  It  has  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  Spain ; 
which,  however,  since  Ferrol  became  the  chief  naval  station,  is  only  employed  for  a  limited 
coasting  trade.  Corunna  on  the  Groyne  is  now  the  most  trading  place  in  the  province,  and 
packets  sail  from  it  to  England  and  America.  It  is  a  steep,  dirty,  but  well-paved  town,  of 
no  strength,  being  commanded  by  the  neighbouring  heights.  Population  23,000.  Perrol, 
since  1752,  has  been  made  the  chief  naval  station  of  Spain.  Its  harbour,  besides  bevag  one 
of  the  safest  and  most  spacious  in  Europe,  has  the  advantage  of  being  accessible  only  by  a 
narrow  windinsr  passage  which  can  be  rendered  almost  impassable  by  a  chain  of  forts.  A 
considerable  city  has  been  formed,  and  very  extensive  docks  and  arsenals  built;  but  since 
the  extinction  of  the  Spanish  navy,  these  have  of  course  fallen  into  considerable  neglect 
Population  13,000. 

The  Asturias  form  a  long  narrow  strip  between  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  the  Cantabrian 
mountains,  which  extend  along  its  whole  length.  It  is  celebrated  in  history  as  the  sacred 
retreat  in  which  the  hero  Pelayo  raised  again  the  national  standard,  after  it  seemed  for  ever 
trampled  under  foot  by  the  Saracen  invaders.    Since  the  fourteenth  century  the  Asturiaji 


«I0 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Pabt  in. 


have  f^iven  the  title  of  prince  to  the  heira  of  the  Spanish  throne.  The  province  is  approached 
only  by  narrow  ravines  and  passes,  through  which  torrents  dash,  and  which  are  overhunjf  by 
steep  clifls  and  luxuriant  woods.  There  are,  however,  a  number  of  valleys,  and  the  wliole 
plain  of  Oviedo  is  distinguished  both  for  fruilflilness  and  beauty.  Instead  uf  wine,  a  goud 
deal  of  tolerable  cider  is  made  and  exported :  amber,  jet,  and  coal  abound,  but  the  last 
strongly  impregnated  with  sulphur.  The  Asturians  are  brave  and  proud,  boasting  timt  their 
country  was  never  conquered,  even  by  the  Romans ;  and  more  than  a  tliird  part  of  ttie  popu- 
lation IS  composed  of  hidalgoe. 

Oviedo,  the  only  lar^e  town,  has  more  magnificence  than  its  situation  might  lead  us  to 
expect :  the  cathedral  m  particular,  long  the  only  shrine  secure  fVvm  the  rage  of  the  invader, 
afibrded  an  asylum  to  many  pious  treasures  scattered  through  the  Peninsula.  These,  how- 
ever, consist  chiefly  of  relics,  valuable  only  to  devout  and  believing  eyes.  Among  them  are 
the  rod  of  Moses,  the  mantle  of  Elias,  the  olive-branch  borne  alott  m  entering  Jerusalem ; 
thorns  from  the  sacred  crown ;  the  milk  of  the  blessed  Virgin,  &c.  Oviedo  is  still  a  con- 
siderable town,  with  a  rich  bishopric,  and  many  religious  houses,  of  which  the  principal  is  a 
convent  of  Benedictine  nuns.  Population  10,000.  Gijon,  though  with  a  costly  and  not  very 
complete  harbour,  carries  on  all  the  little  trade  of  the  province.  Avila  and  Santillana  are 
large  villages,  giving  their  name  to  districts.  Santander  and  Santona  are  sea-ports  of  some 
little  consequence,  in  the  district  of  Montana,  on  the  borders  of  Biscay. 

Biscay  is  a  small,  high,  rugged  province,  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Pyrenees.  Streams 
descending  from  its  numerous  heights,  combine  in  forming  the  channel  of  the  Upper  Ebro. 
The  Basques  are  a  peculiar  race,  preserving  the  only  remnant  which  revolutions  have  left 
in  the  Peninsula,  of  Celtic  language  and  aspect  Under  the  name  of  Cantabria,  this  region 
presented  a  barrier  even  to  Roman  conquest  j  and  though  the  Saracens  penetrated  tlir&ugh 
it  into  the  plains  of  France,  it  is  still  boEisted  that  they  never  could  reach  the  mountains  of 
High  Cantabria.  The  Basques,  amid  the  general  slavery  of  Spain,  have  still  preserved 
some  portion  of  their  original  rights.  They  have  a  cortes  of  their  own ;  and  the  taxes,  levied 
by  provincial  authority,  are  presented  to  the  sovereign  in  the  form  of  a  firee  gift.  Every 
native  Biscayan  is  an  hidalgo  or  noble,  scarcely  owning  a  superiority  of  birth  in  the  proudest 
Castilian.  With  all  this  they  are  excessively  industrious ;  the  mountain  declivities  are  cul- 
tivated as  high  as  the  plough  can  reach ;  and  while  the  finest  plains  of  Castile  are  nearly  a 
desert,  Biscay's  rude  vales  are  covered  with  a  numerous  population. 

The  cities  in  such  a  district  cinnot  be .  large :  yet  Bilboa,  the  capital,  situated  on  the 
Yb^izabel,  which  admits  lar^e  vessels  up  to  the  town,  is  one  of  the  most  commercial  placeb 
in  Spain,  with  15,000  inhabitants.  Most  of  the  merino  wool  from  the  plains  of  Castile  isi 
brought  hither  for  exportation.  Biscay  Proper  contains  also  Orduiia,  a  neat  little  city,  and 
numerous  villages.  Guipuscoa  is  another  district,  lying  more  to  the  east,  and  in  closer  con- 
tact with  France.  Its  capital  is  St  Sebastian,  an  indifferent  port  but  a  neat  tolerably  large 
city,  and  so  strongly  fortified  as  to  be  considered  one  of  the  four  keys  of  the  kingdom ;  the 
others  being  Pamplona,  Barcelona,  and  Figueras.  Fontarabia,  close  to  the  frontier,  has  a 
^reat  name  in  history,  but  little  else  is  now  left.  The  small  village  of  Irun  stands  on  the 
immediate  bank  of  the  Bidassoa,  whose  broad  clear  stream,  descending  from  the  Pyrenees, 
forms  the  boundary  between  two  rival  and  long  hostile  nations.  More  in  the  interior,  and 
on  a  lower  level,  is  the  district  of  Alava,  having  for  its  capital  Vittoria,  a  somewhat  well- 
built  modem  town,  and  celebrated  aa  the  theatre  of  the  complete  victory  there  gained  by  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  over  the  French  army  under  Joseph  Bonaparte,  which  was  thence 
finally  expelled  from  the  Peninsula. 

Navarre  is  a  small  province  or  kingdom,  lying  immediately  beneath  the  highest  and 
steepest  Pjnrenees.  Eight  very  difficult  passes  penetrate  through  them  into  France,  but 
scarcely  any  one  passable  fi)r  the  artillery  and  train  of  an  army.  The  principal  is  that  of 
St  Jean  Pied  de  Port ;  on  the  French  side  of  which  is  Roncesvalles,  or  Roncevaux,  cele- 
brated in  history,  and  still  more  in  romance,  for  the  disaster  which  there  befell  Charlemagne 
and  his  knights.  For  many  centuries  it  formed  a  separate  little  kingdom  connected  with 
France,  until  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  succeeded  in  annexing  to  Spain  all  the  part  south  of 
rhe  Pyrenees.  Navarre  retains,  however,  privileges  and  customs  peculiar  to  itself,  and  }*b 
governor  bears  the  title  of  viceroy.  The  population  is  active,  hardy,  and  brave.  The  banas 
of  guerrillas  under  Mina  proved  the  most  formidable  irregular  force  with  which  the  French 
had  to  contend  in  the  Peninsula.  Pamplona,  or  Pampeluna,  the  capital,  the  foundation  of 
v/hich  is  ascribed  to  Pompey,  is  one  of  thi?  chief  bulwarks  of  the  Peninsula,  and  one  of  the 
strongest  fortresses  in  Europe.  It  was  reduced  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  and  by  tin 
French,  in  their  last  invasion,  after  a  long  blockade.  There  are  also  Tudela  and  Calahorra, 
ittle  towns  on  the  Ebro.     Pampeluna  has  10,000  inhabitants. 

Aragon,  south  from  Navarre,  is  an  extensivb>  province,  extending  along  the  greater  psrt 
of  the  course  of  the  Ebro ;  whence  it  reaches  oi.\  one  side  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  on  the  other 
to  the  chains  which  shut  in  the  Castiles  and  Valencia.  A  great  part  of  it  is  rugged  and 
barren ;  though  other  tracts  in  the  central  plainii,  and  along  the  rivers,  are  veiy  sueceptjble 
of  cultoro.    Aragop,  during  the  middle  ages,  wa«a  powerful  kingdom,  comprising  Catalonia 


Book  L 


"rMr«fA'*t> 


SPAIN. 


riM'/KiU 


M 


K    1 
i 


ind  Valencia,  forming  the  half  of  Christian  Spain,  then  divided  between  it  and  Caatile. 
Even  ailer  the  union  of  the  crowns  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  it  still  enjoyed  its  consti- 
tution  and  its  cortes,  which  exercised  higher  prerogatives,  and  kept  the  power  of  the  kings 
under  stricter  limitations,  than  any  similar  assembly  in  Europe.  Of  these  it  was  deprived 
by  tlie  unfortunate  issue  of  tlie  civil  war  under  Charles  V.,  and  more  completely  by  the 
Bourbon  succession,  after  Aragon  had  espoused  the  cause  of  Charles  of  Austria.  The  pea- 
gantry  of  this  province  are  a  nne  body  of  men,  stout,  brave,  and  honest  Culture  and  popu- 
lation  are  generally  in  a  backward  state ;  yet  the  canal  of  Aragon,  conducted  parallel  to  the 
course  of  the  Ebro,  though  it^has  not  yet  reached  the  sea,  according  to  its  destination,  has 
given  a  considerable  impulse  to  the  agriculture  of  the  district  thro  gn  which  it  is  led. 

SaragoBsa,  or  Zaragoza,  tlie  capital  of  Aragon,  is  a  large  and  celebrated  city,  situated 
amid  a  iine  plain,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ebro  and  of  the  canal  oi  Aragon.  From  Augustus, 
who  enlarged  and  improved  it,  the  city  was  called  Caisar-Augiista,  corrupted  into  Saragossa. 
It  is  not  well  built,  the  streets  bein^  narrow  and  crooked ;  but  there  are  several  open  market- 
places, and  some  very  splendid  religious  edifices.  The  principal  is  that  dedicated  to  the 
Virgin,  under  the  title  of  "  Our  Lady  of  the  Pillar ;"  an  object  of  the  most  profound  venera- 
tion to  the  citizens,  and  enriched  by  offerings  from  eveiy  part  of  Spain.  The  church  of  St. 
EngAicia  is  also  filled  with  relics  and  gifts ;  and  each  of  the  forty  convents  of  Saragossa  has 
its  peculiar  boast  A  stone  bridge,  and  the  finest  wooden  bridge  in  Europe,  arc  thrown  over 
the  Ebro.  The  university  has  2U00  students,  but  not  much  literature.  Saragossa  has  earned 
an  immortal  name  by  her  heroic  resistance  against  the  unprincipled  invasion  of  Napoleon,  in 
1808.  Without  walls,  except  an  old  one  of  earth,  which  could  not  resist  for  an  hour  an 
attack  conducted  on  modem  principles ;  without  army,  arms,  or  artillery,  it  maintained  a  long 
and  finally  successful  conflict  with  the  French,  in  their  first  invasion.  Afterwards,  when 
assailed  by  an  immense  and  overwhelming  force,  the  flower  of  the  French  armies,  without 
hope  of  relief,  it  made  a  mighty  resistance ;  and  it  was  only  by  mining  operations,  blowing 
up  successively  house  after  house,  that  the  French  finally  became  its  masters,  after  having 
reduced  it  to  a  heap  of  ruins.     Population  43,000. 

Aragon  has  some  other  small  ancient  towns,  ranking  even  as  cities ;  Jaca  and  Huesca  on 
the  northern  frontier  among  the  Pyrenees,  both  episcopal  seats ;  Daroca  and  Calatayud  in 
the  plain  bordering  on  Castile ;  the  former  enclosed  with  large  ruined  fortifications,  the  latter 
industrious,  and  surrounded  by  a  smiling  country. 

Catalonia,  to  the  east  of  Aragon,  ie  one  of  the  finest  and  most  extensive  provinces  of  Spain. 
It  presents  a  remarkable  variety  of  surface,  from  the  steep  and  rugged  heights  of  the  higher 
Pyrenees,  to  the  elevated  valleys  of  Upper  Catalonia,  and  the  luxuriant  though  not  very 
extensive  plains  that  border  on  the  Mediterranean.  The  Catalans  redeem  to  a  great  extent 
tlie  Spanish  national  character,  uniting  with  its  loftiness  and  energy  a  spirit  and  a<i  activity 
which  are  elsewhere  wanting.  They  have  been  always  commercial,  industrious,  and  fond 
of  liberty.  After  bearirg  successively  the  yoke  of  the  Romans,  the  Goths,  and  the  Sara- 
cens, Catalonia  was  long  ruled  by  counts  of  French  descent,  whose  posterity  extended  their 
sway  over  Aragon,  and  finally  over  the  whole  Peninsula,  in  vhicli  this  principality  merged. 
The  Catalans,  however,  bore  more  impatiently  than  other  Spaniards  the  loss  of  their  privi- 
leges ;  and  during  the  war  of  the  succession,  on  receiving  a  pledge  for  their  restitution, 
espoused  with  extraordinary  ardour  ♦lie  cause  of  the  Archduke  Charles.  Even  afler  its 
unfortunate  issue,  when  deserted  by  Britain  and  all  the  other  powers,  they  made  a  last  dread- 
ful struggle,  which  ended,  however,  in  the  loss  of  all  those  rights  for  which  they  had  ao 
nobly  contended.  In  the  last  two  wars,  Catalonia  acted  a  most  conspicuous  port ;  maintaining 
an  unremitted  resistance  to  France,  notwithstanding  the  close  vicinity  of  that  kingdom,  and 
in  the  late  constitutional  struggle  making  efforts,  both  for  and  against  liberty,  much  greater 
than  any  other  province. 

Barcelona  is,  after  the  capital,  the  largest  city,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  industrious 
and  flourishing,  of  all  Spain,  containing  150,000  inhabitants.  It  is  situated  about  the  centre 
of  the  Catalonian  coast,  and  draws  its  subsistence  from  a  fertile  and  extensive  plain  behind. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  originally  a  Carthaginian  town,  founded  by  Hamilcar  Barcas ;  but  rose 
to  I  ittle  distinction  under  the  Romans,  who  made  Tarraco  the  capital  of  all  eastern  Spain. 
It  was  not  till  the  tweiflii  century  that  Barcelona  began  to  be  distinguished  for  its  commer- 
cial spirit.  It  sufi'ered  severely  during  successive  wars,  particularly  that  of  the  succession ; 
but  in  the  course  of  the  last  century,  the  exertions  of  its  patriotic  governor,  the  Marquis  of 
M  ina,  enabled  it  to  retrieve  all  its  losses,  and  become  more  prosperous  than  ever.  The  port 
is  artificial,  formed  by  solid  and  convenient  moles,  but  has  a  bar  at  its  entrance,  m  hioh 
exchides  vessels  drawing  more  than  twelve  feet  of  water.  It  carried  on  a  great  and  various 
traffic;  had  woollen,  silk,  and  cotton  manufactories,  all  on  a  considerable  scale;  about  a 
thousand  vessels  annuauy  sntereu  its  pert;  anu  tne  WiiOie  amount  Oi  expcri^  was  rccnOSiCvt 
by  Labt)rde  at  1,750,000?.  According  to  the  latest  account,  however,  by  the  author  of  "  A 
Year  in  Spain,"  the  late  disasters  and  misgovernment  have  caused  a  great  declension  in  the 
ahovo  branches  of  manufacture ;  and  instead  of  the  ranges  of  tall  masts  assembled  within 

49* 


t 


ii 


tea 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PartIII 


Boor  i. 


it!  mole,  there  are  to  be  seen  only  a  paltry  assemblaf^  of  itehiiig>boata  and  feluccas.    The 
eccleaiaatical  ediflces  of  Barcelona  are  handsome,  iwrticularly  the  cathedral,  thoujifh  not  of  \ 
BO  grand  a  character  aa  those  in  some  other  parts  of  Spain.    The  convent  of  the  Dominicans  j 
has  a  singular  series  of  ornaments,  the  sentences  of  five  hundred  heretics  decreed  by  the  I 
Inquisition,  and  under  each  sentence  a  representation  of  the  suflerer,  whom  the  demons,  in 
various  shapes,  are  torturing  and  devouring.    The  walls  of  Barcelona  are  strong,  but  its 
chief  dependence  is  upon  the  citadel  of  Montjuich,  which  commands  it,  and  is  considered 
almost  impregnable,  though  the  Earl  of  Peterborough  tooic  it  by  surprise.    At  tlie  ciiiee  of 
the  war  of  the  succession,  when  Barcelona  was  besieged  by  the  Duke  of  Berwick,  a  terrible 
and  almost  fhmtic  resisi  nee  was  made  in  the  streets,  not  bv  troops,  but  by  priests,  students, 
tradesmen,  and  even  won  en :  the  consequences  were  terrible.     Bonaparte,  m  18(18,  obtained 
by  treachery  and  threats  tue  cession  of  this  and  the  other  keys  of  the  kingdom ;  but  in  tlie< 
late  invasion,  its  resistance  against  Moucey  was  most  gallant. 

There  are  several  other  large,  ancient,  and  strong  towns  in  Catalonia.  Tarragona,  the 
Roman  capital  of  the  east  of  Spain,  has  &Uen  into  great  comparative  decay,  and  has  but 
12,000  inhabitants.  It  is  situated  on  a  rocky  peninsula,  and  presents  many  traces  of  Roman 
antiquity,  as  of  the  palace  of  Augustus,  the  amphitheatre,  and  an  extensive  aqueduct.  More 
recentlv,  the  harbour  has  been  improved,  ana  some  new  streets  built ;  and  in  tlic  \var  of 
1808,  the  fortifications  were  restored,  and  the  city  made  a  brave  defence  against  Marshal 
Suchet,  who  at  length  carried  it  by  storm,  with  circumstances  of  great  cruelty.  Tortosa  is 
also  a  considerable  and  ancient  city  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ebro,  which  is  there  broad  and 
navigable.  It  made  a  distinguished  figure  during  the  wars  with  the  Moors,  chiefly  through 
the  exploits  of  its  heroines,  to  commemorate  whose  valour  a  military  order  was  instituted  by 
Raymond  Berenger.  Its  position  on  the  river  aflTords  scope  for  a  considerable  trade ;  and 
during  the  last  war  its  fortifications  were  restored  by  the  Spaniards.  It  contains  16,000 
inhabitants.  Between  the  two  last-mentioned  cities  has  arisen,  within  the  last  half  century, 
Reus,  a  large,  flourishing,  industrious  town,  carrying  on  various  manufactures,  particularly 
of  brandy  and  leather.  Population  25,000.  All  these  are  on  the  coast  west  of  Barcelona. 
To  the  east  the  chief  place  is  Geroi)a,  a  large  gloomy  town,  in  a  fine  situation.  It  is  well 
fortified ;  and  its  resistance,  protracted  for  more  than  half  a  year,  to  the  unremitted  efibrts 
of  Bonaparte's  generals,  formed  one  of  the  most  glorious  events  of  the  peninsular  war. 
Rosas,  a  little  town,  prettily  situated  in  a  fine  bay,  exports  cork  and  other  timber.  In  the 
interior,  Lerida,  distin^ished  as  a  Roman  station  under  the  name  of  Ilerda,  is  a  large  and 
strong  town,  situated  m  a  most  delightful  country  on  the  banks  of  the  Segre,  A  consider- 
able stand  was  made  here  by  the  patriotic  armies  during  the  French  invasion.  Mequinenza, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Segre  with  the  Ebro,  is  also  an  important  military  post.  Cervera,  the 
seat  of  a  considerable  university,  and  Igualada,  are  pretty  large  interior  towns,  supported  by 
the  produce  of  the  rich  vales  in  which  niey  are  situated.  But  the  most  striking  feature  in 
all  Catalonia  is  the  single,  lofl;y,  and  precipitous  mountain  of  Montserrat  (Jiff.  313.).  It  con- 
sists of  a  crowd  of  conical  hills  piled  over 
each  other,  broken  into  steep  walls  of  white 
and  variously  tinted  limestone  clifls,  the 
interstices  of  which  are  filled  with  ever- 
CTqpn  and  deciduous  trees  and  plants.  The 
Benedictine  monastery,  an  ancient  and  re- 
markable structure,  stands  on  a  cletl  at 
the  top  of  a  high  rock,  where  space  is 
scarcely  left  for  the  edifice,  while  far  be- 
neath roars  the  Llobregat.  Numerous  her- 
mitages pitched  on  the  top  of  precipices, 
or  in  cavities  hewn  out  of  the  rock,  increase 
the  singular  and  romantic  appearance  of 
the  scene.  This  mountain,  in  the  last  war,  was  converted  into  an  almost  impregnable  mili- 
tary position.  On  the  highest  of  all  the  Catalonian  vales,  which  is  extensive,  and  rich  in 
|;rain,  stands  Urgel,  a  small  episcopal  ise,  and  a  strong  military  post,  the  roads  being  almost 
impassable  to  artillery. 

Valencia,  beginning  from  the  border  of  Catalonia  and  Aragon,  occupies  an  extensive  coasi 
running  from  north  to  south,  and  is  the  first  of  the  southern  provinces.  The  plain  ranks  as 
the  ganien  of  Spain,  and  almost  of  Europe.  The  fields  of  com ;  the  yellow  green  of  tht 
mulberry  plantations,  the  pale  hue  of  the  olive ;  the  woods,  villages,  and  convents,  thickly 
scattered  over  this  great  expanse,  with  numberless  slender  steeples,  present,  when  united. 
an  inimitable  landscape.  The  country  is  finely  watered  by  the  Xuca|-,  the  Guadalaviar,  and 
other  rivers,  numerous  though  not  of  long  course.  A  great  extent  of  artificial  navigation 
was  formed  by  the  Moofs,  and  is  still  kept  up,  though  not  in  a  very  complete  state.  The 
province  yields,  in  abundance,  the  usual  products,  com,  wine,  oil,  silk ;  with  rice  enough  to 
wpply  the  greater  part  of  Spain,  and  barilla  for  exportation.  The  Valencians  are  very  iiidu»< 


Montierrat. 


Book  1. 


.'llVlMk    SPAIN.  v'l*V{  •'ki:<ll 


6S> 


trimiB,  and  of  a  gty  dtspoaition.    Colonies  from  the  mhiUi  of  France,  intruduceu  oy  the  flnt 
Ciiristian  conqueror,  bn^ught  with  them  a  portion  of  the  spirit  of  that  nation. 

Valencia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Guadalaviar,  is  one  of  the  largest  and  niot<t  Houriahing  townn 
of  the  kingdom.  It  ia  of  Roman  origin,  but  its  fame  dato0  from  the  eleventh  century,  wlien 
it  was  conquered  by  the  Cid  from  tlie  fthmni,  and  ruled  as  a  fief  by  thai  grcaterit  of  the  Spanish 
heroeb.  It  was  the  scene,  however,  of  a  long-continued  contest ;  and  its  final  annexation  to 
('liristian  Spain  did  not  take  place  until  a  century  and  a  half  later.  The  lotly  walls  and 
towers  of  Valencia  are  now  nearly  demolished,  and  in  the  war  of  liberty  neither  it  nor  the 
province  made  any  very  conspicuous  figure.  The  silk  manufacture  is  one  of  the  most  exten> 
give  in  Spain,  though  checked  by  an  absurd  prohibition  against  tlie  exportation  of  its  produce. 
In  a  levy  during  the  late  war,  exemption  was  granted  to  upwards  of  3000  silk-weavers,  that 
the  trade  might  not  be  interrupted.  There  are  also  manufactures  of  woollens  and  paper. 
The  Grau,  or  port  of  Valencia,  is  only  an  indifferent  roadstead,  and  the  commerce  not  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  Alicant  The  city,  though  large  and  rich,  is  not  handsome ;  the  streets 
being  narrow  and  winding,  and  bordered  by  high  old  houses.  The  churches  and  convents 
are  of  course  numerous,  and  many  of  them  richly  ornamented,  but  none  very  prominent  in 
architectural  beauty.  They  are  adorned,  however,  with  numerous  pictures  by  some  of  the 
most  eminent  Spanish  painters,  natives  of  Valencia ;  Juanes,  Ribalta,  and  others,  whose 
works  are  unknown  in  this  country,  but  are  admired  by  those  who  have  visited  Spain.  The 
religious  festivals  of  Valencia  are  celebrated  with  a  childish  pomp,  in  some  degree  disused 
in  other  parts  even  of  this  country.  On  these  occasions,  all  the  most  memorable  events  and 
most  illustrious  characters  in  scripture  history  are  represented  either  by  figures  in  wicker- 
work,  or  by  citizens  fantastically  attired.  The  exhibitions  of  this  kind,  amounting  annually 
to  a  hundred  and  fifty,  give  great  occasion  to  idleness  and  dissipation ;  yet  the  attempts  to 
reduce  their  number  have  been  hitherto  unsuccessful.     Population  66,000. 

Alicant,  situated  at  the  bottom  of  a  bay  on  the  southern  fW)ntier,  ranks  high  as  an  indus- 
trious and  commercial  towii.  Its  prosperity  is  modern,  chiefly  owing  to  the  refuge  which 
its  lofly  castle  afforded  fh>m  the  dreadful  irruptions  of  the  Barbary  corsairs.  Even  since  this 
danger  ceased,  Alicant  has  continued  to  be  a  fortified  town ;  and  none  of  the  invading  armies 
in  tlie  late  war  wore  able  to  obtain  possession  of  it  About  1000  vessels  annually  enter  its 
port,  and  are  laden  with  barilla,  raisins,  and  a  small  quantity  of  wine  and  brandy.  The 
import  from  England  consists  chiefly  of  salt-fish,  the  great  article  of  consumption  in  Catholic 
countries.  The  herring  and  other  fisheries  are  carried  on  with  considerable  activity  on  this 
coast  They,  arc  encouraged  by  the  government,  but  with  an  absurd  limitation  to  a  body  of 
enrolled  fishermen,  amounting  to  about  16,000.     Population  25,000. 

Among  other  important  towns  may  be  mentioned  Elche  and  Orihuela,  large  and  flourishing 
places,  in  the  very  finest  part  of  the  plain  of  Valencia.  Segorbe  and  Liria  are  pleasant 
interior  towno  towards  the  frontier  of  Aragon.  San  Felipe,  under  the  name  of  Xativa,  made 
a  distinguished  figure  in  the  war  of  the  succession ;  when,  after  being  demolished,  it  was 
rebuilt  by  Philip  V.  under  its  present  name.  Denia  and  Gandia  in  the  south,  and  Peiliscola 
in  the  north,  are  sea-ports  on  a  smaller  scale.  But  all  these  places  yield  in  ancient  fame  to 
Murviedro,  occupying  the  rocky  site  of  the  ancient  Saguntum,  the  siege  of  which  formed 
the  commencement  of  the  career  of  Hannibal.  The  long  resistance  of  this  powerful  and 
unfortunate  city  forms  the  first  of  the  many  remarkable  sieges  which  have  distinguished  the 
Spanish  annals,  ancient  or  modern.  The  Romans  restored  and  made  it  a  great  colony,  and 
the  Moors  erected  a  range  of  fortifications  on  the  summit  of  the  hill ;  so  that  its  mountain 
site  is  now  covered  with  ruins  of  various  dates  and  descriptions.  Half-way  up  the  eminence, 
the  outline  of  a  theatre  capable  of  containing  9000  persons  may  still  be  traced ;  and  a  low 
ropemakers  plying  their  trade  alone  break  the  silence  of  this  august  ruin.  Murviedro  is  a 
small  town  still  fortified,  though  the  resistance  made  by  it  in  the  last  war  was  not  formidable. 

Murcia  is  a  small  province,  partly  bounded  on  the  south-east  by  the  coast,  which  here 
changes  its  direction  .from  southerly  to  westerly.  Its  vale  is  almost  without  a  rival  for 
beauty  and  fertility,  even  in  southern  Europe.  Its  natural  fhiitfiilness  is  greatly  aided  by 
the  numerous  canals  of  irrigation  which  the  Moors  drew  from  the  river  Segura.  These 
advantages  are  little  improved  by  the  present  inhabitants,  who  are  noted  as  exhibiting,  in  a 
pecidiar  degree,  all  the  blemishes  of  the  Spanish  character ;  its  pride,  its  bigotry,  and  its 
laziness.  Even  the  song  and  the  dance  do  not  inspire  gaiety  in  its  vales,  as  in  all  the  rest 
of  Spain ;  almost  the  whole  time  of  the  people  being  spent  in  eating,  sleeping,  and  making 
cigars.  A  sullen  and  vindictive  spirit  is  said  to  lurk  under  this  outward  apathy.  Few 
Murcians  have  made  a  figure  in  literature,  in  the  arts,  or  in  public  life. 

Tlie  cities  of  Murcia,  if  we  except  its  port  of  Carthogena,  do  not  merit  particular  notice 
The  capital,  bearing  its  name,  is  an  irregular,  ill-built,  ill-paved  large  town,  with  36,000 
i::habitants.  The  ecclesm-stical  edifices;  however,  are  very  costly,  and  the  front  of  the 
cathedral,  according  to  Mr.  Townshend,  produces  a  splendid  effect  with  its  sixteen  Corinthian 
columns  of  marble,  and  tfiirty-two  images  as  large  as  life.  The  interior  does  not  possess 
equal  elegance,  but  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  proportion  of  gold,  silver,  and  iewels,  not 


M4 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PAtT  in 


•^ 


AlmmM. 


to  mention  the  relica,  which  are  accounted  by  the  fkithflil  as  of  much  miperior  value,    l/irca 
Ji  a  large  town,  built  with  aome  ele^rance,  and  lurrounded  by  fine  promcitadea.     Populution 

814  40,(MK).     It  had  extenaivo  tabrics  of  Hilk  iiixi 

.  aaltpetre,  which  were  rovivinff,  when  a  hi». 
gular  accident  arrested  their  pmi^resM.  A 
■peculative  individual  lud  collecto<i  all  tlio 
waters  of  the  neighbourhood  into  an  iniinciiito 
reservoir,  whence  he  supplied  them  to  the 
cultivators  for  purposes  of  irrigation ;  but  iliia 
receptacle,  not  being  tblly  secured,  liiirttt 
at  one  point,  destroyed  part  of  the  suburbs 
of  Lorca,  desolated  a  great  extent  of  country, 
and  reached  even  Murcia.  Totana,  a  popu- 
lous village,  is  enriched  by  the  copiouH  |iro< 
duction  of  barilla  in  its  neighbourhood.  The  castle  of  Almanza  {Jig.  314.),  picturewiuciy 
seated  on  a  height,  is  noted  as  the  spot  near  which,  in  1707,  was  fought  the  celebrated  buttle 
which  decided  the  Spanish  succession  in  favour  of  the  house  of  Bourbon. 

Carthagena,  situated  in  Murcia,  though  scarcely  belonging  to  it,  forms  one  of  the  tow 
great  Spanish  emporia,  and  contains  87,000  inhabitants.  This  celebrated  capital  of  ancirnt 
Spain  was  founded  by  Asdrubal ;  and  when  captured  by  Scipio,  in  the  year  of  Rome  .YiO, 
wa£  considered  one  of  the  moot  opulent  cities  in  the  world.  It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  the 
Vamlals,  but  was  restored  by  Philip  II.,  and  has  ever  since  continued  to  flourish.  It  enjoys 
one  of  the  finPHt  ports  in  Europe,  consisting  of  a  bay  slieltered  by  high  mountains  from  almost 
every  wind.  The  staples  are  the  same  as  at  Alicant.  The  revenue,  raised  by  a  small  thoui;h 
impolitic  duty  on  the  export  of  barilla,  amounts  to  25,000/.  The  fishery  is  also  considerulilc. 
There  are  few  Murcian  residents,  and  the  trade  is  carried  on  chiefly  by  English,  Frencli, 
and  Italian  houses.  The  streets  are  wide,  and  the  houses  agreeable,  with  terraced  r(H>.k, 
commanding  a  view  of  the  sea;  but  neither  here  nor  at  Alicant  are  there  any  etructui>!.s, 
even  ecclesiastical,  at  all  worthy  of  nolice. 

Andalusia,  taken  in  its  most  comprehensive  sense,  is  the  largest  of  the  Spanish  provinces, 
and,  we  may  odd,  the  finest  and  most  remarkable,  both  as  to  nature  and  art  The  Gu.ulal- 
quivir,  with  numerous  and  large  tributaries,  waters  its  whole  extent  Its  mountains,  covered 
in  many  places  with  perpetual  snow,  are  the  loftiest  its  valleys  the  most  fruitful,  in  Spiiin. 
Andalusia,  indeed,  comprises  four  celebrated  kingdoms;  Granada,  Seville,  Cordova,  und 
Jaen,  and  contains  great  capitais  founded  by  the  conquering  Moors,  \\  hich  were  the  f eata 
of  science  and  splendour,  when  the  greater  part  of  Europe  was  plunged  in  rudeness  and 
barbariem. 

Granada,  which  is  sometimes  called  Upper  Andalusia,  was  the  central  seat  of  Moorisb 
power  and  magnificence.  Even  amid  the  general  decline  of  that  power  in  Spain,  Graniula 
was  still  Hupported  by  the  multitudes  who  resorted  thither  from  the  subdued  provinces.  Us 
fall,  in  1492,  was  considered  the  most  deadly  blow  which  Islomism  ever  received ;  and  in 
all  the  mosques  prayers  are  put  up  every  Friday  for  its  restoration.  Granada  presents  a 
wonderful  combination  of  all  that  is  most  wild  and  sublime,  with  what  is  most  soil  niid 
beautiful  in  natural  scenery.  South  firom  the  capital  rises  the  Sierra  Nevada,  covered,  iis 
its  name  imports,  with  perpetual  snow  to  a  great  depth.  Mulhacen,  the  most  elevated  pouk, 
is  11,060  feet  above  the  sea;  while  the  line  of  perpetual  snow  begins  at  about  10,000  feet 
The  Alpujarias,  a  lower  range,  are  cultivated  with  considerable  diligence,  by  descendants 
of  the  Moors,  a  remnant  of  whom  found  refuge  here,  amid  the  general  proscription  of  thoir 
race  and  nation.  The  Vega  or  plain  of  Granada,  watered  by  numerous  streams  descending 
ih>m  the  high  regions,  displays  nature  in  her  utmost  pomp  and  beauty. 

The  city  of  Granada  is  in  the  heart  of  the  Vega,  beneath  the  lofliest  heights  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada.  This  city  still  displays  ample  monuments  to  attest  the  period  when  it  was  tlie 
great  western  capital  of  the  Moslem  world.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  beauty  of  its  approach. 
"  The  rich  and  populous  country  well  supplied  with  trees,  the  clear  rivulets  descending  from 
the  mountains,  and  artificially  contriveid  to  intersect  it  in  every  part;  the  splendid  city 
extending  in  a  half-moon  from  the  river,  on  the  gradual  ascent  of  a  hill ;  the  streets  rising 
above  each  other ;  the  profusion  of  turrets  and  gilded  cupolas ;  the  summit  crowned  with  the 
Alhambra;  the  background  composed  of  the  majestic  Sierra  Nevada,  with  its  summit  covered 
with  snow ;  complete  a  scene  to  which  no  description  can  do  justice."  Mr.  Jacob,  vho  thus 
describes  the  scene,  considers  it  not  too  much  to  have  travelled  two  hundred  miles  of  b;id 
road  to  see  it  The  interior,  as  in  most  Spanish  and  especially  Mohammedan  cities,  does  not 
correspond  to  the  approach.     The  streets  are  narrow,  the  walls  high  and  gloomy ;  many 

Juarters  are  now  deserted ;  and  marks  of  decay  and  splendid  poverty  are  everywhere  visible. 
ta  population,  once  comprising  400,000  souls,  ia  now  reduced  to  80,000.    But  the  eye  of 


Boost 


.'i  ?■?*'?  ,\ 


dPAlN. 


865 


"value.  l/)rca 
9".  Fopulation 
rics  of  Hilk  and 
K,  when  a  hui- 
'  proffreiw.  A 
)Uecto<l  all  tho 
nto  an  ininiciino 
*d  them  to  tiio 
?ation ;  but  lliig 
■ccured,  l)nrnt 
of  the  suburbs 
kentof  counlry, 
'otona,  a  popu. 
le  copiouH  pro- 
I  picturecupieiy 
•lebrated  biiitle 


the  curious  traveller  is  aoon  attracted  towank  the  Alhambra  (Jiff.  815.)i  the  ancient  palace 
3jg  and  fortrena  of  the  kinga  of  Granada.     It  is 

the  noblest  specimen  existing  of  MooriMh 
architecture;  and  nothing  perhaps  in  Eu- 
rope, out  of  Italy  and  Greece,  can  come  into 
comp«!tition  with  it.  Tlie  site  is  fine,  re- 
Hcnibling  Uiat  of  Windsor,  on  a  hill  above 
the  river.  Its  exterior  structure,  however, 
is  the  reverse  of  beautifbl :  a  huge  heap  of 
ugly  buildings  huddled  together,  without 
the  least  seeming  intention  of  forming  one 
habitation ;  the  walls  only  gravel  ami  |M*b- 
blctf  daubed  over  with  plaster.  On  entering 
the  threshold,  however,  tlie  visiter  soeins 
transported  into  a  fairy  scene.  He  pnitea 
through  a  range  of  apartments ;  the  baths, 

the  Court  of  the  Lions ;  the  Hall  of  the  Abencerrages  (fig.  316.) ;  the  Golden  Saloon,  of 


The  Alhimbri. 


y  ''''*.*■     816 


->><■  ."o«;  *i' 


llBllorthe  Abenoflrraiei-  Gate  of  Ih«8aaetaai7  of  tha  Koran. 

Ball  of  the  Ambassadors;  the  Gate  of  tiie  Sanctuary  of  the  Koran  (Jig.  317.) ;  the  Tor«i 


Mom'a  PavemanL 


VouL 


3¥ 


OM 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOORAPIIY. 


Part  HI. 


of  the  Two  8,.-.  .  j;  with  others,  in  which  tho  vmrioni  rMourcM  of  Ori««ntal  pomp  nr«>  ilim 
nlay  "'   "I'Mi^  with  111!      it  t  «n  rotVoith  tho  oyo  or  tho  nonm  in  a  miltry  cliiimti'.     'I'lio  court* 
ui  '  with  tniirbk',  nnd  Hiirroundoil  with  nmrhio  piilare,  in  a  pure  nnil  Imaiitit'iil  tnMt(>; 

and  thi  nnd  [wveinciit  am  pr'ith.sely  ornainentou  with  gilded  aralM>M|(in  nml  moMiiic 

(^Jlff.  31H.),  tiie  colours  of  whicli,  by  an  nrt  which  sooms  to  have  been  lost  with  the  Mon*, 
arc  as  Itrilliant  as  when  they  wero  tirNt  I  '  on,  five  hundred  yoars  a|i;o.  Wutt  r  in  n.nr'i:  to 
•pout  into  tho  air,  or,  in  smnoth  sheets  bonlired  with  flowers,  retVoshes  tho  inti»  iur  of  tho  apnrt- 
ments.  After  the  r^xpulsion  of  the  Moors,  Charios  V.  built  on  part  of  its  mIIl  ..  imw  pitlace, 
thn  external  architt  <  ire  of  which  was' much  superior;  but  it  was  never  tinixlicil.  Tho 
Goncmlife  is  another  JVluiriah  palacp,  in  a  more  elevated  and  finer  situation;  but  its  interior 
bplontiuiir,  thouffh  ffreat,  is  ()tiite  ccli  ^od  by  that  of  its  neighbour.  The  cathe<lral,  tiioii(fh 
il  'lat  yield  to  these  Moorinh  Btnictuirn,  is  vet  of  considerable  extent  and  beauty.  Granada 
is  tlu  Hoat  of  one  of  the  two  hi(fh  courts  of  chancery,  and  of  other  tribunals  of  hi^h  juriwiic- 
tion.  It  retains  a  certain  proportion  of  its  former  immense  silk  manufactures,  with  some  of 
woollen  and  leather ;  and  a  considerable  number  of  persona  are  employed  in  extracting  the 
nitre  with  which  the  neighbouring  soil  is  copiously  impregnated. 

Mala(|^  has  in  modem  times  attained  a  greater  imimrtance,  and  is  reckoned  the  third  port 
in  tho  kingdom,  ranking  nnxt  to  thoso  of  Cadiz  and  Barcelona.  Tho  chief  foundation  oi  its 
trade  is  tho  flne  wine  calUtd  Malaga  or  mnuntain,  producod  in  the  numerous  hills  behind  ''. 
It  is  raised  at  very  great  expense,  and  only  upon  the  declivities  which  have  an  eroosur ;  " 
the  sun.  The  country  produces  also  very  flne  raisins  and  other  firuita;  and  anchovits,  c^'  'la 
and  cured  on  the  coast,  have  been  sold  to  the  annual  extent  of  20,000  quintals.  Malag.'  is 
the  only  great  Spanish  port  of  which  the  exports  have  always  exceeded  the  imi^i'ts.  Malaga 
has  a  very  secure  though  not  extensive  harbour,  formed  by  artificial  moles.  It  lies  in  a  dc«p 
bav  on  a  little  plain  overhung  by  lofty  and  craggy  clifli,  which  at  a  dista-ne  appear  quite 
naked,  but  on  approaching,  every  crevice  is  found  to  be  filled  with  vines.  This  situation 
renders  the  heat  very  severe,  aiid  has  aided  in  exposing  the  inhabitants  to  the  destructive 
ravages  of  pestilential  fever.  The  streets  are  close,  narrow,  and  dirty ;  but  the  cathedral  in 
a  very  noble  pile,  and  contains  paiotings  by  great  Spanish  masters.     Population  62,000. 

Other  very  considerable  towns  occur  in  Granada.  Five  leagues  to  the  east  of  Malaga  is 
Velez-Malaga,  most  delightfully  situated  in  a  plain  diversified  by  numerous  gentle  nills, 
clothed  to  the  summit  with  vines,  while  the  plains  below  wave  with  luxuriant  harvests  of 
grain.  Farther  east  are  the  small  ports  of  Motril  and  Almeria ;  the  latter  ancient,  and  cele- 
brated  in  the  history  of  the  Moors,  iitiiI-  r  whom  it  wap  highly  prosperous  and  flourishing. 
Near  it  is  the  rock  of  Filabres,  2000  io  i  high,  composed  of  a  single  block  of  white  marble; 
and  beyond  it  stretches  into  the  sea  the  bolaand  huge  promontory  of  Cabode  Gata.  Guadix, 
Baza,  and  Purcheno,  are  consider,  jle  intei  lor  towns,  in  the  eastern  part  of  this  province, 
seated  in  valleys  enclosed  by  the  numerous  ranges  of  hills  which  intersect  it.  Santa  Fe, 
two  leagues  west  of  Granada,  is  remarkably  exposed  to  earthquakes,  which  have  split  its 
cathedral  in  two,  and  laid  open  the  cells  of  one  of  the  convents ;  yet  the  citizens  still  inhabit 
and  keep  it  in  repair.  Alhama  is  strikingly  situated  amid  a  circuit  of  precipitous  rocks, 
through  which  dashes  a  rapid  stream.  It  is  firequentcd  for  the  salubrity  of  its  air,  and  for 
its  medicinal  springs  and  hatha.  Antoquera  is  very  ancient;  filled  with  Roman  and  Moori.sh 
monuments,  ond  still  large ;  the  adjacent  country  is  very  fertile,  ond  distinguished  for  the 
variety  both  of  its  vegetable  and  mineral  productions.  Population  20,000.  Ronda,  {fig.  810.) 
Q|Q  capital  of  a  wide  mountain  district,  is  sin- 

gularly situated  on  a  rock  with  perpendicu- 
lar cliffs  and  br  .  .\  ■  r,  .org  through  a  deep 
Assure  in  which  lli-  i  •  '.  flows,  and  ■" 
rounds  the  citv   n  H/r^.'.  It  is  cro     .i 

by  a  stupendou  •   ilui  jet  in  diameter, 

and  280  feet  in  height  Stairs  of  350  step? 
lead  down  to  the  river,  and  gardens  have 
been  formed  on  some  level  projecting  points 
of  the  precipice.  The  mountaineers  of 
Ronda  are  an  honest,  active,  hardy  race ; 
end  to  \  !thy  as  to  make  it  a  proverb,  that  "  at  Ronda  a  man  is  a  boy  at  eighty."  The 
vicinity  G,'  /altar  rives  them  great  opportunities  for  smuggling,  which  they  carry  on  in 
largf  '  t^.i-  snd  in  otjon  resistance  to  government,  without,  however,  incurring  any  impu- 
tatioT'  iu\  .t  Ir  ^Vj.aral  loyalty, 

T^o  kin,7,r  ^ni  of  Seville,  V'  'X  of  Granada,  is  a  still  finer  region,  and  perhaps  superior  to 
any  other  in  the  Peninsula,  its  plains  are  the  meet  productive  in  ^ine,  oil,  and  firuits;  the 
noble  river  Guadalquivir  conveys  its  products  to  Uie  sea;  and  Seville  and  Cadiz  are,  in  vmt 
respects,  saperior  to  all  other  Spanish  cltie& 


Rondi. 


BcvUlfl  {Jig.  aOO.)  b  ■itnatod  in  u 
890 


■•vilto. 


BoobL  titm/        SPAIN,    \tim^^f^  mt 

midct  of  a  fertile  and  delightflil  plain,  and  near  the 
muiitli  of  the  Guadal(|uivjr,  which  fur> 
nicrly  admitted  vcnaolri  of  luryo  Nizo ;  il 
wiiH  a  jfnial  city  fWmi  the  earlicHt  [ktmxI. 
U\  ilin  Konmna  it  wiui  colcbraicil  urMli^r 
tht>  (tpix'llutinii  of  lliri|KiliH:  itM  liMitMla- 
tinn  waHaacribnd  to  Ui-rculoM,  wul,  with 
the  (i»i^hbouring  coltmy  of  Itwlini,  jj 
formoU  tlu;  (Hjiit.-il  of  Bo'lica.  Und-'r  the 
M<x)rB  it  became  ^n  'ndt^ pendent  ^\nff- 
dom;  and  if  it  be  truu  that,  on  its  cap. 
turo  by  Ferdinand  the  Cathulic,4(M),(N)0 
Moon  marched  out  at  one  of  itH  i^tes, 
<;  rnu  '  indeed  have  been  an  immenae  city.  Notwithttandiuff  tiie  depopulatsm  iJium  occa* 
■i\n\  dd  by  bif^try  and  treachery,  it  loon  became  more  aplendiJ  than  over,  in  /onsequcnco  ot 
<i  <n  !'.>,  the  emporium  of  the  wealth  which  flowed  in  iVom  tho  western  hemisphere.  Ita 
maiiu...^turing  induitrv  was  then  also  very  flourishing.  By  a  return  made  to  ffovernment  in 
1601,  Seville  was  said  to  contain  16,000  silk  looms,  giving  employment  to  130,000  work* 
Kiien.  It  fVequently  received  an  increase  of  splendour  by  becoming  a  ro^al  residence.  Bince 
tho  above  period,  Seville  has  not  only  declined  with  the  gradual  dechne  of  Spain,  but  has 
sufli'red  by  the  flilinfjf  up  of  the  channel  of  the  Guadalquivir,  which  haH  rendered  it  naviga* 
ble  only  for  small  ships,  and  has  transferred  to  Cadiz  the  commerce  of  America.  Seville  is 
now  a  solemn,  inert,  gloomy  city,  with  91,000  inhabitants.  Like  other  Spanish  places,  |)ar< 
ticularly  those  of  Moorish  origin,  its  streets  are  narrow,  winding,  and  d  rty ;  but  it  contains 
aome  splendid  public  edifices.  Foremost  stands  the  cathedral,  the  inrcroRt  ecclesiastical 
■tructure  in  the  Peninsula,  420  feet  long  witliin,  and  873  broad ;  but  Uic  moat  striking  fea- 
ture is  its  tower,  originally  erected  by  the  learned  Geberor  Guever,  and  ised  as  an  observa- 
tory, but  raised  by  the  Christians  to  the  height  of  360  feet  Many  of  tho  convents  also  are 
very  splendid,  and  previous  to  the  late  invasion  by  the  French  contained  m merous  workuof 
the  greatest  Spanish  artists,  of  whom  Seville  was  the  chief  nurse.  There  vos,  above  all,  a 
splendid  collection  of  the  works  of  Murillo,  the  prince  of  these  artists,  n  id  a  native  of 
Seville.  Of  these  treasures  the  city  has  been  in  a  great  measure  despoiled  by  the  ravages 
of  the  invader;  Marshal  Soult,  in  particular,  had  in  his  collection  numerou/^  masterpieces 
of  Murillo,  by  which  the  convents  of  Seville  were  formerly  adorned.  Seville  has  still  2rj00 
ailk  looms;  and  government  maintains  a  cannon  foundery  and  a  tobacco  manu .kctory.  The 
Exchange  and  the  Marine  Academy  are  also  handsome  edifices. 
Cadiz  {fig,  321.)  is,  in  an  equal  degree  with  Seville,  the  boast  of  Spain.  In  the  commer- 
go|  cial  annals  of  the  world  no  city  is  of 

.  hi((her  antiquity.     Tarti  ^sus,    occu- 

*-w**-^^  i^-*-    -  n_  .  pyin?  ^  s'^B  ill  i^  vicinity,  was  one 

or  the  earliest  and  most  flourishing 
Phoenician  colonies.  Afte  wards  Ga- 
deira,  or  Gades,  was  rec  -^iscd  by 
tlie  Greeks  and  Romans  \it  one  of  tlie 
chief  European  emporia.  'n  modern 
times,  when  commerce  did  not  form 
Pjjij  ■,  part  of  the  European  systi   n,  Ca<liz 

declined  into  a  secondary  r  nk ;  and 
the  intercourse  with  America  was  at  first  nearly  monopolised  by  Seville.  The  circi.  nstances 
which  transferred  it  fi-om  that  city  to  Cadiz  took  place  early  in  the  last  qentury,  \  tien  the 
latter  rose  to  be  the  chief  theatre  of  Spanish  commerce.  It  enjoyed  for  some  time  the  entire 
monopoly  '  f  the  American  trade ;  and  even  when,  in  1778,  it  was  thrown  open  to  th  y  whole 
kingdom,  it  had  taken  such  deep  root  in  Cadiz  as  to  frustrate  all  competition.  In  17M,  when 
the  eatire  imports  from  America  were  12,630,000/.  that  city,  for  its  share,  had  11,280,000/. ; 
and  of  the  whole  exports,  amounting  to  4,300,0001.,  it  had  3,600,000/.  Notwithstanding 
severe  shocks,  m  consequence  of  political  revolutions,  and  the  war  with  England,  it  Uvays 
revived,  and  derived  a  temporary  greatness  from  becoming  the  capital  of  the  constiti.  tional 
government.  It  received,  however,  its  mortal  blow  by  the  separation  of  the  colonies.  The 
mcrchatts,  deprived  thus  of  almost  their  only  employment,  have  been  reduced  to  the  funds 
already  accumulated,  and  have  in  a  gr  it  measure  retired  from  the  confined  situation  of 
Cadiz  to  the  pleasant  sites  and  villages  which  are  scattered  round  the  bay.  The  city  is 
situated  on  a  small  neck  of  land,  at  the  point  of  the  long  Isle  of  Leon.  It  does  not  boast  any 
remarkable  structures,  but  the  whole  is  elegantly  built  in  regular  squares,  and  streets  with  a 
^uare  court  in  the  centre  and  an  awning  over  it    Population  53,000. 


868 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  TTT. 


822 


Gibraltar. 


Qibraltar  {fig.  S22.),  though  no  longer  Spanish,  forma  also  a  striking  and  important  fea- 
ture in  this  province.  Thia  rock  is 
celebrated  from  the  earliest  antiquity  as 
one  of  the  two  "  Pillars  of  Hercules," 
which  guarded  the  entrance  into  the 
Mediterranean;  though  Mount  ('iilpe, 
on  the  opposite  side,  is  consider.')  l)|y 

_X1111UL II J.IJIW1IIL JUL J—IIIHl MULILMII      ^°'^'®'"'   ^"  Vl^,  Sir  George  Rooke  and 
'^^^■iksd^B^B^^^^KSJWI'E^     Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  carried  this  tiir- 

tress  by  a  coup  (2e  main;  since  wliich 
time  Spam  has  vainly  attempted  to  re- 
gain  possession  of  it  Her  grand  etii)rt 
was  towards  the  close  of  the  American 
war,  when  the  fleets  of  France  and  Spain  rode  masters  of  the  sea.  A  combined  attack  was 
made  on  the  13th  of  September,  1782,  by  the  two  powers,  with  iifly  sail  of  the  line,  80,000 
troops,  and  ten  mighty  floating  batteries,  which  were  expected  to  demolish  all  opposed  to 
them.  They  kept  up  a  tremendous  fire  fVom  ten  in  the  morning  till  midnight,  at  which  time 
smoke  and  fire  were  seen  rising  from  the  batteries  which  before  next  morning  were  reduced 
to  ashes,  with  a  dreadful  destruction  of  the  assailants.  No  subsequent  attempt  has  been 
made ;  nature,  in  fact,  has  rendered  Gibraltar  almost  impregnable.  The  rock  is  precipitous 
en  all  sides,  and  is  connected  with  the  continent  only  by  a  narrow  neck  of  marshy  ground. 
'l^e  western  front  alone  towards  the  sea  is  in  any  degree  accessible;  and  this  is  defeudi'd 
by  batteries  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  and  by  other  works  so  extensive  and  so  well  planned  as  to 
bid  defiance  to  any  future  effort  Gibraltar  has' one  handsome  street,  the  houses  of  wliich 
are  built  in  the  English  style,  with  trees  and  flowers  skilfully  planted  in  scanty  fragments  of 
soil.  The  rest  of  the  town  is  close,  crowded,  and  dirty,  inhabited  by  about  2(),00()  people, 
chiefly  Moors  and  Jews,  the  latter  of  whom  have  sought  refuge  here  m  great  numbers  from 
Spanish  bigotry,  and  have  four  synagogues.  The  expense  of  maintaining  Gibraltar  is  con- 
siderable :  but  it  forms  an  important  naval  station,  a  depdt  for  the  commerce  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  a  channel  for  introducing  into  Spain  great  quantities  of  goods,  declared  contri- 
band  by  the  jealous  policy  of  that  country. 

Among  other  places  of  some  importance  is  Tarifa,  the  most  southern  point  of  Spain,  and 
even  of  Europe,  and  the  probable  place  of  the  landing  of  Tarik,  with  the  Saracen  army  destinod 
for  the  conquest  of  that  country.  Seated  on  an  almost  insulated  rock,  it  is  still  a  fortress  of 
some  strength.  Algesiras,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  bay,  has  grown  up  as  a  small  rival  to 
Gibraltar;  its  population  consists  chiefly  of  smugglers  and  adventurers.  In  the  interior  is 
the  flourishing  and  populous  town  of  Xeres,  situated  in  a  wide  region  of  vineyards,  producing 
the  wine  called  Sherry,  the  consumption  of  which  is  so  general  in  this  country.  Mr.  Jacob 
supposes  the  entire  produce  to  be  40,000  pipes,  of  which  15,000  are  exported,  one  half  to 
Britain.  Ecija,  a  large  town,  was  famous  as  a  scene  of  contest  between  the  Christians  and 
Saracens,  and  afterwards  as  the  head  quarters  of  a  most  formidable  band  of  robbers ;  but  its 
walls  are  now  in  ruin.  Lebrija  and  Carmona  are  ancient  towns,  containing  Roman  monu- 
ments of  considerable  grandeur.  The  districts  to  the  north  and  west  of  the  Guadalquivir 
are  mountainous  and  rugged ;  though  Huelva  and  Moguer,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tinto,  and 
Ayamontc,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Guadiana,  derive  some  importance  from  their  situation,  and 
carry  on  a  little  fishery. 
Cordova  {fig.  323.),  on  the  upper  part  of  the  course  of  the  Guadalquivir,  is  another  king- 
dom of  Andalusia,  deriving  its 
chief  interest  from  the  celebrated 
capital  of  the  same  name.  Cor- 
duba,  founded  by  the  Roman,",  was 
not  only  a  provincial  capital,  but 
the  seat  of  an  university,  which 
could  boast  the  great  names  of  Se- 
neca and  Lucan.  It  displayfd, 
however,  a  far  higher  pomp,  whi-n, 
after  the  Saracen  conquest,  it  he- 
came  the  first  capital  of  the  Mo 
hammedan  empire  in  Spain.  Under  Abdelrahman  and  Almansor,  it  is  represented  as  con 
taining  1000  mo3que^',  and  nearly  1,000,(MK)  people.  Admitting  a  certain  exaggeration,  its 
past  greatness  is  clearly  attested  by  the  vast  and  now  almost  empty  circuit  enclosed  by  its 
walls,  in  a  great  measure  filled  with  pilm  trees  and  gardens,  and  by  the  astonishing  remains 
of  its  mosqne.  This  vast  edifice  presents  nothin?  very  striking  in  itj?  exterior,  which  is  in  a 
great  measure  iiid  by  the  surrounding  streets.  But  when  the  stranger  enters  any  one  o''  iti) 
nineteen  gates,  he  is  astonished  and  bewildered  by  the  endless  labyrinth  of  columns  which 
stretch  before  him  in  every  direction  (/«.  324.).  These  columns  have  almost  defied  the  at- 
teinots  to  number  them;  by  one  writer  they  have  been  estimated  at  1400,  but  are  generally 


Cordiiva. 


Book 

stated 
and  flu 


4k     -f 


Part  m. 

important  fea- 
Thi&  rock   is 
est  antiquity  as 
of  Hercules," 
•ance  into  the 
Mount  Caipe, 
8  consideriihly 
rge  Rooke  iukI 
irried  this  tiir- 
;  since  which 
tempted  to  re- 
er  grand  elijjrt 
the  Americiiii 
led  attack  was 
le  line,  3(),()(K) 
ill  opposed  to 
at  which  time 
were  reduced 
npt  has  been 
is  precipitous 
arshy  ground, 
is  is  defendf^d 
planned  as  to 
ises  of  which 
fragments  of 
:(),00()  people, 
lumbers  from 
)raltar  is  con- 
the  Mediter- 
ilared  contn- 

>f  Spain,  and 
irmydestiiiiid 
a  fortress  of 
imall  rival  to 
he  interior  is 
ds,  producing 
Mr.  Jacob 
I,  one  half  to 
iristians  and 
bers ;  but  its 
Oman  monu- 
juadalquivir 
e  Tinto,  and 
ituation,  and 

lother  king, 
leriving    its 
B  celebrated 
lame.     Cor- 
Lomans.  was 
capital,  but 
sity,  which 
ames  of  Se- 
displ.MVfd, 
omp,  wh(>n, 
]uest,  it  he- 
of  the  Mo 
ted  as  con 
'oration,  ita 
losed  by  its 
ig  remains 

hirh  ia  in  n 


'n    Book  T. 


SPAIN. 


Interior  or  Motqua  at  Cordova. 


Stated  as  exceeding  400,  dividing  the  mosque  into  nineteen  aislea,  and  producing  a  perpetual 
and  surprising  change  of  scene  to  the  visitor.    The  edifice,  however,  though  it  astonishes  by  itt 

immensity,  does  not  equal  in  elegance  those  erected  during 
that  more  refined  age  when  Granada  became  the  capital. 
The  Christians  have  converted  it  into  a  church,  and  erected 
in  the  centre  a  choir  of  great  beauty,  but  quite  out  of  har- 
mony with  the  Saracenic  part  of  the  structure.  CordovO; 
though  its  days  of  splendour  are  long  departed,  still  enjoys 
delightfiil  environs,  producing  a  breed  of  horses  the  finest  in 
S|)ain,  of  which  a  splendid  stud  was  lately  kept  by  the  go- 
vernment. There  is  also  some  remnant  of  its  once  exten- 
sive manufactures,  particularly  of  that  fine  species  of  leather 
called  from  it  Cordovan.    The  population  is  67,000. 

Jaen  ranks  as  a  fourth  kingdom,  though  it  cannot  enter 
into  any  rivalry  with  those  already  described.  Its  capital,  of 
the  same  name,  however,  though  little  known,  from  its  de 
tached  situation,  is  still  a  large  city,  the  see  of  a  bishop. 
Andujar  is  a  considerable  place,  with  a  very  ancient  castle, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  defiles  of  the  Sierra  Morcna ;  and  to 
the  north  of  it  is  Baylen,  where  the  Spaniards  gained  that 
signal  victory  which  caused  the  surrender  of  Dupont  and  his 
army.  In  the  upper  part  of  this  tract  are  the  settlements  of 
La  Carolina,  where  an  expanse  of  rude  mountain  waste  has, 
by  German  and  other  colonists,  been  converted  into  a  pro- 
ductive territory. 

The  Balearic  Islands,  Majorca,  Minorca,  and  Ivi^a,  with  the  minor  ones  of  Cabrera  and 
Formentera,  form  an  appendage  to  Spain  of  some  importance  and  celebrity.  The  Balearian 
slingers  are  celebrated  in  the  military  annals  of  antiquity ;  but  the  islands  in  general  fol- 
lowed the  political  fate  of  Spain.  Majorca,  the  largest,  about  forty  miles  in  length,  and 
thirty  in  breadth,  possesses  very  considerable  natural  advantages.  Several  mountain  chains, 
varymg  from  1500  to  4*500  feet  high,  penetrate  its  centre,  and  defend  it  both  from  the  excess 
of  the  heat  and  the  violent  action  of  the  sea-breezes.  Its  summits  are  somewhat  arid,  but 
the  inter\ening  valleys  are  thickly  clothed  with  olive  trees;  and  com  and  the  vine  grow 
luxuriantly,  though  with  imperfect  culture,  on  the  plains  below.  Oranges  and  citrons 
flourish  so  abundantly  in  the  northern  district,  that  20,000  mule-loads  of  them  are  exported 
U>  France  and  Catalonia.  M.  Cambassedes  values  the  entire  produce  of  the  isle,  in  1820,  at 
53,000,000  reals,  about  $3,000,000.  Of  this,  about  34,000,000  are  in  grain  and  pulse, 
5,000,000  in  oil,  and  2,500,000  in  wine,  1,500,000  in  fruits,  3,000,000  in  hops,  and  2,000,000 
in  sheep.  Palma,  the  capital  of  Majorca,  is  a  considerable  town,  slightly  fortified,  inhabited 
chiefly  by  the  nobles,  who  possess  the  greater  part  of  the  isle,  and  have  rarely  sufficient 
activity  or  curiosity  to  visit  their  estates.  In  no  Spanish  city  are  indolence  and  superstition 
more  prevalent.  There  are  thirty  convents,  some  of  which  enjoy  a  revenue  of  #10,000  a 
year.  Processions  and  religious  festivals,  celebrated  often  with  great  tumult,  form  the  chief 
amusements.  In  these  it  is  customary  to  deck  up  figures  of  Judas,  with  tablets  containing 
the  enumeration  of  hi^  crimes,  among  which  that  of  being  "  chief  of  the  liberals"  was 
lately  included !    Population  34,000. 

Minorca  is  a  much  smaller  island,  more  barren,  covered  with  bare  and  rocky  mountains, 
and  destitute  of  any  trees  at  all  lofty,  the  growth  being  prevented  by  the  violent  winds  from 
the  sea.  But  it  is  distinguished  for  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  Europe,  Port  Mahon,  which 
being  strongly  fortified,  has  been  a  subject  of-eager  contest  to  the  maritime  nations.  Having 
been  taken  by  England  in  the  Succession  War,  it  was  recovered  by  the  French  in  175^ 
notwithatandmg  Byng's  attempt  to  relieve  it.  After  several  other  vicissitudes,  it  remained 
with  Spain.  The  harbour  is  extensive,  possesses  deep  water,  and  is  sheltered  by  hills  on 
each  side  from  every  wind.  The  town  has  nothing  of  a  Spanish  aspect ;  the  streets  being 
broad,  the  houses  small  but  neat,  the  people  a  stirring  and  active  race,  who  scarcely  allow 
themselves  to  be  called  Spaniards.  During  the  late  French  war,  being  protected  by  the 
English  navy,  they  made  considen  hie  w  ealth  by  privateering.  Ciuidadella,  though  of  smaller 
extent,  is  the  nominal  capital,  and  the  residence  of  the  nobility.  Ivi<ja,  or  Iviza,  is  a  small 
isle,  of  rugged  surface,  which  forms  one  immense  mountain,  shooting  up  into  a  variety  of 
summits.  The  island  ib  thus  reft'  shed  by  cool  breezes  and  numerous  streams,  and  yields 
readily  all  the  productions  of  this  climate,  particularly  figs.  In  the  quarter  called  I^as  Sa- 
linas, salt  is  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  exported  to  the  extent  of  15,000  tons. 

[Sect.  VIII. — Republic  of  Andorra. 

This  little  republic,  with  a  territory  of  hardly  200  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  about 
15,000  souls,  has  been  overlooked  by  the  author  of  this  work.  It  occupies  a  valley  on  the 
Bouthem  side  of  the  Pyrenees,  situated  between  the  Maladetta  and  the  Moncal,  and  lying 

Vol.  I.  60 


0 


900 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


PabtIII 


between  Foix  in  France  and  Urgel  in  Spain.  Beside  Andorra,  the  capital,  a  town  of  2,000 
inhabitants,  it  contains  five  villages,  which  export  iron  and  timber.  It  is  governed  by  a 
Syndic,  who  presides  over  the  council  of  the  valley,  and  by  two  Viguiers,  appointed  the  one 
by  the  king  of  France,  and  the  other  by  the  bishop  of  UrgeL — ^Ah.  Ed.] 


Book 

rior; 
is  neg 
merin 
exccll 


^  t 


CHAPTER  X. 


PORTUGAL. 


Th 

as  a 
*hole 


PoRTi'niiL  has  by  political  causes  alone  been  separated  finm  Spain.  There  is  no  physical 
peculiarity  by  whifjh  the  two  kingdoms  are  distinguished.  On  the  contrary,  all  the  grand 
natural  features  of  Spain  are  prolonged  into  Portugal,  and  become  Portuguese. 

Sect.  I. — Oeneral  Outline  and  Aspect. 

The  boundaries  of  Portugal  are  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  west  throughout  its  whole 
extent,  and  also  on  the  south ;  on  the  north  tlie  Spanish  kingdom  of  Galicia ;  and  on  the 
east  those  of  Estremadura  and  Leon.  The  greatest  dimension  is  from  north  to  south,  or 
from  37°  to  42°  10'  north  latitude,  and  it  extends  from  6°  15'  to  9°  30'  west  longitude.  Its 
surface  is  38,800  square  miles. 

The  mountains  of  Portugal  may  be  considered  as  prolongations  of  those  of  Spain,  chiefly 
of  the  chains  of  Guadarrama  and  Toledo,  and  those  in  the  north  of  Galicia.  Those  ranges, 
seldom  rising  to  the  first  magnitude,  cover  almost  the  whole  country,  leaving  between  them 
many  picturesque  and  fertile  valleys.  There  are  only  two  extensive  plains,  one  on  the  south 
of  the  Tagus,  and  the  other  between  the  Mondego  and  the  Douro. 

The  rivers  of  Portugal  consist  chiefly  of  the  spacious  terminations  of  the  greatest  streams 
of  Spain  in  their  progress  to  the  ocean.  The  Douro  forms  the  great  maritime  emporium  of 
Oporto,  and  the  Tagus  that  of  Lisbon.  The  Guadiana,  also,  in  its  lower  course,  flows 
along  the  eastern  frontier  of  Portugal.  The  Minho,  a  much  smaller  stream,  comes  down 
from  Galicia ;  and  the  Mondego,  alone,  is  entirely  Portuguese,  flowing  nearly  across  the 
breadth  of  tlie  kingdom. 

Sect.  II. — Natural  Qeography. 

SvBSECT.  1. — Oeology. 

This  kingdom  has  the  same  general  geognostical  structure  and  composition  as  Spain.  The 
mountainous  ports  of  the  country  are  generally  of  gneiss,  mica  slate,  and  other  Neptunian 
primitive  strata,  occasionally  intermingled  with  Plutonian  rocks  of  granite  and  porphyry. 
Secondary  formations  of  limestone  occur  in  the  Sierra  d'Estrella,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape 
St.  Vincent,  and  all  around  Lisbon  and  at  Cape  St.  Vincent  the  strata  are  of  rocks  of  the 
tertiary  class,  more  or  less  intermingled  with  trap  rocks. 

Mines.  It  appears  that  the  CarUiaginians  wrought  tin  mines  in  this  part  of  the  Penin- 
sula. It  is  asserted  that  there  were  formerly  mines  of  tin  stone  in  the  granitic  mountains 
of  the  neighbourhood  of  Viseu,  in  the  province  of  Beira,  at  the  place  called  Burraco  de  Stanno. 
Lead  ores  were  worked  in  the  last  century,  not  far  firom  Mogadouro,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Sabour,  in  the  province  of  Tras  os  Montes,  and  near  Ijongroiva,  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio 
Prisco.  Near  Mogadouro,  mines  of  graphite  or  plumbago  occur.  Iron  mines  also  occur  in 
tlie  same  county,  near  Felguiera  and  Torre  de  Moncorvo.  They  supply  the  iron  forge  of 
Chapacunha.  Two  very  old  establishments  of  the  same  kind  occur  in  Portuguese  Estre- 
madura, one  in  the  district  of  Thomar,  the  other  in  that  of  Figuero  dos  Vinhos.  They  are 
supplied  by  mines  of  red  oxide  of  iron,  situated  in  the  frontier  of  that  provmce  and  of  the 

Province  of  Beira.  There  is  a  deposit  of  cinnabar  at  Couna.  The  mountains  of  the  neigh- 
ourhood  of  Oporto  everywhere  present  indications  of  copper  and  of  other  ores.  In  Portu- 
gal, as  in  Spain,  the  sands  of  rivers  were  washed  for  the  gold  they  contain;  and  it  is  said  in 
this  way.  large  quantities  of  the  precious  metal  were  collected.  At  present  there  is  but  one 
gold  mme  in  Portugal,  at  a  place  called  Adissa,  in  the  district  of  StUbes,  Its  annual  pro- 
duce is  trifling :  in  the  year  1815  it  was  41  lbs.  of  pure  gold ;  1816,  18  lbs. ;  1817, 11  lbs. ; 
1818, 12  lbs, ;  1819, 13  lbs. ;  1820, 12  lbs. ;  and  in  1821, 18  lbs.  Beds  of  coal  occur  at  Vialonga, 
to  the  N.N.E.  of  Oporto;  and  there  is  a  mine  of  coal  at  Cabo  de  Buarcos  in  the  province 
of  Beira. 

SuBSECT.  2  — Botany. 

The  botany  of  Portugal  is  included  under  that  of  Spain. 

SresECT.  3. — Zoology. 
The  zoology  cannot  be  very  differont  from  that  of  Spain;  but  no  documents  have  appeared 
to  illustrate  either  the  one  or  the  other.    The  horses  are  rather  small,  and  altogether  infe 


•■.k 


Book  I. 


PORTUGAL 


691 


M  'ini'  <  ^ut  the  mules  are  fine,  and  nearly  equal  to  those  of  Spain.  Improvement,  however, 
is  neglected ;  nor  have  the  indolent  Portuguese  profited  by  crossing  Uioir  sheep  from  the 
merinos  of  Spain.  A  long-legged  race  of  swine  is  common  to  both  kingdoms,  and  fumishea 
excellent  hams. 

Sect.  m. — Historical  Geography 

The  Carthaginians  and  Romans  who  occupied  the  Peninsula,  did  not  recognise  Portugal 
as  a  distinct  count:^.  Their  Lusitania  included  a  part  of  Spain,  and  did  not  comprise  uie 
#hole  of  Portugal :  Merida,  in  Estremadura,  was  its  capital.  Portugal,  like  Spain,  submitted 
successively  to  the  formidable  irruptions  of  the  Goths  and  of  the  Moors. 

The  existence  of  Portugal  as  a  distinct  kingdom  dates  from  the  commencement  of  the 
twolflh  century.  At  that  time,  Henry,  duke  of  Burgundy,  having  married  the  daughter  of 
the  duke  of  Castile,  obtained  as  her  dowry  the  northern  part  of  Portugal,  which  had  been 
rescued  from  the  Moors.  The  capital,  at  that  time,  was  Porto  or  Oporto,  whence  the  modem 
name  of  the  kingdom  appears  to  be  derived.  His  successors  gained  a  series  of  conquests, 
and  obtained  possession  of  Lisbon  and  the  southern  provinces,  carrying  their  conquests  to  the 
frontier  of  Seville. 

The  fifleenth  century,  and  the  reigns  of  John  and  Emanuel,  formed  the  true  era  of  the 
greatness  of  Portugal,  when  it  outshone  all  the  other  kingdoms  of  Europe.  Confined  on 
5ie  land  side  within  narrow  limits,  it  opened  for  itself  a  vast  career  of  maritime  discovery 
and  conquest.  Spain,  indeed,  shared  this  pursuit ;  but  her  first  acquisitions  were  made  by 
private  individuals,  partly  foreign,  with  only  faint  assistance  from  the  government ;  while 
the  Portuguese  expeditions  were  planned,  fitted  out,  and  all  the  resources  for  them  sup- 
plied by  the  government.  Their  flag,  at  one  time,  floated  victorious  over  all  the  eastern 
seas ;  while  in  the  west,  by  the  possession  of  Brazil,  they  came  into  some  competition  with 
Spain. 

A  disastrous  eclipse  of  the  Portuguese  monarchy  took  place  in  the  sixteenth  century,  in 
consequence  of  the  rash  and  romantic  expedition  undertaken  by  king  Sebastian  into  Morocco, 
where  he  himself  and  the  flower  of  his  troops  were  cut  off.  Hereupon  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
a  powerfiil  and  ambitious  prince,  raised  a  claim  to  the  succession,  which  the  superiority  of 
his  arms  enabled  him  to  secure.  Portugal,  with  all  her  eastern  and  western  possessions, 
Uien  became  an  appanage  to  the  crown  of  Spain.  The  connection  was  every  way 
unfortunate.  Not  only  did  she  lose  her  political  and  civil  liberty,  but  many  of  her  finest 
foreign  possessions  were  wrested  from  her  by  the  Dutch,  the  spirited  and  active  enemies  of 
Philip. 

The  restoration  of  the  monarchy,  in  1640,  was  still  more  sudden  than  its  fiill.  The  deep- 
rooted  indignation  of  the  people  was  combined  into  an  extensive  conspiracy,  which,  having 
been  concealed  to  the  last  moment,  burst  forth  at  once :  the  Spaniards  were  driven  out,  and 
the  duke  of  Braganza  miscd  to  the  throne,  under  the  title  of  John  IV.  Yet  Portugal  did  not 
thus  achieve  any  revival  of  her  ancient  glory.  The  new  monarch  soon  re-established  absolute 
power:  a  sluggish  and  indolent  character  pervaded  all  the  departments  of  government:  its 
foreign  possessions  were  lost  or  neglected ;  and  Portugal  continued  a  stranger  to  all  the 
improvements  and  energies  which  raised  Britain  and  France  to  the  first  place  in  the  system 
of  Europe.  Yet,  during  this  period,  the  elevation  of  the  Bourbons  to  the  Spanish  throne,  led 
to  a  very  intimate  alliance  between  England  and  Portugal,  the  natural  foe  of  Spain.  It  was 
cemented  in  1803,  by  a  commercial  treaty,  in  which  Portugal  secured  an  exclusive  market 
for  her  wines,  while  Britain  obtained  a  market  for  her  woollens,  and  an  arrangement  by  which 
the  gold  of  Brazil  might  find  its  way  into  her  ports. 

The  recent  convulsions  of  the  Peninsula  have  been  very  amply  shared  by  Portugal. 
Regardless  of  the  neutrality  which  she  had  strictly  maintained,  Bonaparte,  by  a  most  unpro- 
voked aggression,  sent  Junr.i,  in  1807,  to  take  possession  of  Lisbon.  The  king  did  not 
attempt  a  vain  resistance,  but  sailed  for  Brazil,  and  established  his  court  at  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
The  British  arms,  and  the  glorious  achievements  of  Wellington,  drove  the  French  out  of  this 
part  of  the  Peninsula,  and  finallyoutof  the  whole.  Afterwards  Portugal  imitated  the  example 
of  Spain  in  compelling  her  monarch  to  grant  a  representative  constitution ;  but  again,  by  a 
counter-revolution,  she  re-established  an  absolute  monarchy.  More  recently,  on  the  death 
of  the  late  kin?,  Don  Pedro  proclaimed  the  separation  of  Brazil  from  Portugal,  reserving  the 
former  to  himself,  but  granting  to  the  latter  a  charter,  the  observance  of  which  was  made  the 
condition  of  holding  the  throne. 

Sbot.  rV. — Political  Orography. 

Portugal,  afler  the  downfall  of  the  feudal  system,  and  especially  after  her  subjection  to 
Philip  IT,  became  one  nf  the  most  absolute  of  European  jTovernments.  The  Miirquis  of  Poin- 
bal  and  one  or  two  more  enlightened  men  found  their  way  into  the  ministry ;  hut,  in  general, 
measures  were  as  ill  conducted  as  possible,  and  corruption  prevailed  in  every  dppartmpnt  of 
the  Ptate,  The  course  of  justice  was  equally  polluted ;  and,  no  adoqiiate  salaries  bring 
allowed  to  the  judges,  thev  were  under  an  almost  irresistible  temptation  to  accept  bribes. 


DESCRIPTIVE  GEOGRAPHY. 


Part  HI 


The  pride  of  the  nobles  was  nearly  as  great  as  in  Spain,  without  being  accompanied  by  iho 
same  loily  sentiments.  Tiiey  are  divided  into  two  branches,  the  tituladoa  and  tlic  At(/a/^ro5, 
and  have  held  the  peasantry  in  a  subjection  little  short  of  slavery. 

The  army  of  Portugal,  prior  to  the  revolution,  though  composed  nominally  of  30,000  men, 
was  in  a  most  inefficient  state,  not  through  want  of  physical  courage  or  discipline  in  the 
men,  but  from  the  incapacity  of  the  officers,  and  the  general  defects  of  the  military  system. 
When  the  French,  however,  had  been  driven  out  of  Portugal,  an  army  of  40,000  men  was 
levied,  and  disciplined  by  British  officers,  under  the  superintendence  of  Lord  Beresford;  und 
thus  prepared,  the  Portuguese  acted,  during  the  eventful  war  which  followed,  in  a  manner 
that  would  not  have  disgraced  any  troops  m  Europe.  The  anny  is  still  maintained ;  and 
tliough  the  new  government  will  not  brook  British  command,  yet,  under  its  influence,  Por- 
tuguese officers  of  merit  have  been  formed. 

The  navy,  which  was  never  considerable,  was  carried  out  with  the  royal  family  to  Brazil, 
and  has  never  been  restored. 

Sect.  V. — Productive  Industry. 
The  industry  and  commerce  of  Portugal,  which  presented  so  brilliant  an  aspect  during  her 
era  of  prosperity,  have  sunk  lower  than  those  of  almost  any  other  European  nation. 

Agriculture  did  not,  until  veiy  lately,  experience  anjr  of  the  improvements  which  have  be- 
come  general  in  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  plough  is  composed  of  three  pieces  of  wood 
awkwardly  put  together,  and  imperfectly  aided  by  the  clumsy  machinery  of  wheels.  Though 
generally  very  fertile,  this  country  did  not  produce  a  third  of  the  grain  necessary  for  tlie 
supply  of  its  mhabitants.  Of  late  some  improvement  has  taken  place,  especially  by  the  in- 
troduction of  potatoes;  and  the  dependence  upon  foreign  supply  has  been  considerably 
diminished.  The  chief  object  of  attention  is  the  vine,  which,  with  the  olive  and  other  fruit 
trees,  is  cultivated  with  the  utmost  diligence  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  sides  of  the  hills,  in 
the  elevated  province  of  Entre  Douro  e  Minho.  Here  is  produced  abundantly  the  port 
wine,  which  forms  the  main  basis  of  Portuguese  trade,  and  finds  so  copious  a  market  in 
Britain.  The  entire  produce  is  estimated  at  80,000  pipes.  Of  white  wine  Portugal  produces 
about  60,000  pipes ;  but  this  is  of  inferior  quality,  and  chiefly  consumed  at  home.  Sheep 
are  bred  on  tlie  hills,  to  a  pretty  large  extent ;  but  not  so  abundantly  as  in  Spain,  neitlier 
is  their  wool  so  fine. 

The  manufactures  of  Portugal  scarcely  deserve  to  be  named.  Little  is  known  beyond  the 
working  of  their  wool  for  domestic  use  by  each  family  or  neighbourhood ;  all  their  finer 
fabrics  are  imported.  According  to  a  late  observant  traveller,  ignorance,  or  at  least  an  im- 
perfect knowledge  of  the  commonest  arts,  is  conspicuous  among  the  Portuguese.  Their 
carpenters  are  the  most  awkward  and  clumsy  artisans  that  can  be  imagined,  spoiling  every 
thing  they  attempt ;  the  wood-work  even  of  good  houses  being  finished  in  a  manner  that 
would  scarcely  be  tolerated  in  the  rudest  a^es.  Their  carriages  of  all  kinds,  their  agricul- 
tural implements,  locks,  keys,  &c.  are  ludicrously  bad.  Working  in  gold  and  silver  plate 
forms  almost  the  only  exception ;  cambrics  also  are  well  made  in  some  places ;  and  a  few 
other  local  objects  might  be  enumerated. 

Of  mines  and  fisheries,  the  former  is  not  at  all  cultivated,  though  great  materials  for  it 
are  said  to  exist ;  but  in  the  absence  of  trial  this  may  be  only  conjecture.  Fish  of  the  finest 
kinds,  particularly  tunny  and  sardinias,  are  caught  in  considerable  quantity  for  immediate 
consumption ;  but  the  salt  which  the  kingdom  so  abundantly  produces  is  not  used  for  pre- 
serving them ;  and  a  large  import  of  salted  fish  is  still  necessary  to  meet  the  wants  of  a 
population  so  rigidly  Catholic. 

The  commerce,  which  formed  the  greatness  of  Portugal,  when  her  ports  interchanged  the 
products  of  the  East  and  the  West,  is  now  a  mere  shadow.  The  loss  of  her  Indian  posses- 
sions, and  the  separation  of  Brazil,  have  reduced  her  to  the  common  routine  of  export  and 
import.  The  staple  of  the  former  is  port  wine,  for  which  the  market  of  England  was 
secured  first  by  favouring  duties,  and  now  seemingly  by  an  established  predilection.  The 
wine  is  raised  almost  solely  for  the  English  market,  and  all  of  the  best  quality  is  bought  up 
by  English  merchants  residing  at  Oporto. 

Anotlier  staple  export  of  Portugal  is  salt,  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  in  the  bay 
of  St.  Ubes,  or  Setubal,  wh'ch  seems  as  if  expressly  formed  for  that  purpose.  It  is  carried 
off  chiefly  by  the  English,  to  be  employed  in  curing  fish  destined  for  the  Portuguese  market: 
the  annual  amount  is  estimated  at  100,000  tons.  There  is  also  a  considerable  surplus  of 
wool,  of  which  1,000,000  lbs.  weight  have  been  imported  into  England  in  one  year ;  but  as 
it  is  not  so  fine  as  that  of  Spain,  the  duty  imposed  by  the  British  landholders  has  greatly 
checked  the  importation.  In  return,  Portugal  takes  grain,  salt-fish,  and  a  variety  of  manu- 
factures, chiefly  fit»m  Britain ;  but  as  her  imports  cannot  much  exceed  the  exports,  she  can- 
not aflTord  a  very  copious  market 

The  internal'  communications  of  Portugal  consist  of  the  several  noble  rivers  which  tra- 
verse her  territory,  and  which  are  navigable  throughout.  The  intercourse  by  land  is  ren- 
dered very  difficult  by  chains  of  mountams  extending  in  the  same  direction.    Nothing  has 


Part  fll 

inied  by  iho 
lie  hidalgos, 


BookL 


PORTUGAL 


MS 


t  during  her 
]n. 

ich  have  be« 
ces  of  wood 
jIs.  Though 
Bsary  for  the 
ly  by  the  in- 
considerably 
d  other  fruit 

the  hills,  in 
itly  the  port 

a  market  in 
gal  produces 
me.  Sheep 
pain,  neither 

1  beyond  the 
I  their  finer 
least  an  im- 
lese.  Their 
oiling  every 
manner  that 
leir  agricul- 
silver  plate 
and  a  few 

terials  for  it 
of  the  finest 

immediate 
led  for  pre- 

wants  of  a 

Ranged  the 
ian  posses- 
export  and 
igland  was 
tion.  The 
bought  up 

in  the  bay 
t  is  carried 
ise  market : 
surplus  of 
ear ;  but  as 
las  greatly 
y  of  manu- 
ts,  she  can- 


i 


been  attempted  on  any  important  scale,  either  to  improve  these  advantages,  or  to  amend  the 
defects ;  so  that  travelling  is  worse  in  Portugal  than  in  any  other  European  country.  > 

Sect.  VI. — Civil  and  Social  State. 

The  popnlation  of  Portugal,  according  to  the  last  census,  which  was  taken  in  1798,  amounts 
to  3,683,000 ;  calculating  at  the  somewhat  high  estimate  of  five  to  a  family.  According  to 
more  probable  estimates  it  now  amounts  to  3,530,000.  Upon  a  sur&ce  of  38,800  square 
miles,  this  gives  a  density  of  about  ninety-one  to  the  square  mile,  which  is  remarkable,  as 
exceeding  that  of  Spain  nearly  in  the  proportion  of  three  to  two.  The  exemption  from  the 
mesla,  and  the  high  cultivation  of  the  province  of  fkitre  Douro  e  Minho,  appear  to  be  the 
rcueeming  circumstances  in  her  case. 

No  nation,  as  to  character,  owes  less  to  the  opinion  of  the  world,  than  the  Portuguese. 
They  are  described  as  indolent,  dissembling,  cowardly,  destitute  of  public  spirit,  and  at  the 
same  time  fierce  and  deeply  revengeful.    In  Spain  it  is  said,  strip  a  Spaniard  of  his  virtueH, 
and  he  becomes  a  good  Portuguese.    From  a  late  minute  inspection,  however,  the  peasantry 
225  (.fig-  325.)  have  been  pronounced  to  be  a  fine  peo- 

ple ;  and,  on  repeated  occasions  during  the  late  war, 
they  displayed  energies  not  unworthy  of  their  an- 
cestors, in  an  age  when  their  glory  resounded 
throughout  both  hemispheres.  Almost  all,  however, 
that  floats  on  the  surface  is  base  and  degenerate. 
There  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  this  may  be  greatly 
ascribed  to  priestcraft,  to  the  stupifying  influence  of  a 
sluggish  and  tyrannical  government,  and  to  the 
general  corruption  which  has  pervaded  all  the 
branches  of  administration. 
The  established  and  exclusive  religion  is  the 
Portugueie  Peaiantnr.  Catholic,  in  its  extreme  and  most  degrading  excess ; 

and  the  body  of  the  people  are  almost  entirely  under  the  thraldom  of  the  priesthood.    The 
burning  of  Jews  continued  till  within  the  last  half-century.  The  physiognomy  of  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  people  shows  their  descent  from  this  hated  race,  whose  tenets  many,  it  is  pro- 
32Q  bable,  still  cherish  in  secret.    There  are,  in  Portugal, 

about  550  religious  houses,  of  which  150  are  nunneries* 
(fiff.  32(3.).  The  number  of  two  archbishops  and  thir- 
teen bishops  is  not  so  disproportionate. 

The  literature  of  Portugal,  during  the  period  of  its 
glory,  was  by  no  means  contemptible.  The  genius  and 
fate  of  Camoens  spread  his  name  throughout  Europe,  and 
entitled  him  to  rank  among  the  few  modem  epic  poets. 
By  the  students  of  Portuguese  literature,  however,  Saa 
Miranda  and  Antonio  Ferreyra  are  reckoned  scarcely 
second  to  him ;  and  Rodriguez  Lobo  held  the  nation  long 
enchanted  by  the  sweetness  of  his  pastorals.  At  the 
same  time  Di  Barros,  Castanheda,  and  Faria  y  Sousa, 
recorded,  in  magnificent  though  somewhat  inflated  historical  narrative,  the  mighty  exploits 
of  their  countrymen  in  the  African  and  Indian  seas.  The  subjection  to  Spain  gradually 
divested  Portuguese  literature  of  its  manly  and  energetic  character.  The  muse  of  history 
was  silent ;  poetry  a^dsumed  the  form  only  of  the  sonnet,  and  Gongora  infected  it  wholly  with 
a  strain  of  false  and  meretricious  ornament  The  house  of  Braganza  for  some  time  did 
little  for  knowledge ;  but  in  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  the  Conde  de  Ericeyra  intro- 
duced the  French  literature,  and  founded  a  royal  academy.  In  the  course  of  the  century, 
Barros  Pereyra,  Antonio  da  Lima,  Manuel  da  Costa,  a  Brazilian,  Correa  Garcas,  and  Paulino 
Cabral,  a  bishop,  made  not  unsuccessful  eflTorts  to  revive  the  ancient  Portuguese  poetry,  and 
to  introduce  that  of  Italy.  Portugal  has  two  universities.  That  of  Coimbra,  founded  at 
Lisbon  in  1290,  was  transferred  to  Coimbra  in  1308.  It  enjoys  some  celebrity,  is  divided 
into  eighteen  colleges,  and  is  still  attended  by  several  hundred  students ;  but  the  course  of 
study  is  of  that  obsolete  description  which  prevailed  during  the  middle  ages.  A  smallei 
university  was  founded  at  Evora  in  1578. 

For  the  minor  particulars  of  amusement,  dress,  food,  &c.,  reference  may  be  made  to  Spain, 
as  Portugal  has  no  peculiarities  that  are  more  than  provincial. 

Sect.  VII. — Local  Geography. 

Portugal  is  divided  into  the  following  six  provinces,  several  of  which,  like  those  of  Spain, 
in  reference  to  events  in  their  past  history,  are  sometimes  called  kingdoms : — 


Friar  and  Nun. 


*  [The  religious  houies,  monasteMes,  and  nunneries,  were  suppressed  in  1834.— Ax.  Ed.] 

Vol.  L  50* 


3Z 


104 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOORAPHY. 


PaMt  in. 


PntlicM.  XafllihAo*.  FdinUIIod.  FrliKt|»l  Towm,  wflb  flwir  hinUUoa. 

Gttremadurt 8,4M,H(» 89tt,HI]0 I<iibon,  960,000;  Belubal,  15,000 iBanUnm.  8  OM 

Alemtejo 3,648,390 380.460 Elvaf,10,000 ;  Evora,  9,000 

Alsarve 1,S3'000 137,013 Faro,  8,000 ;  Tavira,  (l,0U0. 

Beira 4,0«4,U00 1,131,5!)S Colmbra,  13,000;  Lamego,  0,000;  Viwu,  0,000. 

GntroDnuroeMinho  1,937 .040 907,063 Oporto,  70,000 ;  Bra«a,  14,000 ;  Viina,  8,000. 

Traion  Montea  ....3,007,760 318,063 Bragania, 4,000. 

Estremadura  occupies  a  great  extent  of  coast,  both  to  the  north  and  south  of  the  Tagiu, 

without  ever  penetrating  very  deep  into  the  interior.    It  presents  a  rocky,  varied,  and  pic> 

tiires'^ue  surface.    It  is  chiefly  important,  however,  as  containing  Lisbon,  the  capital. 

Lisoon  (Jig.  327.)  is  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Tagus,  which  may  here  be  ahnost 

327  considered  an  arm  of  the  sea,  since  not 

only  the  tide  flows  up,  but  the  water  is 
salt,  and  the  swell  often  tempestuous. 
The  approach  to  it  presents  a  more 
magnificent  spectacle  than  that  of  per* 
haps  any  other  city  of  Europe.  Lisbon 
rises  direct  firom  the  water,  crowning 
the  sides  and  summits  of  several  hilla ; 
which,  according  to  the  Portuguese,  are 
LUboB.  seven  in  number,  like  those  of  Rome. 

The  palaces,  convents,  and  churches, 
which  crown  this  amphitheatre  of  buildings;  the  dazzling  whiteness  of  the  houses;  the 
light  appearance  of  the  windows  and  balconies ;  the  tasteful  arrangement  of  plants,  shrubs, 
and  flowers  on  their  roofs  and  terraces ;  the  golden  orange  groves  which  adorn  the  suburbs, 
and  the  stately  specimens  of  Indian  or  American  botany  which  are  scattered  tiirough  the 
scene,  produce  an  effect  that  cannot  be  described.  The  noble  harbour,  also,  crowded  with 
vessels ;  the  numerous  pilot  and  fishing-boats,  with  their  large,  handsome  lateen  sails,  as- 
cending or  descending  the  river ;  and,  nearer  the  shore,  hundreds  of  small  neat  boats,  with 
white  or  painted  awnings,  finely  vary  the  scene.  The  moment,  however,  that  the  stranger 
lands,  and  enters  the  place,  he  finds  that  he  has  been  imposed  upon  by  a  brilliant  illusion ; 
and  the  gay  and  glittering  city  is  found  to  resemble  a  painted  sepulchre.  The  streets  are 
narrow  and  ill  paved ;  the  houses  gloomy,  with  here  and  there  a  latticed  window ;  filth  and 
nuisances  assault  him  at  every  turn.  Lisbon  does,  indeed,  appear  to  be  the  dirtiest  and  most 
noisome  city  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  In  passing  through  the  streets,  a  stranger  encounters 
at  every  turn  the  most  disgusting  effluvia.  Every  species  of  vermin  destined  to  punish  in- 
dolence and  slovenliness,  the  mosquito,  the  scolopendra,  and  a  species  of  red  ant,  multiply 
to  an  extraordinary  de^ee.  Nor  is  Lisbon  found,  on  inspection,  to  exhibit  that  architectural 
beauty  which  it  promises  on  a  distant  view.  It  might  have  been  expected,  among  forty 
churches  and  seventy-five  convents,  built  by  a  superstitious  people,  that  there  would  have 
been  some  signal  display  of  this  kind ;  but  this  is  not  found  even  in  the  cathedral.  The 
defect  seems  partly  owing  to  the  mean  taste  of  the  Marquis  of  Pombal,  who  ordered  them 
to  be  all  built  on  a  line  with  the  street,  to  preserve  a  dull  uniformity.  Two  handsome 
squares,  however,  have  been  fbrmed,  the  Commercial  and  the  Roscio,  which  are  connected 
by  well-built  streets ;  but  the  absence  of  trees,  or  even  shrubs,  and  the  blinding  sand  that 
drifts  through  them,  combine  to  produce  a  disagreeable  efl^ect  Lisbon  derives  an  awful 
interest  from  the  ruins  still  left  of  the  great  earthquake  of  1755,  the  most  dreadfiil  catas- 
trophe which  ever  befell  a  modem  European  city.  Six  thousand  houses  were  thrown  down, 
30,000  inhabitants  killed ;  and  a  conflagration  kindled  which  spread  a  still  wider  destruction. 
The  ruins  are  the  more  dismal,  as  they  portend  similar  disasters,  which  the  earth,  still 
heaving  from  time  to  time,  perpetually  threatens.  Meantime,  Lisbon  displays  one  very  grand 
feature ;  the  aqueduct,  to  the  construction  of  which,  though  it  conveys  the  water  only  half  a 
mile,  peculiar  obstacles  were  presented.  It  is  carried  in  one  place  through  a  tunnel,  and  in 
another  over  a  defile  230  feet  deep,  by  arches,  which  are  said  to  be  the  highest  in  the  world. 
The  width  of  the  centre  arch  is  107  feet.  It  was  built  in  1738,  by  Manuel  de  Maya ;  and 
is  of  such  solidity  that  it  withstood  the  shock  of  the  great  earthquake,  which  only  caused  the 
keystone  to  sink  a  few  inches. 

The  vicinity  of  Lisbon  presents  some  beautifiil  sites  and  palaces.  Cintra  is  the  most 
striking,  consisting  of  an  immense  mountain,  partly  covered  with  scanty  herbage,  partly 
with  broken,  huge,  and  varied  piles  of  rock,  elsewhere  presenting  thick  groves  of  cork,  elm, 
Oak,  hazel,  and  other  trees.  It  includes  many  lovely  and  fiintastie  spots ;  but  the  view  from 
it  is  naked  and  dreary.  The  town,  at  the  bottom,  with  its  old  palace,  has  nothing  remark- 
able ;  but  the  sides  are  covered  with  delightful  villas,  one  of  which  is  notorious  for  the  sig- 
nature of  the  unhappy  convention  of  Cintra.  Mafra  is  a  royal  convent  built  by  John  V.,  in 
emulation  of  the  E.^ionrial :  hut  though  a  stupendous  pile,  700  feet  square,  and  containing 
immberless  suites  of  ill-fiimished  apartments,  it  ranks  fer  below  its  model.  Only  five  miles 
lielow  Lisbon,  of  which  it  is  considered  a  suburb,  is  Belem,  the  site  of  a  palace  and  a  veiy 


Book 

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Book  I. 


PORTUGAL 


605 


hatann,  8,0(M, 


magnificent  monastery,  founded  by  Emanuel,  and  in  which  many  of  the  royal  ftmily  have 
been  interred. 

There  are  aeveial  other  towns  of  some  note  in  Portuguese  Estremadura.  Bt.  Ubes  or 
Hetubal  lies  sixteen  miles  from  Lisbon,  on  the  coast  south  of  the  Tagus,  on  a  long  interior 
liay,  the  waters  of  which,  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  leave  the  excellent  bay-salt, 
one  of  the  national  staples.  The  town  is  considerable,  having  been  well  rebuilt  since  the 
earthquake  of  1755,  when  it  was  almost  totally  overthrown.  The  mountain  of  Ursabida, 
here  extending  into  the  sea,  forms  a  bold  and  striking  promontory,  covered  with  trees  and 
various  vegetation.  Ascending  the  Tagus,  we  come  to  Santarem,  a  considerable  and  ancient 
town,  the  PnBsidium  Julium  of  the  Romans.  It  has  an  academy  of  history,  established  in 
1747.  Here  the  great  French  army,  under  Massena,  remained  long  posted,  unable  to  pene- 
trate to  Lisbon.  Abrantes,  higher  up,  is  on  important  military  position,  situated  on  a  height 
whence  it  commands  the  passage  of  the  Tagus.  Leiria,  to  the  north,  is  an  ancient  town,  in 
a  most  productive  territory,  and  where  a  great  annual  fkit  is  held  for  the  supply  of  the 
peasant^  of  the  nei£[hbouring  country  round.  At  Batalha,  is  a  church  (Jtr.  3^.),  and 
monastery,  which,  united,  form  the  finest  structures  in  all  Portugal.  It  is  541  feet  by  416, 
and  is  considered  by  Mr.  Murphy  to  be  one  of  the  noblest  existing  specimens  of  the  Norman 


888 


liJK 


Chuieh  of  Batklha. 


Mauioleum  of  King  John. 


Gothic.  It  is  constructed  entirely  of  marble,  and  the  front  appeared  to  him  almost  unri< 
vailed  in  chaste  and  delicate  ornament  Among  the  different  parts,  the  mausoleum  erected 
in  honour  of  King  John,  is  pre-eminently  beautiful  {Jig.  829.).  Vimiero  is  only  a  village, 
but  celebrated  for  the  signal  victory  gained  by  the  British  over  the  army  of  Junot.  Three 
miles  distant  is  Torres  Vedras,  a  tolerable  old  town,  but  chiefly  noted  as  the  centre  of  the. 
grand  fortified  lines  formed  by  Wellington  in  1810,  which  so  completely  bafSed  all  the  ma- 
noeuvres by  which  the  French  had  hoped  to  reconquer  Portugal. 

Alemtejo  is  an  extensive  province,  comprising  the  greater  part  of  Portugal  south  of  the 
Tagus.  The  interior  presents  an  extensive  plain ;  but  the  frontier  towards  Spain  is  finely 
diversified  with  hills,  wooded  mountains,  and  deep  valleys  extremely  well  watered,  and  very 
fertile.  It  contains  some  large  towns.  Evora  is  situated  on  an  eminence  in  a  fine  country, 
and  is  of  great  antiquity.  Its  origin  has  even  been  dated  seven  centuries  before  the  Chris- 
tian era.  It  is  more  clearly  ascertained  that  the  Romans  made  it  a  municipal  town,  and 
adorned  it  with  some  of  their  finest  structures.  There  is  a  noble  aqueduct,  of  which  the 
piers  are  nine  feet  broad,  and  suppoited  by  buttresses;  also  a  Temple  of  Diana  built  by 
Sertorius,  in  which  great  elegance  is  displayed.  Elvas,  on  the  Spanish  frontier,  imme- 
diately &cing  Badajos,  is  the  strongest  fortress  in  Portugal,  and  designed  as  the  barrier  of 
the  kingdom.  The  works  were  constructed  under  the  directions  of  the  celebrated  Count 
Schaumburg-Lippe ;  and  the  fort,  bearing  his  name,  is  considered  a  masterpiece  of  the  art. 
In  this  neighbourhood  are  also  Villa  Vi^iosa,  a  pleasan*.  town,  and  a  fiivourite  country  resi- 
dence of  Uie  Portugese  monarchs,  who  have  here  a  handsome  hunting-park ;  and  Porta- 
legre,  a  handsome  little  town  in  a  delightful  country,  with  a  good  cathedral.  Southward, 
in  the  interior,  is  Beja,  a  Roman  colony,  and  subsequently  a  strong  Moorish  fortress.  After 
being  nearly  demolished,  it  was  rebuilt  by  Alfonso  III.,  and  fortified  by  King  Diniz,  and  is 
still  a  considerable  town. 

Algarve  forms  the  extreme  south  of  Portugal ;  and  is  a  maritime  province,  bearing  in  an 
especial  sense,  the  appellation  of  kingdom,  since  it  long  remained  independent,  and  was  a 
celebrated  theatre  of  war  between  the  Moors  and  the  Christians.  It  is  tolerably  fertile  in 
wine,  firuits,  and  oil.    Faro,  the  largest  town,  is  also  the  principal  seat  of  trade,  and  has  a 


696 


DESCRIPTIVE  OEOORAPHY. 


Past  in 


Coimbra. 


regnlar  packet  to  Gibraltar.  LkjIob  and  Silves  are  also  old  little  towns,  the  fbrmer  on  the 
■ea-coost,  with  aome  ahippinff.  Cape  St  Vincent,  the  extreme  point  of  Algarve,  and  the 
most  (Muth-westerly  of  the  Peninsula,  is  celebrated  for  the  signal  victory  gained  by  the 
British  fleet  over  the  Spanish,  on  the  14th  of  February,  1707. 

Beira  is  a  very  extensive  province  or  kingdom,  filling  nearly  the  whole  centre  of  Portu- 
gal, between  the  Tagus  ami  the  Douro.  Its  surfhce  presents  considerable  variety ;  the  in- 
terior part  has  the  usual  mountainous  character  of  Portugal,  being  traversed  by  the  great 
chain  called  the  Sierra  d'EIstrella.  On  the  sea-coast,  however,  there  are  plains  of  consider- 
able extent  .The  province  produces  plenty  of  wine,  oil,  and  chestnuts,  and  has  extensive 
pastures ;  but  the  grain  is  not  sufficient  for  its  consumption. 
Coimbra  {fig.  SS).),  the  capital,  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  declivity  of  a  hill,  which 

rises  above  the  Mondego;  but  the 
streets,  as  in  other  old  Portuguese 
towns,  are  crowded,  divty,  and  very 
steep.  In  former  times  a  residence 
of  the  kings  of  Portugal,  it  was 
strongly  fortified,  and  has  stood  ob- 
stinate sieges;  but  the  remains  of 
its  walls  and  towers  are  no  longer 
sufficient  to  constitute  it  a  fortress. 
It  has  been  called  the  Athens  of  Por- 
tugal, ftixa  its  extensive  university, 
containing  eighteen  colleges,  with 
forty  professors,  and  about  eight  hun- 
dred students.  Attached  to  it  is  a  library  of  nearly  40,000  volumes,  including  numerous 
MSS. ;  but  the  actual  value  both  of  these  and  the  printed  works  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
fully  investigated. 

Bcira  has  other  towns  of  some  importance.  Among  these  is  Almeida,  the  northern  barrier 
of  the  kingdom  and  a  fortress  of  consequence,  though  not  possessing  the  great  strength  of 
Elvas.  It  was  twice  taken  in  the  last  war,  first  by  Uie  French  under  Massena,  and  then  by 
the  British  under  Wellington.  Castello  Branco,  on  the  southern  frontier,  notwithstanding 
its  commanding  situation,  retains  little  importance.  Lamego,  near  the  southern  bank  of  the 
Douro,  is  an  ancient  city,  and  the  cradle  of  the  Portuguese  monarchy.  Here,  in  1148,  the 
states-general  for  the  first  time  met,  recognised  the  fundamental  laws,  and  acknowledged 
the  sovereignty  of  Alfonso.  Viseu,  in  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  is,  likb  Lamego,  an  epis- 
copal see,  and  has  the  greatest  annual  fair  in  Portugal 

Entre  Douro  e  M inho  forms  the  maritime  part  of  Portugal,  north  of  the  Douro.  Though 
the  smallest,  it  is  considered  the  most  valuable,  populous,  and  productive  of  all  the  provinces. 
Its  peasantry  have  done  much  to  redeem  the  reproach  of  torpor  and  sluggishness  generally 
urged  against  their  countrymen.  This  district  is  entirely  covered  with  mountains,  prtly 
rugged  and  barren,  but  generally  separated  by  fertile  and  well-watered  valleys,  cultivated 
to  the  utmost  possible  extent ;  and  which,  besides  oil,  fruit,  and  flax,  are  made  to  produce 
most  copiously  the  wine  called  port,  for  which  so  ample 'a  market  exists  in  England. 

Oporto,  or  Porto  {fig.  331.),  the  ancient  capital,  and  stUl  the  second  city  of  the  kingdom, 
is  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Douro  on  the  northern  bank,  though  on  the  southern  are 
two  extensive  suburbs,  supposed  to  have  constituted  the  ancieiit  city.    The  modem  town  ia 

331 


Opurto. 


well  built,  especially  when  compared  with  most  others  in  the  peninsula.  The  river  af&rds 
a  tolerably  secure  harbour,  without  any  artificial  aid,  except  an  elevated  and  walled  quay,  to 
which  the  ships*  cables  may  be  fastened  during  the  floods.  These  often  come  do\yn  with 
such  force,  tliat,  without  such  a  support,  the  vessels  would  be  inevitably  carried  out  into  the 


Book  I. 


PORTUGAL 


807 


pea.  The  chief  dependence  of  Oporto  is  iu  trade  with  England,  which  remaina  unimpaired 
amid  the  ifeneral  diminution  of  that  witJi  America.  There  are  about  thi/  ^ngliah  houaea 
regularly  settled  here,  beaidea  a  number  of  merchants  who  pay  fre<)uent  ^  .  to  the  place. 
I'he  exportation  of  port  wine,  however,  on  which  its  trade  rests,  is  generally  cramped  by 
tlie  absurd  policy  of  placing  it  entirely  in  the  hands  of  an  exclusive  company,*  who  have 
adopted  the  pernicious  practice  of  diluting  the  produce  of  the  best  vineyards  with  wine  of 
those  of  an  inferior  quality,  by  which  the  character  of  the  genuine  port  grievously  suffers. 

Briga,  ikrther  north,  nmJu  as  the  capital  of  the  province;  and,  though  now  far  outstripped 
by  Oporto,  is  of  much  more  ancient  flune.  Under  the  Romans  it  was  the  metropolis  of  an 
extensive  district,  and  its  former  greatness  ia  still  attested  by  numerous  antiquities.  It  has 
made  a  distinguished  figure  in  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Portugal,  and  is  the  see  of  on 
archbishop,  who  is  primate  of  the  kingdom.  Braga  is  a  handsome  town ;  well  built,  well 
paved,  the  streets  spacious  and  clean.  There  is  some  industry,  particularly  a  manufacture 
of  small  beaver  hats,  which  supplies  a  great  port  of  the  kingdom.  The  adjacent  country  ia 
hilly,  but  populous  and  pleasant  Valenfa  is  a  small  town,  agreeably  situated  on  the  Minho, 
which  separates  it  from  Ghilicia. 

Tros  OS  Montes,  or  the  province  beyond  the  mountains,  is  of  great  extent,  occupying  the 
whole  interior  of  Portugal  north  of  the  Douro.  The  Cantabrian  chain,  after  traversing 
Asturias  and  Galicia,  throws  out  branches  which  not  only  separate  the  territory  flrom  the 
rest  of  Portugal,  but  cover  almost  its  whole  surftice.  They  leave  only  deep  valleys,  through 
which  considerable  rivers,  too  rapid  however  to  be  navigable,  pour  down  into  the  Doura 
It  is  much  inferior  to  Entre  Douro  e  Minho,  both  in  populousness  and  cultivation ;  yet  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  the  port  wine  produced  ^ows  on  the  sides  of  its  hills.  The  inhabitants 
are  a  race  of  active,  hardy,  and  brave  mountaineers.  They  rose  in  great  force  against  the 
French,  and  have  since  somewhat  less  happily  distinguished  themsenres  by  the  araour  with 
which  they  fought  in  the  cause  of  absolute  power,  and  in  resistance  to  every  form  of  consti' 
tutional  government 

The  towns  are  small,  and  not  re^larly  fortified ;  though,  from  the  nature  of  the  country, 
they  form  defensible  military  positions.  Broganza  is  a  city  of  ancient  note,  and  gave  the 
title  of  Duke  to  the  first  nobleman  in  the  kingdom,  even  before  he  was  raised  to  the  throne, 
by  the  appellation  of  John  IV.  The  kings  of  Portugal  still  retain  the  title  of  Dukes  of 
Brajranza.  Chaves,  the  Aqute  Flaviee  of  the  Romans,  still  exhibits  two  baths  and  a  magni* 
ficent  bridge  constructed  by  that  people.  Chaves  gives  the  title  of  Marquis  to  a  family,  one 
of  whom  was  the  most  active  opponent  of  the  French  during  their  invasion ;  while  another 
has  lately  been  at  the  head  of  the  anti-constitutional  army,  of  which  the  head-quarters  were 
always  in  Tros  oe  Montes. 

*  [Tbe  Oporto  wine  company,  which  enjoyed  thii  monopoly,  wu  aboliihed  in  1834.— Ax.  Es.] 


END  OF  THE  FIRST  VOLUME 


